project gutenberg (this file was produced from images generously made available by the internet archive/american libraries.) a dictionary of islam being a cyclopædia of the doctrines, rites, ceremonies, and customs, together with the technical and theological terms, of the muhammadan religion. by thomas patrick hughes, b.d., m.r.a.s. with numerous illustrations. london: w. h. allen & co., 18, waterloo place, pall mall. s.w. 1885. dedicated (with permission) to the right reverend thomas valpy french, d.d., first bishop of lahore, with much affection and esteem, by his lordship's obedient servant, thomas patrick hughes. preface. the increased interest manifested in relation to all matters affecting the east, and the great attention now given to the study of comparative religion, seem to indicate that the time has come when an attempt should be made to place before the english-speaking people of the world a systematic exposition of the doctrines of the muslim faith. the present work is intended to supply this want, by giving, in a tabulated form, a concise account of the doctrines, rites, ceremonies, and customs, together with the technical and theological terms, of the muhammadan religion. although compiled by a clergyman who has had the privilege of being engaged in missionary work at peshawar for a period of twenty years, this "dictionary of islam" is not intended to be a controversial attack on the religious system of muhammad, but rather an exposition of its principles and teachings. divided, as the muslim world is, into numerous sects, it has been found impossible to take into consideration all the minor differences which exist amongst them. the dictionary is, for the most part, an exposition of the opinions of the sunni sect, with explanations of the chief points on which the shiah and wahhabi schools of thought differ from it. very special attention has been given to the views of the wahhabis, as it is the author's conviction that they represent the earliest teachings of the muslim faith as they came from muhammad and his immediate successors. when it is remembered that, according to mr. wilfrid blunt's estimate, the shiah sect only numbers some ten millions out of the one hundred and seventy-five millions of muhammadans in the world, it will be seen that, in compiling a dictionary of muhammadanism, the shiah tenets must of necessity occupy a secondary place in the study of the religion. still, upon all important questions of theology and jurisprudence, these differences have been noticed. the present book does not profess to be a biographical dictionary. the great work of ibn khallikan, translated into english by slane, supplies this. but short biographical notices of persons connected with the early history of islam have been given, inasmuch as many of these persons are connected with religious dogmas and ceremonies; the martyrdom of husain, for instance, as being the foundation of the muharram ceremonies; abu hanifah, as connected with a school of jurisprudence; and the khalifah `umar as the real founder of the religious and political power of islam. in the biographical notice of muhammad, the author has expressed his deep obligations to sir william muir's great work, the life of mahomet. it is impossible for anyone to write upon the subject of muhammadanism without being largely indebted, not only to sir william muir's books, but also to the works of the late mr. lane, the author of modern egyptians, new editions of which have been edited by mr. stanley lane poole. numerous quotations from these volumes will be found in the present work. but whilst the author has not hesitated in this compilation to avail himself of the above and similar works, he has, during a long residence amongst muhammadan peoples, been able to consult very numerous arabic and persian works in their originals, and to obtain the assistance of very able muhammadan native scholars of all schools of thought in islam. he is specially indebted to dr. f. steingass, of the university of munich, the author of the english-arabic and arabic-english dictionaries, for a careful revision of the whole work. the interesting article on writing is from the pen of this distinguished scholar, as well as some valuable criticisms on the composition of the qur'an, and a biographical sketch of the khalifah `umar. orientalists may, perhaps, be surprised to find that sikhism has been treated as a sect of islam, but the compiler has been favoured with a very able and scholarly article on the subject by mr. f. pincott, m.r.a.s., in which he shows that the "religion of nanak was really intended as a compromise between hinduism and muhammadanism, if it may not even be spoken of as the religion of a muhammadan sect,"--the publication of which in the present work seemed to be most desirable. at the commencement of the publication of the work, the author received very valuable assistance from the rev. f. a. p. shirreff, m.a., principal of the lahore divinity college, as well as from other friends, which he must gratefully acknowledge. amongst the numerous suggestions which the author received for the compilation of this dictionary, was one from a well-known arabic scholar, to the effect that the value of the work would be enhanced if the quotations from the qur'an, and from the traditions, were given in their original arabic. this, however, seemed incompatible with the general design of the book. the whole structure of the work is intended to be such as will make it available to english scholars unacquainted with the arabic language; and, consequently, most of the information given will be found under english words rather than under their arabic equivalents. for example, for information regarding the attributes of the divine being, the reader must refer to the english god, and not to the arabic allah; for all the ritual and laws regarding the liturgical service, to the english prayer, and not to the arabic salat; for the marriage laws and ceremonies, to the english marriage, and not to the arabic nikah. it is hoped that, in this way, the information given will be available to those who are entirely unacquainted with oriental languages, or, indeed, with eastern life. the quotations from the qur'an have been given chiefly from palmer's and rodwell's translations; and those in the qur'anic narrative of biblical characters (moses for example) have been taken from mr. stanley lane poole's edition of lane's selections. but, when needful, entirely new translations of quotations from the qur'an have been given. the "dictionary of islam" has been compiled with very considerable study and labour, in the hope that it will be useful to many;--to the government official called to administer justice to muslim peoples; to the christian missionary engaged in controversy with muslim scholars; to the oriental traveller seeking hospitality amongst muslim peoples; to the student of comparative religion anxious to learn the true teachings of islam;--to all, indeed, who care to know what are those leading principles of thought which move and guide one hundred and seventy-five millions of the great human family, forty millions of whom are under the rule of her most gracious majesty the empress of india. july 23rd, 1885. [transcriber's note: the remainder of this book has only been prepared as an html file, which, due to including numerous phrases in arabic, hebrew, and greek script, as well as numerous tables, would be hard to present as plain text.] the fourth-dimensional reaches of the exposition san francisco, 1915 by cora lenore williams, m. s. author of "as if" and essays on "involution" paul elder and company publisher san francisco copyright, 1915 by paul elder and company san francisco to my father and mother contents lines on "fourth-dimensional insight" by ormeida curtis harrison. (tissue facing frontispiece.) a fourteenth century legend essay on the fourth-dimensional reaches of the exposition. by cora lenore williams: general status of the fourth-dimensional theory fourth-dimensional aspects of the panama-pacific international exposition bibliography: books and poems having fourth-dimensional insight illustrations an unborn space. the court of four seasons. from an etching by gertrude partington (frontispiece) a structure brave. palace of fine arts. from an etching by gertrude partington a building inside out. the court of ages. from an etching by gertrude partington a four-dimensional cover design. by julia manchester mackie. (cover.) time is, and all the detail of the world confounds the plastic mind. with multitude of shapes and sounds do the swift elements of thought contend to form a whole which life may comprehend. only to those of high intent is life revealed, and quick dreams sent half glimpsed truths omnipotent. out of the silence of an unborn space a spirit moves, and thought comes face to face with the immutable, and time is past, and the spent soul, done, meets truth at last. chance, fate, occasion, circumstance, in interfused radiance are lost. past, present, future, all combined in one sure instantaneous grasp of mind, and all infinity unrolls at our command, and beast and man and god unite, as worlds expand. ormeida curtis harrison. a fourteenth century legend friar bacon, reading one day of the many conquests of england, bethought himself how he might keep it hereafter from the like conquests and so make himself famous to all posterity. this (after great study) he found could be no way so well done as one; which was to make a head of brass, and if he could make this head to speak (and hear it when it spoke) then might he be able to wall all england about with brass. to this purpose he got one friar bungey to assist him, who was a great scholar and magician (but not to be compared to friar bacon); these two with great study and pains so formed a head of brass that in the inward parts thereof there was all things like as in a natural man's head. this being done they were as far from perfection of the work as they were before, for they knew not how to give those parts that they had made motion, without which it was impossible that it should speak. many books they read, but yet could not find out any hope of what they sought, that at the last they concluded to raise a spirit and to know of him that which they could not attain by their own studies. the spirit straight obeyed, and appeared unto them, asking what they would. he told them that with a continual fume of the six hottest simples it should have motion, and in one month space speak: the time of the month: or the day he knew not. also he told them that if they heard it not before it had done speaking, all their labor should be lost. then went these two learned friars home again and prepared the simples ready and made the fume, and with continual watching attended when this brazen head should speak. thus watched they for three weeks without any rest, so that they were so weary and sleepy that they could not any longer refrain from rest. then called friar bacon his man miles, and told him that it was not unknown to him what pains friar bungey and himself had taken for three weeks space only to make and to hear the brazen head speak, which if they did not, then had they lost all their labor, and all england had a great loss thereby. therefore he entreated miles that he would watch whilst that they slept and call them if the head spake. 'fear not (good master), i will harken and attend, upon the head and if it do chance to speak, i will call you; therefore, i pray take you both your rest and let me alone for watching this head.' * * * * at last, after some noise, the head spake these two words: 'time is.' miles, hearing it to speak no more, thought his master would be angry if he waked him for that, and therefore he let them both sleep and began to mock the head in this manner: 'thou brazen-faced head, hath my master took all this pains about thee and now dost thou requite him with two words, "time is"?' * * * * after half an hour had past, the head did speak again two words which were these: 'time was.' miles respected these words as little as he did the former and would not wake his master, but still scoffed at the brazen head, that it had learned no better words, and have had such a tutor as his master; * * * * '"time was!" i knew that, brazen-face, without your telling. i knew time was and i know what things there was when time was, and if you speak no wiser, no master shall be waked for me.' * * * * * * * * the brazen head spake again these words: 'time is past'; and therewith fell down and presently followed a terrible noise, with strange flashes of fire, so that miles was half dead with fear. at this noise the two friars waked and wondered to see the whole room so full of smoke, but that being vanished, they might perceive the brazen head broken and lying on the ground. at this sight they grieved, and called miles to know how this came. miles, half dead with fear, said that it fell down of itself and that with the noise and fire that followed he was almost frightened out of his wits. friar bacon asked him if it did not speak. 'yes,' quoth miles, 'it spake, but to no purpose.' general status of the fourth-dimensional theory the human mind has so long followed its early cow-paths through the wilderness of sense that great hardihood is required even to suggest that there may be other and better ways of traversing the empirical common. so it is that the fear of being proclaimed a brazenhead has restrained me until this eleventh hour from telling of my discoveries concerning the fourth-dimensional reaches of our exposition. that i have the courage now is due to my desire to help in its preservation; not to the end of enclosing it in a brass wall, but to lift it out of the realm of things temporal and give it permanent meaning for our thought and aspiration. would we save our exposition from the ravages of time we have to exorcise that monster with the enigmatical utterances of the aforesaid brazen head. the philosophers are telling us that time is the fourth dimension in the process of evolving for our consciousness. i take it that there are three stages in this evolution; the first, that of immediate experience, is subsumed by the phrase 'time is'; the second is a passing from the concrete to the abstract through the fact that 'time was'; and the glory of the last is visioned only when we can say 'time is past.' while many books have been written descriptive of the exposition, none has succeeded in accounting completely for the joy we have in yonder miracle of beauty. and this through no fault of the writers. when all has been said concerning plan and execution there is still a subtle something not spatialized for consciousness. length, breadth, and height do not suffice to set forth the ways of our delight in it. what of this perceptual residue? obviously to give it extension we shall have to ascribe to reality other dimensions than those of our present sense realm. some disciple of bergson interrupts: 'ah, this whereof you speak is a spiritual thing and as such is given by the intuition. why, then, do you seek to spatialize it?' and the layman out of his mental repugnance to things mathematical echoes, 'why?' we have to answer that the process of creative evolution makes imperative the transfixion by the intellect of these so-called spiritual perceptions. although the intuition transcends the intelligence in its grasp of beauty and truth, we may attain to the higher insight it has to offer only if the things of the spirit become known to the intellect a point in bergson's philosophy which the majority of his readers overlook. 'we have,' he says, 'to engender the categories of our thought; it is not enough that we determine what these are.' bergson is preeminently the prophet of the higher space concept. we had done better to have held to kant, for now we are not only confronted with the fourth dimension as a thought-form, but with the duty as well of furthering its creation. and in that light we have to regard what of worth and meaning the exposition has for us. although the scientist has found it useful on occasion to postulate the fourth dimension, he has not thought necessary as yet to put it in the category of reality; much less has the layman. consequently the mathematician holds the sole title to its knowledge unless we recognize the claims of the medium to a fourth-dimensional insight. there is much, however, today which points to our coming to such perception as the natural result of our evolution and quite apart from geometrical abstractions or occultism. it is as though some great tidal wave had swept over space and we have, quite unbeknown to ourselves, been lifted by it to new heights. and when we have once obtained our spiritual balance we shall doubtless find that our space world has taken to itself another direction, inconceivable as that now seems. space is more than room wherein to move about; it is, first of all, the room in which we think, and upon how we do so depends the number of its dimensions. if the attention has become 'riveted to the object of its practical interest' to the extent that this is the only good the creature knows, then is its thought-form one-dimensional even though its bodily movements are three-spaced. the great peacock moth wings a sure course mateward to the mystification of the scientist; the dog finds the direct road home his master cannot tell how; mary antin climbs to an education over difficulties apparently insurmountable; rockefeller knows his goal and attains it, regardless of other moral worths. for these the way is certain. they can suffer no deflection since there are no relative values, no possible choices. their purpose makes the road one-dimensional. that the majority of persons are still feeling their way over the surface of things is attested by the general mental ineptitude for the study of solid geometry. depth and height play little part in our physical perception. for most of us the third dimension is practically unknown beyond the reach of a few feet. a beachey soaring aloft why all the bravado of curve and loop? sooner or later he will fall to his death. ay, verily! but his is a joyous martyrdom making for the evolution of consciousness. not always shall we crawl like flies the surface of our globe! while a man's space-world is limited by his thought, it is, on the other hand, as boundless as his thought. that the world evolves with our consciousness, is at once the philosophy of 'creative evolution' and of the higher space theory. our present spatial milieu has settled down to a seemingly three dimensional finality because our thought-form has become so habitual as to give rise to certain geometric axioms. all we need in order to come to a fourth-dimensional consciousness, said henri poincare, 'the greatest of moderns,' is a new table of distribution; that is, a breaking up of old associations of ideas and the forming of new relations a simple matter were it not for our mental inertia. lester ward speculates that life remained aquatic for the vast periods that paleontology would indicate; cambrian, silurian, devonian, carboniferous a duration greater than all subsequent time for the reason that the creature had not progressed beyond the stage when it could move otherwise than in a straight line when actuated by desire for food or mate. life was not able to maintain itself on land until it had overcome this one-dimensional limitation. a venturesome pterodactyl was he who first essayed to make his way among the many obstructions to be found ashore! by what intuition was he impelled? it is a matter of common observation that the growth of the higher perceptive faculty is strangely concomitant with adversity. the intuitive person is a person who has suffered. when conditions press sufficiently hard, a new table of distribution may be the only means for survival. thus we proceed to make a virtue of necessity and so come to the recognition of other values which we denominate spiritual because we have not as yet spatialized them. the caterpillar has to mount the twig to find the tender green that is his food, but, he solaces himself for the journey by thinking himself a creature of the light. mr. carpenter, in an interesting study of what he calls intermediate types, shows that the seers and spiritually-minded come to be such because they found themselves differing in some wise from their fellows, and dwelling on that difference had their minds turned inward. progress in thought and imagination naturally followed, with the result that these were lifted above the majority and came thereby to larger vision. failure may well be the measure of extension in a new dimension. the significance of the much fumbling and groping of earth's creatures is the desire for a larger outlook. man has to feel his way out of a three-fold world even as the worm out of his hole. that we are hearing much of the principle of relativity is perhaps the best indication we have that the collective human consciousness is about to enter a higher dimension. so long as man knew only an absolute good was his world a definitely determined world. now that the question of relative values obtrudes itself on every side the range of consciousness promises to be infinite. man's interest having in these latter days become largely centered on value-judgments and estimates of worth, an exposition affords perhaps the most general application of the principle of relativity, bringing it home to the collective mind in an intimately human way as nothing else could: with nation vying with nation and individual with individual in all of the arts and crafts of human industry, absolute standards must needs vanish, and with their going we may be able to set up such a distribution of values as will give new direction to our efforts. however that may be, the industrial competition to which, in the last analysis, the exposition owes its inception, is pushing many aside from the beaten highways into hitherto unexplored regions of thought and endeavor, and who is to say that we may not in consequence find a direction quite at right angles to all of our wonted ways of thinking. certainly there could be no more fitting occasion for the launching of a new thought-form than a great international exposition. the fourth-dimensional aspects of the panama-pacific international exposition and i know not if, save in this, such gift be allowed to man, that out of three sounds he frame, not a fourth sound, but a star. consider it well: each tone of our scale in itself is naught: it is everywhere in the world loud, soft, and all is said: give it to me to use! i mix it with two in my thought: and there! ye have heard and seen: consider and bow the head! browning. the panama-pacific international exposition is best seen in its fourth-dimensional aspect when approached through the gateway of memory. this is what one might expect, for that entrance alone has the requisite geometrical structure. you will recall having heard, i am sure, how in the fourth dimension a person may go in and out of a locked room at his pleasure with bolts and bars untouched. broad and open as is this gate of memory, when you pass its portals the wall closes behind you; there is no visible opening to mark the spot of your entry. a feeling of detachment comes over you. this is augmented by the burst of light and color that flashes across the field of your vision, and for the first time you understand the purport of those 'banners yellow, glorious, golden' which 'do float and flow.' they seem to bear you on breezes of their own creating to the freedom of outer spaces. what you had taken for the flauntings of festivity are become the heralds of hyperspace. as you wend your way down the avenue of time you feel an inexpressive lightness, a sensation of being lifted out of yourself. the moment seems unique. things are unrelated. there is no concern of proportion. the place is one of immediacy. you wander from the ephemeral to the ephemeral. 'time is,' you say, in childish glee. and you hasten to assemble images as many and as disparate as possible, believing that you are drinking life at its fountain head. the outer world presents itself to your consciousness in the form of facts in juxtaposition. you read guide-books and rejoice in the acquisition of knowledge. gradually through the perception of the same phantasmagoria comes an at-oneness with your fellows. you are caught up in the swirl of a larger self. soon you weary of the heterogeneous. the zone of consciousness stands revealed in all its grotesqueness. 'time is,' you cry, but to give thought its impulse, and you hasten on if perchance you may discover the direction of the life-principle. what you had taken for reality is but its cross-section so does this empirical realm stand to the higher world of your spirit, even as a plane to a solid. now you turn your attention from things to relations in the hope of getting at truth in the large. a passage in plato comes vividly to your mind. 'for a man must have intelligence of universals, and be able to proceed from the many particulars of sense to one conception of reason; this is the recollection of those things which our soul once saw while following god, when, regardless of that which we now call being, she raised her head up towards the true being.' henceforth the multiplicity that you seek is one of organization and has nothing to do with number. 'time was,' you proclaim, that consciousness might sift out the irrelevant. as you pass from collection to collection individual fact becomes prolonged into general law and science dominates the field of thought. a thousand years are as a day when subsumed by its laws. you look at the objects of man's creating with new eyes. the displays are no longer contests of laborious industry but of vision, and faith. you see that truth has made itself manifest through the long repetition of the same fundamental theme. that which is unique and personal you are surprised to find of less value than the habit perfected by patient practice. the routine and monotony of daily toil become glorified in the light that now falls athwart your vision. you learn to substitute for your personal feeling the common impersonal element felt by the many. your concern is not as formerly to recollect, but to symbolize. to this end you study frieze and statuary and frequent lectures. your sense of social solidarity grows through mutual comprehension of the same truths. and again that 'vexing, forward reaching sense of some more noble permanence' urges you on. 'time was;' you joyously affirm for man to come to the knowledge of an eternal self. but that, your tradition and education have led you to believe, is still yonder, worlds away. and you image the soul in its quest passing from life to life as you are now passing from building to building, from hall to hall. but glad the thought there will be courts wherein you may perhaps glimpse the plan of the whole and so gather strength and purpose for another housing. all at once you know that death has no fear for you and you feel toward your present life as you do toward these palaces of the mundane the sooner compassed the better. you pass from court to edifice and from edifice to court, marveling at the symmetry of plan and structure. unity, balance, and harmony become manifest as spatial properties you had been taught to regard them as principles of art. you wonder if art itself may not be merely a matter of right placing the adjustment of a thing to its environment. you are certain that this is so as each coign and niche offers you its particular insight. strange vagaries float through your mind one's duty to the inanimate things of one's possession; the house too large for the personality of the owner; the right setting for certain idiosyncrasies; character building as a constructive process; the ideal as the limit of an infinite series each pointing the way, as you think, to a different vista of human outlook. what then your glad surprise to find these converging toward one ideal synthesis. in anticipation of the splendor you hasten on till earth shall have attained to heaven. there it stands 'a structure brave,' the palace of art, the temple of the soul and you know you were made to be perfect too. now that you apprehend the plan of the whole, symmetry takes on a vital significance for your thought. you try to recall what you learned of it in geometry. there was a folding over, you remember, and a fitting together 'congruence' you believe it was called. but that could have no meaning for solids. stop! a folding over? why, that implies another dimension! the two halves of a leaf can be brought together only as one or the other is lifted out of the plane of the leaf into a third dimension. so to bring two buildings into superposition when they are alike except for a reverse order of parts, would necessitate a fourth dimension and a turning inside out. quick as the thought, the court you are in is that a building inside out! ah! you know now wherefor that wonderful uplifting sensation that comes whenever you enter one of these beautiful inclosures. you have passed into the fourth dimension of spatial realization. 'time is past,' you shout aloud, and laugh to find yourself on the inside of externality. cubism in architecture! futurism, in very truth! you visit again the galleries of the new art, not to scoff, but in earnest desire for enlightenment as to this thing which is so near to consciousness and yet so far. you find yourself exclaiming: 'ah, there is something here unfathomed by the cynic's sneer!' as you gaze at the portrayal so strangely weird in form and color you ask yourself where have i felt that, seen this, before? immediately you are transported in memory to the midst of a crowded street. in the mad bustle and noise you are conscious only of mechanical power; of speed always of speed. your voice far away 'the child, oh, the child!' a swooning sensation. men's faces as triangles and horses with countless legs. the chaos of primal forces about youthen darkness. as the past fuses with the present you awaken to a larger privilege of life than man now knows. you feel yourself encompassed by truth, vital and strong. this art, erstwhile so baffling, stands revealed as the struggle of a superhuman entity for self-expression. the tendency toward god has to begin anew with each round of the life-spiral that eternal circle which life pursues. now you find yourself in the court of the universe. bands of many-colored light, the white radiance of eternity, stream athwart the sky. the illumination is of the wonder that now is. how marvelously strange the sight of the world-consciousness passing over into a higher thought-form! each individual element suffering reversal to take its proper place in the new world-order! you see positive becoming negative, negative becoming positive, and evolution giving place to involution a process as yet uncomprehended by our narrow thought. and the secret of the world-struggle across the sea you know; men passing their nature's bound; new hopes and loyalties supplanting old ties and joys; the established creeds of right and wrong as they vanish in this immeasurable thirst for an unknown good. all these things you know to be the travail of the world as it gives birth to some higher entity than individual man. 'time is past,' and as you speak a dove settles to rest upon a pediment. therewith you are carried away in the spirit to a great and high mountain and you behold a new heaven and a new earth; for the first heaven and the first earth are passed away. you see the holy city coming down out of heaven her light is like unto a stone most precious, as it were a jasper stone, clear as crystal, and the walls thereof are adorned with all manner of precious stones and they brought the glory and the honor of the nations into it. creative evolution (after bergson) out of a sense of immediacy comes an intuition of things forming. pressed up by the vital urge, mind meets matter and matter mind in mutual understanding. that which apprehends, since by the object shaped, a fitting instrument is for what itself has wrought. from the same stuff, cut by an identical process, thing and intellect to congruence come, in a space-world forever unfolding. no preestablished harmony this of inner to outer realm corresponding, nor spirit nor form by the other determined. stranger far the genesis whereof i speak: from the universal flux, in a moment, that is ever unique, life to new consciousness springs; creator and created together evolve, in a time-stream continually changing. my bibliography of fourth-dimensional insight while to books i owe much, i owe still more to the beautiful people by whom i have been, like marcus aurelius, all my life surrounded, and particularly to my parents of large vision. creative evolution: bergson. an intuition so great that if spatialized it would lead to a world of infinite dimensions. the ethical implications of bergson's philosophy: una bernard sait. the new infinite and the old theology: c. j. keyser. the fourth dimension: c. h. hinton. first and last things: h. g. wells. the art of creation: edward carpenter. some neglected factors of evolution: bernard. a scientific presentation of involution, a book than which none other has more light to throw on present world problems. primer of higher space: claude bragdon. projective ornament: claude bragdon. paracelsus: browning. abt vogler: browning. commemoration ode: lowell. the book of revelations. here ends "the fourth dimensional reaches of the panama-pacific international exposition," written by cora lenore williams, m.s., with lines on fourth-dimensional insight by ormeida curtis harrison; and the illustrations are from etchings done by gertrude partington, and the fourth dimensional cover design by julia manchester mackie. published by paul elder & company, and printed under the typographical direction of h. a. funke at their tomoye press, in san francisco, during the month of november, nineteen hundred and fifteen. self-development and the way to power by l. w. rogers price 25 cents 1922 "we may be either the suffering slaves of nature or the happy masters of her laws." self development and the way to power it is the natural right of every human being to be happy--to escape all the miseries of life. happiness is the normal condition, as natural as the landscapes and the seasons. it is unnatural to suffer and it is only because of our ignorance that we do suffer. happiness is the product of wisdom. to attain perfect wisdom, to comprehend fully the purpose of life, to realize completely the relationship of human beings to each other, is to put an end to all suffering, to escape every ill and evil that afflicts us. perfect wisdom is unshadowed joy. why do we suffer in life? because in the scheme of nature we are being forced forward in evolution and we lack the spiritual illumination that alone can light the way and enable us to move safely among the obstacles that lie before us. usually we do not even see or suspect the presence of trouble until it suddenly leaps upon us like a concealed tiger. one day our family circle is complete and happy. a week later death has come and gone and joy is replaced with agony. today we have a friend. tomorrow he will be an enemy and we do not know why. a little while ago we had wealth and all material luxuries. there was a sudden change and now we have only poverty and misery and yet we seek in vain for a reason why this should be. there was a time when we had health and strength; but they have both departed and no trace of a reason appears. aside from these greater tragedies of life innumerable things of lesser consequence continually bring to us little miseries and minor heartaches. we most earnestly desire to avoid them but we never see them until they strike us, until in the darkness of our ignorance we blunder upon them. the thing we lack is the spiritual illumination that will enable us to look far and wide, finding the hidden causes of human suffering and revealing the method by which they may be avoided; and if we can but reach illumination the evolutionary journey can be made both comfortably and swiftly. it is as though we must pass through a long, dark room filled with furniture promiscuously scattered about. in the darkness our progress would be slow and painful and our bruises many. but if we could press a button that would turn on the electric light we could then make the same journey quickly and with perfect safety and comfort. the old method of education was to store the mind with as many facts, or supposed facts, as could be accumulated and to give a certain exterior polish to the personality. the theory was that when a man was born he was a completed human being and that all that could be done for him was to load him up with information that would be used with more or less skill, according to the native ability he happened to be born with. the theosophical idea is that the physical man, and all that constitutes his life in the physical world, is but a very partial expression of the self; that in the ego of each there is practically unlimited power and wisdom; that these may be brought through into expression in the physical world as the physical body and its invisible counterparts, which together constitute the complex vehicle of the ego's manifestation, are evolved and adapted to the purpose; and that in exact proportion that conscious effort is given to such self-development will spiritual illumination be achieved and wisdom attained. thus the light that leads to happiness is kindled from within and the evolutionary journey that all are making may be robbed of its suffering. why does death bring misery? chiefly because it separates us from those we love. but when we have evolved the faculty of clairvoyance, in our work of self-development, the separation vanishes and our "dead" friends are as much with us as the living. the only other reason why death brings grief or fear is because we do not understand it and comprehend the part it plays in human evolution. but the moment our ignorance gives way to comprehension such fear vanishes and a serene happiness takes its place. why do we have enemies from whose words or acts we suffer? because in our limited physical consciousness we do not perceive the unity of all life and realize that our wrong thinking and doing must react upon us through other people--a situation from which there is no possible escape except through ceasing to think evil and then patiently awaiting the time when the causes we have already generated are fully exhausted. when spiritual illumination comes, and we no longer stumble in the night of ignorance, the last enemy will disappear and we shall make no more forever. why do people suffer from poverty and disease? only because of our blundering ignorance that makes their existence possible for us, and because we do not comprehend their meaning and their lessons, nor know the attitude to assume toward them. had we but the wisdom to understand why they come to people, why they are necessary factors in their evolution, they would trouble us no longer. when nature's lesson is fully learned these mute teachers will vanish. and so it is with all forms of suffering we experience. they are at once reactions from our ignorant blunderings and instructors that point out the better way. when we have comprehended the lessons they teach they are no longer necessary and disappear. thus our evolution is going forward and has gone forward in the past. we know that the human race has passed through a long evolution during which it has acquired five senses by which knowledge is gained. nobody who has given thought to the subject will make the mistake of supposing that this evolution is completed and that the five senses are all we shall ever possess. in this long evolutionary journey the next thing we shall do is to develop the sixth sense. some people have already done so and all are approaching it. this dawning sense is called clairvoyance. fair investigation will show that the clairvoyant possesses certain powers not common to the majority of people. this is merely the beginning of the development of the sixth sense, and probably with the majority of clairvoyants it goes no further than etheric and lower astral sight. in other words, they are able to raise the consciousness only to a grade of matter a little beyond the grasp of ordinary vision, while the properly developed, trained clairvoyant raises his consciousness two full planes beyond. the higher the consciousness is raised the further the horizon of knowledge extends and the clairvoyant is able to hand down information that appears quite miraculous; but it is perfectly natural. if a certain person were born blind and had never understood any more about eyesight than most people understand about clairvoyance; if this person could know how many doorways were in a large building only by groping along with his hands and thus acquiring the knowledge by touch, and another person who could see should glance along the block and instantly tell the blind man the correct number, that would be to the blind man a miracle. now, when a clairvoyant sees things at a distance where the physical eye cannot reach he really does nothing more remarkable. when we see a thing we receive the vibrations caused by light. that gives the information. when the clairvoyant "sees" at a distance through what we mistakenly call solid substances he receives vibrations of matter so fine that it interpenetrates solids as the ether does. every human being must make, and is making, this long evolutionary journey from spiritual infancy to godlike power and perfection, but there are two ways in which it may be done. we may, as the vast majority do, accept the process of unconscious evolution and submit to nature's whip and spur that continuously urge the thoughtless and indifferent forward until they finally reach the goal. or, we may choose conscious evolution and work intelligently with nature, thus making progress that is comparatively of enormous rapidity and at the same time avoid much of what hamlet called the "slings and arrows of outrageous fortune." the degree to which mind can control circumstances and dominate matter is far greater than is generally believed. our impressions about matter are very illusory. no form of matter is permanent. change goes on everywhere at every instant, by physical laws in the physical body and by astral and mental laws in our invisible bodies. we are not the same being, physically, mentally or spiritually, any two days in succession. the very soul itself is subject to this law of change. it may expand and shine out through the physical organism resplendent, or it may only faintly glimmer through a constantly coarsening body. what is the law of soul growth? through adherence to what principle may we reach spiritual illumination? there are certain well established facts about the laws of growth that we should not overlook when seeking the way forward. nothing whatever can grow without use, without activity. inaction causes atrophy. physiologists tell us that if the arm be tied to the body so that it cannot be used it will in time become so enfeebled, that it is of no further service. it will wither away. that is nature's law of economy. she never gives life where it is useless, where it can not, or will not, be utilized. on the other hand, exercise increases power. to increase the size and strength of muscles we must use them. this is just as true of mental and moral faculties as it is of the physical body. the only way to make the brain keen and powerful is to exercise it by original thinking. one way to gain soul powers is to give free play to the loftiest aspirations of which we are capable, and to do it systematically instead of at random. we grow to be like the things we think about. now, the reverse of all this must be equally true. to give no thought to higher things, to become completely absorbed in material affairs, is to stifle the soul, to invite spiritual atrophy. turning our attention to nature we shall find in the parasite convincing proof of all this. the parasite, whether plant or animal, is living evidence that to refuse or neglect to use an organ or faculty results in being deprived of it. the dodder, says drummond, has roots like other plants, but when it fixes sucker discs on the branches of neighboring plants and begins to get its food through them, its roots perish. when it fails to use them it loses them. he also points to the hermit-crab as an illustration of this great fact in nature, that disuse means loss, and that to shirk responsibility is the road to degeneration. the hermit-crab was once equipped with a hard shell and with as good means of locomotion as other crabs. but instead of courageously following the hardy life of other crustaceans it formed the bad habit of taking up its residence in the cast-off shells of mollusks. this made life easy and indolent. but it paid the price of all shirking. in time it lost four legs, while the shell over the vital portion of its body degenerated to a thin membrane which leaves it practically helpless when it is out of its captured home. and this is the certain result of all shirking of responsibility. there may be an apparent temporary gain, but it always means greater loss, either immediate or remote. so nature punishes inaction with atrophy. whatever is not used finally ceases to be. in plain language, apathy, inaction, idleness, uselessness, is the road to degeneration. on the other hand, aspiration and activity mean growth, development, power. so we grow, physically, mentally and morally, by activity, by exercise of the organs or the faculties we desire to possess. it is only by the constant exercise of these things that we can grow at all. when this great law of nature is understood we see at once how it is that life is full of trouble; why it is that the whole visible world seems to be designed to keep us constantly at work physically and mentally, to challenge our resourcefulness in improving our physical, social and political conditions, to continually try our patience and to forever test our courage. it is the way of development. it is the price of progress. the universe is a training school for evolving intelligence--a vast gymnasium for the development of moral fibre. we become mentally clever by playing at the game of life. we match our courage against its adversities and acquire fearlessness. we try our optimism against its disappointments and learn cheerfulness. we pit our patience against its failures and gain persistence. we are torn from the pinnacle of ambition by opponents and learn toleration of others. we fall from the heights of vanity and pride, and learn to be modest and humble. we encounter pain and sorrow and learn sympathy with suffering. it is only by such experiences that we can grow to rounded measure. it is only in an environment thus adapted to our spiritual development that we can evolve the latent powers within us. such is the universe in which we find ourselves and from it there is no escape. no man can avoid life--not even the foolish one who, when the difficulties before him appear for the moment overwhelming, tries to escape them by suicide. a man cannot die. he can only choose how he will live. he may either helplessly drift through the world suffering from all the ills and evils that make so many unhappy or he may choose the method of conscious evolution that alone makes life truly successful. we may be either the suffering slaves of nature or the happy masters of her laws. now, all powers possessed by any human being, no matter how exalted his position in evolution, or how sublime his spiritual power, are latent in all human beings and can, in time, be developed and brought into action. of course there is no magic rule by which the ignoramus can instantly become wise or by which a brutal man can be at once transformed into a saint. it may require scores of incarnations to accomplish a work so great, but when a man reaches the point in his evolution where he begins to comprehend the purpose of life, and to evolve the will to put forth his energies in co-operation with nature, his rise to wisdom and power may be swift indeed. but this transformation from the darkness of ignorance to spiritual illumination, from helplessness "in the fell clutch of circumstance" to power over nature, must be brought about by his own efforts, for it is a process of evolution--of forcing the latent to become the active. therefore one must resolve to take oneself in hand for definite and systematic self-development. nobody else can do the work for us. certain moral qualities must be gained before there can be spiritual illumination and genuine wisdom and such qualities, or virtues, have to be evolved by the laws under which all growth occurs. it is just as impossible to acquire a moral quality by reading about its desirability as to evolve muscular strength by watching the performance of a group of athletes. to gain muscular strength one must take part in the physical activities that produce it. he must live the athletic life. to win spiritual strength and supremacy he must live the spiritual life. there is no other way. he must first learn what mental and moral qualities are essential, and how to gain them, and then set earnestly about the work of acquiring them. the first thing necessary is to get a clear understanding of the fact that the physical body is not the self but only a vehicle or instrument through which the self is being manifested in the visible world. the body is as much your instrument as the hand is, or as your pen is. it is a thing which you, the self, use and a clear conception of this fact--a feeling that this is the fact--is the first step toward that absolute control of the physical body that lays the foundation for success in conscious evolution. when we feel that in managing the physical body we are controlling something that is not ourself we are fairly started on the right road. now, there are three things that a person must possess to be successful in self-development. if he has not these three qualifications he will make but little progress; but, fortunately, any lacking quality can be evolved and if one does not possess these three necessities his first work is to create them. these three things are an ardent desire, an iron will and an alert intelligence. why are these three qualifications essential to success and what purpose do they serve? desire is nature's motor power--the propulsive force that pushes everything forward in its evolution. it is desire that stimulates to action. desire drives the animal into the activities that evolve its physical body and sharpen its intelligence. if it had no desire it would lie inert and perish. but the desire for food, for drink, for association with its kind, impel it to action, and the result is the evolution of strength, skill and intelligence in proportion to the intensity of its desires. to gratify these desires it will accept battle no matter how great may be the odds against it and will unhesitatingly risk life itself in the combat. desire not only induces the activity that develops physical strength and beauty, but also has its finer effects. hunger compels the animal not only to seek food, but to pit its cunning against that of its prey. driven forward by desire it develops, among other qualities, strength, courage, patience, endurance, intelligence. desire plays the same role with man at his higher stage of evolution. it stimulates him to action; and always as his activity satisfies his original desire a new one replaces the old and lures him on to renewed exertion. the average young man beginning his business career, desires only a comfortable cottage. but when that is attained he wants a mansion. he soon tires of the mansion and wants a palace. then he wants several--at the seaside, in the city, and on the mountains. at first he is satisfied with a horse; then he demands an automobile, and finally a steam yacht. he sets out as a youth to earn a livelihood and welcomes a small salary. but the desire for money pushes him into business for himself and he works tirelessly for a competence. he feels that a small fortune should satisfy anybody but when he gets it he wants to be a millionaire. if he succeeds in that he then desires to become a multi-millionaire. whether the desire is for wealth, or for fame, or for power, the same result follows--when the desire is satisfied a greater one takes its place and spurs the ambitious one to still further exertion. he grasps the prize he believes to contain complete satisfaction only to discover that while he was pursuing it desire had grown beyond it, and so the goal he would attain is always far ahead of him. thus are we tricked and apparently mocked by nature until we finally awake to the fact that all the objects of desire--the fine raiment, the jewels, the palaces, the wealth, the power, are but vain and empty things; and that the real reward for all our efforts to secure them is not these objects at all _but the new powers we have evolved in getting them;_ powers that we did not before possess and which we should not have evolved but for nature's great propulsive force--desire. the man who accumulates a fortune by many years of persistent effort in organizing and developing a business enterprise, by careful planning and deep thinking, may naturally enough look upon the fortune he will possess for a few years before it passes on to others, as his reward. but the truth is that it is a very transient and perishable and worthless thing compared to the new powers that were unconsciously evolved in getting it--powers that will be retained by the man and be brought into use in future incarnations. desire, then, plays a most important role in human evolution. it awakens, stimulates, propels. what wind is to the ship, what steam is to the locomotive, desire is to the human being. it has been written in a great book, "kill out desire," and elsewhere it is written, "resist not evil." we may find, in similar exalted pronouncements, truths that are very useful to disciples but which might be confusing and misleading to the man of the world if he attempted to literally apply them. perhaps for the average mortal "kill out desire" might be interpreted "transmute desire." without desire man would be in a deathlike and dangerous condition--a condition in which further progress would be impossible. but by transmuting the lower desires into the higher he moves steadily forward and upward without losing the motive power that urges him forever onward. to transmute desire, to continually replace the lower with the higher, really is killing desire out but it is doing it by the slow and safe evolutionary process. as to crushing it suddenly, that is simply impossible; but substitution may work wonders. suppose, for example, that a young man is a gambler and his parents are much distressed about it. the common and foolish course is to lecture him on the sin of gambling and to tearfully urge him to associate only with very proper young men. but the young gambler is not in the least interested in that sort of a life, which appears to him to be a kind of living death, and such entreaty does not move him. his parents would do better by looking more closely into the case. why is he a gambler? he desires money. he seeks excitement. he wants to live in an atmosphere of intense life and activity. very well. these desires are quite right in themselves. it is useless to try to crush them. it is nonsense to argue that he does not want these things. clearly enough he does want them and that is precisely why he gambles. then do not attempt the impossibility of killing the desire but change the objects of his desires. say to him: "you desire money and a life full of turbulence and excitement. well, you can get all that in a better and a legitimate way and have the respect of your friends besides. you can go into politics. that is a field within the pale of the law and in it you can have scope for all the energy and activity and intensity of life you long for, with all the element of chance which you find so attractive." and when the young man has had his fling there and tires of it then something else can be attempted. but to try to crush desire and curb the outrushing life is both foolish and impossible. we can only direct it. there are, of course, certain gross desires that must be gotten rid of by the most direct and least objectionable method, and when one really desires to be free from a given vice or moral weakness and sets earnestly and intelligently about it his release is not so difficult as the complete tyranny of most vices would lead one to suppose. there is a process by which any of us may be free if we will take the trouble to patiently put it into practice. this method will apply to any desire from which we wish to be released. for example, let us take the person who has a settled desire for alcoholic stimulants but really wishes to be rid of it forever. many people who are thus afflicted to the point where they occasionally become intoxicated feel, when they recover their normal condition, that no price would be too great to pay for freedom from this humiliating habit. as a rule such a man tries to close his eyes to his shame and forget it, promising himself that he will be stronger when the temptation again assails him. but it is just this putting it aside, this casting it out of his mind, that perpetuates his weakness. he instinctively shrinks from dwelling upon the thought of whither he is drifting. so he puts the unpleasant subject aside altogether and when the inner desire asserts itself again he finds himself precisely as helpless as before. now, his certain method of escape from this tyranny of desire is to turn his mind resolutely to an examination of the whole question. let him look the facts in the face, however humiliating they may be. he should call his imagination to his assistance. it should be used to picture to himself his future if he does not succeed in breaking up the unfortunate slavery of the desire nature. he should think of the fact that as he grows older the situation grows worse. he should picture himself as the helpless, repulsive sot, with feeble body and weakening mind, and reflect upon the humiliation he must endure, the poverty he must face, and the physical and mental pain he must bear in the future if he now fails to break the desire ties that bind him. this creates in him a feeling of repulsion toward the cause of it all; and if he continues to think daily upon this hideous picture of what he is slowly drifting toward--if he daily regards it all with a feeling of slight repulsion--then even within a month or two he will find that his desire for drink is slowly fading out. this is as true of all other desires that enslave us. the desire for alcoholic stimulants merely illustrates the principle involved. any desire from which one wishes to be free may be escaped by the same method. but one who would free himself from the desire-nature should not make the mistake of creating a feeling of intense hostility toward the thing he seeks to escape; for hatred is also a tie. he should merely reach a position of complete indifference. he should think of it not with settled hostility, but with slight repulsion; and if he does that daily, mentally dwelling upon the pain and humiliation it causes, he will find the ties loosening, the desire weakening. desire is a force that may be beneficial or detrimental, according to its use. as we may eradicate a desire so may we create a desire. how, then, may one who seeks the highest self-development use desire, this propulsive force of nature, to help himself forward? he should desire spiritual progress most earnestly, for without such desire he cannot succeed. therefore if the aspirant does not have the ardent desire for spiritual illumination he must create it. to accomplish this let him again call imagination to his assistance. let him picture himself as having his power for usefulness many times multiplied by occult development. he should think of himself as possessing the inner sight that enables him to understand the difficulties of others and to comprehend their sorrows. he should daily think of the fact that this would so broaden and quicken his sympathies that he would be enormously more useful in the world than he can now possibly be and that he could become a source of happiness to thousands. let him reflect that as he gets farther along in occult development and in unselfishness and spirituality he may have the inestimable privilege of coming into contact with some of the exalted intelligences that watch over and assist the struggling aspirants on their upward way. he should daily recall the fact that he is now moving forward toward a freer, richer, more joyous life than he has yet known and that every effort brings him nearer to its realization. thus dwelling on the subject in its various aspects he creates the ardent desire that serves to propel him forward. if he feels that these things make an ideal a little too high for him at present he may reach that point by degrees. he may at first dwell in thought upon the personal satisfaction that would come from the possession of astral sight. let him reflect upon what it would mean to be conscious of the invisible world; to have all its wonders laid open before him; to be able to consciously meet the so-called dead, including his own friends and relatives; to be able to have the positive personal proof that we survive the death of the physical body; to be able to become one of the "invisible helpers" of the world; to have available the priceless advantages of the astral region and to bring the consciousness of all this into the physical life. that is certainly something worth all the time and effort required to attain it. thus thinking constantly of the widened life and added powers it would confer, the desire to move forward in self-development will be greatly stimulated. but the student should always keep it in mind that the real purpose of acquiring new powers is to increase his capacity for service to the race, and that he who falls short of that ideal walks upon dangerous ground. the second requisite is a firm will. it should not be forgotten that an unusual and difficult thing is being attempted in which a person of weak will cannot possibly hope to succeed. even in the ordinary life of the world considerable will power is essential to success. to succeed in business, to become expert in a profession, or to completely master an art, requires strong will, determination, perseverance. the difficulties in occult development are still greater and, while it is true that any degree of effort is well worth while, the weaklings will not go far. only those with the indomitable will that knows neither surrender nor compromise may hope for a large measure of success. once the will is thoroughly aroused and brought into action every hindrance in the way will be swept aside. "the human will, that force unseen, the offspring of a deathless soul, can hew a way to any goal tho' walls of granite intervene. * * * * * "be not impatient of delay, but wait as one who understands. when spirit rises and commands the gods are ready to obey." mighty, indeed, is this force when aroused. but a person may be easily deceived about his will. he is likely to think that his will is much stronger than it really is. he may say to himself, "oh, yes, i would go through anything for the sake of the higher life and spiritual illumination." but that is no guarantee that after a few months of monotonous work he may not abandon it unless he adopts the wise plan of strengthening his will as he moves forward. let him begin this by testing his present strength of will, but let him not be discouraged by the result. he should remember that whatever he lacks in will power he can evolve by proper effort. to find out whether he really has much strength of will a person may begin to observe to what extent he permits his daily plans to be modified, or entirely changed, by the things that run counter to his will. does he hold steadfastly to his purpose or does he weakly surrender to small obstacles? has he the will power to even begin the day as he has planned it? the evening before he decides that he will rise at six o'clock the next morning. he knows there are certain excellent reasons why he should do so and he retires with the matter fully decided. it is positively settled that at exactly six o'clock the day's program shall begin. but when the clock strikes that hour the next morning he feels strongly disinclined to obey the summons. it involves some bodily discomfort to rise at that moment and he concludes that, after all, perhaps he was a bit hasty the evening before in fixing upon that hour! whereupon he reconsiders the matter and makes it seven; and when that time arrives he generously extends it to eight o'clock. the hour, of course, is unimportant. but whatever may have been the hour that was previously determined upon the keeping of that determination is of the greatest importance and the failure to put the resolution into effect is evidence of the possession of a weak will. now all this proves that such persons have very little real will power, for they permit the desire for trifling bodily comfort to set their plans aside. such persons are still slaves to the physical body and weakly permit it to upset carefully outlined programs. they are not yet ready for good work in occult development, where real success can come only to those who have steadfast strength of purpose. people who fail to assert the will and bring the body into complete subjection probably little realize what a price they pay for a trifling physical pleasure; for until we voluntarily take the right course we have not escaped the evolutionary necessity of compulsion and may reasonably expect sooner or later to be thrown into an environment that will apply the stimulus we still need to arouse the will. it may be unpleasant while it is occurring, but what better fortune could befall an indolent man than to find himself in circumstances where his poverty or other necessity compels him to subordinate bodily comfort to the reign of the will? nature provides the lessons we require. we may wisely co-operate with her and thus escape the sting. but so long as we need the lesson we may be quite sure that it awaits us. all the business activities of the world are developing the will. through them will and desire work together in evolving latent powers. desire arouses will power. a man desires wealth and the desire plunges him into business activities and stimulates the will by which he overcomes all the difficulties that lie in his way. ardent desire for an education arouses the will of the student and the awakened will triumphs over poverty and all other barriers between him and the coveted diploma. if a man stands at a lower point in evolution where he has not the ambition for intellectual culture nor for fame nor for wealth, but only the desire for shelter and food, still that primitive desire forces him into action; and while his will power will be evolved only in proportion to the strength of the desire that prompts him, it must nevertheless grow. instead of rising at a certain hour because the will decrees it he may rise only because he knows his livelihood depends upon it. but he is learning the same lesson--the overcoming of the inertia of the physical body--albeit it is compulsory instead of voluntary. but all this is unconscious evolution. it is the long, slow, painful process. it is the only way possible for those who are not wise enough to co-operate with nature in her evolutionary work and thus rise above the necessity of compulsion. how, then, may we develop the will when it is so weak that we are still the slaves of nature instead of the masters of destiny? will power, like any other faculty, may be cultivated and made strong. to do this one may plan in advance what he will do under certain circumstances and then carry out the program without evasion or hesitation when the time arrives. his forethought will enable him to do this if he does not undertake things too difficult at first. let him resolve to do at a certain hour some small thing which, in the ordinary course of his duties, he sees is necessary but unpleasant; and then firmly resolve in advance that exactly at the appointed time he will do it. thus fortified before the trial comes he will probably go successfully through with it. after once deciding upon the time there should be no postponement and not an instant's delay when the moment arrives. one of the things we have to learn is to overcome the inertia of the physical body and many people are not really awake on the physical plane because they have not done so. to a certain extent they are "dead" within the physical body for it is a condition much nearer death than that supposed death of one who no longer has the physical body. the inert mass of physical matter in which such people are functioning leaves them only half alive until they have aroused themselves from its domination. they remind one of the lines: "life is a mystery, death is a doubt, and some folks are dead while they're walking about!" this inertia of the physical body that so often renders people nearly useless is very largely a matter of habit and can be overcome to a surprising degree by simply using a little will-power. everybody is familiar with the fact that it is sometimes much easier to think and act than at other times. but perhaps it is not so well known that the dull periods can invariably be overcome by an effort of the will and the physical body be made to do its proper work. an actor or lecturer after months of continuous work may find the brain and body growing tired and dull. he may feel when going before his audience that he has not an idea nor the wit to express it were someone else to furnish it. yet by an effort of the will he can quickly overcome the condition and change from stupidity to mental alertness and intensity of thought. the self is never tired. it is only the physical body that grows weary. it is true that it has its limitations and must not be overtaxed and driven beyond endurance as a tired horse is sometimes cruelly urged forward with whip and spur. judgment must always be used in determining one's capacity for work. but that which is to be done should never be done draggingly, with the inertia of the physical body marring the work. we should be fully awake instead of "dead" while we "are walking about." if a person resolves to be the master of the body he may soon acquire the power to arouse it to activity and alertness during all his waking hours, very much as one may acquire the habit of keen observation and be conscious of what is occurring in his vicinity instead of being carelessly unconscious of the major portion of what is going on immediately about him. this matter of giving attention to the things that may properly engage the mind, and of using the will to arouse and control it, is of very great importance. is it not what we call "paying attention" that makes the connection between the ego and the objective world? giving attention is a process of consciousness. the person who fails in attention misses the purpose of life and throws away valuable time and opportunity. to give attention is to be alive and awake and in a condition to make the most of limited physical life. yet many people cannot give sustained attention to an ordinary conversation nor direct the mind with sufficient precision to state a simple fact without wandering aimlessly about in the effort, bringing in various incidental matters until the original subject, instead of being made clear, is obscured in a maze of unimportant details or lost sight of altogether. such habits of mind should be put resolutely aside by one who would hasten self-development. the attention should be fixed deliberately upon the subject in hand, whatever it may be, and nothing should be permitted to break the connection between that and the mind. whether it is a conversation or a book, or a manual task, or a problem being silently worked out intellectually, it should have undivided attention until the mind is ready for something else. perhaps few of us give to any subject the close attention which alone can prove its own effectiveness and demonstrate the fact that there goes with such steadily sustained attention a subtle power of extended, or accentuated, consciousness. when ten minutes is given to a certain subject and other thoughts are constantly intruding, so that when the ten minutes have passed only five minutes have actually been devoted to the subject, the result is by no means a half of what would have been accomplished had the whole of the ten minutes been given to uninterrupted attention. the time thus spent in wavering attention is practically without effect. the connection between mind and subject has not been complete. mind and subject were, so to say, out of focus. attention must be sustained to the point where it becomes concentration. the mind must be used as a sun-glass can be used. hold the glass between sun and paper, out of focus, for an hour and nothing will happen. a yellow circle of light falls on the paper and that is all. but bring it into perfect focus, concentrating the rays to the finest possible point, and the paper turns brown and finally bursts into the fire that will consume it. they are the same rays that were previously ineffective. concentration produced results. the mind must be brought under such complete control of the will that it can be manipulated like a search-light, turned in this direction or that, or flung full upon some obscure subject and held steadily there till it illuminates every detail of it, as the search-light sends a dazzling ray through space and shows every rock and tree on a hillside far away through the darkness of the night. the third necessity is keen intelligence. the force of desire, directed by the will, must be supplemented by an alert mind. there is a popular notion that good motives are sufficient in themselves and that when one has the desire to attain spiritual illumination, plus the will to achieve, nothing more is needed but purity of purpose. but this is a misconception. it is true that the mystic makes devotion the vital thing in his spiritual growth; and it is also true that the three paths of action, knowledge and devotion blend and become one at a higher stage. but while there are methods of development in which intellect is not at first made a chief factor it can by no means be ignored in the long-run; nor are we now considering those methods. a good intellect, therefore, is a necessary part of the equipment. good motives play a most important part, indeed, in occult progress. they safeguard the aspirant on his upward way. without pure motives, without a large measure of unselfishness, the greatest dangers would encompass him. but good motives cannot take the place of good sense and relieve him of the necessity of thinking. he must develop judgment and discrimination. there are things he must know, and he must use his knowledge, or difficulties will follow no matter how noble may be his intentions. suppose, for illustration, that two men set out upon a dark might to cross a wild and rugged piece of ground--one with bad motives and the other with good. one is going out to rob a house and if need be, to kill anybody who might try to interfere with his plans. his motives are very bad but he has perfect knowledge of the dangerous ground he is to cross and he will therefore travel over it in safety. the other man has the best of motives. he is going to spend the night with a sick and helpless neighbor. but he has no knowledge of the rough and treacherous ground he must cross in the darkness and his good motives will not insure him against stumbling over the stones or falling into a ditch and breaking his arm. good motives are not enough. we must know! progress in occultism is impossible without knowledge. but how is a keen, alert intelligence to be acquired if we do not possess it? like any other latent faculty or power it may be evolved. as the physical strength may be steadily increased by constant exercise of the muscles, so mind may increase in power by systematic work. it should be exercised in original thinking. a stated period, if only a quarter of an hour daily, can be set aside for the purpose. a book on a serious subject will furnish material but the too common method of reading, of following the author lazily and accepting whatever he sets forth as a matter of course, is of little value. one must read with discrimination, receiving the ideas offered as a juryman would receive testimony from a witness, considering it from every possible viewpoint, examining it in the light of known facts, turning it over in the mind, weighing it thoughtfully, and accepting or rejecting according to its reasonableness or its lack of reason. in such mental work for intellectual growth each paragraph can be considered by itself and only a small portion of the time should be given to the reading while the remainder is devoted to pondering over what has been read. of course a specific study is an advantage and perhaps nothing is better than to study occultism, thinking deeply upon the problems of human evolution. another method that goes admirably with such work is the close observation and study of all the life in manifestation about us. we should try to comprehend people, to observe and understand them. every word, act and facial expression has its meaning to be caught and interpreted. all this will not only sharpen the wits but also strengthen human sympathy for it enables us the better to know the difficulties and sorrows of others. if such practices are followed faithfully day by day the growth will be steady. still another useful practice is to exercise the imagination, the art of creating mental pictures with no physical object present. the face of an absent friend can be called up in the mind and reproduced in every detail--the color of the eyes and hair, the various moods and expressions. or one's childhood home can be recalled and the imagination made to reconstruct it. the house being complete the landscape can be reproduced, with the hills, trees and roads. repeated practice at "seeing mentally" is of the greatest value in occult development. while the aspirant is thus working to improve the three essential qualifications of desire, will and intelligence--to intensify his desire to possess powers for the helping of others, to strengthen the will to get such powers, and to steadily improve the intellect--he should also be giving most earnest attention to meditation, for it is through this practice that the most remarkable results may be produced in the transformation of his bodies, visible and invisible, through which the ego manifests itself in the physical world. in the degree that these are organized and made sensitive and responsive they cease to be limitations of consciousness. such sensitiveness and responsiveness may be brought about by meditation, together with proper attention to the purification of the physical and astral bodies; for purity and sensitiveness go together. meditation is a subject so very important to the aspirant that specific instructions should guide him. the average person, used to the turbulent life of occidental civilization, will find it a sufficiently difficult matter to control the mind, and to finally acquire the power to direct it as he desires, even with all the conditions in his favor. the serene hours of morning are the most favorable of the twenty-four for meditation. regularity has a magic of its own and the hour should be the same each morning. to be alone in surroundings as quiet as possible is another essential. the most desirable time for meditation is soon after awakening in the morning. before turning the mind to any of the business affairs of the day let the aspirant sit calmly down and mediate upon any wholesome thought, like patience, courage or compassion, keeping the mind steadily upon the subject for five minutes. two very important things are being accomplished by such meditation. first, we are getting control of the mind and learning to direct it where and how we choose; and, second, we are attracting and building into the bodies we possess certain grades of imponderable matter that will make thinking and acting along these lines easier and easier for us until they are established habits and we actually become in daily life patient, courageous and compassionate. whatever qualities or virtues we desire to possess may be gained through the art of meditation and the effort to live up to the ideal dwelt upon daily by the mind. while it is absolutely true that any human being can make of himself that which he desires to be--can literally raise himself to any ideal he is capable of conceiving--it must not be supposed that it can be done in a short time and by intermittent effort. we sometimes hear it said that all we need do is to realize that all power is within us, when, presto! we are the thing we would be! it is quite true that we must realize their existence before we can call the latent powers into expression; but the work of arousing the latent into the active is a process of growth, of actual evolutionary change. the physical body as it is now is not sensitive enough to respond to subtle vibrations. its brain is not capable of receiving and registering the delicate vibrations sent outward by the ego, and the task of changing it so that it can do so is not a trifling or easy one. but every effort produces its effect and to the persistent and patient devotee of self-development the final result is certain. but it is not a matter of miraculous accomplishment. it is a process of inner growth. there are, it is quite true, cases in which people who have entered upon this method of self-development have, in a short time, attained spiritual illumination, becoming fully conscious of the invisible world and its inhabitants while awake in the physical body; extending the horizon of consciousness to include both worlds, and coming into possession of the higher clairvoyance that enables one to trace past causes and modify impending effects. but such people are those who have given so much attention to self-development in past lives that they have now but little more to do in order to come into full possession of occult powers. sometimes it requires little more than the turning of their attention to the matter. becoming a member of the theosophical society or seriously taking up theosophical studies is sometimes the final step that leads to the opening of the inner sight. but how can one know to what point he may have advanced in the past and where he now stands? how may we know whether there is but a little work ahead or a great deal? we cannot know; nor is it important to know. the person who should take up the task merely because he thinks there is little to do would certainly fail. the very fact that he would not venture upon the undertaking if he thought the task a difficult one is evidence that he has not the qualifications necessary for the success of the occult student. unless he is filled with a longing to possess greater power to be used in the service of humanity, and fired with an enthusiasm that would hesitate at no difficulties, he has not yet reached the point in his evolution where he awaits only the final steps that will make him a disciple. but even the absence of the keen desire for spiritual progress, which is the best evidence of the probability of success, should not deter anybody from entering upon the systematic study of theosophy and devoting to it all the time and energy he can; nor should the thought that many years might pass without producing any very remarkable results lead him to conclude that the undertaking would not be a profitable one. the time will come with each human being when he will step out of the great throng that drifts with the tide and enter upon the course of conscious evolution, assisting nature instead of ignoring her beneficent plan; and since it is but a question of time the sooner a beginning is made the better, for the sooner will suffering cease. there should be a word of warning about the folly of trying to reach spiritual illumination by artificial methods. astral sight is sometimes quickly developed by crystal gazing and also by a certain regulation of the breathing. for two reasons such methods should be avoided. one is that any powers thus gained can not be permanent, and the other is that they may be more or less dangerous. many people have made physical wrecks of themselves or have become insane by some of these methods. there are those who advertise to quickly teach clairvoyance, for a consideration, as though spiritual powers could really be conferred instead of evolved! it is true that efforts toward the evolution of such powers may be enormously aided by teachers, but such instruction can not be bought, and the offer to furnish it for money is the best evidence of its worthlessness. those who teach this ancient wisdom select their own pupils from the morally fit, and tuition can be paid only in devotion to truth and service to humanity. that is the only road that leads to instruction worth having, and until the aspirant is firmly upon that sound moral ground he is much better off without powers, the selfish use of which would lead to certain disaster. but how shall the pupil find the teacher? he need not find him, at first, so far as the limited consciousness is concerned. long before he knows anything of it in his waking hours he may be receiving instruction while he is out of the physical body during the hours of sleep. the teacher finds the pupil long before the pupil suspects that the teacher exists; and since it is the pupil who has the limited consciousness it is quite natural that it should be so. thus it is inevitable that all who enter upon the way that leads to spiritual illumination must long remain ignorant of the fact that any teachers are interested in them or that anybody is giving the slightest attention to them. naturally enough one cannot know until the moment arrives when his brain has become sufficiently sensitive to retain a memory of at least a fragment of his superphysical experiences. but what leads to the selection of the pupil? his earnestness, his unselfishness, his devotion, his spiritual aspirations. there is an old occult maxim to the effect that when the pupil is ready the master is waiting. they have need of many more than are ready to be taught. those who lead and enlighten watch eagerly for all who will qualify themselves to enter upon the upward way. every human being gets exactly what he fits himself to receive. he cannot possibly be overlooked. by his spiritual aspiration each lights the lamp in the window of his soul and to the watchers from the heights that light against the background of the overwhelming materiality of our times must be as the sun in a cloudless sky. other things come later but these simpler things, to realize the necessity for conscious evolution, to comprehend the method of soul development, to take full control of the mind and the physical body, to resolutely curb the grosser desires and to give free rein to the higher aspirations are the first infant steps in the self-development that leads to illumination. then we begin to discover that this very desire for greater spiritual power is generating a force that carries us forward and upward. we soon begin to observe actual progress. the brain becomes clearer, the intellect keener. our sphere of influence grows wider, our friendships become warmer. aspiration lifts us into a new and radiant life, and the wondrous powers of the soul begin to become a conscious possession. and to this soul growth there is no limit. the aspirant will go on and on in this life and others with an ever-extending horizon of consciousness until he has the mental grasp of a plato, the vivid imagination of a dante, the intuitive perception of a shakespeare. it is not by the outward acquirement of facts that such men become wise and great. it is by developing the soul from within until it illuminates the brain with that flood of light called genius. and when, through the strife and storm, we finally reach the tranquility of the inner peace we shall comprehend the great fact that life really is joy when lived in the possession of spiritual power and in perfect harmony with the laws of the universe. with even these first steps in occult achievement the aspirant enters upon a higher and more satisfactory life than he has ever known. literally he becomes a new man. gradually the old desires and impulses fade away and new and nobler aspirations take their place. he has learned obedience to law only to find that obedience was the road to conquest. he has risen above the gross and sensuous by the power of conscious evolution; and, looking back upon what he has been with neither regret nor apology, he comprehends that significant thought of tennyson: on stepping stones of their dead selves men rise to higher things. proofreading team. [transcriber's note: accented characters with macrons are marked in this file as [=x], while those with inferior dots are marked as [x.].] the basis of morality by annie besant author of _mysticism, the immediate future, initiation: the perfecting of man, superhuman men, etc. etc._ theosophical publishing house adyar, madras, india 1915 * * * * * contents i. revelation ii. intuition iii. utility iv. evolution v. mysticism * * * * * i revelation must religion and morals go together? can one be taught without the other? it is a practical question for educationists, and france tried to answer it in the dreariest little cut and dry kind of catechism ever given to boys to make them long to be wicked. but apart from education, the question of the bedrock on which morals rest, the foundation on which a moral edifice can be built that will stand secure against the storms of life--that is a question of perennial interest, and it must be answered by each of us, if we would have a test of right and wrong, would know why right is right, why wrong is wrong. religions based on revelation find in revelation their basis for morality, and for them that is right which the giver of the revelation commands, and that is wrong which he forbids. right is right because god, or a [r.][s.]hi or a prophet, commands it, and right rests on the will of a lawgiver, authoritatively revealed in a scripture. now all revelation has two great disadvantages as a basis for morality. it is fixed, and therefore unprogressive; while man evolves, and at a later stage of his growth, the morality taught in the revelation becomes archaic and unsuitable. a written book cannot change, and many things in the bibles of religion come to be out of date, inappropriate to new circumstances, and even shocking to an age in which conscience has become more enlightened than it was of old. the fact that in the same revelation as that in which palpably immoral commands appear, there occur also jewels of fairest radiance, gems of poetry, pearls of truth, helps us not at all. if moral teachings worthy only of savages occur in scriptures containing also rare and precious precepts of purest sweetness, the juxtaposition of light and darkness only produces moral chaos. we cannot here appeal to reason or judgment for both must be silent before authority; both rest on the same ground. "thus saith the lord" precludes all argument. let us take two widely accepted scriptures, both regarded as authoritative by the respective religions which accept them as coming from a divine preceptor or through a human but illuminated being, moses in the one case, manu in the other. i am, of course, well aware that in both cases we have to do with books which may contain traditions of their great authors, even sentences transmitted down the centuries. the unravelling of the tangled threads woven into such books is a work needing the highest scholarship and an infinite patience; few of us are equipped for such labour. but let us ignore the work of the higher criticism, and take the books as they stand, and the objection raised to them as a basis for morality will at once appear. thus we read in the same book: "thou shalt not avenge, nor bear any grudge against the children of thy people, but thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself." "the stranger that dwelleth with you shall be unto you as one born among you, and thou shalt love him as thyself, for ye were strangers in the land of egypt." "sanctify yourselves therefore and be ye holy." scores of noble passages, inculcating high morality, might be quoted. but we have also: "if thy brother, the son of thy mother, or thy son, or thy daughter, or the wife of thy bosom, or thy friend which is as thine own soul, entice thee secretly saying, let us go and serve other gods ... thou shalt not consent unto him nor hearken unto him; neither shalt thine eye pity him, neither shalt thou spare, neither shalt thou conceal him, but thou shalt surely kill him; thine hand shall be first upon him to put him to death." "thou shalt not suffer a witch to live." a man is told, that he may seize a fair woman in war, and "be her husband and she shall be thy wife. and it shall be that if thou hast no delight in her, then thou shalt let her go whither she will." these teachings and many others like them have drenched europe with blood and scorched it with fire. men have grown out of them; they no longer heed nor obey them, for man's reason performs its eclectic work on revelation, chooses the good, rejects the evil. this is very good, but it destroys revelation as a basis. christians have outgrown the lower part of their revelation, and do not realise that in striving to explain it away they put the axe to the root of its authority. so also is it with the institutes of manu, to take but one example from the great sacred literature of india. there are precepts of the noblest order, and the essence and relative nature of morality is philosophically set out; "the sacred law is thus grounded on the rule of conduct," and he declares that good conduct is the root of further growth in spirituality. apart from questions of general morality, to which we shall need to refer hereafter, let us take the varying views of women as laid down in the present sm[r.][t.]i as accepted. on many points there is no wiser guide than parts of this sm[r.][t.]i, as will be seen in chapter iv. with regard to the marriage law, manu says: "let mutual fidelity continue unto death." of a father he declares: "no father who knows must take even the smallest gratuity for his daughter; for a man, who through avarice takes a gratuity, is a seller of his offspring." of the home, he says: "women must be honoured and adorned by their fathers, husbands, brothers and brothers-in-law who desire happiness. where women are honoured, there the [d.]evas are pleased; but where they are not honoured, any sacred rite is fruitless." "in that family where the husband is pleased with his wife and the wife with her husband [note the equality], happiness will assuredly be lasting." food is to be given first in a house to "newly-married women, to infants, to the sick, and to pregnant women". yet the same manu is supposed to have taken the lowest and coarsest view of women: "it is the nature of women to seduce men; for that reason the wise are never unguarded with females ... one should not sit in a lonely place with one's mother, sister or daughter; for the senses are powerful, and master even a learned man." a woman must never act "independently, even in her own house," she must be subject to father, husband or (on her husband's death) sons. women have allotted to them as qualities, "impure desires, wrath, dishonesty, malice and bad conduct". the sh[=u][d.]ra servant is to be "regarded as a younger son"; a slave is to be looked on "as one's shadow," and if a man is offended by him he "must bear it without resentment"; yet the most ghastly punishments are ordered to be inflicted on sh[=u][d.]ras for intruding on certain sacred rites. the net result is that ancient revelations, being given for a certain age and certain social conditions, often cannot and ought not to be carried out in the present state of society; that ancient documents are difficult to verify--often impossible--as coming from those whose names they bear; that there is no guarantee against forgeries, interpolations, glosses, becoming part of the text, with a score of other imperfections; that they contain contradictions, and often absurdities, to say nothing of immoralities. ultimately every revelation must be brought to the bar of reason, and as a matter of fact, is so brought in practice, even the most "orthodox" br[=a]hma[n.]a in hin[d.][=u]ism, disregarding all the sh[=a]s[t.]raic injunctions which he finds to be impracticable or even inconvenient, while he uses those which suit him to condemn his "unorthodox" neighbours. no revelation is accepted as fully binding in any ancient religion, but by common consent the inconvenient parts are quietly dropped, and the evil parts repudiated. revelation as a basis for morality is impossible. but all sacred books contain much that is pure, lofty, inspiring, belonging to the highest morality, the true utterances of the sages and saints of mankind. these precepts will be regarded with reverence by the wise, and should be used as authoritative teaching for the young and the uninstructed as moral textbooks, like--textbooks in other sciences--and as containing moral truths, some of which can be verified by all morally advanced persons, and others verifiable only by those who reach the level of the original teachers. * * * * * ii intuition when scholarship, reason and conscience have made impossible the acceptance of revelation as the bedrock of morality, the student--especially in the west--is apt next to test "intuition" as a probable basis for ethics. in the east, this idea has not appealed to the thinker in the sense in which the word intuition is used in the west. the moralist in the east has based ethics on revelation, or on evolution, or on illumination--the last being the basis of the mystic. intuition--which by moralists like theodore parker, frances power cobb, and many theists, is spoken of as the "voice of god" in the human soul--is identified by these with "conscience," so that to base morality on intuition is equivalent to basing it on conscience, and making the dictate of conscience the categorical imperative, the inner voice which declares authoritatively "thou shalt," or "thou shalt not". now it is true that for each individual there is no better, no safer, guide than his own conscience and that when the moralist says to the inquirer: "obey your conscience" he is giving him sound ethical advice. none the less is the thinker faced with an apparently insuperable difficulty in the way of accepting conscience as an ethical basis; for he finds the voice of conscience varying with civilisation, education, race, religion, traditions, customs, and if it be, indeed, the voice of god in man, he cannot but see--in a sense quite different from that intended by the writer--that god "in divers manners spoke in past times". moreover he observes, as an historical fact, that some of the worst crimes which have disgraced humanity have been done in obedience to the voice of conscience. it is quite clear that cromwell at drogheda was obeying conscience, was doing that which he conscientiously believed to be the will of god; and there is no reason to doubt that a man like torquemada was also carrying out what he conscientiously believed to be the divine will in the war which he waged against heresy through the inquisition. in this moral chaos, with such a clash of discordant "divine voices," where shall sure guidance be found? one recalls the bitter gibe of laud to the puritan, who urged that he must follow his conscience: "yea, verily; but take heed that thy conscience be not the conscience of a fool." conscience speaks with authority, whenever it speaks at all. its voice is imperial, strong and clear. none the less is it often uninformed, mistaken, in its dictate. there _is_ an intuition which is verily the voice of the spirit in man, in the god-illuminated man, which is dealt with in the fifth chapter. but the intuition recognised in the west, and identified with conscience, is something far other. for the sake of clarity, we must define what conscience is since we have said what it is not: that it is not the voice of the spirit in man, that it is not the voice of god. conscience is the result of the accumulated experience gained by each man in his previous lives. each of us is an immortal spirit, a divine fragment, a self: "a fragment of mine own self, transformed in the world of life into an immortal spirit, draweth round itself the senses, of which the mind is the sixth, veiled in matter." such is each man. he evolves into manifested powers all the potentialities unfolded in him by virtue of his divine parentage, and this is effected by repeated births into this world, wherein he gathers experience, repeated deaths out of this world into the other twain--the wheel of births and deaths turns in the [t.]riloka, the three worlds--wherein he reaps in pain the results of experiences gathered by disregard of law, and assimilates, transforming into faculty, moral and mental, the results of experience gathered in harmony with law. having transmuted experience into faculty, he returns to earth for the gathering of new experience, dealt with as before after physical death. thus the spirit unfolds, or the man evolves--whichever expression is preferred to indicate this growth. very similarly doth the physical body grow; a man eats food; digests it, assimilates it, transmutes it into the materials of his body; ill food causes pain, even disease; good food strengthens, and makes for growth. the outer is a reflection of the inner. now conscience is the sum total of the experiences in past lives which have borne sweet and bitter fruit, according as they were in accord or disaccord with surrounding natural law. this sum total of _physical_ experiences, which result in increased or diminished life, we call instinct, and it is life-preserving. the sum total of our interwoven _mental and moral_ experiences, in our relations with others, is moral instinct, or conscience, and it is harmonising, impels to "good"--a word which we shall define in our fourth chapter. hence conscience depends on the experiences through which we have passed in previous lives, and is necessarily an individual possession. it differs where the past experience is different, as in the savage and the civilised man, the dolt and the talented, the fool and the genius, the criminal and the saint. the voice of god would speak alike in all; the experience of the past speaks differently in each. hence also the consciences of men at a similar evolutionary level speak alike on broad questions of right and wrong, good and evil. on these the "voice" is clear. but there are many questions whereon past experience fails us, and then conscience fails to speak. we are in doubt; two apparent duties conflict; two ways seem equally right or equally wrong. "i do not know what i _ought_ to do," says the perplexed moralist, hearing no inner voice. in such cases, we must seek to form the best judgment we can, and then act boldly. if unknowingly we disregard some hidden law we shall suffer, and _that_ experience will be added to our sum total, and in similar circumstances in the future, conscience, through the aid of this added experience, will have found a voice. hence we may ever, having judged as best we can, act boldly, and learn increased wisdom from the result. much moral cowardice, paralysing action, has resulted from the christian idea of "sin," as something that incurs the "wrath of god," and that needs to be "forgiven," in order to escape an artificial--not a natural--penalty. we gain knowledge by experience, and disregard of a law, where it is not known, should cause us no distress, no remorse, no "repentance," only a quiet mental note that we must in future remember the law which we disregarded and make our conduct harmonise therewith. where conscience does not speak, how shall we act? the way is well known to all thoughtful people: we first try to eliminate all personal desire from the consideration of the subject on which decision is needed, so that the mental atmosphere may not be rendered a distorting medium by the mists of personal pleasure or pain; next, we place before us all the circumstances, giving each its due weight; then, we decide; the next step depends on whether we believe in higher powers or not; if we do, we sit down quietly and alone; we place our decision before us; we suspend _all_ thought, but remain mentally alert--all mental ear, as it were; we ask for help from god, from our teacher, from our own higher self; into that silence comes the decision. we obey it, without further consideration, and then we watch the result, and judge by that of the value of the decision, for it may have come from the higher or from the lower self. but, as we did our very best, we feel no trouble, even if the decision should be wrong and bring us pain. we have gained an experience, and will do better next time. the trouble, the pain, we have brought on ourselves by our ignorance, we note, as showing that we have disregarded a law, and we profit by the additional knowledge in the future. thus understanding conscience, we shall not take it as a basis of morality, but as our best available individual light. we shall judge our conscience, educate it, evolve it by mental effort, by careful observation. as we learn more, our conscience will develop; as we act up to the highest we can see, our vision will become ever clearer, and our ear more sensitive. as muscles develop by exercise, so conscience develops by activity, and as we use our lamp it burns the more brightly. but let it ever be remembered that it is a man's own experience that must guide him, and his own conscience that must decide. to overrule the conscience of another is to induce in him moral paralysis, and to seek to dominate the will of another is a crime. * * * * * iii utility to those whose intelligence and conscience had revolted against the crude and immoral maxims mixed up with noble precepts in revelation; to those who recognised the impossibility of accepting the varying voices of intuition as a moral guide; to all those the theory that morality was based on utility, came as a welcome and rational relief. it promised a scientific certitude to moral precepts; it left the intellect free to inquire and to challenge; it threw man back on grounds which were found in this world alone, and could be tested by reason and experience; it derived no authority from antiquity, no sanction from religion; it stood entirely on its own feet, independently of the many conflicting elements which were found in the religions of the past and present. the basis for morality, according to utility, is the greatest happiness of the greatest number; that which conduces to the greatest happiness of the greatest number is right; that which does not is wrong. this general maxim being laid down, it remains for the student to study history, to analyse experience, and by a close and careful investigation into human nature and human relations to elaborate a moral code which would bring about general happiness and well-being. this, so far, has not been done. utility has been a "hand-to-mouth" moral basis, and certain rough rules of conduct have grown up by experience and the necessities of life, without any definite investigation into, or codifying of, experience. man's moral basis as a rule is a compound of partially accepted revelations and partially admitted consciences, with a practical application of the principle of "that which works best". the majority are not philosophers, and care little for a logical basis. they are unconscious empirics, and their morality is empirical. mr. charles bradlaugh, considering that the maxim did not sufficiently guard the interests of the minority, and that, so far as was possible, these also should be considered and guarded, added another phrase; his basis ran: "the greatest happiness of the greatest number, with the least injury to any." the rule was certainly improved by the addition, but it did not remove many of the objections raised. it was urged by the utilitarian that morality had developed out of the social side of human beings; that men, as social animals, desired to live in permanent relations with each other, and that this resulted in the formation of families; men could not be happy in solitude; the persistence of these groups, amid the conflicting interests of the individuals who composed them, could only be secured by recognising that the interests of the majority must prevail, and form the rule of conduct for the whole family. morality, it was pointed out, thus began in family relations, and conduct which disrupted the family was wrong, while that which strengthened and consolidated it was right. thus family morality was established. as families congregated together for mutual protection and support, their separate interests as families were found to be conflicting, and so a _modus vivendi_ was sought in the same principle which governed relations within the family: the common interests of the grouped families, the tribe, must prevail over the separate and conflicting interests of the separate families; that which disrupted the tribe was wrong, while that which strengthened and consolidated it was right. thus tribal morality was established. the next step was taken as tribes grouped themselves together and became a nation, and morality extended so as to include all who were within the nation; that which disrupted the nation was wrong, and that which consolidated and strengthened it was right. thus national morality was established. further than that, utilitarian morality has not progressed, and international relations have not yet been moralised; they remain in the savage state, and recognise no moral law. germany has boldly accepted this position, and declares formally that, for the state, might is right, and that all which the state can do for its own aggrandisement, for the increase of its power, it may and ought to do, for there is no rule of conduct to which it owes obedience; it is a law unto itself. other nations have not formularised the statement in their literature as germany has done, but the strong nations have acted upon it in their dealings with the weaker nations, although the dawning sense of an international morality in the better of them has led to the defence of international wrong by "the tyrant's plea, necessity". the most flagrant instance of the utter disregard of right and wrong as between nations, is, perhaps, the action of the allied european nations against china--in which the hun theory of "frightfulness" was enunciated by the german kaiser--but the history of nations so far is a history of continual tramplings on the weak by the strong, and with the coming to the front of the christian white nations, and their growth in scientific knowledge and thereby in power, the coloured nations and tribes, whether civilised or savage, have been continually exploited and oppressed. international morality, at present, does not exist. murder within the family, the tribe, and the nation is marked as a crime, save that judicial murder, capital punishment, is permitted--on the principle of (supposed) utility. but multiple murder outside the nation--war--is not regarded as criminal, nor is theft "wrong," when committed by a strong nation on a weak one. it may be that out of the widespread misery caused by the present war, some international morality may be developed. we may admit that, as a matter of historical and present fact, utility has been everywhere tacitly accepted as the basis of morality, defective as it is as a theory. utility is used as the test of revelation, as the test of intuition, and precepts of manu, zarathushtra, moses, christ, muhammad, are acted on, or disregarded, according as they are considered to be useful, or harmful, or impracticable, to be suitable or unsuitable to the times. inconsistencies in these matters do not trouble the "practical" ordinary man. the chief attack on the theory of utility as a basis for morality has come from christians, and has been effected by challenging the word "happiness" as the equivalent of "pleasure," the "greatest number" as equivalent to "individual," and then denouncing the maxim as "a morality for swine". "virtue" is placed in antagonism to happiness, and virtue, not happiness, is said to be the right aim for man. this really begs the question, for what is "virtue"? the crux of the whole matter lies there. is "virtue" opposed to "happiness," or is it a means to happiness? why is the word "pleasure" substituted for "happiness" when utility is attacked? we may take the second question first. "pleasure," in ordinary parlance, means an immediate and transitory form of happiness and usually a happiness of the body rather than of the emotions and the mind. hence the "swine". a sensual enjoyment is a "pleasure"; union with god would not be called a pleasure, but happiness. an old definition of man's true object is: "to know god, and to enjoy him for ever." there happiness is clearly made the true end of man. the assailant changes the "greatest happiness of the greatest number" into the "pleasure of the individual," and having created this man of straw, he triumphantly knocks it down. does not virtue lead to happiness? is it not a condition of happiness? how does the christian define virtue? it is obedience to the will of god. but he only obeys that will as "revealed" so far as it agrees with utility. he no longer slays the heretic, and he suffers the witch to live. he does not give his cloak to the thief who has stolen his coat, but he hands over the thief to the policeman. moreover, as herbert spencer pointed out, he follows virtue as leading to heaven; if right conduct led him to everlasting torture, would he still pursue it? or would he revise his idea of right conduct? the martyr dies for the truth he sees, because it is easier _to him_ to die than to betray truth. he could not live on happily as a conscious liar. the nobility of a man's character is tested by the things which give him pleasure. the joy in following truth, in striving after the noblest he can see--that is the greatest happiness; to sacrifice present enjoyment for the service of others is not self-denial, but self-expression, to the spirit who is man. where utility fails is that it does not inspire, save where the spiritual life is already seen to be the highest happiness of the individual, because it conduces to the good of all, not only of the "greatest number". men who thus feel have inspiration from within themselves and need no outside moral code, no compelling external law. ordinary men, the huge majority at the present stage of evolution, need either compulsion or inspiration, otherwise they will not control their animal nature, they will not sacrifice an immediate pleasure to a permanent increase of happiness, they will not sacrifice personal gain to the common good. the least developed of these are almost entirely influenced by fear of personal pain and wish for personal pleasure; they will not put their hand into the fire, because they know that fire burns, and no one accuses them of a "low motive" because they do not burn themselves; religion shows them that the results of the disregard of moral and mental law work out in suffering after death as well as before it, and that the results of obedience to such laws similarly work out in post-mortem pleasure. it thus supplies a useful element in the early stages of moral development. at a higher stage, love of god and the wish to "please him" by leading an exemplary life is a motive offered by religion, and this inspires to purity and to self-sacrifice; again, this is no more ignoble than the wish to please the father, the mother, the friend. many a lad keeps pure to please his mother, because he loves her. so religious men try to live nobly to please god, because they love him. at a higher stage yet, the good of the people, the good of the race, of humanity in the future, acts as a potent inspiration. but this does not touch the selfish lower types. hence utility fails as a compelling power with the majority, and is insufficient as motive. add to this the radical fault that it does not place morality on a universal basis, the happiness of _all_, that it disregards the happiness of the minority, and its unsatisfactory nature is seen. it has much of truth in it; it enters as a determining factor into all systems of ethics, even where nominally ignored or directly rejected; it is a better basis in theory, though a worse one in practice, than either revelation or intuition, but it is incomplete. we must seek further for a solid basis of morality. * * * * * iv evolution we come now to the sure basis of morality, the bedrock of nature, whereon morality may be built beyond all shaking and change, built as a science with recognised laws, and in a form intelligible and capable of indefinite expansion. evolution is recognised as the method of nature, her method in all her realms, and according to the ascertained laws of nature, so far as they are known, all wise and thoughtful people endeavour to guide themselves. in making morality a science, we give it a binding force, and render it of universal application; moreover, we incorporate into it all the fragments of truth which exist in other systems, and which have lent to them their authority, their appeal to the intellect and the heart. let us first define morality. it is the science of human relations, the science of conduct, and its laws, as inviolable, as sure, as changeless, as all other laws of nature, can be discovered and formulated. harmony with these laws, like harmony with all other natural laws, is the condition of happiness, for in a realm of law none can move without pain while disregarding law. a law of nature is the statement of an inviolable and constant sequence external to ourselves and unchangeable by our will, and amid the conditions of these inviolable sequences we live, from these we cannot escape. one choice alone is ours: to live in harmony with them or to disregard them; violate them we cannot, but we can dash ourselves against them; then the law asserts itself in the suffering that results from our flinging ourselves against it, or from our disregarding its existence; its existence is proved as well by the pain that results from our disregard of it, as by the pleasure that results from our harmony with it. only a fool deliberately and gratuitously disregards a natural law when he knows of its existence; a man shapes his conduct so as to avoid the pain which results from clashing with it, unless he deliberately disregards the pain in view of a result to be brought about, which he considers to be worth more than the purchase price of pain. the science of morality, of right conduct, "lays down the conditions of harmonious relations between individuals, and their several environments small or large, families, societies, nations, humanity as a whole. only by the knowledge and observance of these laws can men be either permanently healthy or permanently happy, can they live in peace and prosperity. where morality is unknown or disregarded, friction inevitably arises, disharmony and pain result; for nature is a settled order in the mental and moral worlds as much as in the physical, and only by knowledge of that order and by obedience to it can harmony, health and happiness be secured." the religious man sees in the laws of nature the manifestation of the divine nature, and in obedience to and co-operation with them, he sees obedience to and co-operation with the will of god. the non-religious man sees them as sequences he cannot alter, on harmony with which his happiness, his comfort, depends. in either case they have a binding force. the man belonging to any exoteric religion will modify by them the precepts of his scriptures, realising that morality rises as evolution proceeds. he does thus modify scriptural precepts by practical obedience or disregard, whether he do it by theory or not. but it is better that theory and practice should correspond. the intuitionist will understand that conscience, accumulated experience, has developed by experience within these laws. the utilitarian will see that the happiness of all, not only of the greatest number, must be ensured by a true morality, and will understand why happiness is the result thereof. manu indicates the various bases very significantly: "the whole ve[d.]a is the source of the sacred law [revelation], next the tradition [conscience] and the virtuous conduct of those who know [utility], also the customs of holy men [evolution] and self-satisfaction [mysticism]" (ii, 6.). it is true that happiness can result only by harmony with law, harmony with the divine will which is embodied in law--we need not quarrel over names--and the science of right conduct, "by establishing righteousness brings about happiness". it may therefore be truly said that the object of morality is universal happiness. why the doing of a right action causes a flow of happiness in the doer, even in the midst of a keen temporary pain entailed by it, we shall see under "mysticism". the moment we base morality on evolution, we see that it must change with the stage of evolution reached, and that the duty--that which ought to be done--of the civilised and highly advanced man is not the same as the duty of the savage. "one set of duties for men in the k[r.][t.]a age, different ones in the tre[t.][=a] and in the dv[=a]para, and another in the kali." (_manusm[r.][t.]i_, i, 85.) different ages bring new duties. but if morality be based on evolution we can at once define what is "right" and what is "wrong". that is right which subserves evolution; that is wrong which antagonises it. or in other words, for those of us who believe that god's method for this world is the evolutionary: that is right which co-operates with his will; that is wrong which works against it. "revelation" is an attempt to state this at any given time; "intuition" is the result of successful attempts to do this; "utility" is the application of observed results of happiness and misery which flow from obedience to this, or disregard thereof. evolution is the unfolding and manifestation of life-energies, the unfolding of the capacities of consciousness, the manifestation of these ever-increasing capacities in ever-improving and more plastic forms. the primary truth of morality, as of religion and of science, is the unity of life. one life ever unfolding in endless varieties of forms; the essence of all beings is the same, the inequalities are the marks of the stage of its unfoldment. when we base morality on evolution, we cannot have, it is obvious, one cut and dry rule for all. those who want cut and dry rules must go to their scriptures for them, and even then, as the rules in the scriptures are contradictory--both as between scriptures and within any given scripture--they must call in the help of intuition and utility in the making of their code, in their selective process. this selective process will be largely moulded by the public opinion of their country and age, emphasising some precepts and ignoring others, and the code will be the expression of the average morality of the time. if this clumsy and uncertain fashion of finding a rule of conduct does not suit us, we must be willing to exert our intelligence, to take a large view of the evolutionary process, and to deduce our moral precepts at any given stage by applying our reason to the scrutiny of this process at that stage. this scrutiny is a laborious one; but truth is the prize of effort in the search therefor, it is not an unearned gift to the slothful and the careless. this large view of the evolutionary process shows us that it is best studied in two great divisions: the first from the savage to the highly civilised man who is still working primarily for himself and his family, still working for private ends predominantly; and the second, at present but sparsely followed, in which the man, realising the supreme claim of the whole upon its part, seeks the public good predominantly, renounces individual advantages and private gains, and consecrates himself to the service of god and of man. the hindu calls the first section of evolution the prav[r.][t.][t.]i m[=a]rga, the path of forthgoing; the second the niv[r.][t.][t.]i m[=a]rga, the path of return. in the first, the man evolves by taking; in the second, by giving. in the first, he incurs debts; in the second, he pays them. in the first, he acquires; in the second, he renounces. in the first, he lives for the profit of the smaller self; in the second, for the service of the one self. in the first, he claims rights; in the second, he discharges duties. thus morality is seen from two view-points, and the virtues it comprises fall into two groups. men are surrounded on every side by objects of desire, and the use of these is to evoke the desire to possess them, to stimulate exertion, to inspire efforts, and thus to make faculty, capacity--strength, intelligence, alertness, judgment, perseverance, patience, fortitude. those who regard the world as god-emanated and god-guided, must inevitably realise that the relation of man--susceptible to pleasure and pain by contact with his environment--to his environment--filled with pleasure and pain-giving objects--must be intended to provoke in man the desire to possess the pleasure-giving, to avoid the pain-giving. in fact, god's lures to exertion are pleasures; his warnings are pains and the interplay between man and environment causes evolution. the man who does not believe in god has only to substitute the word "nature" for "god" and to leave out the idea of design, and the argument remains the same: man's relation to his environment provokes exertion, and thus evolution. a man on the path of forthgoing will, at first, seize everything he desires, careless of others, and will gradually learn, from the attacks of the despoiled, some respect for the rights of others; the lesson will be learnt more quickly by the teaching of more advanced men--[r.][s.]his, founders of religions, sages, and the like--who tell him that if he kills, robs, tramples on others, he will suffer. he does all these things; he suffers; he learns--his post-mortem lives helping him much in the learning. later on, he lives a more controlled and regulated life, and he may blamelessly enjoy the objects of desire, provided he injure none in the taking. hin[d.][=u]ism lays down, as the proper pursuits for the household life, the gaining of wealth, the performance of the duties of the position held, the gratification of desire. the desires will become subtler and more refined as intelligence fashions them and as emotions replace passions; but throughout the treading of the path of forthgoing, the "desire for fruit" is the necessary and blameless motive for exertion. without this, the man at this stage of evolution becomes lethargic and does not evolve. desire subserves evolution, and it is right. the gratification of desire may lead a man to do injury to others, and as soon as he has developed enough to understand this, then the gratification becomes wrong, because, forgetting the unity, he has inflicted harm on one who shares life with him, and has thus hampered evolution. the sense of unity is the root-love, the uniter, and love is the expression of the attraction of the separated towards union; out of love, controlled by reason and by the desire for the happiness of all, grow all virtues, which are but permanent, universal, specialised _forms_ of love. so also is the sense of separateness the root-hate, the divider, the expression of the repulsion of the separated from each other. out of this grow all vices, the permanent, universal, specialised _forms_ of hate. that which love does for the beloved, that virtue does for all who need its aid, so far as its power extends. that which hate wreaks on the abhorred, that vice does to all who obstruct its path, so far as its power extends. "virtues and vices are fixed emotional states. the virtues are fixed love-emotions, regulated and controlled by enlightened intelligence seeing the unity; the vices are fixed hate-emotions, strengthened and intensified by the unenlightened intelligence, seeing the separateness." (_universal text book_, ii, 32.) it is obvious that virtues are constructive and vices destructive, for love holds together, while hate disintegrates. yet the modified form of hate--antagonism, competition--had its part to play in the earlier stages of human evolution, developing strength, courage, and endurance, and while love built up nations within themselves, hate made each strong against its competitor. and within nations, there has been conflict of classes, class and caste war, and all this modified and softened by a growing sense of a common good, until competition, the characteristic of the path of forthgoing tends to change into co-operation, the characteristic of the path of return. the path of forthgoing must still be trodden by many, but the number is decreasing; more and more are turning towards the path of return. ideals are formulated by the leaders of humanity, and the ideals held up to-day are increasingly those of love and of service. "during the first stage, man grasps at everything he desires and develops a strong individuality by conflict; in the second, he shares all he has, and yokes that individuality to service; ever-increasing separation is the key-note of the one; ever-increasing unity is the key-note of the other. hence we need not brand as evil the rough aggression and the fierce struggles of barbarous times; they were a necessary stage of growth and were at that stage right, and in the divine plan. but now those days are over, strength has been won; the time has come when the separated selves must gradually draw together, and to co-operate with the divine will which is working for union is the right. the right which is the outcome of love, directed by reason, at the present stage of evolution, then, seeks an ever-increasing realisation of unity, a drawing together of the separated selves. that which by establishing harmonious relations makes for unity is right; that which divides and disintegrates, which makes for separation, is wrong." (_ibid._, 10, 11.) hin[d.][=u]ism, on which the whole of this is based, has added to this broad criterion the division of a life into four stages, to each of which appropriate virtues are assigned: the student period, with its virtues of perfect continence, industry, frugality, exertion; the household period, with its virtue of duties appropriate to the position, the earning and enjoying of wealth, the gratification of desires; the retirement period, with the virtues of the renouncing of worldly gain and of sacrifice; the ascetic period, of complete renunciation, meditation and preparation for post-mortem life. these indications make more easy the decisions as to right and wrong. the more we think upon and work out into detail this view of morality as based on evolution, the more we realise its soundness, and the more we find that the moral law is as discoverable by observation, by reason, and by experiment, as any other law of nature. if a man disregards it, either ignorantly or wilfully, he suffers. a man may disregard physical hygienic and sanitary laws because of his ignorance; none the less will he suffer from physical disease. a man may disregard moral laws because of ignorance; none the less will he suffer from moral disease. the sign of disease in both cases is pain and unhappiness; experts in both cases warn us, and if we disregard the warning, we learn its truth later by experience. there is no hurry; but the law is sure. working with the law, man evolves swiftly with happiness; working against it, he evolves slowly with pain. in either case, he evolves, advancing joyously as a free man, or scourged onwards as a slave. the most obstinate fool in life's class, refusing to learn, fortunately dies and cannot quite escape after death the knowledge of his folly. let the reader try for himself the solution of moral problems, accepting, as a hypothesis, the facts of evolution and of the two halves of its huge spiral, and see for himself if this view does not offer a rational, intelligible, practical meaning to the much-vexed words, right and wrong. let him see how it embraces all that is true in the other bases suggested, is their summation, and rationalises their precepts. he will find that morality is no longer dependent on the maxims of great teachers--though indeed they proclaimed its changeless laws--nor on the imperfect resultant of individual experiences, nor on the happiness of some only of the great human family, but that it inheres in the very nature of things, an essential law of happy life and ordered progress. then indeed is morality founded on a basis that cannot be moved; then indeed can it speak with an imperial authority the "ought" that must be obeyed; then it unfolds its beauty as humanity evolves to its perfecting, and leads to bliss eternal, the brahman bliss, where the human will, in fullest freedom, accords itself in harmony with the divine. * * * * * v mysticism mysticism cannot be spoken of as a basis of morality in the sense in which revelation, intuition, utility and evolution are bases, for it is valid only for the individual, not for everybody, for the true mystic, the dictates of the outer or inner god are imperial, compelling, but to any one else they are entirely unauthoritative. none the less, as the influence of the mystic is wide-reaching, and his dicta are accepted by many as a trustworthy revelation--are not all revelations communicated by mystics?--or as the intuition of an illuminated conscience, or as showing the highest utility, or as the result of an evolution higher than the normal, it is worth while to consider their value. mysticism is the realisation of god, of the universal self. it is attained either as a realisation of god outside the mystic, or within himself. in the first case, it is usually reached from within a religion, by exceptionally intense love and devotion, accompanied by purity of life, for only "the pure in heart shall see god". the external means are prayer to and meditation on the object of devotion--shr[=i] r[=a]ma, shr[=i] k[r.][s.]h[n.]a, the lord jesus--long continued and persevering, and the devotee realises his divinity by ecstacy attaining union thereby. such mystics are, for the most part, valuable to the world as creating an atmosphere of spirituality, which raises the general level of religious feeling in those who come within its area; india has especially profited by the considerable number of such mystics found within its borders in past times, and to a lesser extent to-day; every one who practises, for instance, meditation, knows that it is easier here than elsewhere, and all sensitive persons feel the indian "atmosphere". outside this, such mystics occasionally write valuable books, containing high ideals of the spiritual life. as a rule, they do not concern themselves with the affairs of the outer world, which they regard as unimportant. their cry continually is that the world is evil, and they call on men to leave it, not to improve it. to them god and the world are in opposition, "the world, the flesh, and the devil" are the three great enemies of the spiritual life. in the west, this is almost universal, for in the roman catholic church seclusion is the mark of the religious life, and "the religious" are the monk and the nun, the "religious" and the "secular" being in opposition. in truth, where the realisation of god outside himself is sought by the devotee, seclusion is a necessity for success, if only for the time which is required for meditation, the essential preliminary of ecstacy. in the very rare mystics of non-catholic communions, full ecstacy is scarcely, if at all, known or even recognised; an overpowering sense of the divine presence is experienced, but it is a presence outside the worshipper; it is accompanied with a deliberate surrender of the will to god, and a feeling on the part of the man that he becomes an instrument of the divine will; this he carries with him into outer life, and, undirected by love and the illuminated reason, it often lands the half-developed mystic into fanaticism and cruelty; no one who has read oliver cromwell's letters can deny that he was a mystic, half-developed, and it is on him that lord rosebery founded his dictum of the formidable nature of the "practical mystic"; the ever present sense of a divine power behind himself gives such a man a power that ordinary men cannot successfully oppose; but this sense affords no moral basis, as, witness the massacre of drogheda. such a mystic, belonging to a particular religion, as he always does, takes the revelation of his religion as his moral code, and cromwell felt himself as the avenging sword of his god, as did the hebrews fighting with the amalekites. no man who accepts a revelation as his guide can be regarded as more than partially a mystic. he has the mystic temperament only, and that undoubtedly gives him a strength far beyond the strength of those who have it not. the true mystic, realising god, has no need of any scriptures, for he has touched the source whence all scriptures flow. an "enlightened" br[=a]hma[n.]a, says shr[=i] k[r.][s.]h[n.]a, has no more need of the ve[d.]as, than a man needs a tank in a place which is overflowing with water. the value of cisterns, of reservoirs, is past, when a man is seated beside an ever-flowing spring. as dean inge has pointed out, mysticism is the most scientific form of religion, for it bases itself, as does all science, on experience and experiment--experiment being only a specialised form of experience, devised either to discover or to verify. we have seen the mystic who realises god outside himself and seeks union with him. there remains the most interesting, the most effective form of mysticism, the realisation by a man of god within himself. here meditation is also a necessity, and the man who is born with a high capacity for concentration is merely a man who has practised it in previous lives. a life or lives of study and seclusion often precede a life of tremendous and sustained activity in the physical world. the realisation is preceded by control of the body, control of the emotions and control of the mind, for the power to hold these in complete stillness is necessary, if a man is to penetrate into those depths of his own nature in which alone is to be found the shrine of the inner god. the subtle music of that sphere is drowned by the clatter of the lower bodies as the most exquisite notes of the v[=i][n.][=a] are lost in the crude harsh sound of the harmonium. the voice of the silence can only be heard in the silence, and all the desires of the heart must be paralysed ere can arise in the tranquillity of senses and mind, the glorious majesty of the self. only in the desert of loneliness rises that sun in all his glory, for all objects that might cloud his dawning must vanish; only "when half-gods go," does god arise. even the outer god must hide, ere the inner god can manifest; the cry of agony of the crucified must be wrung from the tortured lips; "my god, my god, why hast _thou_ forsaken me?" precedes the realisation of the god within. through this all mystics pass who are needed for great service in the world, those whom mr. bagshot so acutely calls "materialised mystics". the mystics who find god outside themselves are the "unmaterialised" mystics, and they serve the world in the ways above mentioned; but the other, as mr. bagshot points out, transmute their mystic thought into "practical energy," and these become the most formidable powers known in the physical world. all that is based on injustice, fraud and wrong may well tremble when one of these arises, for the hidden god has become manifest, and who may bar his way? such mystics wear none of the outer signs of the "religious"--their renunciation is within, not without, there is no parade of outer holiness, no outer separation from the world; janaka the king, k[r.][s.]h[n.]a the warrior-statesman, are of these; clothed in cotton cloth or cloth of gold, it matters not; poor or rich, it boots not; failing or succeeding, it is naught, for each apparent failure is the road to fuller success, and both are their servants, not their masters; victory ever attends them, to-day or a century hence is equal, for they live in eternity, and with them it is ever to-day. possessing nothing, all is theirs; holding everything, nothing belongs to them. misconception, misrepresentation, they meet with a smile, half-amused, all-forgiving; the frowns, the taunts, the slanders of the men they live to serve are only the proofs of how much these foolish ones need their help, and how should these foolish ones hurt those on whom the peace of the eternal abides? these mystics are a law unto themselves, for the inner law has replaced the external compulsion. more rigid, for it is the law of their own nature; more compelling, for it is the voice of the divine will; more exacting, for no pity, no pardon, is known to it; more all-embracing, for it sees the part only in the whole. but it has, it ought to have, no authority outside the mystic himself. it may persuade, it may win, it may inspire, but it may not claim obedience as of right. for the voice of the god within only becomes authoritative for another when the god within that other self answers the mystic's appeal, and he recognises an ideal that he could not have formulated, unaided, for himself. the mystic may shine as a light, but a man must see with his own eyes, and there lies the world's safety; the materialised mystic, strong as he is, cannot, by virtue of the god within him, enslave his fellow-men. * * * * * the vasanta press, adyar, madras mohammed a popular essay on the life of the prophet of islam by h. e. e. hayes there is no god but god, and mohammed is the apostle of god. (_moslem creed._) price 3d. post free, from "hythe house" greenhithe, kent. +--------------------------------------------------------------+ | | | if you are interested in missionary work in moslem lands, | | read the | | | | "moslem world," | | | | a quarterly review of current events, literature, and | | thought among mohammedans; and the progress of christian | | missions in moslem lands. | | | | edited by | | | | samuel m. zwemer, d.d. | | | | published by the christian literature society for india | | 35 john street, bedford row, london, w.c. | | | | sent post free 1s. per copy or 4s. per annum. | | | | send your subscription now. | | | +--------------------------------------------------------------+ | | | read also the | | | | egypt general mission news | | | | published bi-monthly by the egypt general mission, | | 10 drayton park, highbury, london, n. | | 1s. per annum post free. | | | | this magazine gives a current account of mission work | | amongst the moslems of egyptian villages. | | | | pray for all christian work amongst moslems | | | | | +--------------------------------------------------------------+ preface. so-called moslem missionaries are spreading through the press such idealistic and false views of the religion and character of mohammed, that we need to be on our guard against them. unbiased historians have stated that there is much that is deplorable in the life of the prophet of islam. and it is certain that his teaching has increased the degradation of the nations that have come under its influence. much of the literature that is being circulated in england by the "moslem missionaries," claims that moslem women are better off, so far as property rights go, than their christian sisters. however true this may be, it does not lift them out of the degradation of polygamy and concubinage, with a capricious system of divorce, which makes them the victims of the selfish baseness of their husbands and masters, which mohammed himself sanctioned. the following essay, it is hoped, will help to counteract the false ideas that are being scattered abroad, and lead those who read to study more deeply the problems and sorrows of millions of the moslem subjects of our gracious king. the prayers of all christians are asked on behalf of these millions, and for those who labour to preach the "unsearchable riches of christ" amongst them. h.e.e. hayes. greenhithe: july, 1914. mohammed the prophet of islam. by h.e.e. hayes. introduction. just as the character of jesus is stamped upon the religion which originated in his person, so is the character of mohammed impressed upon the system which he, with marvellous ingenuity, founded. the practical influence of islam upon individual lives produces results that reflect unmistakably the character of its founder, and a careful study of the tenets of the system in relation to its history enable the student to estimate the real worth of the man. as the apostle of god, mohammed is the ideal of every true moslem. his life is the standard by which the lives of his followers are tested, although he himself confesses that his life was not holy. in the koran, and the earlier traditions, he is pictured as being in no way better than his fellows, and as weak and liable to error as the poorest of his contemporaries. yet later tradition minimises his faults and weakness, and surrounds his person with a halo of glory that makes him appear sinless and almost divine. all the doubtful incidents of his life are either eliminated and ignored, or assiduously supported and defended by his pious, misguided followers. it is a point in his favour that he never claimed infallibility for his actions or opinions; and his habit of attempting to cover or justify his glaring faults by suitable revelations, although indefensibly immoral, reveals the fact that he was conscious of his own shortcomings. when he was at the zenith of his power, "revelation" became merely an instrument of self glorification, licensing him in every whim and fancy, because it gave him, as the prophet of god, exemption from all law and order. his scheme was characteristically ingenious and immoral. had he known of the divine effulgence with which he was afterwards encircled by his fanatical followers, he would, in all probability, have strongly discountenanced it. the incongruous sanctity with which his commonplace utterances and petty actions were invested would have caused fear lest it became derogatory to his creed of divine unity. tradition. as a source of information, the traditions are obviously unreliable, for they are coloured by the excessive zeal and irrational bias of men whose judgment was warped by irrepressible fanaticism. they attributed to their hero elements that are grotesquely impossible. his advent was in their estimation, so portentous that it was celebrated by events which, for the time, upset all natural law. and his whole life has been linked with miraculous happenings of a most ludicrous type. more reasonable men have exalted the prophet because they have convinced themselves that he was what he ought to have been. this may account for the pious confidence of some of the more intelligent, who, accepting tradition as historical, have exalted their hero to the ideal, and have received the imagined glory as real. this tendency to exalt their master is well illustrated by the maxim of shafy--"in the exaltation of mohammed it is lawful to exaggerate"--a maxim invaluable to men who were seeking to glorify the prophet, and the usefulness of which was fully appreciated by the legislators and doctors when they were called upon to cope with the new relations and exigencies that came into being after his death. the conquests and progress of islam necessitated almost daily the framing of new rules, while in the application of the old, constant modification and adaptation were required. to meet these needs, actual or supposed sayings and actions of the prophet were eagerly sought after, and, in time, with the growth of a professional body of traditionalists, all legitimate sources being exhausted, that which was doubtful, and even disputed, was accepted as authentic and reliable. imagination augmented the legitimate springs of information, and the result was an exhaustive accumulation of precedents for every possible circumstance. sprenger, in his essay on "tradition," regarding the value and nature of the material needed for compiling a life of mohammed, says: "during the stir and activity of the first sixty years, thousands and thousands occupied themselves with handing down traditions. in every mosque they committed them to memory, and rehearsed them in every social gathering. all such knowledge was the common property of the nation; it was learned by heart and transmitted orally. it possessed, therefore, in the highest possible degree, the elements of life and plasticity. bunson has discovered the divinity of the bible in its always having been the people's book. if this criterion be decisive, then no religion has better claim to be called the 'vox dei,' because none is in so full a sense the 'vox populi.' the creations of the period we have been considering possess this character for hundreds of millions of our fellow men; for modern islamism is as far removed from the spirit in which the coran was composed, as catholicism is from the spirit of the gospel; and modern islamism is grounded upon tradition. but in tradition we find nothing but the ideal, invention, fancy, historical facts, however they may have been floating among the people in the days if ibn 'abbas, and the other founders of genealogy, were trodden under feet, because men wished to remove every barrier which stood in the way of self-glorification. and of the thousand inventions which every day gave birth to, only those were recognised as true which most flattered the religious and national pride ..." he also goes on to say: "the time of creative activity, the gestation era of moslem knowledge, passed away. hajjaj choked the young life in its own blood, and the abbaside dynasty, with kingly patriotism, sold the dearly-bought conquests of the nation, first to the persians, and then to turkish slaves, with the view of procuring an imaginary security for their throne. and thus there arose for the spiritual life also a new period. already wackidi had begun to work up into shape the mass of his traditionary stores, and busy himself in the department of scholastic industry. in the schools one could as little affect now the material tradition, or alter its nature, as attempt to change the organism of the new-born child. however arbitrary might be the invention of the 'miraj' (mahomed's heavenly journey), and other fabrications of the first century, they still formed in this way the positive element and soul of religious, political and social life. the schools, as always, confined their exertions to collecting, comparing, abbreviating, systematising, and commenting. the material was altogether divine; and any unprejudiced historical inquiry, any simple and natural interpretation of the coran, any free judgment on tradition or its origin, was condemned as apostasy. the only task that remained was to work up, in scholastic form, the existing material; and in this way was developed a literature of boundless dimensions, which yet at bottom possessed nothing real. the whole spiritual activity of the mohamedans, from the time of the prophet to the present day, is a dream; but it is a dream in which a large portion of the human race have lived; and it has all the interest which things relating to mankind always possess for man." sir william muir agrees with these views, subject to two considerations. he says:- "the tendency to glorify mohammed and the reciters of the traditions was considerably modified by the mortal strife which characterised the factions that opposed one another at the period, where, in attempting to depreciate one another, they would not be averse to perpetuating traditions in support of their contentions; such partisanship secured no insignificant body of historical fact, which otherwise would have been lost." he also points out that in a state of society circumscribed and dwarfed by the powerful islamic system, which proscribed the free exercise of thought and discussion, tradition can scarcely be said to be the "vox populi." the growth and development of tradition, the flagrant distortion of historical fact, the ethical code of islam, may well give rise to a questioning of the validity of the prophet's arrogant claims, and by their very methods of defence the apologists of islam exhibit its weakness and inadequacy to meet the religious needs of man. the natural bias of mohammed is evident throughout the coran. his conceptions of god, of the future life, and of the duty of man, are all influenced by his consuming master passion. in all his writings there are lacking those characteristics which distinguish the true prophet--the messenger of god--from those to whom he is sent. this will be apparent by contrasting his views with those of any of the old testament prophets. they were eminently men prepared for their high calling by lofty yet practical communion with god--men whose message was inspired by a vision of divine majesty, and an impressive conception of the justice and awful purity of jehovah. men who called the nation to righteousness of life by a stirring appeal to conscience, and an unfaltering denunciation of the evils of the time. their spiritual aspirations, therefore, by far surpass the loftiest ideals of the prophet of islam, while their ethical conceptions infinitely transcend all that mohammed dreamed of. the voice of the eternal is clearly heard in the earnest utterances that fell from their lips, and through all their prophecies the willingness of divine mercy to reason with men in spite of their erring ways, is apparent. three characteristic elements are perceived in their preaching--a very keen and practical conscience of sin; an overpowering vision of god; and a very sharp perception of the politics of their day. of these elements, mohammed's teaching possesses only the last. mohammed's conception of god his conception of god is essentially deistical. the intimate personal communion, so characteristic of the old testament, is unknown and unrealised: hence there is little, if anything, in his system that tends to draw men nigh to god. attempts to remedy this characteristic defect have been vainly made by the dervish orders, which, while acknowledging the claims of mohammed and his book, have introduced methods not sanctioned by the system, by which they attempt to find the communion with the unseen, for which their souls crave. these methods are very much akin to the efforts of the devotees of hinduism. there is, therefore, lacking amongst moslems that need which grows out of personal relationship with the divine--that need which leads to moral transformation and spiritual intensity on the part of those who enjoy such fellowship. the creator exists apart from his handiwork. he has predetermined the actions of men. they are destined to eternal bliss or destruction by an inflexible will, so that there is no need for divine interference in their affairs. "god is in his heaven, and the world is working out its end according to his unalterable decree." because of this gross conception, palgrave has designated the system "the pantheism of force," and says: "immeasurably and eternally exalted above, and dissimilar from all creatures, which he levelled before him on one common plane of instrumentality and inertness, god is one in the totality of omnipotent and omnipresent action, which acknowledges no rule, standard or limit, save his own sole and absolute will. he communicates nothing to his creatures, for their seeming power and act ever remain his alone, and in return he receives nothing from them; for whatever they may be, that they are in him, by him, and from him only. and, secondly, no superiority, no distinction, no pre-eminence, can be lawfully claimed by one creature ever its fellow, in the utter equalisation of their unexceptional servitude and abasement; all are alike tools of the one solitary force which employs them to crush or to benefit, to truth or to error, to honour or shame, to happiness or misery, quite independently of their individual fitness, deserts, or advantages, and simply because 'he wills it,' and 'as he wills it ...' "one might at first sight think that this tremendous autocrat, this uncontrolled and unsympathising power, would be far above anything like passions, desires, or inclinations. yet such is not the case, for he has, with respect to his creatures, one main feeling and source of action, namely, jealousy of them, lest they should perchance attribute to themselves something of what is his alone, and thus encroach on his all engrossing kingdom. hence he is ever more prone to punish than to reward; to inflict pain than to bestow pleasure; to ruin than to build. it is his singular satisfaction to let created beings continually feel that they are nothing else than his slaves, his tools, and contemptible tools also; that thus they may the better acknowledge his superiority, and know his power to be above their power, his cunning above their cunning, his will above their will, his pride above their pride--or, rather, that there is no power, cunning, will, or pride save his own. "but he himself, sterile in his inaccessible height, neither loving nor enjoying aught save his own and self-measured decree, without son, companion, or counsellor, is no less barren of himself than for his creatures, and his own barrenness and lone egoism in himself is the cause and rule of his indifferent and unregarding despotism around. the first note is the key of the whole tune, and the primal idea of god runs through and modifies the whole system and creed that centres in him." contrast this summary with the teaching of the old testament prophets, the following quotations of which are but a small sample:- "come, now, and let us reason together, saith the lord. though your sins be as scarlet they shall be as white as snow; though they be red like crimson, they shall be as wool." "comfort ye, comfort ye, my people, saith your god. speak ye comfortably to jerusalem, and cry unto her that her warfare is accomplished, that her iniquity is pardoned." "the spirit of the lord god is upon me: because the lord has anointed me to preach good tidings unto the meek. he hath sent me to bind up the broken-hearted, to proclaim liberty to the captives, and the opening of the prison to them that are bound, etc." "as one whom his mother comforteth, so will i comfort you, saith the lord." "who is a god like unto thee, that pardoneth iniquity, and passeth by the transgression of the remnant of his heritage? he retaineth not his anger for ever, because he delighteth in mercy. he will turn again; he will have compassion upon us. he will subdue our iniquities; and thou wilt cast all our sins into the depths of the sea." "he hath showed thee, o man, what is good; and what doth the lord require of thee, but to do justly, and to love mercy, and to walk humbly with thy god." "the lord is good, a stronghold in the day of trouble; and he knoweth them that trust in him." in the light of such lofty teaching, the conceptions of mohammed appear gross and degraded. his asceticism and contemplation never brought him a vision of god that overwhelmed him and purified as by fire. he knew the creator only from what he heard from the lips of sinful, ignorant men, whose ideas of deity were base and ignoble. these ideas, and the passions that made up such a large portion of his life, obscured his vision, warped his judgment, and led him to postulate a god that inhabited not a holy spiritual realm, but a grossly carnal and sensuous paradise. millions have been brought beneath his sway because his system panders to the natural inclinations of man. spiritual insight is blinded by carnal desire; conduct is influenced by unbridled license; bigotry and hatred are fostered by his policy of intoleration; and his followers are enslaved by a tyranny that blights the reason, because it discountenances inquiry, and places an insurmountable barrier in the way of all human progress. in studying the life of mohammed, the cause of his failure to uplift humanity will be clearly seen. his early sincerity, if sincerity it can be named, was absorbed by his consuming ambition. had it been otherwise he might have had his name inscribed with the honourable ones of the earth--those men whose claims are ratified by their happy effects. as it is, his name is linked with those whose deeds cause a shudder of horror and repulsion to all who love honesty, purity, and truth. i.--early life. mohammed was born in mecca, a town in arabia, about seventy miles inland from the red sea. his father, who died 570 a.d., a few months before the child was born, was a member of the banu hashim clan. his family, although well connected, was a humble one, possessing but little wealth. on the death of his mother some six years later, the child was taken by his grandfather, 'abd-el-muttalib, who took care of him for two years. then he was adopted by his uncle, abu talib, who employed him to look after his flocks and herds. from his earliest years, mohammed must have been brought into contact with the religious life of mecca, for his grandfather was custodian of the kaaba, or temple, and would frequently take the boy with him on his official visits to the place. the numerous images of the gods set up in the temple would be familiar objects to the future prophet, whose iconoclastic zeal was eventually to bring about their destruction. his lonely shepherd life favoured the cultivation of the contemplative habits of his manhood, and played no unimportant part in the development of those characteristics which eminently fitted him for the life he was to lead. nature had endowed him with the essential abilities of a commander of men, and his early environment provided a training that enabled him to exercise those gifts most advantageously. the population of arabia at this time consisted of numerous independent nomadic tribes, who were often at enmity one with another. political unity there was none, while each tribe had its own patron, or god, which was considered to be responsible for everything concerning the tribe's welfare. where tribes were united, or at peace, there the individual gods were supposed to be friendly. even in mecca, which for many years had been occupied by a settled community, there was no political or judicial organisation. the existing order was maintained by a form of patriarchal government, under which system it was possible for the head of a tribe or clan, to protect the life of any individual he chose to befriend. the religious beliefs and customs were evidently gross materialistic corruptions of what had once been a purely spiritual worship. mohammed had been preceded by men who had from time to time, in spite of the moral and intellectual darkness, been so endowed with spiritual perception as to recognise and bewail the hollowness and degradation of the pagan system. some, indeed, had been conscientious enough to utter words of condemnation; others had gone so far as to despise and ridicule its claims. so that when mohammed was born the people were in a condition of religious uncertainty. many elements contributed to this unrest. travellers learned that the more prosperous nations had rejected the age long sanctions of paganism; earnest, thoughtful men could not but recognise its inadequacy to satisfy the religious aspirations of their fellows; jews and christians, who had settled in the country, had introduced views that appealed to those who were dissatisfied with the old methods of thought; while the need for social and political unity called for a force that would unite the scattered tribes in the pursuit of common ideals. thus was the land prepared for the mighty revolution that was to come--a revolution that made one great nation of the various tribes, and turned their warlike instincts and characteristic fanaticism, which before had been dissipated by wasteful internecine strife, into one definite channel, until it became a menace to the whole world. a change so potent, that, in the lifetime of one man, it was able to obliterate partly by absorption, and chiefly by annihilation, the sanctions and beliefs of centuries, and which fostered a hatred so bitter, and a brotherhood so strong, between man and man, that by its sanction the dearest, tenderest, and strongest ties of humanity have been broken, while those who for years had lived in enmity were united in bonds stronger than death. under its malevolent influence, children have ruthlessly slain their parents, believing that thus would they merit heaven. and men of different race have fought side by side under one banner, hurling themselves with fanatical heroism upon their enemies, believing that to die in such a way meant the winning of an immortal crown. during his boyhood, mohammed had plenty of opportunities for observing the condition of affairs, and, thanks to his privilege of travelling with the caravans, was even able to notice the contrast between the conditions of his own people and those of the more peaceable, prosperous nations. he frequently attended upon his uncle in the fighting that often occurred between the tribes, and so gained the knowledge of military strategy which proved to be so useful at a later time. margoliouth suggests that the two most important lessons the "prophet" learned at this time were the necessity of settling affairs of blood by some expedient less wasteful, and more satisfactory than that which was illustrated by the war of fizar, and that war should be regarded not as a game, but as a mode of obtaining decisive results. the varied experiences he passed through on his caravan journeys did much to influence his future policy; indeed, it appears that all influences brought to bear upon his early life were forces that moulded and equipped him for the office he was to fill. he was keenly observant, and wonderfully accurate in his inferences, especially in his estimate of the characters of men with whom he had to deal. he seemed to lack initiative, for he was always reluctant to take action in any important undertaking; but once the initial step was taken, he pressed forward with indomitable courage. in his business transactions he proved himself to be shrewd and tactful, and by his fidelity, patience, and self-confidence, gained the respect and esteem of his immediate fellows. khadijah, a rich widow, having entrusted mohammed with the control of an important caravan, and finding how admirably he had performed his part, wisely concluded that her interests would be furthered if he had a share in them. hence their marriage, which happy arrangement proved to be mutually blessed and successful. it vastly improved mohammed's social standing, raising him to a position of equality with the leading men of the city. for many years he was content to live quietly as an ordinary citizen, engrossed in the accumulation of wealth by legitimate trading. ii.--the "call" to the prophetic office. it has not been recorded how first he began to yield to the impulses that eventually led him to assume the role of reformer, but it is certain that at the age of forty he was the leader of a secret society, which had for its object the political and religious unity of the arab people. he knew that far-reaching changes were necessary in every department of national policy before his ideal could be realised. unity was the secret of power and prosperity. this he had learned through contact with other nations. his dealing with jews and christians had given rise to a deep appreciation of the value of a monotheistic faith in the consolidation of a people, and he was convinced that political unity would be achieved only where there was religious unity. with masterly insight he laid his plans accordingly, and because of the extreme conservatism was obliged to formulate them in strict secrecy. unfortunately, owing to his untrustworthy sources of information, his policy was founded upon false bases. his distorted conception of truth led him to establish a system of false philosophy and theology so framed as to allow of no alteration or adaptation. in his elaboration of the system, he depended much upon his own meditative habits, and no doubt thought it all out in the loneliness of the mountains, to which he frequently retired for the observance of certain ascetic customs of the pagans. thus his scheme of reform crystallised into definite shape, and his call to the prophetic office became a fixed idea. he felt certain that success lay in the determined proclamation of one god as opposed to the many of the arab pantheon, and the more he pondered over this being, of whom he had heard from the jews and christians, the greater became his certainty. god was supreme and omnipotent; of that there could be no doubt. but how to convince the people was a difficulty that needed much careful thought and cautious propagation. jews and christians could boast of prophets--of men inspired to speak with the voice of god--but the arabs had had no one who had spoken with such authority. why had they been so neglected? surely they needed to hear the divine voice, and that need was never greater than now, when all was unrest and dissention. where was the man who would fill the office? who would be willing to face the odds, and declare against evil by proclaiming the good and the true? such must have been the questions that exercised mohammed's mind. then came the thought--"why should not i be the messenger?" and this so grew upon him that he was convinced of his "call." the possession of this idea made him sincere in his purpose at first, but after the tide had turned in his favour, that sincerity was marred--nay, eclipsed--by an inflated notion of self-importance, and a consuming ambition to which every virtue and good feeling was subordinated, until at last he was able, with superb arrogance, to bracket his name with deity, making the confession of his claim as important as the confession of the unity of god. wherein his inconsistency and falsity is chiefly apparent, for confession of unity is insufficient without recognition of mohammed's apostleship! ascetic practices tend to lead to physical disorders, which generally upset the mind and lead to mental and moral distemper. judgment is warped because the functions of the mind are thrown out of gear. the varied departments of consciousness act with ungoverned caprice, with the result that fantastical fancies and visions are interpreted to be realties, which become misleading and deceptive. thus may be explained the visit of the archangel gabriel to mohammed, but it can hardly be conceived that it will account for the ingenious method of revelation which he received. some people believe it to have been inspired by satan; it must ever remain a matter of speculation. the necessity of a _piecemeal_ revelation could not at this time have been apparent to the prophet. but we may give him the credit of the policy of abrogation which he afterwards adopted, for such a policy was necessary to enable him to cover or justify his actions which, like those of even the best of men, were marked by inconsistency. iii.--birth of the islamic society. being firmly convinced of his call, mohammed, with characteristic caution, began to propagate his principles, for years being content to deal secretly with individuals, beginning with those of his own household. his wife acknowledged and encouraged his claim, and gradually he gathered around him an increasing circle of devoted followers, some of whom had more confidence in him and his pretensions than he had himself. this was particularly true of abu bakr, a rich and popular merchant of mecca, who, having acknowledged the claims of the prophet, followed him with implicit obedience and unwavering devotion. he threw himself whole-heartedly into the work of proselytising, and the progress of early days, although slow, was largely due to his indefatigable energy. as the membership of the new society increased, rules were framed, based upon the "revelations" which mohammed now periodically received, and each member was compelled to subscribe to the most stringent regulations. idolatry was strongly condemned and the unity of god emphatically asserted. certain jewish and christian religious ordinances were imposed as a condition of membership, while unswerving loyalty to the prophet was demanded. license was given to the members to practice outwardly the old rites and ceremonies of paganism, in order to arouse no suspicion, but the existence of such a society, in spite of all precautions, could not long remain unnoticed, and the time came when the prophet and his followers were compelled to make public confession of their faith. persecution followed, in which the poorer members suffered more than their richer brethren. mohammed himself received the protection of the head of his clan, and for eight or ten years carried on a campaign of words. margoliouth, in his life of mohammed, likens the prophet to a player in a game of cards, who, having received a good hand, plays his cards with consummate skill. he took advantage of every opportunity in strengthening his position, and having a clear-cut policy before him, subordinated everything to its furtherance. he was a powerful preacher, but owing to his ungovernable temper, was not so successful in debate; hence he produced a "revelation" forbidding him to engage in public controversy! he showed great diligence in seeking information that enabled him to produce his revelations in a style consistent with his claims. being entirely dependent on hearsay, he obtained but a sadly distorted account of truth. the koran is full of glaring errors, which, for centuries, have baffled the ingenuity of the moslem doctors. yet the prophet presumptuously claimed that his, being the last "revelation," was the most important, and more reliable, and the differences that were apparent were due to the corruption in time of the text of the former "revelations"--_i.e._, the hebrew and christian scriptures! he was evidently much perplexed by the divisions and controversies that existed within the christian church, and considered that the images and pictures then in use were little better than the idols of his own people. with no means of testing and verifying his knowledge, he accepted all that tended to enhance his own position, and his chief regret seems to have been his inability, in reply to the taunts of his enemies, to point to any element of the miraculous in his career. in the revelations, he frequently expressed views and opinions which flatly contradicted what he had formerly stated, and when challenged as to his inconsistency, defended it by claiming that it was not he who had changed his mind, but god, whose ways no man could question or understand! in time, the position of the new sect became so intolerable that many were compelled to flee, and numbers went into abyssinia, where they were well received. mohammed himself, thanks to his relatives' protection, could still afford to remain in mecca. in spite of the opposition, his influence gradually increased, and was considerably strengthened by the conversion of omar, a citizen famed for his skill in military strategy and courage. not long afterwards, khadijah, the prophet's wife died. she had wielded a strong, healthy influence over her husband, and had cheered him on in times of discouragement and failure. islam owes not a little to her life and influence, and were it more widely recognised, might possibly lead to an improvement of the position of the poor unfortunate daughters of the system, who are enslaved and degraded to a saddening degree. after khadijah's death, mohammed took full advantage of the polygamous sanctions of paganism, and even abused the privilege when it conflicted with his own inclinations. margoliouth attempts to defend the many marriages on the ground of political expediency, which may be conceded in only a few cases. in most instances they were due to selfish desire and inordinate affection. particularly is this true in the case of the prophet's marriage with his adopted son's wife, which was a gross violation of arab law. on the death of his protector, mohammed was compelled to seek refuge elsewhere, but not before he had made inconsistent concessions to the pagan leaders. in these concessions he retreated entirely from the strong iconoclastic attitude he had hitherto adopted, going so far as to produce a revelation that claimed to reconcile the one true god to the gods of the pagan pantheon. this compromise, no matter how wise and statesmanlike it may appear to be, clearly indicates the falsity of mohammed's claim, and enables us to estimate the value of his pretensions. his action was strongly condemned by many of his followers, and probably under the influence of their opinion, he produced an apologetic revelation abrogating the concession, and admitting it to have been a mistake! he endeavoured to escape the persecution in mecca by taking refuge in taif, but was so badly treated there when his views became known, that he was glad to return, and upon promising to confine his proselytising efforts to strangers, was allowed to stay under the protection of one of the leading citizens. he carried on his work among strangers with such success, that before long a strong community had grown up in the town of medinah. the rapid increase of this section of his disciples may be accounted for by the very unsettled condition of the place. civil and religious strife had been for a long time aggravated by the aggressive attitude of a large section of jews, so that circumstances were more favourable to the reception and growth of islam than in mecca, where there was more peaceful organisation, and where the existence of the ancient kaaba, or dwelling place of the gods, made men more jealous of their old religion. in the appointment of a man to lead the new community, mohammed exhibited his characteristic insight into the abilities of men. he selected a follower thoroughly convinced of his master's claims, whose zeal in the earlier days had led him to forsake friends and family by flight into abyssinia--a man full of enthusiasm and energy. in a comparatively short time the new religion became quite popular, and idolatry was despised. an incident indicative of the progress is seen in the visit of seventy of the medinah disciples to mohammed in mecca. they met him secretly in the mountains, by night, and made solemn, binding vows of allegiance, in which they promised "to fight men of all colour in order to defend the faith." it is highly probable that at this meeting the prophet was invited to join them in medinah, but for the present he preferred his native town. somehow the story of the night meeting leaked out, with the result that persecution was redoubled, and many of the less wealthy followers were forced to flee to medinah. they were there well received and cared for, and were afterwards honoured by being designated the "refugees," while those who received them were similarly honoured in being named the "helpers." thus the brotherhood of believers insisted on by mohammed began to assume practical form, and men of different tribes were united in one common bond--a brotherhood so powerful that its enemies in mecca were filled with alarm. they had no longer to deal with a man whose views could be despised. they were menaced by a growing force that threatened to overwhelm them. steps were taken to overthrow the danger, and elaborate arrangements were made for the assassination of the prophet. he somehow obtained news of the plot, and escaped the would-be murderers, who came while he was supposed to be in bed, by climbing through a window. accompanied by the faithful abu bakr and a few of his more intimate followers, he made his way to one of the mountain caves, where he stayed until the immediate danger had passed. then the little company commenced the journey to medinah, a task so fraught with danger and hardship that mohammed shrank from it, in spite of the meccan evil, and was compelled to attempt it only by the pressure of his friends. the facts concerning his entry into medinah are obscure and uncertain, but there is no doubt that his advent was hailed with delight by the "helpers" and "refugees." hospitality was freely offered, and, owing to the prophet's independent spirit, reluctantly accepted. one of his earliest actions after arrival was to consolidate his forces by strengthening the brotherhood, making the obligations of his followers to one another, and himself, more binding than the ties of blood. iv.--growth and progress. he now found himself the acknowledged head of a large growing community, which looked to him for guidance in all its affairs--religious, social, and political. proudly, and with true eastern despotism, he took upon himself the dignities of prophet, priest, and king. he needed no one with whom to share these functions. his was the sole right--his alone. his ambitions were being realised. the striving of years, the disappointment, doubts, and fears that had so tormented him were well repaid, and could be forgotten in the glamour that now surrounded him. enthusiastic and fanatical votaries crowded around him with loyal acclamation. pampered and petted with excessive adulation, can it be wondered that he had visions of power hitherto undreamed of? his scheme of national reform paled into insignificance in the light of possibility. he saw himself the leader of a world-wide conquest--the promoter of a prodigious scheme of universal reform. he was not merely the messenger of the arab people, but the mouthpiece of god to the whole wide world. and by the divine power that possessed him would receive the humble homage of proud and mighty nations, whose haughty monarchs would bow in lowly submission to his imperious will! prophetic insight, regal authority, judicial administration were his by divine right, to be enforced, if needs be, at the point of the islamic sword. as his position improved, so his ideals deteriorated. his early piety was modified by the lust of worldly power. in place of patient pacific methods of propagation, he adopted a cruel, ruthless, warlike policy, and it was not long--perhaps owing to the extreme poverty which afflicted the new community--before the would-be prophet became the leader of a robber host. yet even in spite of the glamour that surrounded him, and the questionable behaviour that characterised this period of his life, we catch occasional glimpses of that which reveals the working of nobler instincts in his mind. had his environment been other than it was, mohammed had been indeed a hero in the world's history. ignorance of truth led him to place himself under the mysterious power of hallucination. the lonely brooding of the cave had produced that which had urged him into a position of bondage. he was the slave of a false idea, which so possessed him that he pressed onward, in spite of all that stood in his way, whether it was good or bad. it exerted an irresistible influence over all his impulses, leading him into actions in every way indefensible. when fair means failed, he adopted foul, and so succeeded beyond his highest dreams. the first mosque, or meeting place, was built very soon after his arrival in medinah, and he entered upon his priestly functions. as a matter of policy, he adopted many of the jewish rites. these, however, he soon changed, for as the number of his followers increased, and he grew more and more independent of jewish aid, he made every effort to show his natural aversion to the ancient people, who scorned his prophetic pretensions. in place of praying towards jerusalem, his followers were commanded to turn their faces towards mecca. the fast of atonement was abolished in favour of the month of ramadan, while in substitution for the jewish rite of sacrifice, the pagan slaying of victims was observed. a considerable difference is to be noticed between the "revelations" of this period and those of mecca. the latter were concerned with denunciations of idolatry; proofs of the divine unity and attributes; legendary stories, and occasional lurid pictures of heaven and hell. the former are generally of a legislative character, mingled with the domestic affairs of the prophet, and guidance as to his military policy. the method of recording them, too, seems to have been systematised, for it is certain that a body of professional scribes were engaged in this work, and evidence is not wanting to show that these scribes were allowed to express the revelations in their own particular style. discrepancies and inconsistencies abounded, but mohammed seems to have allowed that he was not responsible, and to have stated that god had a perfect right to alter as he pleased, and even to apologise for errors! the policy of abrogation has its sanction in the text, "whatever verses we cancel or cause thee to forget, we give thee better in their stead, or the like thereof." in his warlike policy, the prophet's strategy reflects most discreditably upon his character, everything that was honourable and virtuous being sacrificed to the passion for conquest. when he needed help, he pretended friendship to those he hated; and then, becoming strong enough to be independent, did not hesitate, upon the slightest provocation or pretext, to turn his sword against them. this is particularly true of his treatment of the jews, whom he at first befriended, but afterwards treated with barbarous injustice. within a very few months of their arrival in medinah, the need of some method of support, other than the charity of the helpers, presented itself. the number of refugees was still increasing, and the demand for the ordinary necessities of life exceeded the supply. mohammed, to his credit, shared the misery of his followers, and proved himself to be generous even when in want. in order to meet the need, the policy of despoiling the wealthy meccan caravans was conceived, and carried out with some degree of success. the prophet at first exhibited a feeling of repugnance against such warfare, especially when the ancient pacific regulations of certain sacred months were violated. but the benefits of the revenue accruing led him, some time afterwards, to produce revelations sanctioning hostilities even in the sacred months. the early successes provided the community with more wealth than was needed, and, arousing the avarice of many of those who were opposed to the prophet, led them to throw in their lot with him. having seared his conscience by acknowledging the righteousness of the robber policy, it was easy for him to persuade himself that it was all part of the purpose of god to prosper his claims. all who would not acknowledge him were the enemies of god, and had no rights to property or to life. he began to preach the holiness of war against all unbelievers. he fanned the avaricious fanaticism of his followers into a flame of religious enthusiasm, and they became soldier priests, whose deaths on the battlefield were glorious martyrdoms, which gave them immediate entrance into a paradise where all their inclinations could be indulged to an unlimited degree. it is not to be wondered that an army of such men could put three times their number of meccans not so inspired to flight. this is what actually happened in the battle of badr. mohammed had received news of the possibility of capturing a particularly rich meccan caravan, and decided to make the attempt. news of his plans reached the meccans, who determined to frustrate, if possible, the designs of their enemy. a thousand men were rapidly organised into a defensive and punitive force, and sent out to overwhelm the three hundred moslems. they were by no means skilled in military strategy, little better than a disorderly horde; whereas the moslems, under the masterly guidance of mohammed, seem to have exhibited clever organisation. it has been said that the rigid prayer ritual enforced by mohammed, at the risk of divine punishment, had a disciplinary effect, and produced results very similar to those obtained by military drill. the meccan host was put to flight, discipline, and steadfastness of purpose determined the victory. the moslems returned to medinah, carrying in triumph many prisoners, and considerable booty. the revelation produced after this, speaks of it as the "day of deliverance," and mohammed rejoices because the stigma of powerlessness to show evidence of miracle in his life, is removed, for he accounts for the victory by direct intervention of god in his favour. the effect of the victory on the surrounding tribes was highly favourable to the prophet. many of the chiefs sought to ally themselves to him, but he received their offers solely on condition that they would embrace islam. few accepted, and those who did not before long regretted it. for about a year after his success, his power and influence increased, until the whole of the tribes between mecca and medinah had been won over. then came a defeat. the meccans had been nursing their bitterness, and at last, just over two years after the victory of badr, it found its outlet in an expedition again mohammed. the moslem forces were rallied, and under the prophet's leadership sallied forth to meet the meccans. a fierce battle ensued, in which at first the moslems had the advantage, and the meccans were forced to fly. but they had learned many lessons in the fight at badr, and had posted some of their cavalry in such a position that, when the moslem order was disturbed in their pursuit of the enemy, they made a charge upon their rear. the fleeing meccans turned, and the moslems found themselves between two attacks. then came the cry that mohammed was killed! instead of increasing the moslem disorder by discouragement, it made them fight more doggedly, for the majority were so committed to islam that they cared not for life if their prophet was dead. this prevented what must otherwise have meant absolute victory on the part of the meccans, and a number of them, with mohammed, who was only wounded, were able to retire to medinah. the meccans were quite satisfied with the result, considering that the stigma of their defeat at badr had been wiped out. later on, when mohammed had sufficiently recovered of his wounds, he made a public appearance in the mosque, where he was able to persuade his followers that their apparent defeat was really a victory! the general who is able to persuade his forces that there is victory, even where there seems to be defeat, is one who will inspire them to fight against apparently impossible odds. they will, indeed, never suffer defeat, but will fight on until annihilated by capture or death. the secret of success even in the more pacific engagements of life lies in this principle--to be undaunted in ardour, in spite of failure; to recognise in failure a step towards ultimate success. let a man be possessed with these, and victory is within his grasp, whether he recognises it or not. after this, mohammed did not scruple to employ the system of warfare by assassination, if warfare it can be called. some tribes, emboldened by the report of the meccan success, began to treat moslem emissaries with scant courtesy, and went so far as to murder some. mohammed retaliated by sending men to balance the scales in the same criminal way, particularly in treating with the jews. an idea had grown up in his mind that these people had determined to murder him. this, with matters of minor importance, already referred to, at last led to an organised attempt to subjugate them. a large, influential tribe was besieged; their date trees, lands, and property wantonly destroyed. eventually the whole tribe surrendered, and were glad to march away with what possessions their camels could carry. this led to a combination of other jewish tribes, which laid siege to medinah. the siege was not successful, and barbarous treatment was meted out to the besiegers. after much skirmishing and general fighting, a number of the jews who had been captured were decapitated, while their women and children were enslaved. those who were unwilling to embrace islam, were compelled to pay tribute. so the prosperity and success of islam was assured. the jews were no longer bold enough to cause the prophet any anxiety as to the validity of his prophetic claims, nor were they of a mind that would arouse fear as to their fighting abilities. they were true descendants of isaac and jacob, who were both men of peace, and were not qualified for success in war against the posterity of the active warlike ishmael and esau. freed from all anxiety in this direction, the prophet, realising that the security of medinah could never be assured while the meccans were opposed to him, began to formulate plans for the conquest of their city. his first step was to try and conciliate them, with a view to sending a pilgrim band into the city, but the citizens were far too cautious and suspicious to allow that. at last, however, they were prevailed upon to receive his son-in-law, omar, who succeeded in persuading a section of the meccans of the injustice of barring the holy temple to those who, although their enemies, were, after all, their kinsmen. this led to a treaty, in which mohammed brought shame upon his followers because of his concessions. the arrangements were that for ten years, peace between the prophet and the meccans should be maintained, and that within a year a party of the moslems were to be allowed to make a pilgrimage to the kaaba. the humiliation to which the prophet compelled his followers to submit gave rise to considerable indignation, which was allayed only when he himself submitted to the shaving of his head and the offering of sacrifice. he knew that the humiliation was worthy of the advantage gained--indeed, it was but the furtherance of his policy, in which no action that was expedient could possibly be disgraceful. to him such a treaty involved no sacred obligation to his enemies. he was god's prophet, and as such was free of all obligation to those who did not follow him, a principle deeply rooted in islam, which makes the violation of all virtuous relations with unbelievers highly meritorious. v.--world conquest. not long after the treaty with the meccans, mohammed revealed the fact that he had elaborated a scheme of world conquest, by sending representatives to earthly monarchs of whom he had heard. his messengers carried letters bearing the seal, "mohammed, prophet of god," and urging the addressees to acknowledge his claims by embracing islam. these overtures were in some cases favourably received; in others with contempt; but, of course, did not lead to compliance with the demands, except, perhaps, on the part of a few of the rulers of some arabic tribes. the eighth year of the flight is famous in the history of the prophet's life, because his followers, for the first time, came into conflict with the forces of the christian empire. the battle of mutah resulted in defeat of the moslems, and, consequently, details have been suppressed. it was part of mohammed's policy to counteract the demoralising influence of defeat by immediately attempting a fight in which victory was assured. this, to my mind, justified war on any pretext or grievance. in this case he conceived the idea of invading mecca, and, although minor incidents justify his decision to a slight degree, his breach of the treaty adds to the evidence that is derogatory to his character. the pilgrimage of the year before had been organised by him with the view of impressing the meccans of his power, and was decidedly successful. when he with his ten thousand troops approached the city, fear caused submission on the part of the leader of the city forces, and after some slight skirmishing with a section of the community, which preferred to show active disapproval of the ignominious surrender, the city was won. every idolatrous element of the kaaba worship was swept away, and, although its pagan associations were negatived, it was sanctified to the service of islam, and is still its only altar. the city was invested with a more sacred significance than it had ever occupied under the pagan system. it was never again to be defiled by the spilling of human blood, the prophet insisting upon this with admirable inconsistency! he showed his gratification in many acts of statesmanlike condescension, and seems at this time to have considered himself to be the ruler of all arabs. although it is improbable that mohammed was aware of it, the significance he attached to the holy city, by teaching that the caaba was a heavenly built edifice, was to become the means of consolidating his system, in spite of national and racial distinctions. in its precincts, pilgrims from india, persia, china, russia, turkey, and other lands where islam has its devotees, mingle with the wild bedouin of the desert in one common brotherhood, and worship, in unity of faith and form, allah, the great and merciful. after its capture, the fierce warlike bedouin nomadic tribes made strenuous and courageous attempts to win back the city, but the moslem forces were invariably successful, and, in time, mohammed returned to medinah more triumphant than ever. eventually taif, which had successfully resisted a siege, submitted peacefully to the prophet's claims, and the subjugation of the whole of arabia followed. an ingenious system of taxation was imposed upon all tribes submitting to mohammed. the natural prejudice that universally exists against taxation (!) was overcome, because it was instituted as a religious rather than a statutory obligation. thus the regular payments of alms became one of the five acts of faith imposed upon all believers. the other acts are: confession of creed, prayer, fasting, and pilgrimage. vi.--mohammed and women. the prophet's domestic life exerted considerable influence upon his religion; effects of which are to be seen in the mohammedan home of to-day. his numerous marriages afforded experience which led to the framing of many "divine" laws referring to women. as has already been hinted, kadijah, his first wife, exercised considerable influence over his prophetic career. she evidently had a strong affection for him, which feeling was heartily reciprocated. she had a personality strong enough to curb his natural passion, and to preserve her place in spite of it in his regard. her encouragement and support when success and failure were trembling in the balance, urged him to persist in the development of his ideas. he was faithful to her during their married life, and to her memory afterwards, and promised her, upon her deathbed, that she should share his heavenly chamber after his death, with the mother of jesus and the sister of moses. within a month of her death he was betrothed to ayesha, a child of seven. he did not actually marry her until she was nine years of age, and during the interval consoled himself by wedding a widow who had acted as nurse to one of his daughters. this marriage seems to have been more a matter of convenience than of affection on his part, and in later days she was able to keep her position as his wife only by the yielding of certain of her privileges to other members of the harem. seven months after his arrival in medinah, during the time of poverty, the marriage with ayesha was celebrated, the child of nine being united to the man of fifty-three! a marriage defended on the ground of political expediency, whereby the devotion of abu bakr, the child's father was strengthened. she seems to have been second only to khadijah in the prophet's affections, and exercised a petty tyranny over him, which was submitted to even when it affected his revelations. she excited the envy of the other wives because of her privileges, and in spite of intrigue, was able to hold her own. she was extremely sarcastic in regard to some of the revelations, and even went so far on one occasion as to jeer the prophet on his faithfulness in recording them. this sarcasm was prompted by jealousy, because of mohammed's marriage with zainab, which was so illegal as to cause him to throw the responsibility on god. zainab was the wife of the prophet's adopted son zaid, who, having discovered his foster-father's love, thought it wise to divorce her in his favour. the revelation mohammed produced seems to have been held over until his critics had been mollified by some victory--hence the sarcasm! during the raiding of the jews, mohammed was considerably disturbed by the desire of the wives to accompany him on the expeditions. he eased the difficulty by arranging that one only should go with him on each expedition, and should obtain the favour by lot. ayesha got into difficulty on one of these expeditions. she dropped a necklace and remained behind the returning party in order to seek for it. a youth who, too, had loitered behind, found it, and accompanied her back to the camp. her enemies were not slow to take advantage of this incident to prejudice her before the prophet. he was deeply hurt, and in face of the surge of public opinion, sent her back to her parents. the complications arising out of the divorce would probably have alienated the sympathies of abu bakr, her father, so with his usual diplomacy, mohammed produced a revelation, in which god declared ayesha innocent of any cause for divorce! it was through ayesha, too, that the prophet conceived the idea of praying for deliverance from the torment of the grave, for she casually remarked one day that she had heard a jewish woman speaking about torment after death. through all her life with the prophet she proved herself to be strong in character, and a fitting mate for a man of mohammed's type. other wives did not play such an important part in the prophet's life work. he seems to have exhibited his taste for beauty in all his selections. keud was the daughter of a man of considerable wealth and influence, and, like zainab, was one of the abyssinian refugees. in the expedition against khaibah, mohammed's greed was excited by the sight of some valuable ornaments belonging to one of his vanquished enemies. he sought to gain possession of them by marrying the daughter of the owner, safiyyah, whose husband and brother had both been killed in the battle that had been fought. she accepted the prophet's offer, and contented herself for her losses in the squabbles of his harem. his other wives were juwairijah, hafsah, um salmah, um kabibah, another of the abyssinian refugees, and zainab, widow of his cousin. the last wife was maimunah, who is said to have offered herself to him when he was considering the invasion of mecca. a coptic (christian) slave girl, mary, and rihanah, a jewess, were added to the harem, but went through no form of marriage with him. mary was sent as a present from one of the coptic rulers in answer to the prophet's letter, urging the claims of islam; while rihanah, whose husband was one of the many who were cruelly slaughtered by decapitation after a victory over the jews, was at nightfall, almost immediately after the massacre, taken to the prophet's tent. it is evident that the prophet had many opportunities of still further increasing his harem, for many women offered themselves; while the relatives of handsome widows would make no arrangements for the re-marriage of the bereaved ones until they had been offered to the prophet and refused. it cannot be expected that things could always run smoothly with so many women possessing rights to his attention, and there is much evidence to show that mohammed was often disturbed by the difficulty of pleasing all. his relations to the feminine sex, as may be expected, led to a very low estimate of the position of women. hence the utter degradation to which they are subjected in islam. although he did not practice it, he sanctioned wife beating. divorce was made easy for the men, who could cast off their wives any time they so desired. thus it is quite common to-day for women to steal from their husbands in order to provide for themselves in case of divorce. the evil of such a system is apparent. it makes the women mere slaves at the mercy of the caprice of their husbands. the polygamy and concubinage which is sanctioned in the koran, has degraded the women to a degree that may be imagined, and certainly has not, as some authorities contend, abolished other evils. it is true that he improved slightly the condition of women in his day, giving them privileges they had not up to that time enjoyed, and by those who endeavour to picture him as a hero, his failure to arrive at a true estimate of the position of women is covered by the statement that it was impossible for him to grapple with a hopeless problem. it is encouraging to know that, with the growing influence of western christian civilisation, the condition of women in moslem lands is gradually improving, although the village folk still consider us to be weak in character because we are courteous in our behaviour to them. in egypt, government schools for girls are being organised, and throughout the whole moslem world education is spreading. the religion of mohammed is so clearly defined that it can never be reformed. the only hope for the nations that are under its sway is that with the advance of western civilisation there may be a yielding to the influence of christianity. it cannot be possible to enjoy the blessings of the west while men are tyrannised by a non-progressive religion of the east. just before he died mohammed organised an expedition against the romans, and this in spite of sickness unto death. he had made his last pilgrimage to mecca, and had delivered what may be termed his final charge to his followers. the whole tone of his address seems to have been influenced by the thought of the proximity of death. he emphasised the doctrines he had inculcated, showing that the islamic brotherhood removed all that tended to social inequality. the rich man was no better than the poor; the aristocrat who boasted of his ancestry, no more important in the sight of god than the lowliest beggar. the only difference that could exist between man and man was a difference in degree of piety. property rights he recognised as regarding believers, and evidently implied that unbelievers possessed no such rights. he asked respect and humane treatment for women, and undoubtedly manifested a desire for a better condition of affairs than he in his lifetime had been able to establish. the subsequent illness was probably due to the strain and anxiety of this pilgrimage. ayesha, the girl wife, tended him. the many stories that have been told of these last days are not at all reliable, but it is certain that for five days he was quite helpless and delirious. on the 7th of june, 632 a.d., ten years after the flight from mecca, he died in the arms of ayesha, leaving a work that wrought havoc in the christian church for centuries, and which, inspired by his immortal spirit, still exists in unyielding enmity against the faith of the meek and lowly nazarene, whose native soil, in the providence of god, is owned by islam's son. never again will be heard the clash of steel on steel as christian tries to vanquish moslem. those days are happily past and gone. carnal weapons cannot avail against spiritual forces. the eternal, peaceable spirit of jesus is slowly but surely permeating the gloom of islam. we see the resultant disintegration, and hope for that great day when, led by the broken and contrite spirit of their leader, the hosts of islam shall bow before the king of kings, recognising what, in time, they were impelled to deny--unity in trinity, the at present unrevealed mystery of deity. britain, the greatest moslem power of the world, needs to change her policy in regard to christian missionary work amongst moslems, if she is desirous of promoting the welfare of those benighted people. she must give freedom to the heralds of the cross who labour in the lands of the crescent. and the prayers of her people must ascend on behalf of the sons and daughters of islam who sit in darkness and the shadow of death. christianity and islam by c.h. becker, ph.d. professor of oriental history in the colonial institute of hamburg translated by rev. h.j. chaytor, m.a. headmaster of plymouth college 1909 table of contents the subject from different points of view: limits of treatment the nature of the subject: the historical points of connection between christianity and islam a. christianity and the rise of islam: 1. muhammed and his contemporaries 2. the influence of christianity upon the development of muhammed 3. muhammed's knowledge of christianity 4. the position of christians under muhammedanism b. the similarity of christian and muhammedan metaphysics during the middle ages: 1. the means and direction by which christian influence affected islam 2. the penetration of daily life by the spirit of religion; asceticism, contradictions and influences affecting the development of a clerical class and the theory of marriage 3. the theory of life in general with reference to the doctrine of immortality 4. the attitude of religion towards the state, economic life, society, etc. 5. the permanent importance to islam of these influences: the doctrine of duties 6. ritual 7. mysticism and the worship of saints 8. dogma and the development of scholasticism c. the influence of islam upon christianity: the manner in which this influence operated, and the explanation of the superiority of islam the influence of muhammedan philosophy the new world of european christendom and the modern east conclusion. the historical growth of religion bibliography christianity and islam a comparison of christianity with muhammedanism or with any other religion must be preceded by a statement of the objects with which such comparison is undertaken, for the possibilities which lie in this direction are numerous. the missionary, for instance, may consider that a knowledge of the similarities of these religions would increase the efficacy of his proselytising work: his purpose would thus be wholly practical. the ecclesiastically minded christian, already convinced of the superiority of his own religion, will be chiefly anxious to secure scientific proof of the fact: the study of comparative religion from this point of view was once a popular branch of apologetics and is by no means out of favour at the present day. again, the inquirer whose historical perspective is undisturbed by ecclesiastical considerations, will approach the subject with somewhat different interests. he will expect the comparison to provide him with a clear view of the influence which christianity has exerted upon other religions or has itself received from them: or he may hope by comparing the general development of special religious systems to gain a clearer insight into the growth of christianity. hence the object of such comparisons is to trace the course of analogous developments and the interaction of influence and so to increase the knowledge of religion in general or of our own religion in particular. a world-religion, such as christianity, is a highly complex structure and the evolution of such a system of belief is best understood by examining a religion to which we have not been bound by a thousand ties from the earliest days of our lives. if we take an alien religion as our subject of investigation, we shall not shrink from the consequences of the historical method: whereas, when we criticise christianity, we are often unable to see the falsity of the pre-suppositions which we necessarily bring to the task of inquiry: our minds follow the doctrines of christianity, even as our bodies perform their functions--in complete unconsciousness. at the same time we possess a very considerable knowledge of the development of christianity, and this we owe largely to the help of analogy. especially instructive is the comparison between christianity and buddhism. no less interesting are the discoveries to be attained by an inquiry into the development of muhammedanism: here we can see the growth of tradition proceeding in the full light of historical criticism. we see the plain man, muhammed, expressly declaring in the qoran that he cannot perform miracles, yet gradually becoming a miracle worker and indeed the greatest of his class: he professes to be nothing more than a mortal man: he becomes the chief mediator between man and god. the scanty memorials of the man become voluminous biographies of the saint and increase from generation to generation. yet more remarkable is the fact that his utterances, his _logia_, if we may use the term, some few of which are certainly genuine, increase from year to year and form a large collection which is critically sifted and expounded. the aspirations of mankind attribute to him such words of the new testament and of greek philosophers as were especially popular or seemed worthy of muhammed; the teaching also of the new ecclesiastical schools was invariably expressed in the form of proverbial utterances attributed to muhammed, and these are now without exception regarded as authentic by the modern moslem. in this way opinions often contradictory are covered by muhummed's authority. the traditions concerning jesus offer an analogy. our gospels, for instance, relate the beautiful story of the plucking of the ears of corn on the sabbath, with its famous moral application, "the sabbath was made for man, and not man for the sabbath." a christian papyrus has been discovered which represents jesus as explaining the sanctity of the sabbath from the judaeo-christian point of view. "if ye keep not the sabbath holy, ye shall not see the father," is the statement in an uncanonical gospel. in early christian literature, contradictory sayings of jesus are also to be found. doubtless here, as in muhammedan tradition, the problem originally was, what is to be my action in this or that question of practical life: answer is given in accordance with the religious attitude of the inquirer and jesus and muhammed are made to lend their authority to the teaching. traditional literary form is then regarded as historical by later believers. examples of this kind might be multiplied, but enough has been said to show that much and, to some extent, new light may be thrown upon the development of christian tradition, by an examination of muhammedanism which rose from similar soil but a few centuries later, while its traditional developments have been much more completely preserved. such analogies as these can be found, however, in any of the world-religions, and we propose to devote our attention more particularly to the influences which christianity and islam exerted directly upon one another. while muhammedanism has borrowed from its hereditary foe, it has also repaid part of the debt. by the very fact of its historical position islam was at first indebted to christianity; but in the department of christian philosophy, it has also exerted its own influence. this influence cannot be compared with that of greek or jewish thought upon christian speculation: christian philosophy, as a metaphysical theory of existence, was however strongly influenced by arabian thought before the outset of the reformation. on the other hand the influence of christianity upon islam--and also upon muhammed, though he owed more to jewish thought--was so extensive that the coincidence of ideas upon the most important metaphysical questions is positively amazing. there is a widespread belief even at the present day that islam was a complete novelty and that the religion and culture of the muhammedan world were wholly alien to western medievalism. such views are entirely false; during the middle ages muhammedanism and western culture were inspired by the same spirit. the fact has been obscured by the contrast between the two religions whose differences have been constantly exaggerated and by dissimilarities of language and nationality. to retrace in full detail the close connection which unites christianity and islam would be the work of years. within the scope of the present volume, all that can be done is to explain the points of contact between christian and muhammedan theories of life and religion. such is the object of the following pages. we shall first treat of muhammed personally, because his rise as a religious force will explain the possibility of later developments. this statement also explains the sense in which we shall use the term christianity. muhammedanism has no connection with post-reformation christianity and meets it only in the mission field. practical questions there arise which lie beyond the limits of our subject, as we have already indicated. our interests are concerned with the mediaeval church, when christianity first imposed its ideas upon muhammedanism at the time of its rise in the east, and afterwards received a material extension of its own horizon through the rapid progress of its protégé. our task is to analyse and explain these special relations between the two systems of thought. the religion now known as islam is as near to the preaching of muhammed or as remote from it, as modern catholicism or protestant christianity is at variance or in harmony with the teaching of jesus. the simple beliefs of the prophet and his contemporaries are separated by a long course of development from the complicated religious system in its unity and diversity which islam now presents to us. the course of this development was greatly influenced by christianity, but christian ideas had been operative upon muhammed's eager intellectual life at an even earlier date. we must attempt to realise the working of his mind, if we are to gain a comprehension of the original position of islam with regard to christianity. the task is not so difficult in muhammed's case as in that of others who have founded religious systems: we have records of his philosophical views, important even though fragmentary, while vivid descriptions of his experiences have been transmitted to us in his own words, which have escaped the modifying influence of tradition at second hand. muhammed had an indefinite idea of the word of god as known to him from other religions. he was unable to realise this idea effectively except as an immediate revelation; hence throughout the qoran he represents god as speaking in the first person and himself appears as the interlocutor. even direct commands to the congregation are introduced by the stereotyped "speak"; it was of primary importance that the qoran should be regarded as god's word and not as man's. this fact largely contributed to secure an uncontaminated transmission of the text, which seems also to have been left by muhammed himself in definite form. its intentional obscurity of expression does not facilitate the task of the inquirer, but it provides, none the less, considerable information concerning the religious progress of its author. here we are upon firmer ground than when we attempt to describe muhammed's outward life, the first half of which is wrapped in obscurity no less profound than that which veils the youth of the founder of christianity. muhammed's contemporaries lived amid religious indifference. the majority of the arabs were heathen and their religious aspirations were satisfied by local cults of the old semitic character. they may have preserved the religious institutions of the great south arabian civilisation, which was then in a state of decadence; the beginnings of islam may also have been influenced by the ideas of this civilisation, which research is only now revealing to us: but these points must remain undecided for the time being. south arabian civilisation was certainly not confined to the south, nor could an organised township such as mecca remain outside its sphere of influence: but the scanty information which has reached us concerning the religious life of the arabs anterior to islam might also be explained by supposing them to have followed a similar course of development. in any case, it is advisable to reserve judgment until documentary proof can replace ingenious conjecture. the difficulty of the problem is increased by the fact that jewish and especially christian ideas penetrated from the south and that their influence cannot be estimated. the important point for us to consider is the existence of christianity in southern arabia before the muhammedan period. nor was the south its only starting-point: christian doctrine came to arabia from the north, from syria and babylonia, and numerous conversions, for the most part of whole tribes, were made. on the frontiers also arabian merchants came into continual contact with christianity and foreign merchants of the christian faith could be found throughout arabia. but for the arabian migration and the simultaneous foundation of a new arabian religion, there is no doubt that the whole peninsula would have been speedily converted to christianity. the chief rival of christianity was judaism, which was represented in northern as in southern arabia by strong colonies of jews, who made proselytes, although their strict ritualism was uncongenial to the arab temperament which preferred conversion to christianity (naturally only as a matter of form). in addition to jewish, christian, and old semitic influences, zoroastrian ideas and customs were also known in arabia, as is likely enough in view of the proximity of the persian empire. these various elements aroused in muhammed's mind a vague idea of religion. his experience was that of the eighteenth-century theologians who suddenly observed that christianity was but one of many very similar and intelligible religions, and thus inevitably conceived the idea of a pure and natural religious system fundamental to all others. judaism and christianity were the only religions which forced themselves upon muhammed's consciousness and with the general characteristics of which he was acquainted. he never read any part of the old or new testament: his references to christianity show that his knowledge of the bible was derived from hearsay and that his informants were not representative of the great religious sects: muhammed's account of jesus and his work, as given in the qoran, is based upon the apocryphal accretions which grew round the christian doctrine. when muhammed proceeded to compare the great religions of the old and new testaments with the superficial pietism of his own compatriots, he was especially impressed with the seriousness of the hebrews and christians which contrasted strongly with the indifference of the heathen arabs. the arab was familiar with the conception of an almighty god, and this idea had not been obscured by the worship of trees, stones, fire and the heavenly bodies: but his reverence for this god was somewhat impersonal and he felt no instinct to approach him, unless he had some hopes or fears to satisfy. the idea of a reckoning between man and god was alien to the arab mind. christian and jewish influence became operative upon muhammed with reference to this special point. the idea of the day of judgment, when an account of earthly deeds and misdeeds will be required, when the joys of paradise will be opened to the good and the bad will be cast into the fiery abyss, such was the great idea, which suddenly filled muhammed's mind and dispelled the indifference begotten of routine and stirred his mental powers. polytheism was incompatible with the idea of god as a judge supreme and righteous, but yet merciful. thus monotheism was indissolubly connected with muhammed's first religious impulses, though the dogma had not assumed the polemical form in which it afterwards confronted the old arabian and christian beliefs. but a mind stirred by religious emotion only rose to the height of prophetic power after a long course of development which human knowledge can but dimly surmise. christianity and judaism had their sacred books which the founders of these religions had produced. in them were the words of god, transmitted through moses to the jews and through jesus to the christians. jesus and moses had been god's ambassadors to their peoples. who then could bring to the arabs the glad tidings which should guide them to the happy fields of paradise? among primitive peoples god is regarded as very near to man. the arabs had, their fortune-tellers and augurs who cast lots before god and explained his will in mysterious rhythmical utterances. muhammed was at first more intimately connected with this class of arab fortune-tellers than is usually supposed. the best proof of the fact is the vehemence with which he repudiates all comparison between these fortune-tellers and himself, even as early christian apologetics and polemics attacked the rival cults of the later classical world, which possessed forms of ritual akin to those observed by christianity. the existence of a fortune-telling class among the arabs shows that muhammed may well have been endowed with psychological tendencies which only awaited the vivifying influence of judaism and christianity to emerge as the prophetic impulse forcing him to stand forth in public and to stir the people from their indifference: "be ye converted, for the day of judgment is at hand: god has declared it unto me, as he declared it unto moses and jesus. i am the apostle of god to you, arabs. salvation is yours only if ye submit to the will of god preached by me." this act of submission muhammed calls islam. thus at the hour of islam's birth, before its founder had proclaimed his ideas, the influence of christianity is indisputable. it was this influence which made of the arab seer and inspired prophet, the apostle of god. muhammed regarded judaism and christianity as religious movements purely national in character. god in his mercy had announced his will to different nations through his prophets. as god's word had been interpreted for the jews and for the christians, so there was to be a special interpretation for the benefit of the arabs. these interpretations were naturally identical in manner and differed only as regards place and time. muhammed had heard of the jewish messiah and of the christian paraclete, whom, however, he failed to identify with the holy ghost and he applied to himself the allusions to one who should come after moses and jesus. thus in the qoran 61.6 we read, "jesus, the son of mary, said: children of israel, i am god's apostle to you. i confirm in your hands the thora (the law) and i announce the coming of another apostle after me whose name is ahmed." ahmed is the equivalent of muhammed. the verse has been variously interpreted and even rejected as an interpolation: but its authenticity is attested by its perfect correspondence with what we know of muhammed's pretensions. to trace in detail the development of his attitude towards christianity is a more difficult task than to discover the growth of his views upon judaism; probably he pursued a similar course in either case. at first he assumed the identity of the two religions with one another and with his own doctrine; afterwards he regarded them as advancing by gradations. adam, abraham, moses, jesus, and muhammed, these in his opinion were the chief stages in the divine scheme of salvation. each was respectively confirmed or abolished by the revelation which followed it, nor is this theory of muhammed's shaken by the fact that each revelation was given to a different nation. he regards all preceding prophets in the light of his own personality. they were all sent to people who refused them a hearing at the moment. punishment follows and the prophet finds a body of believers elsewhere. these temporary punishments are confused with the final judgment; in fact muhammed's system was not clearly thought out. the several prophets were but men, whose earthly careers were necessarily crowned with triumph: hence the crucifixion of jesus is a malicious invention of the jews, who in reality crucified some other sufferer, while jesus entered the divine glory. thus muhammed has no idea of the importance of the crucifixion to the christian church, as is shown by his treatment of it as a jewish falsehood. in fact, he develops the habit of characterising as false any statement in contradiction with his ideas, and this tendency is especially obvious in his dealings with judaism, of which he gained a more intimate knowledge. at first he would refer sceptics to christian and jewish doctrine for confirmation of his own teaching. the fact that with no knowledge of the old or new testament, he had proclaimed doctrines materially similar and the fact that these scriptures referred to himself, were proofs of his inspired power, let doubters say what they would. a closer acquaintance with these scriptures showed him that the divergencies which he stigmatised as falsifications denoted in reality vast doctrinal differences. in order to understand muhammed's attitude towards christianity, we will examine in greater detail his view of this religion, the portions of it which he accepted or which he rejected as unauthentic. in the first place he must have regarded the trinity as repugnant to reason: he considered the christian trinity as consisting of god the father, mary the mother of god, and jesus the son of god. in the qoran, god says, "hast thou, jesus, said to men, regard me and my mother as gods by the side of god?" jesus replies, "i will say nothing but the truth. i have but preached, pray to god, who is my lord and your lord" (5.116, f). hence it has been inferred that muhammed's knowledge of christianity was derived from some particular christian sect, such as the tritheists or the arab female sect of the collyridians who worshipped the virgin mary with exaggerated reverence and assigned divine honours to her. it is also possible that we have here a development of some gnostic conception which regarded the holy ghost as of feminine gender, as semites would do;[a] instances of this change are to be found in the well-known hymn of the soul in the acts of thomas, in the gospel to the egyptians and elsewhere. i am inclined, however, to think it more probable that muhammed had heard of mariolatry and of the "mother of god," a title which then was a highly popular catchword, and that the apotheosis of jesus was known to him and also the doctrine of the trinity by name. further than this his knowledge did not extend; although he knows the holy ghost and identifies him with jesus, none the less his primitive reasoning, under the influence of many old beliefs, explained the mysterious triad of the trinity as husband, wife, and son. this fact is enough to prove that his theory of christianity was formed by combining isolated scraps of information and that he cannot have had any direct instruction from a christian knowing the outlines of his faith. [footnote a: the word for "spirit" is of the feminine gender in the semitic languages.] muhammed must also have denied the divinity of christ: this is an obvious result of the course of mental development which we have described and of his characteristically semitic theory of the nature of god. to him, god is one, never begetting and never begotten. denying the divinity of jesus, muhammed naturally denies the redemption through the cross and also the fact of the crucifixion. yet, strangely enough he accepted the miraculous birth; nor did he hesitate to provide this purely human jesus with all miraculous attributes; these were a proof of his divine commission, and marvellous details of this nature aroused the interest of his hearers. mary the sister of ahron--an obvious confusion with the old testament miriam--had been devoted to the service of god by her mother's vow, and lives in the temple under the guardianship of zacharias, to whom a later heir is born in answer to his prayers, namely john, the forerunner of the holy ghost. the birth is announced to mary and she brings forth jesus under a palm-tree, near which is a running spring and by the dates of which she is fed. on her return home she is received with reproaches by her family but merely points in reply to the new-born babe, who suddenly speaks from his cradle, asserting that he is the prophet of god. afterwards jesus performs all kinds of miracles, forms birds out of clay and makes them fly, heals the blind and lepers, raises the dead, etc., and even brings down from heaven a table ready spread. the jews will not believe him, but the youth follow him. he is not killed, but translated to god. christians are not agreed upon the manner of his death and the jews have invented the story of the crucifixion. muhammed's knowledge of christianity thus consists of certain isolated details, partly apocryphal, partly canonical, together with a hazy idea of the fundamental dogmas. thus the influence of christianity upon him was entirely indirect. the muhammedan movement at its outset was influenced not by the real christianity of the time but by a christianity which muhammed criticised in certain details and forced into harmony with his preconceived ideas. his imagination was profoundly impressed by the existence of christianity as a revealed religion with a founder of its own. certain features of christianity and of judaism, prayer, purification, solemn festivals, scriptures, prophets and so forth were regarded by him as essential to any religious community, because they happened to belong both to judaism and to christianity. he therefore adopted or wished to adopt these institutions. during the period of his life at medina, muhammed abandoned his original idea of preaching the doctrines which moses and jesus had proclaimed. this new development was the outcome of a struggle with judaism following upon an unsuccessful attempt at compromise. in point of fact judaism and christianity were as widely different from one another as they were from his own teaching and he was more than ever inclined to regard as his special forerunner, abraham, who had preceded both moses and jesus, and was revered by both religions as the man of god. he then brought abraham into connection with the ancient meccan ka'ba worship: the ka'ba or die was a sacred stone edifice, in one corner of which the "black stone" had been built in: this stone was an object of reverence to the ancient arabs, as it still is to the muhammedans. thus islam gradually assumed the form of an arab religion, developing universalist tendencies in the ultimate course of events. muhammed, therefore, as he was the last in the ranks of the prophets, must also be the greatest. he epitomised all prophecy and islam superseded every revealed religion of earlier date. muhammed's original view that earlier religions had been founded by god's will and through divine revelation, led both him and his successors to make an important concession: adherents of other religions were not compelled to adopt islam. they were allowed to observe their own faith unhindered, if they surrendered without fighting, and were even protected against their enemies, in return for which they had to pay tribute to their muslim masters; this was levied as a kind of poll-tax. thus we read in the qoran (ix. 29) that "those who possess scriptures," i.e. the jews and christians, who did not accept islam were to be attacked until they paid the _gizja_ or tribute. thus the object of a religious war upon the christians is not expressed by the cry "death or islam"; such attacks were intended merely to extort an acknowledgment of muhammedan supremacy, not to abolish freedom of religious observance. it would be incorrect for the most part to regard the warrior bands which started from arabia as inspired by religious enthusiasm or to attribute to them the fanaticism which was first aroused by the crusades and in an even greater degree by the later turkish wars. the muhammedan fanatics of the wars of conquest, whose reputation was famous among later generations, felt but a very scanty interest in religion and occasionally displayed an ignorance of its fundamental tenets which we can hardly exaggerate. the fact is fully consistent with the impulses to which the arab migrations were due. these impulses were economic and the new religion was nothing more than a party cry of unifying power, though there is no reason to suppose that it was not a real moral force in the life of muhammed and his immediate contemporaries. anti-christian fanaticism there was therefore none. even in early years muhammedans never refused to worship in the same buildings as christians. the various insulting regulations which tradition represents christians as forced to endure were directed not so much against the adherents of another faith as against the barely tolerated inhabitants of a subjugated state. it is true that the distinction is often difficult to observe, as religion and nationality were one and the same thing to muhammedans. in any case religious animosity was a very subordinate phenomenon. it was a gradual development and seems to me to have made a spasmodic beginning in the first century under the influence of ideas adopted from christianity. it may seem paradoxical to assert that it was christian influence which first stirred islam to religious animosity and armed it with the sword against christianity, but the hypothesis becomes highly probable when we have realised the indifferentism of the muhammedan conquerors. we shall constantly see hereafter how much they owed in every department of intellectual life to the teaching of the races which they subjugated. their attitude towards other beliefs was never so intolerant as was that of christendom at that period. christianity may well have been the teaching influence in this department of life as in others. moreover at all times and especially in the first century the position of christians has been very tolerable, even though the muslims regarded them as an inferior class, christians were able to rise to the highest offices of state, even to the post of vizier, without any compulsion to renounce their faith. even during the period of the crusades when the religious opposition was greatly intensified, again through christian policy, christian officials cannot have been uncommon: otherwise muslim theorists would never have uttered their constant invectives against the employment of christians in administrative duties. naturally zealots appeared at all times on the muhammedan as well as on the christian side and occasionally isolated acts of oppression took place: these were, however, exceptional. so late as the eleventh century, church funeral processions were able to pass through the streets of bagdad with all the emblems of christianity and disturbances were recorded by the chroniclers as exceptional. in egypt, christian festivals were also regarded to some extent as holidays by the muhammedan population. we have but to imagine these conditions reversed in a christian kingdom of the early middle ages and the probability of my theory will become obvious. the christians of the east, who had broken for the most part with the orthodox church, also regarded islam as a lesser evil than the byzantine established church. moreover islam, as being both a political and ecclesiastical organisation, regarded the christian church as a state within a state and permitted it to preserve its own juridical and at first its own governmental rights. application was made to the bishops when anything was required from the community and the churches were used as taxation offices. this was all in the interests of the clergy who thus found their traditional claims realised. these relations were naturally modified in the course of centuries; the crusades, the turkish wars and the great expansion of europe widened the breach between christianity and islam, while as the east was gradually brought under ecclesiastical influence, the contrast grew deeper: the theory, however, that the muhammedan conquerors and their successors were inspired by a fanatical hatred of christianity is a fiction invented by christians. we have now to examine this early development of islam in somewhat greater detail: indeed, to secure a more general appreciation of this point is the object of the present work. the relationship of the qoran to christianity has been already noted: it was a book which preached rather than taught and enounced isolated laws but no connected system. islam was a clear and simple war-cry betokening merely a recognition of arab supremacy, of the unity of god and of muhammed's prophetic mission. but in a few centuries islam became a complex religious structure, a confusion of greek philosophy and roman law, accurately regulating every department of human life from the deepest problems of morality to the daily use of the toothpick, and the fashions of dress and hair. this change from the simplicity of the founder's religious teaching to a system of practical morality often wholly divergent from primitive doctrine, is a transformation which all the great religions of the world have undergone. religious founders have succeeded in rousing the sense of true religion in the human heart. religious systems result from the interaction of this impulse with pre-existing capacities for civilisation. the highest attainments of human life are dependent upon circumstances of time and place, and environment often exerts a more powerful influence than creative power. the teaching of jesus was almost overpowered by the graeco-oriental culture of later hellenism. dissensions persist even now because millions of people are unable to distinguish pure religion from the forms of expression belonging to an extinct civilisation. islam went through a similar course of development and assumed the spiritual panoply which was ready to hand. here, as elsewhere, this defence was a necessity during the period of struggle, but became a crushing burden during the peace which followed victory, for the reason that it was regarded as inseparable from the wearer of it. from this point of view the analogy with christianity will appear extremely striking, but it is something more than an analogy: the oriental hellenism of antiquity was to christianity that which the christian oriental hellenism of a few centuries later was to islam. we must now attempt to realise the nature of this event so important in the history of the world. a nomadic people, recently united, not devoid of culture, but with a very limited range of ideas, suddenly gains supremacy over a wide and populous district with an ancient civilisation. these nomads are as yet hardly conscious of their political unity and the individualism of the several tribes composing it is still a disruptive force: yet they can secure domination over countries such as egypt and babylonia, with complex constitutional systems, where climatic conditions, the nature of the soil and centuries of work have combined to develop an intricate administrative system, which newcomers could not be expected to understand, much less to recreate or to remodel. yet the theory has long been held that the arabs entirely reorganised the constitutions of these countries. excessive importance has been attached to the statements of arab authors, who naturally regarded islam as the beginning of all things. in every detail of practical life they regarded the prophet and his contemporaries as their ruling ideal, and therefore naturally assumed that the constitutional practices of the prophet were his own invention. the organisation of the conquering race with its tribal subordination was certainly purely arab in origin. in fact the conquerors seemed so unable to adapt themselves to the conditions with which they met, that foreigners who joined their ranks were admitted to the muhammedan confederacy only as clients of the various arab tribes. this was, however, a mere question of outward form: the internal organisation continued unchanged, as it was bound to continue unless chaos were to be the consequence. in fact, pre-existing administrative regulations were so far retained that the old customs duties on the former frontiers were levied as before, though they represented an institution wholly alien to the spirit of the muhammedan empire. those muhammedan authors, who describe the administrative organisation, recognise only the taxes which islam regarded as lawful and characterise others as malpractices which had crept in at a later date. it is remarkable that these so-called subsequent malpractices correspond with byzantine and persian usage before the conquest: but tradition will not admit the fact that these remained unchanged. the same fact is obvious when we consider the progress of civilisation in general. in every case the arabs merely develop the social and economic achievements of the conquered races to further issues. such progress could indeed only be modified by a general upheaval of existing conditions and no such movement ever took place. the germanic tribes destroyed the civilisations with which they met; they adopted many of the institutions of christian antiquity, but found them an impediment to the development of their own genius. the arabs simply continued to develop the civilisation of post-classical antiquity, with which they had come in contact. this procedure may seem entirely natural in the department of economic life, but by no means inevitable where intellectual progress is concerned. yet a similar course was followed in either case, as may be proved by dispassionate examination. islam was a rising force, a faith rather of experience than of theory or dogma, when it raised its claims against christianity, which represented all pre-existing intellectual culture. a settlement of these claims was necessary and the military triumphs are but the prelude to a great accommodation of intellectual interests. in this christianity played the chief part, though judaism is also represented: i am inclined, however, to think that jewish ideas as they are expressed in the qoran were often transmitted through the medium of christianity. there is no doubt that in medina muhammed was under direct jewish influence of extraordinary power. even at that time jewish ideas may have been in circulation, not only in the qoran but also in oral tradition, which afterwards became stereotyped: at the same time muhammed's utterances against the jews eventually became so strong during the medina period, for political reasons, that i can hardly imagine the traditions in their final form to have been adopted directly from the jews. the case of jewish converts is a different matter. but in christianity also much jewish wisdom was to be found at that time and it is well known that even the eastern churches regarded numerous precepts of the old testament, including those that dealt with ritual, as binding upon them. in any case the spirit of judaism is present, either directly or working through christianity, as an influence wherever islam accommodated itself to the new intellectual and spiritual life which it had encountered. it was a compromise which affected the most trivial details of life, and in these matters religious scrupulosity was carried to a ridiculous point: here we may see the outcome of that judaism which, as has been said, was then a definite element in eastern christianity. together with jewish, greek and classical ideas were also naturally operative, while persian and other ancient oriental conceptions were transmitted to islam by christianity: these instances i have collectively termed christian because christianity then represented the whole of later classical intellectualism, which influenced islam for the most part through christianity. it seems that the communication of these ideas to muhammedanism was impeded by the necessity of translating them not only into a kindred language, but into one of wholly different linguistic structure. for muhammedanism the difficulty was lessened by the fact that it had learned christianity in syria and persia through the semitic dialect known as aramaic, by which greek and persian culture had been transmitted to the arabs before the rise of islam. in this case, as in many others, the history of language runs on parallel lines with the history of civilisation. the necessities of increasing civilisation had introduced many aramaic words to the arabic vocabulary before muhammed's day: these importations increased considerably when the arabs entered a wider and more complex civilisation and were especially considerable where intellectual culture was concerned. even greek terms made their way into arabic through aramaic. this natural dependency of arabic upon aramaic, which in turn was connected with greek as the rival christian vernacular in these regions, is alone sufficient evidence that christianity exerted a direct influence upon muhammedanism. moreover, as we have seen, the qoran itself regarded christians as being in possession of divine wisdom, and some reference both to christianity and to judaism was necessary to explain the many unintelligible passages of the qoran. allusions were made to texts and statements in the thora and the gospels, and god was represented as constantly appealing to earlier revelations of himself. thus it was only natural that interpreters should study these scriptures and ask counsel of their possessors. of primary importance was the fact that both christians and jews, and the former in particular, accepted muhammedanism by thousands, and formed a new intellectual class of ability infinitely superior to that of the original muslims and able to attract the best elements of the arab nationality to their teaching. it was as impossible for these apostate christians to abandon their old habits of thought as it was hopeless to expect any sudden change in the economic conditions under which they lived. christian theories of god and the world naturally assumed a muhammedan colouring and thus the great process of accommodating christianity to muhammedanism was achieved. the christian contribution to this end was made partly directly and partly by teaching, and in the intellectual as well as in the economic sphere the ultimate ideal was inevitably dictated by the superior culture of christianity. the muhammedans were thus obliged to accept christian hypotheses on theological points and the fundaments of christian and muhammedan culture thus become identical. i use the term hypotheses, for the reason that the final determination of the points at issue was by no means identical, wherever the qoran definitely contradicted christian views of morality or social laws. but in these cases also, christian ideas were able to impose themselves upon tradition and to issue in practice, even when opposed by the actual text of the qoran. they did not always pass unquestioned and even on trivial points were obliged to encounter some resistance. the theory of the sunday was accepted, but that day was not chosen and friday was preferred: meetings for worship were held in imitation of christian practice, but attempts to sanctify the day and to proclaim it a day of rest were forbidden: except for the performance of divine service, friday was an ordinary week-day. when, however, the qoran was in any sort of harmony with christianity, the christian ideas of the age were textually accepted in any further development of the question. the fact is obvious, not only as regards details, but also in the general theory of man's position upon earth. * * * * * muhammed, the preacher of repentance, had become a temporal prince in medina; his civil and political administration was ecclesiastical in character, an inevitable result of his position as the apostle of god, whose congregation was at the same time a state. this theory of the state led later theorists unconsciously to follow the lead of christianity, which regarded the church as supreme in every department of life, and so induced muhammedanism to adopt views of life and social order which are now styled mediaeval. the theological development of this system is to be attributed chiefly to groups of pious thinkers in medina: they were excluded from political life when the capital was transferred from medina to damascus and were left in peace to elaborate their theory of the muhammedan divine polity. the influence of these groups was paramount: but of almost equal importance was the influence of the proselytes in the conquered lands who were christians for the most part and for that reason far above their arab contemporaries in respect of intellectual training and culture. we find that the details of jurisprudence, dogma, and mysticism can only be explained by reference to christian stimulus, nor is it any exaggeration to ascribe the further development of muhammed's views to the influence of thinkers who regarded the religious polity of islam as the realisation of an ideal which christianity had hitherto vainly striven to attain. this ideal was the supremacy of religion over life and all its activities, over the state and the individual alike. but it was a religion primarily concerned with the next world, where alone real worth was to be found. earthly life was a pilgrimage to be performed and earthly intentions had no place with heavenly. the joy of life which the ancient world had known, art, music and culture, all were rejected or valued only as aids to religion. human action was judged with reference only to its appraisement in the life to come. that ascetic spirit was paramount, which had enchained the christian world, that renunciation of secular affairs which explains the peculiar methods by which mediaeval views of life found expression. asceticism did not disturb the course of life as a whole. it might condemn but it could not suppress the natural impulse of man to propagate his race: it might hamper economic forces, but it could not destroy them. it eventually led to a compromise in every department of life, but for centuries it retained its domination over men's minds and to some material extent over their actions. such was the environment in which islam was planted: its deepest roots had been fertilised with christian theory, and in spite of muhammed's call to repentance, its most characteristic manifestations were somewhat worldly and non-ascetic. "islam knows not monasticism" says the tradition which this tendency produced. the most important compromise of all, that with life, which christianity only secured by gradual steps, had been already attained for islam by muhammed himself and was included in the course of his development. as islam now entered the christian world, it was forced to pass through this process of development once more. at the outset it was permeated with the idea of christian asceticism, to which an inevitable opposition arose, and found expression in such statements as that already quoted. but muhammed's preaching had obviously striven to honour the future life by painting the actual world in the gloomiest colours, and the material optimism of the secular-minded was unable to check the advance of christian asceticism among the classes which felt a real interest in religion. hence that surprising similarity of views upon the problem of existence, which we have now to outline. in details of outward form great divergency is apparent. christianity possessed a clergy while islam did not: yet the force of christian influence produced a priestly class in islam. it was a class acting not as mediator between god and man through sacraments and mysteries, but as moral leaders and legal experts; as such it was no less important than the scribes under judaism. unanimity among these scholars could produce decisions no less binding than those of the christian clergy assembled in church councils. they are representatives of the congregation which "has no unanimity, for such would be an error." islam naturally preferred to adopt unanimous conclusions in silence rather than to vote in assemblies. as a matter of fact a body of orthodox opinion was developed by this means with no less success than in christendom. any agreement which the quiet work of the scholars had secured upon any question was ratified by god and was thus irrevocably and eternally binding. for instance, the proclamation to the faithful of new ideas upon the exposition of the qoran or of tradition was absolutely forbidden; the scholars, in other words the clergy, had convinced themselves, by the fact of their unanimity upon the point, that the customary and traditional mode of exposition was the one pleasing to god. ideas of this kind naturally remind us of roman catholic practice. the influence of eastern christianity upon islam is undoubtedly visible here. this influence could not in the face of muhammedan tradition and custom, create an organised clergy, but it produced a clerical class to guard religious thought, and as religion spread, to supervise thought of every kind. christianity again condemned marriage, though it eventually agreed to a compromise sanctifying this tie; islam, on the contrary, found in the qoran the text "ye that are unmarried shall marry" (24, 32). in the face of so clear a statement, the condemnation of marriage, which in any case was contrary to the whole spirit of the qoran, could not be maintained. thus the muhammedan tradition contains numerous sayings in support of marriage. "a childless house contains no blessing": "the breath of a son is as the breath of paradise"; "when a man looks upon his wife (in love) and she upon him, god looks down in mercy upon them both." "two prayers of a married man are more precious in the sight of god than seventy of a bachelor." with many similar variations upon the theme, muhammed is said to have urged marriage upon his followers. on the other hand an almost equally numerous body of warnings against marriage exists, also issued by muhammed. i know no instance of direct prohibition, but serious admonitions are found which usually take the form of denunciation of the female sex and were early interpreted as warnings by tradition. "fear the world and women": "thy worst enemies are the wife at thy side and thy concubine": "the least in paradise are the women": "women are the faggots of hell"; "pious women are rare as ravens with white or red legs and white beaks"; "but for women men might enter paradise." here we come upon a strain of thought especially christian. muhammed regarded the satisfaction of the sexual instincts as natural and right and made no attempt to put restraint upon it: christian asceticism regarded this impulse as the greatest danger which could threaten the spiritual life of its adherents, and the sentences above quoted may be regarded as the expression of this view. naturally the social position of the woman suffered in consequence and is so much worse in the traditional muhammedanism as compared with the qoran that the change can only be ascribed to the influence of the civilisation which the muhammedans encountered. the idea of woman as a creature of no account is certainly rooted in the ancient east, but it reached islam in christian dress and with the authority of christian hostility to marriage. with this hostility to marriage are probably connected the regulations concerning the covering of the body: in the ancient church only the face, the hands and the feet were to be exposed to view, the object being to prevent the suggestion of sinful thoughts: it is also likely that objections to the ancient habit of leaving the body uncovered found expression in this ordinance. similar objections may be found in muhammedan tradition; we may regard these as further developments of commands given in the qoran, but it is also likely that muhammed's apocryphal statements upon the point were dictated by christian religious theory. they often appear in connection with warnings against frequenting the public baths, which fact is strong evidence of their christian origin. "a bad house is the bath: much turmoil is therein and men show their nakedness." "fear that house that is called the bathhouse and if any enter therein, let him veil himself." "he who believes in god and the last judgment, let him enter the bath only in bathing dress." "nakedness is forbidden to us." there is a story of the prophet, to the effect that he was at work unclothed when a voice from heaven ordered him to cover his nakedness! * * * * * we thus see, that an astonishing similarity is apparent in the treatment even of questions where divergency is fundamental. divergency, it is true, existed, but pales before the general affinity of the two theories of life. our judgment upon christian medievalism in this respect can be applied directly and literally to muhammedanism. either religion regards man as no more than a sojourner in this world. it is not worth while to arrange for a permanent habitation, and luxurious living is but pride. hence the simplicity of private dwellings in mediaeval times both in the east and west. architectural expense is confined to churches and mosques, which were intended for the service of god. these christian ideas are reflected in the inexhaustible storehouse of muhammedan theory, the great collections of tradition, as follows. "the worst use which a believer can make of his money is to build." "every building, except a mosque, will stand to the discredit of its architect on the day of resurrection." these polemics which islam inherited from christianity are directed not only against building in general, but also against the erection and decoration of lofty edifices: "should a man build a house nine ells high, a voice will call to him from heaven, whither wilt thou rise, most profane of the profane?" "no prophet enters a house adorned with fair decoration." with these prohibitions should be connected the somewhat unintelligible fact that the most pious caliphs sat upon thrones (_mimbar_, "president's chair") of clay. the simplest and most transitory material thus serves to form the symbol of temporal power. a house is adorned not by outward show, but by the fact that prayer is offered and the qoran recited within its walls. these theories were out of harmony with the worldly tendencies of the conquerors, who built themselves castles, such as qusair amra: they belong to the spirit of christianity rather than to islam. upon similar principles we may explain the demand for the utmost simplicity and reserve in regard to the other enjoyments of life. to eat whenever one may wish is excess and two meals a day are more than enough. the portion set apart for one may also suffice for two. ideas of this kind are of constant recurrence in the muhammedan traditions: indispensable needs alone are to be satisfied, as indeed thomas aquinas teaches. similar observations apply to dress: "he who walks in costly garments to be seen of men is not seen of the lord." gold and silver ornaments, and garments of purple and silk are forbidden by both religions. princes live as simply as beggars and possess only one garment, so that they are unable to appear in public when it is being washed: they live upon a handful of dates and are careful to save paper and artificial light. such incidents are common in the oldest records of the first caliphs. these princes did not, of course, live in such beggary, and the fact is correspondingly important that after the lapse of one or two generations the muhammedan historians should describe their heroes as possessing only the typical garment of the christian saint. this one fact speaks volumes. every action was performed in god or with reference to god--an oft-repeated idea in either religion. there is a continual hatred of the world and a continual fear that it may imperil a man's soul. hence the sense of vast responsibility felt by the officials, a sense which finds expression even in the ordinary official correspondence of the authorities which papyri have preserved for us. the phraseology is often stereotyped, but as such, expresses a special theory of life. this responsibility is represented as weighing with especial severity upon a pious caliph. upon election to the throne he accepts office with great reluctance protesting his unworthiness with tears. the west can relate similar stories of gregory the great and of justinian. exhortations are frequent ever to remember the fact of death and to repent and bewail past sins. when a mention of the last judgment occurs in the reading of passages from the bible or qoran, the auditors burst into tears. upon one occasion a man was praying upon the roof of his house and wept so bitterly over his sins, that the tears ran down the waterspout and flooded the rooms below. this hyperbolical statement in a typical life of a saint shows the high value attributed to tears in the east. it is, however, equally a christian characteristic. the gracious gift of tears was regarded by mediaeval christianity as the sign of a deeply religious nature. gregory vii is said to have wept daily at the sacrifice of the mass and similar accounts are given to the credit of other famous christians. while a man should weep for his own sins, he is not to bewail any misfortune or misery which may befall him. in the latter case it is his duty to collect his strength, to resign himself and to praise god even amid his sufferings. should he lose a dear relative by death, he is not to break out with cries and lamentations like the heathen. lamentation for the dead is most strictly forbidden in islam. "we are god's people and to god we return" says the pious muslim on receiving the unexpected news of a death. resignation and patience in these matters is certainly made the subject of eloquent exhortation in the qoran, but the special developments of tradition betray christian influence. generally speaking, the whole ethical system of the two religions is based upon the contrast between god and the world, though muhammedan philosophy will recognize no principle beside that of god. as a typical example we may take a sentence from the spanish bishop isidor who died in 636: "good are the intentions directed towards god and bad are those directed to earthly gain or transitory fame." any muhammedan theologian would have subscribed to this statement. on the one hand stress is laid upon motive as giving its value to action. the first sentence in the most famous collection of traditions runs, "deeds shall be judged by their intentions." on the other hand is the contrast between god and the world, or as islam puts it, between the present and the future life. the christian gains eternal life by following christ. imitation of the master in all things even to the stigmata, is the characteristic feature of mediaeval christianity. nor is the whole of the so-called sunna obedience anything more than the imitation of muhammed which seeks to repeat the smallest details of his life. the infinite importance attached by islam to the sunna seems to me to have originated in christian influence. the development of it betrays original features, but the fundamental principle is christian, as all the leading ideas of islam are christian, in the sense of the term as paraphrased above. imitation of christ in the first instance, attempts to repeat his poverty and renunciation of personal property: this is the great christian ideal. muhammed was neither poor nor without possessions: at the end of his life he had become a prince and had directly stated that property was a gift from god. in spite of that his successors praise poverty and their praises were the best of evidence that they were influenced not by the prophet himself but by christianity. while the traditions are full of the praises of poverty and the dangers of wealth, assertions in praise of wealth also occur, for the reason that the pure muhammedan ideas opposed to christianity retained a certain influence. j. goldziher has published an interesting study showing how many words borrowed from this source occur in the written muhammedan traditions: an almost complete version of the lord's prayer is quoted. even the idea of love towards enemies, which would have been unintelligible to muhammed, made its way into the traditions: "the most virtuous of acts is to seek out him who rejects thee, to give to him that despises thee and to pardon him that oppresses thee." the gospel precept to do unto others as we would they should do unto us (matt. vii. 12, luke vi. 31) is to be found in the arab traditions, and many similar points of contact may be noticed. a man's "neighbour" has ever been, despite the teaching of jesus, to the christian and to the muhammedan, his co-religionist. the whole department of muhammedan ethics has thus been subjected to strong christian influence. naturally this ecclesiasticism which dominated the whole of life, was bound to assert itself in state organisation. an abhorrence of the state, so far as it was independent of religion, a feeling unknown in the ancient world, pervades both christianity and muhammedanism, christianity first struggled to secure recognition in the state and afterwards fought with the state for predominance. islam and the state were at first identical: in its spiritual leaders it was soon separated from the state. its idea of a divine polity was elaborated to the smallest details, but remained a theory which never became practice. yet this ideal retained such strength that every muhammedan usurper was careful to secure his investiture by the caliph, the nominal leader of this ecclesiastical state, even if force were necessary to attain his object. for instance, saladin was absolutely independent of the nominal caliph in bagdad, but could not feel that his position was secure until he had obtained his sultan's patent from the caliph. only then did his supremacy rest upon a religious basis and he was not regarded by popular opinion as a legitimate monarch until this ceremony had been performed. this theory corresponds with constitutional ideals essentially christian. "the tyranny," wrote innocent iv to the emperor frederick ii, "which was once generally exercised throughout the world, was resigned into the hands of the church by constantine, who then received as an honourable gift from the proper source that which he had formerly held and exercised unrighteously." the long struggle between church and state in this matter is well known. in this struggle the rising power of islam had adopted a similar attitude. the great abhorrence of a secular "monarchy" in opposition to a religious caliphate, as expressed both by the dicta of tradition and by the abbassid historians, was inspired, in my opinion, by christian dislike of a divorce between church and state. the phenomenon might be explained without reference to external influence, but if the whole process be considered in connection, christian influence seems more than probable. a similar attitude was also assumed by either religion towards the facts of economic life. in either case the religious point of view is characteristic. the reaction against the tendency to condemn secular life is certainly stronger in islam, but is also apparent in christianity. thomas aquinas directly stigmatises trade as a disgraceful means of gain, because the exchange of wares does not necessitate labour or the satisfaction of necessary wants: muhammedan tradition says, "the pious merchant is a pioneer on the road of god." "the first to enter paradise is the honourable merchant." here the solution given to the problem differs in either case, but in christian practice, opposition was also obvious. common to both religions is the condemnation of the exaction of interest and monetary speculation, which the middle ages regarded as usury. islam, as usual, gives this christian idea the form of a saying enounced by muhammed: "he who speculates in grain for forty days, grinds and bakes it and gives it to the poor, makes an offering unacceptable to god." "he who raises prices to muslims (by speculation) will be cast head downwards by god into the hottest fire of hell." many similar traditions fulminate against usury in the widest sense of the word. these prohibitions were circumvented in practice by deed of gift and exchange, but none the less the free development of commercial enterprise was hampered by these fetters which modern civilisation first broke. enterprise was thus confined to agriculture under these circumstances both for christianity and islam, and economic life in either case became "mediaeval" in outward appearance. methods of making profit without a proportional expenditure of labour were the particular objects of this aversion. manual labour was highly esteemed both in the east and west. a man's first duty was to support himself by the work of his own hands, a duty proclaimed, as we know, from the apostolic age onwards. so far as islam is concerned, this view may be illustrated by the following utterances: "the best of deeds is the gain of that which is lawful": "the best gain is made by sale within lawful limits and by manual labour." "the most precious gain is that made by manual labour; that which a man thus earns and gives to himself, his people, his sons and his servants, is as meritorious as alms." thus practical work is made incumbent upon the believer, and the extent to which manufacture flourished in east and west during the middle ages is well known. a similar affinity is apparent as regards ideas upon social position and occupation. before god man is but a slave: even the mighty caliphs themselves, even those who were stigmatised by posterity as secular monarchs, included in their official titles the designation, "slave of god." this theory was carried out into the smallest details of life, even into those which modern observers would consider as unconcerned with religion. thus at meals the muslim was not allowed to recline at table, an ancient custom which the upper classes had followed for centuries: he must sit, "as a slave," according to the letter of the law. all are alike slaves, for the reason that they are believers: hence the humiliation of those whom chance has exalted is thought desirable. this idealism is undoubtedly more deeply rooted in the popular consciousness of the east than of the west. in the east great social distinctions occur; but while religion recognises them, it forbids insistence upon them. as especially distinctive of social work in either religion we might be inclined to regard the unparalleled extent of organizations for the care of the poor, for widows and orphans, for the old, infirm and sick, the public hospitals and almshouses and religious foundations in the widest sense of the term; but the object of these activities was not primarily social nor were they undertaken to make life easier for the poor: religious selfishness was the leading motive, the desire to purify self by good works and to secure the right to pre-eminence in heaven. "for the salvation of my soul and for everlasting reward" is the formula of many a christian foundation deed. very similar expressions of hope for eternal reward occur in muhammedan deeds of gift. a foundation inscription on a mosque, published by e. littmann, is stated in terms the purport of which is unmistakable. "this has been built by n or m: may a house be built for him in paradise (in return)." here again, the idea of the house in paradise is borrowed from christian ideas. we have already observed that in islam the smallest trivialities of daily life become matters of religious import. the fact is especially apparent in a wide department of personal conduct. islam certainly went to further extremes than christianity in this matter, but these customs are clearly only further developments of christian regulations. the call to simplicity of food and dress has already been mentioned. but even the simplest food was never to be taken before thanks had been given to god: grace was never to be omitted either before or after meals. divine ordinances also regulated the manner of eating. the prophet said, "with one finger the devils eat, with two the titans of antiquity and with three fingers the prophets." the application of the saying is obvious. similar sayings prescribe the mode of handling dishes and behaviour at a common meal, if the blessing of god is to be secured. there seems to be a christian touch in one of these rules which runs, in the words of the prophet: "he who picks up the crumbs fallen from the table and eats them, will be forgiven by god." "he who licks the empty dishes and his fingers will be filled by god here and in the world to come." "when a man licks the dish from which he has eaten, the dish will plead for him before god." i regard these words as practical applications of the text, "gather up the pieces that remain, that nothing be lost" (matt. xiv. 10: john vi. 12). even to-day south italians kiss bread that has fallen to the ground, in order to make apology to the gift of god. volumes might be filled with rules of polite manners in this style: hardly any detail is to be found in the whole business of daily life, even including occupations regarded as unclean, which was not invested with some religious significance. these rules are almost entirely dictated by the spirit of early christianity and it is possible to reconstruct the details of life in those dark ages from these literary records which are now the only source of evidence upon such points. however, we must here content ourselves with establishing the fact that islam adopted christian practice in this as in other departments of life. the state, society, the individual, economics and morality were thus collectively under christian influence during the early period of muhammedanism. conditions very similar in general, affected those conceptions which we explain upon scientific grounds but which were invariably regarded by ancient and mediaeval thought as supernatural, conceptions deduced from the phenomena of illness and dreams. islam was no less opposed than christianity to the practice of magic in any form, but only so far as these practices seemed to preserve remnants of heathen beliefs. such beliefs were, however, continued in both religions in modified form. there is no doubt that ideas of high antiquity, doubtless of babylonian origin, can be traced as contributing to the formation of these beliefs, while scientific medicine is connected with the earlier discoveries of greece. common to both religions was the belief in the reality of dreams, especially when these seemed to harmonise with religious ideas: dreams were regarded as revelations from god or from his apostles or from the pious dead. the fact that man could dream and that he could appear to other men in dreams after his death was regarded as a sign of divine favour and the biographies of the saints often contain chapters devoted to this faculty. these are natural ideas which lie in the national consciousness of any people, but owe their development in the case of islam to christian influence. the same may be said of the belief that the prayers of particular saints were of special efficacy, and of attempts by prayer, forms of worship and the like to procure rain, avert plague and so forth: such ideas are common throughout the middle ages. thus in every department we meet with that particular type of christian theory which existed in the east during the seventh and eighth centuries. this mediaeval theory of life was subjected, as is well known, to many compromises in the west, and was materially modified by teutonic influence and the revival of classicism. it might therefore be supposed that in islam christian theory underwent similar modification or disappeared entirely. but the fact is not so. at the outset, we stated, as will be remembered, that muhammedan scholars were accustomed to propound their dicta as utterances given by muhammed himself, and in this form christian ideas also came into circulation among muhammedans. when attempts were made to systematise these sayings, all were treated as alike authentic, and, as traditional, exerted their share of influence upon the formation of canon law. thus questions of temporary importance to mediaeval christianity became permanent elements in muhammedan theology. one highly instructive instance may be given. during the century which preceded the byzantine iconoclastic controversy, the whole of nearer asia was disturbed by the question whether the erection and veneration of images was permissible. that constantinople attempted to prohibit such veneration is well known: but after a long struggle the church gained its wishes. islam was confronted with the problem and decided for prohibition, doubtless under jewish influence. sayings of muhammed forbid the erection of images. this prohibition became part of canon law and therefore binding for all time: it remains obligatory at the present day, though in practice it is often transgressed. thus the process of development which was continued in christendom, came to a standstill in islam, and many similar cases might be quoted. here begins the development of muhammedan jurisprudence or, more exactly, of the doctrine of duty, which includes every kind of human activity, duties to god and man, religion, civil law, the penal code, social morality and economics. this extraordinary system of moral obligations, as developed in islam, though its origin is obscure, is doubtless rooted in the ecclesiastical law of christendom which was then first evolved. i have no doubt that the development of muhammedan tradition, which precedes the code proper, was dependent upon the growth of canon law in the old church, and that this again, or at least the purely legal part of it, is closely connected with the pre-justinian legislation. roman law does not seem to me to have influenced islam immediately in the form of justinian's _corpus juris_, but indirectly from such ecclesiastical sources as the romano-syrian code. this view, however, i would distinctly state, is merely my conjecture. for our present purpose it is more important to establish the fact that the doctrine of duty canonised the manifold expressions of the theory that life is a religion, with which we have met throughout the traditional literature: all human acts are thus legally considered as obligatory or forbidden when corresponding with religious commands or prohibitions, as congenial or obnoxious to the law or as matters legally indifferent and therefore permissible. the arrangement of the work of daily life in correspondence with these religious points of view is the most important outcome of the muhammedan doctrine of duties. the religious utterances which also cover the whole business of life were first made duties by this doctrine: in practice their fulfilment is impossible, but the theory of their obligatory nature is a fundamental element in muhammedanism. where the doctrine of duties deals with legal rights, its application was in practice confined to marriage and the affairs of family life: the theoretical demands of its penal clauses, for instance, raise impossible difficulties. at the same time, it has been of great importance to the whole spiritual life of islam down to the present day, because it reflects muhammedan ideals of life and of man's place in the world. even to-day it remains the daily bread of the soul that desires instruction, to quote the words of the greatest father of the muhammedan church. it will thus be immediately obvious to what a vast extent christian theory of the seventh and eighth centuries still remains operative upon muhammedan thought throughout the world. considerable parts of the doctrine of duties are concerned with the forms of muhammedan worship. it is becoming ever clearer that only slight tendencies to a form of worship were apparent under muhammed. the mosque, the building erected for the special purpose of divine service, was unknown during the prophet's lifetime; nor was there any definite church organisation, of which the most important parts are the common ritual and the preaching. tendencies existed but no system, was to be found: there was no clerical class to take an interest in the development of an order of divine service. the caliphs prayed before the faithful in the capital, as did the governors in the provinces. the military commanders also led a simple service in their own stations. it was contact with foreign influence which first provided the impulse to a systematic form of worship. both christians and jews possessed such forms. their example was followed and a ritual was evolved, at first of the very simplest kind. no detailed organisation, however, was attempted, until christian influence led to the formation of the class which naturally took an interest in the matter, the professional theologians. these soon replaced the military service leaders. this change denoted the final stage in the development of ritual. the object of the theologians was to subject the various occupations of life to ritual as well as to religion. the mediatorial or sacramental theories of the priestly office were unknown to islam, but ritual customs of similar character were gradually evolved, and are especially pronounced in the ceremonies of marriage and burial. more important, however, was the development of the official service, the arrangement of the day and the hour of obligatory attendance and the introduction of preaching: under muhammed and his early followers, and until late in the omajjad period, preaching was confined to addresses, given as occasion demanded, but by degrees it became part of the regular ritual. with it was afterwards connected the intercession for the caliphs, which became a highly significant part of the service, as symbolising their sovereignty. it seems to me very probable that this practice was an adoption, at any rate in theory, of the christian custom of praying for the emperor. the pulpit was then introduced under christian influence, which thus completely transformed the chair (_mimbar_) of the ancient arab judges and rulers and made it a piece of church furniture; the christian _cancelli_ or choir screens were adopted and the mosque was thus developed. before the age of mosques, a lance had been planted in the ground and prayer offered behind it: so in the mosque a prayer niche was made, a survival of the pre-existing custom. there are many obscure points in the development of the worship, but one fact may be asserted with confidence: the developments of ritual were derived from pre-existing practices, which were for the most part christian. but the religious energy of islam was not exclusively devoted to the development and practice of the doctrine of duties; at the same time this ethical department, in spite of its dependency upon christian and jewish ideas, remains its most original achievement: we have pursued the subject at some length, because its importance is often overlooked in the course of attempts to estimate the connection between christianity and islam. on the other hand, affinities in the regions of mysticism and dogma have long been matter of common knowledge and a brief sketch of them will therefore suffice. if not essential to our purpose within the limits of this book, they are none the less necessary to complete our treatment of the subject. by mysticism we understand the expression of religious emotion, as contrasted with efforts to attain righteousness by full obedience to the ethical doctrine of duties, and also in contrast to the hair-splitting of dogmatic speculation: mysticism strove to reach immediate emotional unity with the godhead. no trace of any such tendency was to be found in the qoran: it entered islam as a complete novelty, and the affinities which enabled it to gain a footing have been difficult to trace. muhammedan mysticism is certainly not exclusively christian: its origins, like those of christian mysticism, are to be found in the pantheistic writings of the neoplatonist school of dionysius the areopagite: but islam apparently derived its mysticism from christian sources. in it originated the idea, with all its capacity for development, of the mystical love of god: to this was added the theory and practice of asceticism which was especially developed by christianity, and, in later times, the influence of indian philosophy, which is unmistakable. such are the fundamental elements of this tendency. when the idea of the nirwana, the arab _fan[=a]_, is attained, muhammedanism proper comes to an end. but orthodoxy controls the divergent elements: it opposes any open avowal of the logical conclusion, which would identify "god" and the "ego," but in practice this group of ideas, pantheistic in all but name, has been received and given a place side by side with the strict monotheism of the qoran and with the dogmatic theology. any form of mysticism which is pushed to its logical consequences must overthrow positive religion. by incorporating this dangerous tendency within itself, islam has averted the peril which it threatens. creed is no longer endangered, and this purpose being secured, thought is free. union with god is gained by ecstasy and leads to enthusiasm. these terms will therefore show us in what quarter we must seek the strongest impulses to mysticism. the concepts, if not the actual terms, are to be found in islam: they were undoubtedly transmitted by christianity and undergo the wide extension which results in the dervish and fakir developments. _dervish_ and _fakir_ are the persian and arabic words for "beggar": the word _sufi_, a man in a woollen shirt, is also used in the same sense. the terms show that asceticism is a fundamental element in mysticism; asceticism was itself an importation to islam. dervishes are divided into different classes or orders, according to the methods by which they severally prefer to attain ecstasy: dancing and recitation are practised by the dancing and howling dervishes and other methods are in vogue. it is an institution very different from monasticism but the result of a course of development undoubtedly similar to that which produced the monk: dervishism and monasticism are independent developments of the same original idea. among these muhammedan companies attempts to reach the point of ecstasy have developed to a rigid discipline of the soul; the believer must subject himself to his master, resigning all power of will, and so gradually reaches higher stages of knowledge until he is eventually led to the consciousness of his absolute identity with god. it seems to me beyond question that this method is reflected in the _exercitiis spiritualibus_ of ignatius loyola, the chief instrument by which the jesuits secured dominion over souls. any one who has realised the enormous influence which arab thought exerted upon spanish christianity so late as the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, will not regard the conjecture as unfounded. when a man's profession or position prevented him from practising these mystical exercises, he satisfied his religious needs by venerating persons who were nearer to the deity and whose intercession was effectual even after their death and sometimes not until they were dead: hence arose the veneration of saints, a practice as alien as pantheistic dogma to primitive islam. the adoption of christian saint worship was not possible until the person of muhammed himself had been exalted above the ordinary level of humanity. early muhammedans observed that the founder of christianity was regarded by popular opinion as a miracle worker of unrivalled power: it was impossible for the founder of islam to remain inferior in this respect. thus the early biographies of the prophet, which appeared in the first century of muhammedanism, recount the typical miracles of the gospels, the feeding of multitudes, healing the sick, raising the dead and so forth. two methods of adoption may be distinguished. special features are directly borrowed, or the line of advance is followed which had introduced the worship of saints and relics to christianity a short time before. the religious emotions natural to any people produced a series of ideas which pass from one religion to another. outward form and purport may be changed, but the essential points remain unaltered and are the living expression of that relation to god in which a people conceives itself to stand. higher forms of religion--a fact as sad as it is true--require a certain degree not only of moral but of intellectual capacity. thus we have traversed practically the whole circle of religious life and have everywhere found islam following in the path of christian thought. one department remains to be examined, which might be expected to offer but scanty opportunity for borrowings of this kind; this is dogma. here, if anywhere, the contrast between the two religions should be obvious. the initial divergencies were so pronounced, that any adoption of christian ideas would seem impossible. yet in those centuries, christianity was chiefly agitated by dogmatic questions, which occupied men's minds as greatly as social problems at the present day. here we can observe most distinctly, how the problems at least were taken over by islam. muhammedan dogmatic theology is concerned only with three main questions, the problem of free-will, the being and attributes of god, and the eternal uncreated nature of god's word. the mere mention of these problems will recall the great dogmatic struggles of early christianity. at no time have the problems of free-will and the nature of god, been subjects of fiercer dispute than during the christological and subsequent discussions. upholders of freedom or of determinism could alike find much to support their theories in the qoran: muhammed was no dogmatist and for him the ideas of man's responsibility and of god's almighty and universal power were not mutually exclusive. the statement of the problem was adopted from christianity as also was the dialectical subtlety by which a solution was reached, and which, while admitting the almighty power of god, left man responsible for his deeds by regarding him as free to accept or refuse the admonitions of god. thus the thinkers and their demands for justice and righteous dealing were reconciled to the blind fatalism of the masses, which again was not a native muhammedan product, but is the outcome of the religious spirit of the east. the problem of reconciling the attributes of god with the dogma of his unity was solved with no less subtlety. the mere idea that a multiplicity of attributes was incompatible with absolute unity was only possible in a school which had spent centuries in the desperate attempt to reconcile the inference of a divine trinity with the conception of absolute divine unity. finally, the third question, "was the qoran, the word of god, created or not?" is an obvious counterpart of the logos problem, of the struggle to secure recognition of the logos as eternal and uncreated together with god. islam solved the question by distinguishing the eternal and uncreated qoran from the revealed and created. the eternal nature of the qoran was a dogma entirely alien to the strict monotheism of islam: but this fact was never realised, any more than the fact that the acceptance of the dogma was a triumph for graeco-christian dialectic. there can be no more striking proof of the strength of christian influence: it was able to undermine the fundamental dogma of islam, and the muhammedans never realised the fact. in our review of these dogmatic questions, we have met with a novel tendency, that to metaphysical speculation and dialectic. it was from christendom, not directly from the greek world, that this spirit reached islam: the first attitude of muhammedanism towards it was that which christianity adopted towards all non-religious systems of thought. islam took it up as a useful weapon for the struggle against heresy. but it soon became a favourite and trusted implement and eventually its influence upon muhammedan philosophy became paramount. here we meet with a further christian influence, which, when once accepted, very largely contributed to secure a similar development of mediaeval christian and muhammedan thought. this was scholasticism, which was the natural and inevitable consequence of the study of greek dialectic and philosophy. it is not necessary to sketch the growth of scholasticism, with its barrenness of results in spite of its keen intellectual power, upon ground already fertilised by ecclesiastical pioneers. it will suffice to state the fact that these developments of the greek spirit were predominant here as in the west: in either case important philosophies rise upon this basis, for the most part professedly ecclesiastical, even when they occasionally struck at the roots of the religious system to which they belonged. in this department, islam repaid part of its debt to christianity, for the arabs became the intellectual leaders of the middle ages. thus we come to the concluding section of this treatise; before we enter upon it, two preliminary questions remain for consideration. if islam was ready to learn from christianity in every department of religious life, what was the cause of the sudden superiority of muhammedanism to the rising force of christianity a few centuries later? and secondly, in view of the traditional antagonism between the christian and muhammedan worlds, how was christianity able to adopt so large and essential a portion of muhammedan thought? the answer in the second case will be clear to any one who has followed our argument with attention. the intellectual and religious outlook was so similar in both religions and the problem requiring solution so far identical that nothing existed to impede the adoption of ideas originally christian which had been developed in the east. the fact that the west could accept philosophical and theological ideas from islam and that an actual interchange of thought could proceed in this direction, is the best of proofs for the soundness of our argument that the roots of muhammedanism are to be sought in christianity. islam was able to borrow from christianity for the reason that muhammed's ideas were derived from that source: similarly christianity was able to turn arab thought to its own purposes because that thought was founded upon christian principles. the sources of both religions lie in the east and in oriental thought. no less is true of judaism, a scholastic system which was excellently adapted by its international character, to become a medium of communication between christianity and muhammedanism during those centuries. in this connection special mention must be made of the spanish jews; to their work, not only as transmitting but also as originating ideas a bare reference must here suffice. but of greater importance was the direct exchange of thought, which proceeded through literary channels, by means of translations, especially by word of mouth among the christians and muhammedans who were living together in southern italy, sicily, and spain, and by commercial intercourse. the other question concerns the fundamental problem of european medievalism. we see that the problems with which the middle ages in europe were confronted and also that european ethics and metaphysics were identical with the muhammedan system: we are moreover assured that the acceptance of christian ideas by islam can only have taken place in the east: and the conclusion is obvious that mediaeval christianity was also primarily rooted in the east. the transmission of this religious philosophy to the non-oriental peoples of the west at first produced a cessation of progress but opened a new intellectual world when these peoples awoke to life in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. but throughout the intermediate period between the seventh and thirteenth centuries the east was gaining political strength and was naturally superior to the west where political organisation and culture had been shattered by the germanic invasions; in the east again there was an organic unity of national strength and intellectual ideals, as the course of development had not been interrupted. though special dogmatic points had been changed, the general religious theory remained unaltered throughout the nearer east. thus the rising power of islam, which had high faculties of self-accommodation to environment, was able to enter upon the heritage of the mixed graeco-oriental civilisation existing in the east; in consequence it gained an immediate advantage over the west, where eastern ideas were acclimatised with difficulty. the preponderance of muhammedan influence was increased by the fact that islam became the point of amalgamation for ancient eastern cultures, in particular for those of greece and persia: in previous centuries preparation had been made for this process by the steady transformation of hellenism to orientalism. persia, however, had been the main source of eastern civilisation, at any rate since the sassanid period: the debt of byzantine culture to persia is well known. unfortunately no thorough investigation has been made of these various and important changes, but it is clear that persian civilisation sent its influence far westward, at first directly and later through the medium of muhammedanism. the same facts hold good with regard to the diffusion of intellectual culture from persia. how far persian ideas may have influenced the development of muhammedan and even of christian eschatology, we need not here discuss: but the influence of the great graeco-christian schools of persia was enormous: they made the arabs acquainted with the most important works in greek and persian literature. to this fact was due the wide influence of islam upon christian civilisation, which is evidenced even to-day by the numerous words of arab origin to be found in modern european languages; it is in fact an influence the strength of which can hardly be exaggerated. not only the commercial products of the east, but important economic methods, the ideals of our so-called european chivalry and of its love poetry, the foundations of our natural sciences, even theological and philosophical ideas of high value were then sent to us from the east. the consequences of the crusades are the best proof of the enormous superiority of the muhammedan world, a fact which is daily becoming more obvious. here we are concerned only with the influence exerted by muhammedan philosophy. it would be more correct to speak of post-classical than of muhammedan philosophy. but as above, the influence of christianity upon islam was considered, so now the reverse process must be outlined. in either case it was the heir to the late classical age, to the mixed graeco-oriental culture, which influenced islam at first in christian guise. islam is often able to supplement its borrowings from christianity at the original sources, and when they have thus been deepened and purified, these adaptations are returned to christianity in muhammedan form. christian scholasticism was first based upon fragments of aristotle and chiefly inspired by neo-platonism: through the arabs it became acquainted with almost the whole of aristotle and also with the special methods by which the arabs approach the problem of this philosophy. to give any detailed account of this influence would be to write a history of mediaeval philosophy in its relation to ecclesiastical doctrine, a task which i feel to be beyond my powers. i shall therefore confine myself to an abstract of the material points selected from the considerable detail which specialists upon the subject have collected: i consider that arab influence during the first period is best explained by the new wealth of greek thought which the arabs appropriated and transmitted to europe. these new discoveries were the attainments of greece in the natural sciences and in logic: they extended the scope of dialectic and stimulated the rise of metaphysical theory: the latter, in combination with ecclesiastical dogma and greek science, became such a system of thought as that expounded in the summa of thomas aquinas. philosophy remained the handmaid of religion and arab influence first served only to complete the ecclesiastical philosophy of life. eventually, however, the methods of interpretation and criticism, peculiar to the arabs when dealing with aristotle became of no less importance than the subject matter of their inquiries. this form of criticism was developed from the emphasis which islam had long laid upon the value of wisdom, or recognition of the claims of reason. muhammedan tradition is full of the praises of wisdom, which it also originally regarded as the basis of religion. reason, however, gradually became an independent power: orthodoxy did not reject reason when it coincided with tradition, but under the influence of aristotelianism, especially as developed by averroës, reason became a power opposed to faith. the essential point of the doctrine was that truth was twofold, according to faith and according to reason. any one who was subtle enough to recognise both kinds of truth could preserve his orthodoxy: but the theory contained one great danger, which was immediately obvious to the christian church. the consequent struggle is marked by the constant connection of arab ideas with the characteristic expressions of christian feeling; these again are connected with the outset of a new period, when the pioneers of the renaissance liberate the west from the chains of greek ecclesiastical classicism, from oriental metaphysical religion and slowly pave the way for the introduction of germanic ideals directly derived from true classicism. not until that period does the west burst the bonds in which orientalism had confined it. christianity and islam then stand upon an equal footing in respect both of intellectual progress and material wealth. but as the west emerges from the shadow-land of the middle ages the more definite becomes its superiority over the east. western nations become convinced that the fetters which bind them were forged in the east, and when they have shaken off their chains, they discover their own physical and intellectual power. they go forth and create a new world, in which orientalism finds but scanty room. the east, however, cannot break away from the theories of life and mind which grew in it and around it. even at the present day the oriental is swathed in mediaevalism. a journalist, for instance, however european his mode of life, will write leaders supported by arguments drawn from tradition and will reason after the manner of the old scholasticism. but a change may well take place. islam may gradually acquire the spirit as well as the form of modern europe. centuries were needed before mediaeval christianity learned the need for submission to the new spirit. within christendom itself, it was non-christian ideas which created the new movement, but these were completely amalgamated with pre-existing christianity. thus, too, a renaissance is possible in the east, not merely by the importation and imitation of european progress, but primarily by intellectual advancement at home even within the sphere of religion. our task is drawing to its close. we have passed in review the interaction of christianity and islam, so far as the two religions are concerned. it has also been necessary to refer to the history of the two civilisations, for the reason that the two religions penetrate national life, a feature characteristic both of their nature and of the course of development which they respectively followed. this method of inquiry has enabled us to gain an idea of the rise and progress of muhammedanism as such. an attempt to explain the points of contact and resemblance between the two religions naturally tends to obscure the differences between them. had we devoted our attention to islam alone, without special reference to christianity, these differences, especially in the region of dogmatic theology, would have been more obvious. they are, however, generally well known. the points of connection are much more usually disregarded: yet they alone can explain the interchange of thought between the two mediaeval civilisations. the surprising fact is the amount of general similarity in religious theory between religions so fundamentally divergent upon points of dogma. nor is the similarity confined to religious theory: when we realise that material civilisation, especially when european medievalism was at its height, was practically identical in the christian west and the muhammedan east, we are justified in any reference to the unity of eastern and western civilisation. my statements may tend to represent islam as a religion of no special originality; at the same time, christianity was but one of other influences operative upon it; early arabic, zoroastrian, and jewish beliefs in particular have left traces on its development. may not as much be said of christianity? inquirers have seriously attempted to distinguish greek and jewish influences as the component elements of christianity: in any case, the extent of the elements original to the final orthodox system remains a matter of dispute. as we learn to appreciate historical connection and to probe beneath the surface of religions in course of development, we discover points of relationship and interdependency of which the simple believer never even dreams. the object of all this investigation is, in my opinion, one only: to discover how the religious experience of the founder of a faith accommodates itself to pre-existing civilisation, in the effort to make its influence operative. the eventual triumph of the new religion is in every case and at every time nothing more than a compromise: nor can more be expected, inasmuch as the religious instinct, though one of the most important influences in man, is not the sole determining influence upon his nature. recognition of this fact can only be obtained at the price of a breach with ecclesiastical mode of thought. premonitions of some such breach are apparent in modern muhammedanism: for ourselves, they are accomplished facts. if i correctly interpret the signs of the times, a retrograde movement in religious development has now begun. the religion inspiring a single personality, has secured domination over the whole of life: family, society, and state have bowed beneath its power. then the reaction begins: slowly religion loses its comprehensive force and as its history is learned, even at the price of sorrow, it slowly recedes within the true limits of its operation, the individual, the personality, in which it is naturally rooted. conclusion and bibliography the purpose of the present work has been to show not so much the identity of christian and muhammedan theories of life during the middle ages, as the parallel course of development common to both, and to demonstrate the fact that ideas could be transferred from one system to the other. detail has been sacrificed to this general purpose. the brief outline of muhammedan dogmatics and mysticism was necessary to complete the general survey of the question. any one of these subjects, and the same is true as regards a detailed life of muhammed, would require at least another volume of equal size for satisfactory treatment. the oriental scholar will easily see where i base my statements upon my own researches and where i have followed goldziher and snouck. my chief source of information, apart from the six great books of tradition, has been the invaluable compilation of soj[=u]t[=i], the great kanz el-'umm[=a]l (hyderabad, 1314). to those who do not read arabic may be recommended the french translation of the boch[=a]r[=i], of which two volumes are now published: _el-bokâhri, les traditions islamiques traduites ... par_ o. houdas and w. marçais. paris, 1906. of general works dealing with the questions i have touched, the following, to which i owe a considerable debt, may be recommended:- j. goldziher. muhammedanische studien, halle, 1889 and following year. die religion des islams (kult. d. gegenw., i, iii. 1). c. snouck hurgronje. de islam (de gids, 1886, us. 5 f.). mekka. the hague, 1888. une nouvelle biographie de mohammed (rev. hist. relig., 1894). leone caetani di teano. annali dell' islam. milan, 1905 and following years. f. buhl. muhammed's liv. copenhagen, 1903. h. grimme. muhammed. munich, 1904. j. wellhausen. das arabische reich und sein sturz. berlin, 1902. th. nöldeke. geschichte des qoräns. gottingen, 1860. (new edition by f. schwally in the press.) c.h. becker. die kanzel im kultus des alten islam. giessen, 1906. papyri. schott-reinhardt, i. heidelberg, 1906. th. w. juynboll. handleidung tot de kennis van de mohammedaansche wet. leyden, 1903. t.j. de boer. geschichte der philosophie in islam. stuttgart, 1901 (also an english edition). d.b. macdonald. development of muslim theology, jurisprudence and constitutional theory. new york, 1903. a. merx. idee und grundlinien einer allgemeinen geschichte der mystik. heidelberg, 1893. a. müller. der islam im morgenund abendland (oncken's collection). w. riedel. die kirchenrechtsquellen des patriarchats alexandrien. leipsic, 1900. g. bruns and e. sachau. syrisch-römisches rechtsbuch. leipsic, 1880. e. sachau. syrische rechtsbücher, i. berlin, 1907. e. zachariae v. lingenthal. geschichte des griechisch-römischen rechts. 3rd ed., berlin, 1892. h. v. eicken. geschichte und system der mittelalterlichen weltanschauung. stuttgart, 1886. w. windelband. lehrbuck der geschichte der philosophie. 4th ed., tübingen, 1907. c. baeumker und g. v. hertling. beiträge zur geschichte der philosophie des mittelalters (collected papers). g. gothein. ignatius von loyola und die gegenreformation. halle, 1895. in conclusion, i may mention two works, which deal with the subject of this volume, but from a different standpoint:- h.p. smith. the bible and islam (the ely lectures for 1897). w.a. shedd. islam and the oriental churches (philadelphia, 1904). thought-forms by annie besant and c.w. leadbeater [illustration: publisher logo] the theosophical publishing house ltd 38 great ormond street, london, w.c. 1 _first printed_ 1901 _reprint_ 1905 _reprint_ 1925 _made and printed in great britain by_ percy lund, humphries & co ltd the country press bradford [illustration: frontispiece--meaning of the colours--(see html version for this and other illustrations.)] foreword the text of this little book is the joint work of mr leadbeater and myself; some of it has already appeared as an article in _lucifer_ (now the _theosophical review_), but the greater part of it is new. the drawing and painting of the thought-forms observed by mr leadbeater or by myself, or by both of us together, has been done by three friends--mr john varley, mr prince, and miss macfarlane, to each of whom we tender our cordial thanks. to paint in earth's dull colours the forms clothed in the living light of other worlds is a hard and thankless task; so much the more gratitude is due to those who have attempted it. they needed coloured fire, and had only ground earths. we have also to thank mr f. bligh bond for allowing us to use his essay on _vibration figures_, and some of his exquisite drawings. another friend, who sent us some notes and a few drawings, insists on remaining anonymous, so we can only send our thanks to him with similar anonymity. it is our earnest hope--as it is our belief--that this little book will serve as a striking moral lesson to every reader, making him realise the nature and power of his thoughts, acting as a stimulus to the noble, a curb on the base. with this belief and hope we send it on its way. annie besant. contents page foreword 6 introduction 11 the difficulty of representation 16 the two effects of thought 21 how the vibration acts 23 the form and its effect 25 the meaning of the colours 32 three classes of thought-forms 36 illustrative thought-forms 40 affection 40-44 devotion 44-49 intellect 49-50 ambition 51 anger 52 sympathy 55 fear 55 greed 56 various emotions 57 shipwreck 57 on the first night 59 the gamblers 60 at a street accident 61 at a funeral 61 on meeting a friend 64 appreciation of a picture 65 forms seen in meditation 66 sympathy and love for all 66 an aspiration to enfold all 66 in the six directions 67 cosmic order 68 the logos as manifested in man 69 the logos pervading all 70 another conception 71 the threefold manifestation 71 the sevenfold manifestation 72 intellectual aspiration 72 helpful thoughts 74 forms built by music 75 mendelssohn 77 gounod 80 wagner 82 list of illustrations fig. page meaning of the colours _frontispiece_ chladni's sound plate 1 28 forms produced in sand 2 28 forms produced in sand 3 29 forms produced by pendulums 4-7 30 vague pure affection 8 40 vague selfish affection 9 40 definite affection 10 42 radiating affection 11 43 peace and protection 12 42 grasping animal affection 13 43 vague religious feeling 14 44 upward rush of devotion 15 46 self-renunciation 16 44 response to devotion 17 46 vague intellectual pleasure 18 50 vague sympathy 18a 50 the intention to know 19 51 high ambition 20 52 selfish ambition 21 52 murderous rage 22 53 sustained anger 23 53 explosive anger 24 51 watchful jealousy 25 54 angry jealousy 26 54 sudden fright 27 55 selfish greed 28 56 greed for drink 29 56 at a shipwreck 30 58 on the first night 31 59 the gamblers 32 60 at a street accident 33 61 at a funeral 34 62 on meeting a friend 35 64 the appreciation of a picture 36 64 sympathy and love for all 37 66 an aspiration to enfold all 38 67 in the six directions 39 66 an intellectual conception of cosmic order 40 69 the logos as manifested in man 41 69 the logos pervading all 42 and 44 70 another conception 45 70 the threefold manifestation 46 70 the sevenfold manifestation 47 70 intellectual aspiration 43 72 helpful thoughts 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54 74 plate music of mendelssohn m 78 music of gounod g 80 music of wagner w 82 [transcriber's note: some of the plates are displayed out of sequence to correspond with references to them in the text.] thought-forms as knowledge increases, the attitude of science towards the things of the invisible world is undergoing considerable modification. its attention is no longer directed solely to the earth with all its variety of objects, or to the physical worlds around it; but it finds itself compelled to glance further afield, and to construct hypotheses as to the nature of the matter and force which lie in the regions beyond the ken of its instruments. ether is now comfortably settled in the scientific kingdom, becoming almost more than a hypothesis. mesmerism, under its new name of hypnotism, is no longer an outcast. reichenbach's experiments are still looked at askance, but are not wholly condemned. röntgen's rays have rearranged some of the older ideas of matter, while radium has revolutionised them, and is leading science beyond the borderland of ether into the astral world. the boundaries between animate and inanimate matter are broken down. magnets are found to be possessed of almost uncanny powers, transferring certain forms of disease in a way not yet satisfactorily explained. telepathy, clairvoyance, movement without contact, though not yet admitted to the scientific table, are approaching the cinderella-stage. the fact is that science has pressed its researches so far, has used such rare ingenuity in its questionings of nature, has shown such tireless patience in its investigations, that it is receiving the reward of those who seek, and forces and beings of the next higher plane of nature are beginning to show themselves on the outer edge of the physical field. "nature makes no leaps," and as the physicist nears the confines of his kingdom he finds himself bewildered by touches and gleams from another realm which interpenetrates his own. he finds himself compelled to speculate on invisible presences, if only to find a rational explanation for undoubted physical phenomena, and insensibly he slips over the boundary, and is, although he does not yet realise it, contacting the astral plane. one of the most interesting of the highroads from the physical to the astral is that of the study of thought. the western scientist, commencing in the anatomy and physiology of the brain, endeavours to make these the basis for "a sound psychology." he passes then into the region of dreams, illusions, hallucinations; and as soon as he endeavours to elaborate an experimental science which shall classify and arrange these, he inevitably plunges into the astral plane. dr baraduc of paris has nearly crossed the barrier, and is well on the way towards photographing astro-mental images, to obtaining pictures of what from the materialistic standpoint would be the results of vibrations in the grey matter of the brain. it has long been known to those who have given attention to the question that impressions were produced by the reflection of the ultra-violet rays from objects not visible by the rays of the ordinary spectrum. clairvoyants were occasionally justified by the appearance on sensitive photographic plates of figures seen and described by them as present with the sitter, though invisible to physical sight. it is not possible for an unbiassed judgment to reject _in toto_ the evidence of such occurrences proffered by men of integrity on the strength of their own experiments, oftentimes repeated. and now we have investigators who turn their attention to the obtaining of images of subtle forms, inventing methods specially designed with the view of reproducing them. among these, dr baraduc seems to have been the most successful, and he has published a volume dealing with his investigations and containing reproductions of the photographs he has obtained. dr baraduc states that he is investigating the subtle forces by which the soul--defined as the intelligence working between the body and the spirit--expresses itself, by seeking to record its movements by means of a needle, its "luminous" but invisible vibrations by impressions on sensitive plates. he shuts out by non-conductors electricity and heat. we can pass over his experiments in biometry (measurement of life by movements), and glance at those in iconography--the impressions of invisible waves, regarded by him as of the nature of light, in which the soul draws its own image. a number of these photographs represent etheric and magnetic results of physical phenomena, and these again we may pass over as not bearing on our special subject, interesting as they are in themselves. dr baraduc obtained various impressions by strongly thinking of an object, the effect produced by the thought-form appearing on a sensitive plate; thus he tried to project a portrait of a lady (then dead) whom he had known, and produced an impression due to his thought of a drawing he had made of her on her deathbed. he quite rightly says that the creation of an object is the passing out of an image from the mind and its subsequent materialisation, and he seeks the chemical effect caused on silver salts by this thought-created picture. one striking illustration is that of a force raying outwards, the projection of an earnest prayer. another prayer is seen producing forms like the fronds of a fern, another like rain pouring upwards, if the phrase may be permitted. a rippled oblong mass is projected by three persons thinking of their unity in affection. a young boy sorrowing over and caressing a dead bird is surrounded by a flood of curved interwoven threads of emotional disturbance. a strong vortex is formed by a feeling of deep sadness. looking at this most interesting and suggestive series, it is clear that in these pictures that which is obtained is not the thought-image, but the effect caused in etheric matter by its vibrations, and it is necessary to clairvoyantly see the thought in order to understand the results produced. in fact, the illustrations are instructive for what they do not show directly, as well as for the images that appear. it may be useful to put before students, a little more plainly than has hitherto been done, some of the facts in nature which will render more intelligible the results at which dr baraduc is arriving. necessarily imperfect these must be, a physical photographic camera and sensitive plates not being ideal instruments for astral research; but, as will be seen from the above, they are most interesting and valuable as forming a link between clairvoyant and physical scientific investigations. at the present time observers outside the theosophical society are concerning themselves with the fact that emotional changes show their nature by changes of colour in the cloud-like ovoid, or aura, that encompasses all living beings. articles on the subject are appearing in papers unconnected with the theosophical society, and a medical specialist[1] has collected a large number of cases in which the colour of the aura of persons of various types and temperaments is recorded by him. his results resemble closely those arrived at by clairvoyant theosophists and others, and the general unanimity on the subject is sufficient to establish the fact, if the evidence be judged by the usual canons applied to human testimony. the book _man visible and invisible_ dealt with the general subject of the aura. the present little volume, written by the author of _man visible and invisible_, and a theosophical colleague, is intended to carry the subject further; and it is believed that this study is useful, as impressing vividly on the mind of the student the power and living nature of thought and desire, and the influence exerted by them on all whom they reach. [footnote 1: dr hooker, gloucester place, london, w.] the difficulty of representation we have often heard it said that thoughts are things, and there are many among us who are persuaded of the truth of this statement. yet very few of us have any clear idea as to what kind of thing a thought is, and the object of this little book is to help us to conceive this. there are some serious difficulties in our way, for our conception of space is limited to three dimensions, and when we attempt to make a drawing we practically limit ourselves to two. in reality the presentation even of ordinary three-dimensional objects is seriously defective, for scarcely a line or angle in our drawing is accurately shown. if a road crosses the picture, the part in the foreground must be represented as enormously wider than that in the background, although in reality the width is unchanged. if a house is to be drawn, the right angles at its corners must be shown as acute or obtuse as the case may be, but hardly ever as they actually are. in fact, we draw everything not as it is but as it appears, and the effort of the artist is by a skilful arrangement of lines upon a flat surface to convey to the eye an impression which shall recall that made by a three-dimensional object. it is possible to do this only because similar objects are already familiar to those who look at the picture and accept the suggestion which it conveys. a person who had never seen a tree could form but little idea of one from even the most skilful painting. if to this difficulty we add the other and far more serious one of a limitation of consciousness, and suppose ourselves to be showing the picture to a being who knew only two dimensions, we see how utterly impossible it would be to convey to him any adequate impression of such a landscape as we see. precisely this difficulty in its most aggravated form stands in our way, when we try to make a drawing of even a very simple thought-form. the vast majority of those who look at the picture are absolutely limited to the consciousness of three dimensions, and furthermore, have not the slightest conception of that inner world to which thought-forms belong, with all its splendid light and colour. all that we can do at the best is to represent a section of the thought-form; and those whose faculties enable them to see the original cannot but be disappointed with any reproduction of it. still, those who are at present unable to see anything will gain at least a partial comprehension, and however inadequate it may be it is at least better than nothing. all students know that what is called the aura of man is the outer part of the cloud-like substance of his higher bodies, interpenetrating each other, and extending beyond the confines of his physical body, the smallest of all. they know also that two of these bodies, the mental and desire bodies, are those chiefly concerned with the appearance of what are called thought-forms. but in order that the matter may be made clear for all, and not only for students already acquainted with theosophical teachings, a recapitulation of the main facts will not be out of place. man, the thinker, is clothed in a body composed of innumerable combinations of the subtle matter of the mental plane, this body being more or less refined in its constituents and organised more or less fully for its functions, according to the stage of intellectual development at which the man himself has arrived. the mental body is an object of great beauty, the delicacy and rapid motion of its particles giving it an aspect of living iridescent light, and this beauty becomes an extraordinarily radiant and entrancing loveliness as the intellect becomes more highly evolved and is employed chiefly on pure and sublime topics. every thought gives rise to a set of correlated vibrations in the matter of this body, accompanied with a marvellous play of colour, like that in the spray of a waterfall as the sunlight strikes it, raised to the _n_th degree of colour and vivid delicacy. the body under this impulse throws off a vibrating portion of itself, shaped by the nature of the vibrations--as figures are made by sand on a disk vibrating to a musical note--and this gathers from the surrounding atmosphere matter like itself in fineness from the elemental essence of the mental world. we have then a thought-form pure and simple, and it is a living entity of intense activity animated by the one idea that generated it. if made of the finer kinds of matter, it will be of great power and energy, and may be used as a most potent agent when directed by a strong and steady will. into the details of such use we will enter later. when the man's energy flows outwards towards external objects of desire, or is occupied in passional and emotional activities, this energy works in a less subtle order of matter than the mental, in that of the astral world. what is called his desire-body is composed of this matter, and it forms the most prominent part of the aura in the undeveloped man. where the man is of a gross type, the desire-body is of the denser matter of the astral plane, and is dull in hue, browns and dirty greens and reds playing a great part in it. through this will flash various characteristic colours, as his passions are excited. a man of a higher type has his desire-body composed of the finer qualities of astral matter, with the colours, rippling over and flashing through it, fine and clear in hue. while less delicate and less radiant than the mental body, it forms a beautiful object, and as selfishness is eliminated all the duller and heavier shades disappear. this desire (or astral) body gives rise to a second class of entities, similar in their general constitution to the thought-forms already described, but limited to the astral plane, and generated by the mind under the dominion of the animal nature. these are caused by the activity of the lower mind, throwing itself out through the astral body--the activity of kâma-manas in theosophical terminology, or the mind dominated by desire. vibrations in the body of desire, or astral body, are in this case set up, and under these this body throws off a vibrating portion of itself, shaped, as in the previous case, by the nature of the vibrations, and this attracts to itself some of the appropriate elemental essence of the astral world. such a thought-form has for its body this elemental essence, and for its animating soul the desire or passion which threw it forth; according to the amount of mental energy combined with this desire or passion will be the force of the thought-form. these, like those belonging to the mental plane, are called artificial elementals, and they are by far the most common, as few thoughts of ordinary men and women are untinged with desire, passion, or emotion. the two effects of thought each definite thought produces a double effect--a radiating vibration and a floating form. the thought itself appears first to clairvoyant sight as a vibration in the mental body, and this may be either simple or complex. if the thought itself is absolutely simple, there is only the one rate of vibration, and only one type of mental matter will be strongly affected. the mental body is composed of matter of several degrees of density, which we commonly arrange in classes according to the sub-planes. of each of these we have many sub-divisions, and if we typify these by drawing horizontal lines to indicate the different degrees of density, there is another arrangement which we might symbolise by drawing perpendicular lines at right angles to the others, to denote types which differ in quality as well as in density. there are thus many varieties of this mental matter, and it is found that each one of these has its own especial and appropriate rate of vibration, to which it seems most accustomed, so that it very readily responds to it, and tends to return to it as soon as possible when it has been forced away from it by some strong rush of thought or feeling. when a sudden wave of some emotion sweeps over a man, for example, his astral body is thrown into violent agitation, and its original colours are or the time almost obscured by the flush of carmine, of blue, or of scarlet which corresponds with the rate of vibration of that particular emotion. this change is only temporary; it passes off in a few seconds, and the astral body rapidly resumes its usual condition. yet every such rush of feeling produces a permanent effect: it always adds a little of its hue to the normal colouring of the astral body, so that every time that the man yields himself to a certain emotion it becomes easier for him to yield himself to it again, because his astral body is getting into the habit of vibrating at that especial rate. the majority of human thoughts, however, are by no means simple. absolutely pure affection of course exists; but we very often find it tinged with pride or with selfishness, with jealousy or with animal passion. this means that at least two separate vibrations appear both in the mental and astral bodies--frequently more than two. the radiating vibration, therefore, will be a complex one, and the resultant thought-form will show several colours instead of only one. how the vibration acts these radiating vibrations, like all others in nature, become less powerful in proportion to the distance from their source, though it is probable that the variation is in proportion to the cube of the distance instead of to the square, because of the additional dimension involved. again, like all other vibrations, these tend to reproduce themselves whenever opportunity is offered to them; and so whenever they strike upon another mental body they tend to provoke in it their own rate of motion. that is--from the point of view of the man whose mental body is touched by these waves--they tend to produce in his mind thoughts of the same type as that which had previously arisen in the mind of the thinker who sent forth the waves. the distance to which such thought-waves penetrate, and the force and persistency with which they impinge upon the mental bodies of others, depend upon the strength and clearness of the original thought. in this way the thinker is in the same position as the speaker. the voice of the latter sets in motion waves of sound in the air which radiate from him in all directions, and convey his message to all those who are within hearing, and the distance to which his voice can penetrate depends upon its power and upon the clearness of his enunciation. in just the same way the forceful thought will carry very much further than the weak and undecided thought; but clearness and definiteness are of even greater importance than strength. again, just as the speaker's voice may fall upon heedless ears where men are already engaged in business or in pleasure, so may a mighty wave of thought sweep past without affecting the mind of the man, if he be already deeply engrossed in some other line of thought. it should be understood that this radiating vibration conveys the character of the thought, but not its subject. if a hindu sits rapt in devotion to krishna, the waves of feeling which pour forth from him stimulate devotional feeling in all those who come under their influence, though in the case of the muhammadan that devotion is to allah, while for the zoroastrian it is to ahuramazda, or for the christian to jesus. a man thinking keenly upon some high subject pours out from himself vibrations which tend to stir up thought at a similar level in others, but they in no way suggest to those others the special subject of his thought. they naturally act with special vigour upon those minds already habituated to vibrations of similar character; yet they have some effect on every mental body upon which they impinge, so that their tendency is to awaken the power of higher thought in those to whom it has not yet become a custom. it is thus evident that every man who thinks along high lines is doing missionary work, even though he may be entirely unconscious of it. the form and its effect let us turn now to the second effect of thought, the creation of a definite form. all students of the occult are acquainted with the idea of the elemental essence, that strange half-intelligent life which surrounds us in all directions, vivifying the matter of the mental and astral planes. this matter thus animated responds very readily to the influence of human thought, and every impulse sent out, either from the mental body or from the astral body of man, immediately clothes itself in a temporary vehicle of this vitalised matter. such a thought or impulse becomes for the time a kind of living creature, the thought-force being the soul, and the vivified matter the body. instead of using the somewhat clumsy paraphrase, "astral or mental matter ensouled by the monadic essence at the stage of one of the elemental kingdoms," theosophical writers often, for brevity's sake, call this quickened matter simply elemental essence; and sometimes they speak of the thought-form as "an elemental." there may be infinite variety in the colour and shape of such elementals or thought-forms, for each thought draws round it the matter which is appropriate for its expression, and sets that matter into vibration in harmony with its own; so that the character of the thought decides its colour, and the study of its variations and combinations is an exceedingly interesting one. this thought-form may not inaptly be compared to a leyden jar, the coating of living essence being symbolised by the jar, and the thought energy by the charge of electricity. if the man's thought or feeling is directly connected with someone else, the resultant thought-form moves towards that person and discharges itself upon his astral and mental bodies. if the man's thought is about himself, or is based upon a personal feeling, as the vast majority of thoughts are, it hovers round its creator and is always ready to react upon him whenever he is for a moment in a passive condition. for example, a man who yields himself to thoughts of impurity may forget all about them while he is engaged in the daily routine of his business, even though the resultant forms are hanging round him in a heavy cloud, because his attention is otherwise directed and his astral body is therefore not impressible by any other rate of vibration than its own. when, however, the marked vibration slackens and the man rests after his labours and leaves his mind blank as regards definite thought, he is very likely to feel the vibration of impurity stealing insidiously upon him. if the consciousness of the man be to any extent awakened, he may perceive this and cry out that he is being tempted by the devil; yet the truth is that the temptation is from without only in appearance, since it is nothing but the natural reaction upon him of his own thought-forms. each man travels through space enclosed within a cage of his own building, surrounded by a mass of the forms created by his habitual thoughts. through this medium he looks out upon the world, and naturally he sees everything tinged with its predominant colours, and all rates of vibration which reach him from without are more or less modified by its rate. thus until the man learns complete control of thought and feeling, he sees nothing as it really is, since all his observations must be made through this medium, which distorts and colours everything like badly-made glass. if the thought-form be neither definitely personal nor specially aimed at someone else, it simply floats detached in the atmosphere, all the time radiating vibrations similar to those originally sent forth by its creator. if it does not come into contact with any other mental body, this radiation gradually exhausts its store of energy, and in that case the form falls to pieces; but if it succeeds in awakening sympathetic vibration in any mental body near at hand, an attraction is set up, and the thought-form is usually absorbed by that mental body. thus we see that the influence of the thought-form is by no means so far-reaching as that of the original vibration; but in so far as it acts, it acts with much greater precision. what it produces in the mind-body which it influences is not merely a thought of an order similar to that which gave it birth; it is actually the same thought. the radiation may affect thousands and stir up in them thoughts on the same level as the original, and yet it may happen that no one of them will be identical with that original; the thought-form can affect only very few, but in those few cases it will reproduce exactly the initiatory idea. the fact of the creation by vibrations of a distinct form, geometrical or other, is already familiar to every student of acoustics, and "chladni's" figures are continually reproduced in every physical laboratory. [illustration: fig. 1. chladni's sound plate] [illustration: fig. 2. forms produced in sound] for the lay reader the following brief description may be useful. a chladni's sound plate (fig. 1) is made of brass or plate-glass. grains of fine sand or spores are scattered over the surface, and the edge of the plate is bowed. the sand is thrown up into the air by the vibration of the plate, and re-falling on the plate is arranged in regular lines (fig. 2). by touching the edge of the plate at different points when it is bowed, different notes, and hence varying forms, are obtained (fig. 3). if the figures here given are compared with those obtained from the human voice, many likenesses will be observed. for these latter, the 'voice-forms' so admirably studied and pictured by mrs watts hughes,[1] bearing witness to the same fact, should be consulted, and her work on the subject should be in the hands of every student. but few perhaps have realised that the shapes pictured are due to the interplay of the vibrations that create them, and that a machine exists by means of which two or more simultaneous motions can be imparted to a pendulum, and that by attaching a fine drawing-pen to a lever connected with the pendulum its action may be exactly traced. substitute for the swing of the pendulum the vibrations set up in the mental or astral body, and we have clearly before us the _modus operandi_ of the building of forms by vibrations.[2] [illustration: fig. 3. forms produced in sound] [footnote 1: _the eidophone voice figures._ margaret watts hughes.] [footnote 2: mr joseph gould, stratford house, nottingham, supplies the twin-elliptic pendulum by which these wonderful figures may be produced.] the following description is taken from a most interesting essay entitled _vibration figures_, by f. bligh bond, f.r.i.b.a., who has drawn a number of remarkable figures by the use of pendulums. the pendulum is suspended on knife edges of hardened steel, and is free to swing only at right angles to the knife-edge suspension. four such pendulums may be coupled in pairs, swinging at right angles to each other, by threads connecting the shafts of each pair of pendulums with the ends of a light but rigid lath, from the centre of which run other threads; these threads carry the united movements of each pair of pendulums to a light square of wood, suspended by a spring, and bearing a pen. the pen is thus controlled by the combined movement of the four pendulums, and this movement is registered on a drawing board by the pen. there is no limit, theoretically, to the number of pendulums that can be combined in this manner. the movements are rectilinear, but two rectilinear vibrations of equal amplitude acting at right angles to each other generate a circle if they alternate precisely, an ellipse if the alternations are less regular or the amplitudes unequal. a cyclic vibration may also be obtained from a pendulum free to swing in a rotary path. in these ways a most wonderful series of drawings have been obtained, and the similarity of these to some of the thought-forms is remarkable; they suffice to demonstrate how readily vibrations may be transformed into figures. thus compare fig. 4 with fig. 12, the mother's prayer; or fig. 5 with fig. 10; or fig. 6 with fig. 25, the serpent-like darting forms. fig. 7 is added as an illustration of the complexity attainable. it seems to us a most marvellous thing that some of the drawings, made apparently at random by the use of this machine, should exactly correspond to higher types of thought-forms created in meditation. we are sure that a wealth of significance lies behind this fact, though it will need much further investigation before we can say certainly all that it means. but it must surely imply this much--that, if two forces on the physical plane bearing a certain ratio one to the other can draw a form which exactly corresponds to that produced on the mental plane by a complex thought, we may infer that that thought sets in motion on its own plane two forces which are in the same ratio one to the other. what these forces are and how they work remains to be seen; but if we are ever able to solve this problem, it is likely that it will open to us a new and exceedingly valuable field of knowledge. [illustration: figs. 4-7. forms produced by pendulums] general principles. three general principles underlie the production of all thought-forms:-1. quality of thought determines colour. 2. nature of thought determines form. 3. definiteness of thought determines clearness of outline. the meaning of the colours the table of colours given in the frontispiece has already been thoroughly described in the book _man visible and invisible_, and the meaning to be attached to them is just the same in the thought-form as in the body out of which it is evolved. for the sake of those who have not at hand the full description given in the book just mentioned, it will be well to state that black means hatred and malice. red, of all shades from lurid brick-red to brilliant scarlet, indicates anger; brutal anger will show as flashes of lurid red from dark brown clouds, while the anger of "noble indignation" is a vivid scarlet, by no means unbeautiful, though it gives an unpleasant thrill; a particularly dark and unpleasant red, almost exactly the colour called dragon's blood, shows animal passion and sensual desire of various kinds. clear brown (almost burnt sienna) shows avarice; hard dull brown-grey is a sign of selfishness--a colour which is indeed painfully common; deep heavy grey signifies depression, while a livid pale grey is associated with fear; grey-green is a signal of deceit, while brownish-green (usually flecked with points and flashes of scarlet) betokens jealousy. green seems always to denote adaptability; in the lowest case, when mingled with selfishness, this adaptability becomes deceit; at a later stage, when the colour becomes purer, it means rather the wish to be all things to all men, even though it may be chiefly for the sake of becoming popular and bearing a good reputation with them; in its still higher, more delicate and more luminous aspect, it shows the divine power of sympathy. affection expresses itself in all shades of crimson and rose; a full clear carmine means a strong healthy affection of normal type; if stained heavily with brown-grey, a selfish and grasping feeling is indicated, while pure pale rose marks that absolutely unselfish love which is possible only to high natures; it passes from the dull crimson of animal love to the most exquisite shades of delicate rose, like the early flushes of the dawning, as the love becomes purified from all selfish elements, and flows out in wider and wider circles of generous impersonal tenderness and compassion to all who are in need. with a touch of the blue of devotion in it, this may express a strong realisation of the universal brotherhood of humanity. deep orange imports pride or ambition, and the various shades of yellow denote intellect or intellectual gratification, dull yellow ochre implying the direction of such faculty to selfish purposes, while clear gamboge shows a distinctly higher type, and pale luminous primrose yellow is a sign of the highest and most unselfish use of intellectual power, the pure reason directed to spiritual ends. the different shades of blue all indicate religious feeling, and range through all hues from the dark brown-blue of selfish devotion, or the pallid grey-blue of fetish-worship tinged with fear, up to the rich deep clear colour of heartfelt adoration, and the beautiful pale azure of that highest form which implies self-renunciation and union with the divine; the devotional thought of an unselfish heart is very lovely in colour, like the deep blue of a summer sky. through such clouds of blue will often shine out golden stars of great brilliancy, darting upwards like a shower of sparks. a mixture of affection and devotion is manifested by a tint of violet, and the more delicate shades of this invariably show the capacity of absorbing and responding to a high and beautiful ideal. the brilliancy and the depth of the colours are usually a measure of the strength and the activity of the feeling. another consideration which must not be forgotten is the type of matter in which these forms are generated. if a thought be purely intellectual and impersonal--for example, if the thinker is attempting to solve a problem in algebra or geometry--the thought-form and the wave of vibration will be confined entirely to the mental plane. if, however, the thought be of a spiritual nature, if it be tinged with love and aspiration or deep unselfish feeling, it will rise upwards from the mental plane and will borrow much of the splendour and glory of the buddhic level. in such a case its influence is exceedingly powerful, and every such thought is a mighty force for good which cannot but produce a decided effect upon all mental bodies within reach, if they contain any quality at all capable of response. if, on the other hand, the thought has in it something of self or of personal desire, at once its vibration turns downwards, and it draws round itself a body of astral matter in addition to its clothing of mental matter. such a thought-form is capable of acting upon the astral bodies of other men as well as their minds, so that it can not only raise thought within them, but can also stir up their feelings. three classes of thought-forms from the point of view of the forms which they produce we may group thought into three classes:-1. that which takes the image of the thinker. when a man thinks of himself as in some distant place, or wishes earnestly to be in that place, he makes a thought-form in his own image which appears there. such a form has not infrequently been seen by others, and has sometimes been taken for the astral body or apparition of the man himself. in such a case, either the seer must have enough of clairvoyance for the time to be able to observe that astral shape, or the thought-form must have sufficient strength to materialise itself--that is, to draw round itself temporarily a certain amount of physical matter. the thought which generates such a form as this must necessarily be a strong one, and it therefore employs a larger proportion of the matter of the mental body, so that though the form is small and compressed when it leaves the thinker, it draws round it a considerable amount of astral matter, and usually expands to life-size before it appears at its destination. 2. that which takes the image of some material object. when a man thinks of his friend he forms within his mental body a minute image of that friend, which often passes outward and usually floats suspended in the air before him. in the same way if he thinks of a room, a house, a landscape, tiny images of these things are formed within the mental body and afterwards externalised. this is equally true when he is exercising his imagination; the painter who forms a conception of his future picture builds it up out of the matter of his mental body, and then projects it into space in front of him, keeps it before his mind's eye, and copies it. the novelist in the same way builds images of his character in mental matter, and by the exercise of his will moves these puppets from one position or grouping to another, so that the plot of his story is literally acted out before him. with our curiously inverted conceptions of reality it is hard for us to understand that these mental images actually exist, and are so entirely objective that they may readily be seen by the clairvoyant, and can even be rearranged by some one other than their creator. some novelists have been dimly aware of such a process, and have testified that their characters when once created developed a will of their own, and insisted on carrying the plot of the story along lines quite different from those originally intended by the author. this has actually happened, sometimes because the thought-forms were ensouled by playful nature-spirits, or more often because some 'dead' novelist, watching on the astral plane the development of the plan of his fellow-author, thought that he could improve upon it, and chose this method of putting forward his suggestions. 3. that which takes a form entirely its own, expressing its inherent qualities in the matter which it draws round it. only thought-forms of this third class can usefully be illustrated, for to represent those of the first or second class would be merely to draw portraits or landscapes. in those types we have the plastic mental or astral matter moulded in imitation of forms belonging to the physical plane; in this third group we have a glimpse of the forms natural to the astral or mental planes. yet this very fact, which makes them so interesting, places an insuperable barrier in the way of their accurate reproduction. thought-forms of this third class almost invariably manifest themselves upon the astral plane, as the vast majority of them are expressions of feeling as well as of thought. those of which we here give specimens are almost wholly of that class, except that we take a few examples of the beautiful thought-forms created in definite meditation by those who, through long practice, have learnt how to think. thought-forms directed towards individuals produce definitely marked effects, these effects being either partially reproduced in the aura of the recipient and so increasing the total result, or repelled from it. a thought of love and of desire to protect, directed strongly towards some beloved object, creates a form which goes to the person thought of, and remains in his aura as a shielding and protecting agent; it will seek all opportunities to serve, and all opportunities to defend, not by a conscious and deliberate action, but by a blind following out of the impulse impressed upon it, and it will strengthen friendly forces that impinge on the aura and weaken unfriendly ones. thus may we create and maintain veritable guardian angels round those we love, and many a mother's prayer for a distant child thus circles round him, though she knows not the method by which her "prayer is answered." in cases in which good or evil thoughts are projected at individuals, those thoughts, if they are to directly fulfil their mission, must find, in the aura of the object to whom they are sent, materials capable of responding sympathetically to their vibrations. any combination of matter can only vibrate within certain definite limits, and if the thought-form be outside all the limits within which the aura is capable of vibrating, it cannot affect that aura at all. it consequently rebounds from it, and that with a force proportionate to the energy with which it impinged upon it. this is why it is said that a pure heart and mind are the best protectors against any inimical assaults, for such a pure heart and mind will construct an astral and a mental body of fine and subtle materials, and these bodies cannot respond to vibrations that demand coarse and dense matter. if an evil thought, projected with malefic intent, strikes such a body, it can only rebound from it, and it is flung back with all its own energy; it then flies backward along the magnetic line of least resistance, that which it has just traversed, and strikes its projector; he, having matter in his astral and mental bodies similar to that of the thought-form he generated, is thrown into respondent vibrations, and suffers the destructive effects he had intended to cause to another. thus "curses [and blessings] come home to roost." from this arise also the very serious effects of hating or suspecting a good and highly-advanced man; the thought-forms sent against him cannot injure him, and they rebound against their projectors, shattering them mentally, morally, or physically. several such instances are well known to members of the theosophical society, having come under their direct observation. so long as any of the coarser kinds of matter connected with evil and selfish thoughts remain in a person's body, he is open to attack from those who wish him evil, but when he has perfectly eliminated these by self-purification his haters cannot injure him, and he goes on calmly and peacefully amid all the darts of their malice. but it is bad for those who shoot out such darts. another point that should be mentioned before passing to the consideration of our illustrations is that every one of the thought-forms here given is drawn from life. they are not imaginary forms, prepared as some dreamer thinks that they ought to appear; they are representations of forms actually observed as thrown off by ordinary men and women, and either reproduced with all possible care and fidelity by those who have seen them, or with the help of artists to whom the seers have described them. * * * * * for convenience of comparison thought-forms of a similar kind are grouped together. illustrative thought-forms affection _vague pure affection._--fig. 8 is a revolving cloud of pure affection, and except for its vagueness it represents a very good feeling. the person from whom it emanates is happy and at peace with the world, thinking dreamily of some friend whose very presence is a pleasure. there is nothing keen or strong about the feeling, yet it is one of gentle well-being, and of an unselfish delight in the proximity of those who are beloved. the feeling which gives birth to such a cloud is pure of its kind, but there is in it no force capable of producing definite results. an appearance by no means unlike this frequently surrounds a gently purring cat, and radiates slowly outward from the animal in a series of gradually enlarging concentric shells of rosy cloud, fading into invisibility at a distance of a few feet from their drowsily contented creator. [illustration: fig. 8. vague pure affection] _vague selfish affection._--fig. 9 shows us also a cloud of affection, but this time it is deeply tinged with a far less desirable feeling. the dull hard brown-grey of selfishness shows itself very decidedly among the carmine of love, and thus we see that the affection which is indicated is closely connected with satisfaction at favours already received, and with a lively anticipation of others to come in the near future. indefinite as was the feeling which produced the cloud in fig. 8, it was at least free from this taint of selfishness, and it therefore showed a certain nobility of nature in its author. fig. 9 represents what takes the place of that condition of mind at a lower level of evolution. it would scarcely be possible that these two clouds should emanate from the same person in the same incarnation. yet there is good in the man who generates this second cloud, though as yet it is but partially evolved. a vast amount of the average affection of the world is of this type, and it is only by slow degrees that it develops towards the other and higher manifestation. [illustration: fig. 9. vague selfish affection] _definite affection._--even the first glance at fig. 10 shows us that here we have to deal with something of an entirely different nature--something effective and capable, something that will achieve a result. the colour is fully equal to that of fig. 8 in clearness and depth and transparency, but what was there a mere sentiment is in this case translated into emphatic intention coupled with unhesitating action. those who have seen the book _man visible and invisible_ will recollect that in plate xi. of that volume is depicted the effect of a sudden rush of pure unselfish affection as it showed itself in the astral body of a mother, as she caught up her little child and covered it with kisses. various changes resulted from that sudden outburst of emotion; one of them was the formation within the astral body of large crimson coils or vortices lined with living light. each of these is a thought-form of intense affection generated as we have described, and almost instantaneously ejected towards the object of the feeling. fig. 10 depicts just such a thought-form after it has left the astral body of its author, and is on its way towards its goal. it will be observed that the almost circular form has changed into one somewhat resembling a projectile or the head of a comet; and it will be easily understood that this alteration is caused by its rapid forward motion. the clearness of the colour assures us of the purity of the emotion which gave birth to this thought-form, while the precision of its outline is unmistakable evidence of power and of vigorous purpose. the soul that gave birth to a thought-form such as this must already be one of a certain amount of development. [illustration: fig. 10. definite affection] _radiating affection._--fig. 11 gives us our first example of a thought-form intentionally generated, since its author is making the effort to pour himself forth in love to all beings. it must be remembered that all these forms are in constant motion. this one, for example, is steadily widening out, though there seems to be an exhaustless fountain welling up through the centre from a dimension which we cannot represent. a sentiment such as this is so wide in its application, that it is very difficult for any one not thoroughly trained to keep it clear and precise. the thought-form here shown is, therefore, a very creditable one, for it will be noted that all the numerous rays of the star are commendably free from vagueness. [illustration: fig. 11. radiating affection] _peace and protection._--few thought-forms are more beautiful and expressive than this which we see in fig. 12. this is a thought of love and peace, protection and benediction, sent forth by one who has the power and has earned the right to bless. it is not at all probable that in the mind of its creator there existed any thought of its beautiful wing-like shape, though it is possible that some unconscious reflection of far-away lessons of childhood about guardian angels who always hovered over their charges may have had its influence in determining this. however that may be, the earnest wish undoubtedly clothed itself in this graceful and expressive outline, while the affection that prompted it gave to it its lovely rose-colour, and the intellect which guided it shone forth like sunlight as its heart and central support. thus in sober truth we may make veritable guardian angels to hover over and protect those whom we love, and many an unselfish earnest wish for good produces such a form as this, though all unknown to its creator. [illustration: fig. 12. peace and protection] _grasping animal affection._--fig. 13 gives us an instance of grasping animal affection--if indeed such a feeling as this be deemed worthy of the august name of affection at all. several colours bear their share in the production of its dull unpleasing hue, tinged as it is with the lurid gleam of sensuality, as well as deadened with the heavy tint indicative of selfishness. especially characteristic is its form, for those curving hooks are never seen except when there exists a strong craving for personal possession. it is regrettably evident that the fabricator of this thought-form had no conception of the self-sacrificing love which pours itself out in joyous service, never once thinking of result or return; his thought has been, not "how much can i give?" but "how much can i gain?" and so it has expressed itself in these re-entering curves. it has not even ventured to throw itself boldly outward, as do other thoughts, but projects half-heartedly from the astral body, which must be supposed to be on the left of the picture. a sad travesty of the divine quality love; yet even this is a stage in evolution, and distinctly an improvement upon earlier stages, as will presently be seen. [illustration: fig. 13. grasping animal affection] devotion _vague religious feeling._--fig. 14 shows us another shapeless rolling cloud, but this time it is blue instead of crimson. it betokens that vaguely pleasurable religious feeling--a sensation of devoutness rather than of devotion--which is so common among those in whom piety is more developed than intellect. in many a church one may see a great cloud of deep dull blue floating over the heads of the congregation--indefinite in outline, because of the indistinct nature of the thoughts and feelings which cause it; flecked too often with brown and grey, because ignorant devotion absorbs with deplorable facility the dismal tincture of selfishness or fear; but none the less adumbrating a mighty potentiality of the future, manifesting to our eyes the first faint flutter of one at least of the twin wings of devotion and wisdom, by the use of which the soul flies upward to god from whom it came. [illustration: fig. 14. vague religious feeling] strange is it to note under what varied circumstances this vague blue cloud may be seen; and oftentimes its absence speaks more loudly than its presence. for in many a fashionable place of worship we seek it in vain, and find instead of it a vast conglomeration of thought-forms of that second type which take the shape of material objects. instead of tokens of devotion, we see floating above the "worshippers" the astral images of hats and bonnets, of jewellery and gorgeous dresses, of horses and of carriages, of whisky-bottles and of sunday dinners, and sometimes of whole rows of intricate calculations, showing that men and women alike have had during their supposed hours of prayer and praise no thoughts but of business or of pleasure, of the desires or the anxieties of the lower form of mundane existence. yet sometimes in a humbler fane, in a church belonging to the unfashionable catholic or ritualist, or even in a lowly meeting-house where there is but little of learning or of culture, one may watch the deep blue clouds rolling ceaselessly eastward towards the altar, or upwards, testifying at least to the earnestness and the reverence of those who give them birth. rarely--very rarely--among the clouds of blue will flash like a lance cast by the hand of a giant such a thought-form as is shown in fig. 15; or such a flower of self-renunciation as we see in fig. 16 may float before our ravished eyes; but in most cases we must seek elsewhere for these signs of a higher development. _upward rush of devotion._--the form in fig. 15 bears much the same relation to that of fig. 14 as did the clearly outlined projectile of fig. 10 to the indeterminate cloud of fig. 8. we could hardly have a more marked contrast than that between the inchoate flaccidity of the nebulosity in fig. 14 and the virile vigour of the splendid spire of highly developed devotion which leaps into being before us in fig. 15. this is no uncertain half-formed sentiment; it is the outrush into manifestation of a grand emotion rooted deep in the knowledge of fact. the man who feels such devotion as this is one who knows in whom he has believed; the man who makes such a thought-form as this is one who has taught himself how to think. the determination of the upward rush points to courage as well as conviction, while the sharpness of its outline shows the clarity of its creator's conception, and the peerless purity of its colour bears witness to his utter unselfishness. [illustration: fig. 15. upward rush of devotion] _the response to devotion._--in fig. 17 we see the result of his thought--the response of the logos to the appeal made to him, the truth which underlies the highest and best part of the persistent belief in an answer to prayer. it needs a few words of explanation. on every plane of his solar system our logos pours forth his light, his power, his life, and naturally it is on the higher planes that this outpouring of divine strength can be given most fully. the descent from each plane to that next below it means an almost paralysing limitation--a limitation entirely incomprehensible except to those who have experienced the higher possibilities of human consciousness. thus the divine life flows forth with incomparably greater fulness on the mental plane than on the astral; and yet even its glory at the mental level is ineffably transcended by that of the buddhic plane. normally each of these mighty waves of influence spreads about its appropriate plane--horizontally, as it were--but it does not pass into the obscuration of a plane lower than that for which it was originally intended. [illustration: fig. 17. response to devotion] yet there are conditions under which the grace and strength peculiar to a higher plane may in a measure be brought down to a lower one, and may spread abroad there with wonderful effect. this seems to be possible only when a special channel is for the moment opened; and that work must be done from below and by the effort of man. it has before been explained that whenever a man's thought or feeling is selfish, the energy which it produces moves in a close curve, and thus inevitably returns and expends itself upon its own level; but when the thought or feeling is absolutely unselfish, its energy rushes forth in an open curve, and thus does _not_ return in the ordinary sense, but pierces through into the plane above, because only in that higher condition, with its additional dimension, can it find room for its expansion. but in thus breaking through, such a thought or feeling holds open a door (to speak symbolically) of dimension equivalent to its own diameter, and thus furnishes the requisite channel through which the divine force appropriate to the higher plane can pour itself into the lower with marvellous results, not only for the thinker but for others. an attempt is made in fig. 17 to symbolise this, and to indicate the great truth that an infinite flood of the higher type of force is always ready and waiting to pour through when the channel is offered, just as the water in a cistern may be said to be waiting to pour through the first pipe that may be opened. the result of the descent of divine life is a very great strengthening and uplifting of the maker of the channel, and the spreading all about him of a most powerful and beneficent influence. this effect has often been called an answer to prayer, and has been attributed by the ignorant to what they call a "special interposition of providence," instead of to the unerring action of the great and immutable divine law. _self-renunciation._--fig. 16 gives us yet another form of devotion, producing an exquisitely beautiful form of a type quite new to us--a type in which one might at first sight suppose that various graceful shapes belonging to animate nature were being imitated. fig. 16, for example, is somewhat suggestive of a partially opened flower-bud, while other forms are found to bear a certain resemblance to shells or leaves or tree-shapes. manifestly, however, these are not and cannot be copies of vegetable or animal forms, and it seems probable that the explanation of the similarity lies very much deeper than that. an analogous and even more significant fact is that some very complex thought-forms can be exactly imitated by the action of certain mechanical forces, as has been said above. while with our present knowledge it would be unwise to attempt a solution of the very fascinating problem presented by these remarkable resemblances, it seems likely that we are obtaining a glimpse across the threshold of a very mighty mystery, for if by certain thoughts we produce a form which has been duplicated by the processes of nature, we have at least a presumption that these forces of nature work along lines somewhat similar to the action of those thoughts. since the universe is itself a mighty thought-form called into existence by the logos, it may well be that tiny parts of it are also the thought-forms of minor entities engaged in the same work; and thus perhaps we may approach a comprehension of what is meant by the three hundred and thirty million devas of the hindus. [illustration: fig. 16. self-renunciation] this form is of the loveliest pale azure, with a glory of white light shining through it--something indeed to tax the skill even of the indefatigable artist who worked so hard to get them as nearly right as possible. it is what a catholic would call a definite "act of devotion"--better still, an act of utter selflessness, of self-surrender and renunciation. intellect _vague intellectual pleasure._--fig. 18 represents a vague cloud of the same order as those shown in figs. 8 and 14, but in this case the colour is yellow instead of crimson or blue. yellow in any of man's vehicles always indicates intellectual capacity, but its shades vary very much, and it may be complicated by the admixture of other hues. generally speaking, it has a deeper and duller tint if the intellect is directed chiefly into lower channels, more especially if the objects are selfish. in the astral or mental body of the average man of business it would show itself as yellow ochre, while pure intellect devoted to the study of philosophy or mathematics appears frequently to be golden, and this rises gradually to a beautiful clear and luminous lemon or primrose yellow when a powerful intellect is being employed absolutely unselfishly for the benefit of humanity. most yellow thought-forms are clearly outlined, and a vague cloud of this colour is comparatively rare. it indicates intellectual pleasure--appreciation of the result of ingenuity, or the delight felt in clever workmanship. such pleasure as the ordinary man derives from the contemplation of a picture usually depends chiefly upon the emotions of admiration, affection, or pity which it arouses within him, or sometimes, if it pourtrays a scene with which he is familiar, its charm consists in its power to awaken the memory of past joys. an artist, however, may derive from a picture a pleasure of an entirely different character, based upon his recognition of the excellence of the work, and of the ingenuity which has been exercised in producing certain results. such pure intellectual gratification shows itself in a yellow cloud; and the same effect may be produced by delight in musical ingenuity, or the subtleties of argument. a cloud of this nature betokens the entire absence of any personal emotion, for if that were present it would inevitably tinge the yellow with its own appropriate colour. [illustration: fig. 18. vague intellectual pleasure] _the intention to know._--fig. 19 is of interest as showing us something of the growth of a thought-form. the earlier stage, which is indicated by the upper form, is not uncommon, and indicates the determination to solve some problem--the intention to know and to understand. sometimes a theosophical lecturer sees many of these yellow serpentine forms projecting towards him from his audience, and welcomes them as a token that his hearers are following his arguments intelligently, and have an earnest desire to understand and to know more. a form of this kind frequently accompanies a question, and if, as is sometimes unfortunately the case, the question is put less with the genuine desire for knowledge than for the purpose of exhibiting the acumen of the questioner, the form is strongly tinged with the deep orange that indicates conceit. it was at a theosophical meeting that this special shape was encountered, and it accompanied a question which showed considerable thought and penetration. the answer at first given was not thoroughly satisfactory to the inquirer, who seems to have received the impression that his problem was being evaded by the lecturer. his resolution to obtain a full and thorough answer to his inquiry became more determined than ever, and his thought-form deepened in colour and changed into the second of the two shapes, resembling a cork-screw even more closely than before. forms similar to these are constantly created by ordinary idle and frivolous curiosity, but as there is no intellect involved in that case the colour is no longer yellow, but usually closely resembles that of decaying meat, somewhat like that shown in fig. 29 as expressing a drunken man's craving for alcohol. [illustration: fig. 19. the intention to know] _high ambition._--fig. 20 gives us another manifestation of desire--the ambition for place or power. the ambitious quality is shown by the rich deep orange colour, and the desire by the hooked extensions which precede the form as it moves. the thought is a good and pure one of its kind, for if there were anything base or selfish in the desire it would inevitably show itself in the darkening of the clear orange hue by dull reds, browns, or greys. if this man coveted place or power, it was not for his own sake, but from the conviction that he could do the work well and truly, and to the advantage of his fellow-men. [illustration: fig. 20. high ambition] _selfish ambition._--ambition of a lower type is represented in fig. 21. not only have we here a large stain of the dull brown-grey of selfishness, but there is also a considerable difference in the form, though it appears to possess equal definiteness of outline. fig. 20 is rising steadily onward towards a definite object, for it will be observed that the central part of it is as definitely a projectile as fig. 10. fig. 21, on the other hand, is a floating form, and is strongly indicative of general acquisitiveness--the ambition to grasp for the self everything that is within sight. [illustration: fig. 21. selfish ambition] anger _murderous rage and sustained anger._--in figs. 22 and 23 we have two terrible examples of the awful effect of anger. the lurid flash from dark clouds (fig. 22) was taken from the aura of a rough and partially intoxicated man in the east end of london, as he struck down a woman; the flash darted out at her the moment before he raised his hand to strike, and caused a shuddering feeling of horror, as though it might slay. the keen-pointed stiletto-like dart (fig. 23) was a thought of steady anger, intense and desiring vengeance, of the quality of murder, sustained through years, and directed against a person who had inflicted a deep injury on the one who sent it forth; had the latter been possessed of a strong and trained will, such a thought-form would slay, and the one nourishing it is running a very serious danger of becoming a murderer in act as well as in thought in a future incarnation. it will be noted that both of them take the flash-like form, though the upper is irregular in its shape, while the lower represents a steadiness of intention which is far more dangerous. the basis of utter selfishness out of which the upper one springs is very characteristic and instructive. the difference in colour between the two is also worthy of note. in the upper one the dirty brown of selfishness is so strongly evident that it stains even the outrush of anger; while in the second case, though no doubt selfishness was at the root of that also, the original thought has been forgotten in the sustained and concentrated wrath. one who studies plate xiii. in _man visible and invisible_ will be able to image to himself the condition of the astral body from which these forms are protruding; and surely the mere sight of these pictures, even without examination, should prove a powerful object-lesson in the evil of yielding to the passion of anger. [illustration: fig. 22. murderous rage] [illustration: fig. 23. sustained anger] _explosive anger._--in fig. 24 we see an exhibition of anger of a totally different character. here is no sustained hatred, but simply a vigorous explosion of irritation. it is at once evident that while the creators of the forms shown in figs. 22 and 23 were each directing their ire against an individual, the person who is responsible for the explosion in fig. 24 is for the moment at war with the whole world round him. it may well express the sentiment of some choleric old gentleman, who feels himself insulted or impertinently treated, for the dash of orange intermingled with the scarlet implies that his pride has been seriously hurt. it is instructive to compare the radiations of this plate with those of fig. 11. here we see indicated a veritable explosion, instantaneous in its passing and irregular in its effects; and the vacant centre shows us that the feeling that caused it is already a thing of the past, and that no further force is being generated. in fig. 11, on the other hand, the centre is the strongest part of the thought-form, showing that this is not the result of a momentary flash of feeling, but that there is a steady continuous upwelling of the energy, while the rays show by their quality and length and the evenness of their distribution the steadily sustained effort which produces them. [illustration: fig. 24. explosive anger] _watchful and angry jealousy._--in fig. 25 we see an interesting though unpleasant thought-form. its peculiar brownish-green colour at once indicates to the practised clairvoyant that it is an expression of jealousy, and its curious shape shows the eagerness with which the man is watching its object. the remarkable resemblance to the snake with raised head aptly symbolises the extraordinarily fatuous attitude of the jealous person, keenly alert to discover signs of that which he least of all wishes to see. the moment that he does see it, or imagines that he sees it, the form will change into the far commoner one shown in fig. 26, where the jealousy is already mingled with anger. it may be noted that here the jealousy is merely a vague cloud, though interspersed with very definite flashes of anger ready to strike at those by whom it fancies itself to be injured; whereas in fig. 25, where there is no anger as yet, the jealousy itself has a perfectly definite and very expressive outline. [illustration: fig. 25. watchful jealousy] [illustration: fig. 26. angry jealousy] sympathy _vague sympathy._--in fig. 18a we have another of the vague clouds, but this time its green colour shows us that it is a manifestation of the feeling of sympathy. we may infer from the indistinct character of its outline that it is not a definite and active sympathy, such as would instantly translate itself from thought into deed; it marks rather such a general feeling of commiseration as might come over a man who read an account of a sad accident, or stood at the door of a hospital ward looking in upon the patients. [illustration: fig. 18a. vague sympathy] fear _sudden fright._--one of the most pitiful objects in nature is a man or an animal in a condition of abject fear; and an examination of plate xiv. in _man visible and invisible_ shows that under such circumstances the astral body presents no better appearance than the physical. when a man's astral body is thus in a state of frenzied palpitation, its natural tendency is to throw off amorphous explosive fragments, like masses of rock hurled out in blasting, as will be seen in fig. 30; but when a person is not terrified but seriously startled, an effect such as that shown in fig. 27 is often produced. in one of the photographs taken by dr baraduc of paris, it was noticed that an eruption of broken circles resulted from sudden annoyance, and this outrush of crescent-shaped forms seems to be of somewhat the same nature, though in this case there are the accompanying lines of matter which even increase the explosive appearance. it is noteworthy that all the crescents to the right hand, which must obviously have been those expelled earliest, show nothing but the livid grey of fear; but a moment later the man is already partially recovering from the shock, and beginning to feel angry that he allowed himself to be startled. this is shown by the fact that the later crescents are lined with scarlet, evidencing the mingling of anger and fear, while the last crescent is pure scarlet, telling us that even already the fright is entirely overcome, and only the annoyance remains. [illustration: fig. 27. sudden fright] greed _selfish greed._--fig. 28 gives us an example of selfish greed--a far lower type than fig. 21. it will be noted that here there is nothing even so lofty as ambition, and it is also evident from the tinge of muddy green that the person from whom this unpleasant thought is projecting is quite ready to employ deceit in order to obtain her desire. while the ambition of fig. 21 was general in its nature, the craving expressed in fig. 28 is for a particular object towards which it is reaching out; for it will be understood that this thought-form, like that in fig. 13, remains attached to the astral body, which must be supposed to be on the left of the picture. claw-like forms of this nature are very frequently to be seen converging upon a woman who wears a new dress or bonnet, or some specially attractive article of jewellery. the thought-form may vary in colour according to the precise amount of envy or jealousy which is mingled with the lust for possession, but an approximation to the shape indicated in our illustration will be found in all cases. not infrequently people gathered in front of a shop-window may be seen thus protruding astral cravings through the glass. [illustration: fig. 28. selfish greed] _greed for drink._--in fig. 29 we have another variant of the same passion, perhaps at an even more degraded and animal level. this specimen was taken from the astral body of a man just as he entered at the door of a drinking-shop; the expectation of and the keen desire for the liquor which he was about to absorb showed itself in the projection in front of him of this very unpleasant appearance. once more the hooked protrusions show the craving, while the colour and the coarse mottled texture show the low and sensual nature of the appetite. sexual desires frequently show themselves in an exactly similar manner. men who give birth to forms such as this are as yet but little removed from the animal; as they rise in the scale of evolution the place of this form will gradually be taken by something resembling that shown in fig. 13, and very slowly, as development advances, that in turn will pass through the stages indicated in figs. 9 and 8, until at last all selfishness is cast out, and the desire to have has been transmuted into the desire to give, and we arrive at the splendid results shown in figs. 11 and 10. [illustration: fig. 29. greed for drink] various emotions _at a shipwreck._--very serious is the panic which has occasioned the very interesting group of thought-forms which are depicted in fig. 30. they were seen simultaneously, arranged exactly as represented, though in the midst of indescribable confusion, so their relative positions have been retained, though in explaining them it will be convenient to take them in reverse order. they were called forth by a terrible accident, and they are instructive as showing how differently people are affected by sudden and serious danger. one form shows nothing but an eruption of the livid grey of fear, rising out of a basis of utter selfishness: and unfortunately there were many such as this. the shattered appearance of the thought-form shows the violence and completeness of the explosion, which in turn indicates that the whole soul of that person was possessed with blind, frantic terror, and that the overpowering sense of personal danger excluded for the time every higher feeling. [illustration: fig. 30. at a shipwreck] the second form represents at least an attempt at self-control, and shows the attitude adopted by a person having a certain amount of religious feeling. the thinker is seeking solace in prayer, and endeavouring in this way to overcome her fear. this is indicated by the point of greyish-blue which lifts itself hesitatingly upwards; the colour shows, however, that the effort is but partially successful, and we see also from the lower part of the thought-form, with its irregular outline and its falling fragments, that there is in reality almost as much fright here as in the other case. but at least this woman has had presence of mind enough to remember that she ought to pray, and is trying to imagine that she is not afraid as she does it, whereas in the other case there was absolutely no thought beyond selfish terror. the one retains still some semblance of humanity, and some possibility of regaining self-control; the other has for the time cast aside all remnants of decency, and is an abject slave to overwhelming emotion. a very striking contrast to the humiliating weakness shown in these two forms is the splendid strength and decision of the third. here we have no amorphous mass with quivering lines and explosive fragments, but a powerful, clear-cut and definite thought, obviously full of force and resolution. for this is the thought of the officer in charge--the man responsible for the lives and the safety of the passengers, and he rises to the emergency in a most satisfactory manner. it does not even occur to him to feel the least shadow of fear; he has no time for that. though the scarlet of the sharp point of his weapon-like thought-form shows anger that the accident should have happened, the bold curve of orange immediately above it betokens perfect self-confidence and certainty of his power to deal with the difficulty. the brilliant yellow implies that his intellect is already at work upon the problem, while the green which runs side by side with it denotes the sympathy which he feels for those whom he intends to save. a very striking and instructive group of thought-forms. _on the first night._--fig. 31 is also an interesting specimen--perhaps unique--for it represents the thought-form of an actor while waiting to go upon the stage for a "first-night" performance. the broad band of orange in the centre is very clearly defined, and is the expression of a well-founded self-confidence--the realisation of many previous successes, and the reasonable expectation that on this occasion another will be added to the list. yet in spite of this there is a good deal of unavoidable uncertainty as to how this new play may strike the fickle public, and on the whole the doubt and fear overbalance the certainty and pride, for there is more of the pale grey than of the orange, and the whole thought-form vibrates like a flag flapping in a gale of wind. it will be noted that while the outline of the orange is exceedingly clear and definite, that of the grey is much vaguer. [illustration: fig. 31. on the first night] _the gamblers._--the forms shown in fig. 32 were observed simultaneously at the great gambling-house at monte carlo. both represent some of the worst of human passions, and there is little to choose between them; although they represent the feelings of the successful and the unsuccessful gambler respectively. the lower form has a strong resemblance to a lurid and gleaming eye, though this must be simply a coincidence, for when we analyse it we find that its constituent parts and colours can be accounted for without difficulty. the background of the whole thought is an irregular cloud of deep depression, heavily marked by the dull brown-grey of selfishness and the livid hue of fear. in the centre we find a clearly-marked scarlet ring showing deep anger and resentment at the hostility of fate, and within that is a sharply outlined circle of black expressing the hatred of the ruined man for those who have won his money. the man who can send forth such a thought-form as this is surely in imminent danger, for he has evidently descended into the very depths of despair; being a gambler he can have no principle to sustain him, so that he would be by no means unlikely to resort to the imaginary refuge of suicide, only to find on awakening into astral life that he had changed his condition for the worse instead of for the better, as the suicide always does, since his cowardly action cuts him off from the happiness and peace which usually follow death. [illustration: fig. 32. the gamblers] the upper form represents a state of mind which is perhaps even more harmful in its effects, for this is the gloating of the successful gambler over his ill-gotten gain. here the outline is perfectly definite, and the man's resolution to persist in his evil course is unmistakable. the broad band of orange in the centre shows very clearly that although when the man loses he may curse the inconstancy of fate, when he wins he attributes his success entirely to his own transcendent genius. probably he has invented some system to which he pins his faith, and of which he is inordinately proud. but it will be noticed that on each side of the orange comes a hard line of selfishness, and we see how this in turn melts into avarice and becomes a mere animal greed of possession, which is also so clearly expressed by the claw-like extremities of the thought-form. _at a street accident._--fig. 33 is instructive as showing the various forms which the same feelings may take in different individuals. these two evidences of emotion were seen simultaneously among the spectators of a street accident--a case in which someone was knocked down and slightly injured by a passing vehicle. the persons who generated these two thought-forms were both animated by affectionate interest in the victim and deep compassion for his suffering, and so their thought-forms exhibited exactly the same colours, although the outlines are absolutely unlike. the one over whom floats that vague sphere of cloud is thinking "poor fellow, how sad!" while he who gives birth to that sharply-defined disc is already rushing forward to see in what way he can be of assistance. the one is a dreamer, though of acute sensibilities; the other is a man of action. [illustration: fig. 33. at a street accident] _at a funeral._--in fig. 34 we have an exceedingly striking example of the advantage of knowledge, of the fundamental change produced in the man's attitude of mind by a clear understanding of the great laws of nature under which we live. utterly different as they are in every respect of colour and form and meaning, these two thought-forms were seen simultaneously, and they represent two points of view with regard to the same occurrence. they were observed at a funeral, and they exhibit the feelings evoked in the minds of two of the "mourners" by the contemplation of death. the thinkers stood in the same relation to the dead man, but while one of them was still steeped in the dense ignorance with regard to super-physical life which is so painfully common in the present day, the other had the inestimable advantage of the light of theosophy. in the thought of the former we see expressed nothing but profound depression, fear and selfishness. the fact that death has approached so near has evidently evoked in the mind of the mourner the thought that it may one day come to him also, and the anticipation of this is very terrible to him; but since he does not know what it is that he fears, the clouds in which his feeling is manifested are appropriately vague. his only definite sensations are despair and the sense of his personal loss, and these declare themselves in regular bands of brown-grey and leaden grey, while the very curious downward protrusion, which actually descends into the grave and enfolds the coffin, is an expression of strong selfish desire to draw the dead man back into physical life. [illustration: fig. 34. at a funeral] it is refreshing to turn from this gloomy picture to the wonderfully different effect produced by the very same circumstances upon the mind of the man who comprehends the facts of the case. it will be observed that the two have no single emotion in common; in the former case all was despondency and horror, while in this case we find none but the highest and most beautiful sentiments. at the base of the thought-form we find a full expression of deep sympathy, the lighter green indicating appreciation of the suffering of the mourners and condolence with them, while the band of deeper green shows the attitude of the thinker towards the dead man himself. the deep rose-colour exhibits affection towards both the dead and the living, while the upper part of the cone and the stars which rise from it testify to the feeling aroused within the thinker by the consideration of the subject of death, the blue expressing its devotional aspect, while the violet shows the thought of, and the power to respond to, a noble ideal, and the golden stars denote the spiritual aspirations which its contemplation calls forth. the band of clear yellow which is seen in the centre of this thought-form is very significant, as indicating that the man's whole attitude is based upon and prompted by his intellectual comprehension of the situation, and this is also shown by the regularity of the arrangement of the colours and the definiteness of the lines of demarcation between them. the comparison between the two illustrations shown in this plate is surely a very impressive testimony to the value of the knowledge given by the theosophical teaching. undoubtedly this knowledge of the truth takes away all fear of death, and makes life easier to live because we understand its object and its end, and we realise that death is a perfectly natural incident in its course, a necessary step in our evolution. this ought to be universally known among christian nations, but it is not, and therefore on this point, as on so many others, theosophy has a gospel for the western world. it has to announce that there is no gloomy impenetrable abyss beyond the grave, but instead of that a world of life and light which may be known to us as clearly and fully and accurately as this physical world in which we live now. we have created the gloom and the horror for ourselves, like children who frighten themselves with ghastly stories, and we have only to study the facts of the case, and all these artificial clouds will roll away at once. we have an evil heredity behind us in this matter, for we have inherited all kinds of funereal horrors from our forefathers, and so we are used to them, and we do not see the absurdity and the monstrosity of them. the ancients were in this respect wiser than we, for they did not associate all this phantasmagoria of gloom with the death of the body--partly perhaps because they had a much more rational method of disposing of the body--a method which was not only infinitely better for the dead man and more healthy for the living, but was also free from the gruesome suggestions connected with slow decay. they knew much more about death in those days, and because they knew more they mourned less. _on meeting a friend._--fig. 35 gives us an example of a good, clearly-defined and expressive thought-form, with each colour well marked off from the others. it represents the feeling of a man upon meeting a friend from whom he has been long separated. the convex surface of the crescent is nearest to the thinker, and its two arms stretch out towards the approaching friend as if to embrace him. the rose colour naturally betokens the affection felt, the light green shows the depth of the sympathy which exists, and the clear yellow is a sign of the intellectual pleasure with which the creator of the thought anticipates the revival of delightful reminiscences of days long gone by. [illustration: fig. 35. on meeting a friend] _the appreciation of a picture._--in fig. 36 we have a somewhat complex thought-form representing the delighted appreciation of a beautiful picture upon a religious subject. the strong pure yellow marks the beholder's enthusiastic recognition of the technical skill of the artist, while all the other colours are expressions of the various emotions evoked within him by the examination of so glorious a work of art. green shows his sympathy with the central figure in the picture, deep devotion appears not only in the broad band of blue, but also in the outline of the entire figure, while the violet tells us that the picture has raised the man's thought to the contemplation of a lofty ideal, and has made him, at least for the time, capable of responding to it. we have here the first specimen of an interesting class of thought-forms of which we shall find abundant examples later--that in which light of one colour shines out through a network of lines of some quite different hue. it will be noted that in this case from the mass of violet there rise many wavy lines which flow like rivulets over a golden plain; and this makes it clear that the loftiest aspiration is by no means vague, but is thoroughly supported by an intellectual grasp of the situation and a clear comprehension of the method by which it can be put into effect. [illustration: fig. 36. the appreciation of a picture] forms seen in those meditating _sympathy and love for all._--hitherto we have been dealing chiefly with forms which are the expression of emotion, or of such thought as is aroused within the mind by external circumstances. we have now to consider some of those caused by thoughts which arise from within--forms generated during meditation--each being the effect produced by a conscious effort on the part of the thinker to form a certain conception, or to put himself into a certain attitude. naturally such thoughts are definite, for the man who trains himself in this way learns how to think with clearness and precision, and the development of his power in this direction shows itself in the beauty and regularity of the shapes produced. in this case we have the result of an endeavour on the part of the thinker to put himself into an attitude of sympathy and love towards all mankind, and thus we have a series of graceful lines of the luminous green of sympathy with the strong roseate glow of affection shining out between them (fig. 37). the lines are still sufficiently broad and wide apart to be easily drawn; but in some of the higher examples of thought-forms of this type the lines are so fine and so close that no human hand can represent them as they really are. the outline of this thought-form is that of a leaf, yet its shape and the curve of its lines are more suggestive of a certain kind of shell, so that this is another example of the approximation to forms seen in physical nature which we noted in commenting upon fig. 16. [illustration: fig. 37. sympathy and love for all] _an aspiration to enfold all._--in fig. 38 we have a far more developed example of the same type. this form was generated by one who was trying, while sitting in meditation, to fill his mind with an aspiration to enfold all mankind in order to draw them upward towards the high ideal which shone so clearly before his eyes. therefore it is that the form which he produces seems to rush out from him, to curve round upon itself, and to return to its base; therefore it is that the marvellously fine lines are drawn in lovely luminous violet, and that from within the form there shines out a glorious golden light which it is unfortunately quite impossible to reproduce. for the truth is that all these apparently intricate lines are in reality only one line circling round the form again and again with unwearied patience and wonderful accuracy. it is scarcely possible that any human hand could make such a drawing as this on this scale, and in any case the effect of its colours could not be shown, for it will be seen by experiment that if an attempt be made to draw fine violet lines close together upon a yellow background a grey effect at once appears, and all likeness to the original is destroyed. but what cannot be done by hand may sometimes be achieved by the superior accuracy and delicacy of a machine, and it is in this way that the drawing was made from which our illustration is reproduced,--with some attempt to represent the colour effect as well as the wonderful delicacy of the lines and curves. [illustration: fig. 38. an aspiration to enfold all] _in the six directions._--the form represented in fig. 39 is the result of another endeavour to extend love and sympathy in all directions--an effort almost precisely similar to that which gave birth to fig. 37, though the effect seems so different. the reasons for this variety and for the curious shape taken in this case constitute a very interesting illustration of the way in which thought-forms grow. it will be seen that in this instance the thinker displays considerable devotional feeling, and has also made an intellectual effort to grasp the conditions necessary for the realisation of his wishes, and the blue and yellow colours remain as evidence of this. originally this thought-form was circular, and the dominant idea evidently was that the green of sympathy should be upon the outside, facing in all directions, as it were, and that love should lie at the centre and heart of the thought and direct its outgoing energies. but the maker of this thought-form had been reading hindu books, and his modes of thought had been greatly influenced by them. students of oriental literature will be aware that the hindu speaks, not of four directions (north, east, south, and west), as we do, but always of six, since he very sensibly includes the zenith and the nadir. our friend was imbued from his reading with the idea that he should pour forth his love and sympathy "in the six directions"; but since he did not accurately understand what the six directions are, he directed his stream of affection towards six equidistant points in his circle. the outrushing streams altered the shape of the outlying lines which he had already built up, and so instead of having a circle as a section of his thought-form, we have this curious hexagon with its inward-curving sides. we see thus how faithfully every thought-form records the exact process of its upbuilding, registering ineffaceably even the errors of its construction. [illustration: fig. 39. in the six directions] _an intellectual conception of cosmic order._--in fig. 40 we have the effect of an attempt to attain an intellectual conception of cosmic order. the thinker was obviously a theosophist, and it will be seen that when he endeavours to think of the action of spirit upon matter he instinctively follows the same line of symbolism as that depicted in the well-known seal of the society. here we have an upward-pointing triangle, signifying the threefold aspect of the spirit, interlaced with the downward-pointing triangle, which indicates matter with its three inherent qualities. usually we represent the upward triangle in white or gold, and the downward-pointing one in some darker hue such as blue or black, but it is noteworthy that in this case the thinker is so entirely occupied with the intellectual endeavour, that no colour but yellow is exhibited within the form. there is no room as yet for emotions of devotion, of wonder, or of admiration; the idea which he wishes to realise fills his mind entirely, to the exclusion of all else. still the definiteness of the outline as it stands out against its background of rays shows that he has achieved a high measure of success. [illustration: fig. 40. an intellectual conception of cosmic order] _the logos as manifested in man._--we are now coming to a series of thoughts which are among the very highest the human mind can form, when in meditation upon the divine source of its being. when the man in reverent contemplation tries to raise his thought towards the logos of our solar system, he naturally makes no attempt to image to himself that august being; nor does he think of him as in any way possessing such form as we can comprehend. nevertheless such thoughts build forms for themselves in the matter of the mental plane; and it will be of interest for us to examine those forms. in our illustration in fig. 41 we have a thought of the logos as manifested in man, with the devotional aspiration that he may thus be manifested through the thinker. it is this devotional feeling which gives the pale blue tinge to the five-pointed star, and its shape is significant, since it has been employed for many ages as a symbol of god manifest in man. the thinker may perhaps have been a freemason, and his knowledge of the symbolism employed by that body may have had its share in the shaping of the star. it will be seen that the star is surrounded by bright yellow rays shining out amidst a cloud of glory, which denotes not only the reverential understanding of the surpassing glory of the deity, but also a distinct intellectual effort in addition to the outpouring of devotion. [illustration: fig. 41. the logos as manifested in man] _the logos pervading all._--our next three figures are devoted to the effort to represent a thought of a very high type--an endeavour to think of the logos as pervading all nature. here again, as in fig. 38, it is impossible to give a full reproduction, and we must call upon our readers for an effort of the imagination which shall to some extent supplement the deficiencies of the arts of drawing and printing. the golden ball depicted in fig. 42 must be thought of as inside the other ball of delicate lines (blue in colour) which is drawn in fig. 44. any effort to place the colours in such intimate juxtaposition on the physical plane results simply in producing a green blur, so that the whole character of the thought-form is lost. it is only by means of the machine before mentioned that it is at all possible to represent the grace and the delicacy of the lines. as before, a single line produces all the wonderful tracery of fig. 44, and the effect of the four radiating lines making a sort of cross of light is merely due to the fact that the curves are not really concentric, although at first sight they appear to be so. [illustration: fig. 42. the logos pervading all] [illustration: fig. 44. the logos pervading all] _another conception._--fig. 45 exhibits the form produced by another person when trying to hold exactly the same thought. here also we have an amazing complexity of almost inconceivably delicate blue lines, and here also our imagination must be called upon to insert the golden globe from fig. 42, so that its glory may shine through at every point. here also, as in fig. 44, we have that curious and beautiful pattern, resembling somewhat the damascening on ancient oriental swords, or that which is seen upon watered silk or _moire antique_. when this form is drawn by the pendulum, the pattern is not in any way intentionally produced, but simply comes as a consequence of the crossing of the innumerable microscopically fine lines. it is evident that the thinker who created the form upon fig. 44 must have held in his mind most prominently the unity of the logos, while he who generated the form in fig. 45 has as clearly in mind the subordinate centres through which the divine life pours forth, and many of these subordinate centres have accordingly represented themselves in the thought-form. [illustration: fig. 45. another conception] _the threefold manifestation._--when the form employed in fig. 46 was made, its creator was endeavouring to think of the logos in his threefold manifestation. the vacant space in the centre of the form was a blinding glow of yellow light, and this clearly typified the first aspect, while the second was symbolised by the broad ring of closely-knitted and almost bewildering lines which surround this centre, while the third aspect is suggested by the narrow outer ring which seems more loosely woven. the whole figure is pervaded by the usual golden light gleaming out between the lines of violet. [illustration: fig. 46. the threefold manifestation] _the sevenfold manifestation._--in all religions there remains some tradition of the great truth that the logos manifests himself through seven mighty channels, often regarded as minor logoi or great planetary spirits. in the christian scheme they appear as the seven great archangels, sometimes called the seven spirits before the throne of god. the figure numbered 47 shows the result of the effort to meditate upon this method of divine manifestation. we have the golden glow in the centre, and also (though with lesser splendour) pervading the form. the line is blue, and it draws a succession of seven graceful and almost featherlike double wings which surround the central glory and are clearly intended as a part of it. as the thought strengthens and expands, these beautiful wings change their colour to violet and become like the petals of a flower, and overlap one another in an intricate but exceedingly effective pattern. this gives us a very interesting glimpse into the formation and growth of these shapes in higher matter. [illustration: fig. 47. the sevenfold manifestation] _intellectual aspiration._--the form depicted in fig. 43 bears a certain resemblance to that in fig. 15; but, beautiful as that was, this is in reality a far higher and grander thought, and implies much more advanced development on the part of the thinker. here we have a great clear-cut spear or pencil of the pure pale violet which indicates devotion to the highest ideal, and it is outlined and strengthened by an exceedingly fine manifestation of the noblest development of intellect. he who can think thus must already have entered upon the path of holiness, for he has learnt how to use the power of thought to very mighty effect. it will be noted that in both the colours there is a strong admixture of the white light which always indicates unusual spiritual power. [illustration: fig. 43. intellectual aspiration] surely the study of these thought-forms should be a most impressive object-lesson, since from it we may see both what to avoid and what to cultivate, and may learn by degrees to appreciate how tremendous is our responsibility for the exercise of this mighty power. indeed it is terribly true, as we said in the beginning, that thoughts are things, and puissant things; and it behoves us to remember that every one of us is generating them unceasingly night and day. see how great is the happiness this knowledge brings to us, and how gloriously we can utilise it when we know of some one in sorrow or in suffering. often circumstances arise which prevent us from giving physical help either by word or deed, however much we may desire to do so; but there is no case in which help by thought may not be given, and no case in which it can fail to produce a definite result. it may often happen that at the moment our friend may be too entirely occupied with his own suffering, or perhaps too much excited, to receive and accept any suggestion from without, but presently a time comes when our thought-form can penetrate and discharge itself, and then assuredly our sympathy will produce its due result. it is indeed true that the responsibility of using such a power is great, yet we should not shrink from our duty on that account. it is sadly true that there are many men who are unconsciously using their thought-power chiefly for evil, yet this only makes it all the more necessary that those of us who are beginning to understand life a little should use it consciously, and use it for good. we have at our command a never-failing criterion; we can never misuse this mighty power of thought if we employ it always in unison with the great divine scheme of evolution, and for the uplifting of our fellow-man. helpful thoughts the figures numbered 48 to 54 were the results of a systematic attempt to send helpful thought by the friend who has furnished us with the sketches. a definite time was given each day at a fixed hour. the forms were in some cases seen by the transmitter, but in all cases were perceived by the recipient, who immediately sent rough sketches of what was seen by the next post to the transmitter, who has kindly supplied the following notes with regard to them:-"in the coloured drawings appended the blue features appear to have represented the more devotional element of the thought. the yellow forms accompanied the endeavour to communicate intellectual fortitude, or mental strength and courage. the rosy pink appeared when the thought was blended with affectionate sympathy. if the sender (a.) could formulate his thought deliberately at the appointed time, the receiver (b.) would report seeing a large clear form as in figs. 48, 49, and 54. the latter persisted for some minutes, constantly streaming its luminous yellow 'message' upon b. if, however, a. was of necessity experimenting under difficulty--say walking out of doors--he would occasionally see his 'forms' broken up into smaller globes, or shapes, such as 50, 51, 52, and b. would report their receipt so broken up. in this way many details could be checked and compared as from opposite ends of the line, and the nature of the influence communicated offered another means of verification. upon one occasion a. was disturbed in his endeavour to send a thought of the blue-pink connotation, by a feeling of anxiety that the nature of the pink element should not be misapprehended. the report of b. was that a well-defined globe as in fig. 54 was first seen, but that this suddenly disappeared, being replaced by a moving procession of little light-green triangles, as in fig. 53. these few drawings give but a slight idea of the varied flower-like and geometric forms seen, while neither paint nor crayon-work seems capable of representing the glowing beauty of their living colours." [illustration: fig. 48. helpful thoughts] [illustration: fig. 49. helpful thoughts] [illustration: fig. 50. helpful thoughts] [illustration: fig. 51. helpful thoughts] [illustration: fig. 52. helpful thoughts] [illustration: fig. 53. helpful thoughts] [illustration: fig. 54. helpful thoughts] forms built by music before closing this little treatise it will perhaps be of interest to our readers to give a few examples of another type of forms unknown to those who are confined to the physical senses as their means of obtaining information. many people are aware that sound is always associated with colour--that when, for example, a musical note is sounded, a flash of colour corresponding to it may be seen by those whose finer senses are already to some extent developed. it seems not to be so generally known that sound produces form as well as colour, and that every piece of music leaves behind it an impression of this nature, which persists for some considerable time, and is clearly visible and intelligible to those who have eyes to see. such a shape is perhaps not technically a thought-form--unless indeed we take it, as we well may, as the result of the thought of the composer expressed by means of the skill of the musician through his instrument. some such forms are very striking and impressive, and naturally their variety is infinite. each class of music has its own type of form, and the style of the composer shows as clearly in the form which his music builds as a man's character shows in his handwriting. other possibilities of variation are introduced by the kind of instrument upon which the music is performed, and also by the merits of the player. the same piece of music if accurately played will always build the same form, but that form will be enormously larger when it is played upon a church organ or by a military band than when it is performed upon a piano, and not only the size but also the texture of the resultant form will be very different. there will also be a similar difference in texture between the result of a piece of music played upon a violin and the same piece executed upon the flute. again, the excellence of the performance has its effect, and there is a wonderful difference between the radiant beauty of the form produced by the work of a true artist, perfect alike in expression and execution, and the comparatively dull and undistinguished-looking one which represents the effort of the wooden and mechanical player. anything like inaccuracy in rendering naturally leaves a corresponding defect in the form, so that the exact character of the performance shows itself just as clearly to the clairvoyant spectator as it does to the auditor. it is obvious that, if time and capacity permitted, hundreds of volumes might be filled with drawings of the forms built by different pieces of music under different conditions, so that the most that can be done within any reasonable compass is to give a few examples of the leading types. it has been decided for the purposes of this book to limit these to three, to take types of music presenting readily recognisable contrasts, and for the sake of simplicity in comparison to present them all as they appeared when played upon the same instrument--a very fine church organ. in each of our plates the church shows as well as the thought-form which towers far into the air above it; and it should be remembered that though the drawings are on very different scales the church is the same in all three cases, and consequently the relative size of the sound-form can easily be calculated. the actual height of the tower of the church is just under a hundred feet, so it will be seen that the sound-form produced by a powerful organ is enormous in size. such forms remain as coherent erections for some considerable time--an hour or two at least; and during all that time they are radiating forth their characteristic vibrations in every direction, just as our thought-forms do; and if the music be good, the effect of those vibrations cannot but be uplifting to every man upon whose vehicles they play. thus the community owes a very real debt of gratitude to the musician who pours forth such helpful influences, for he may affect for good hundreds whom he never saw and will never know upon the physical plane. _mendelssohn._--the first of such forms, a comparatively small and simple one, is drawn for us in plate m. it will be seen that we have here a shape roughly representing that of a balloon, having a scalloped outline consisting of a double violet line. within that there is an arrangement of variously-coloured lines moving almost parallel with this outline; and then another somewhat similar arrangement which seems to cross and interpenetrate the first. both of these sets of lines evidently start from the organ within the church, and consequently pass upward through its roof in their course, physical matter being clearly no obstacle to their formation. in the hollow centre of the form float a number of small crescents arranged apparently in four vertical lines. [illustration: plate m. music of mendelssohn] let us endeavour now to give some clue to the meaning of all this, which may well seem so bewildering to the novice, and to explain in some measure how it comes into existence. it must be recollected that this is a melody of simple character played once through, and that consequently we can analyse the form in a way that would be quite impossible with a larger and more complicated specimen. yet even in this case we cannot give all the details, as will presently be seen. disregarding for the moment the scalloped border, we have next within it an arrangement of four lines of different colours running in the same direction, the outermost being blue and the others crimson, yellow, and green respectively. these lines are exceedingly irregular and crooked; in fact, they each consist of a number of short lines at various levels joined together perpendicularly. it seems that each of these short lines represents a note of music, and that the irregularity of their arrangement indicates the succession of these notes; so that each of these crooked lines signifies the movement of one of the parts of the melody, the four moving approximately together denoting the treble, alto, tenor and bass respectively, though they do not necessarily appear in that order in this astral form. here it is necessary to interpolate a still further explanation. even with a melody so comparatively simple as this there are tints and shades far too finely modulated to be reproduced on any scale at all within our reach; therefore it must be said that each of the short lines expressing a note has a colour of its own, so that although as a whole that outer line gives an impression of blueness, and the one next within it of carmine, each yet varies in every inch of its length; so that what is shown is not a correct reproduction of every tint, but only the general impression. the two sets of four lines which seem to cross one another are caused by two sections of the melody; the scalloped edging surrounding the whole is the result of various flourishes and arpeggios, and the floating crescents in the centre represent isolated or staccato chords. naturally the arpeggios are not wholly violet, for each loop has a different hue, but on the whole they approach more nearly to that colour than to any other. the height of this form above the tower of the church is probably a little over a hundred feet; but since it also extends downwards through the roof of the church its total perpendicular diameter may well be about a hundred and fifty feet. it is produced by one of mendelssohn's "lieder ohne wörte," and is characteristic of the delicate filigree-work which so often appears as the result of his compositions. the whole form is seen projected against a coruscating background of many colours, which is in reality a cloud surrounding it upon every side, caused by the vibrations which are pouring out from it in all directions. _gounod._--in plate g we have an entirely different piece--a ringing chorus by gounod. since the church in the illustration is the same, it is easy to calculate that in this case the highest point of the form must rise fully six hundred feet above the tower, though the perpendicular diameter of the form is somewhat less than that, for the organist has evidently finished some minutes ago, and the perfected shape floats high in the air, clearly defined and roughly spherical, though rather an oblate spheroid. this spheroid is hollow, as are all such forms, for it is slowly increasing in size--gradually radiating outward from its centre, but growing proportionately less vivid and more ethereal in appearance as it does so, until at last it loses coherence and fades away much as a wreath of smoke might do. the golden glory surrounding and interpenetrating it indicates as before the radiation of its vibrations, which in this case show the dominant yellow in much greater proportion than did mendelssohn's gentler music. [illustration: plate g. music of gounod] the colouring here is far more brilliant and massive than in plate m, for this music is not so much a thread of murmurous melody as a splendid succession of crashing chords. the artist has sought to give the effect of the chords rather than that of the separate notes, the latter being scarcely possible on a scale so small as this. it is therefore more difficult here to follow the development of the form, for in this much longer piece the lines have crossed and intermingled, until we have little but the gorgeous general effect which the composer must have intended us to feel--and to see, if we were able to see. nevertheless it is possible to discern something of the process which builds the form, and the easiest point at which to commence is the lowest on the left hand as one examines the plate. the large violet protrusion there is evidently the opening chord of a phrase, and if we follow the outer line of the form upward and round the circumference we may obtain some idea of the character of that phrase. a close inspection will reveal two other lines further in which run roughly parallel to this outer one, and show similar successions of colour on a smaller scale, and these may well indicate a softer repetition of the same phrase. careful analysis of this nature will soon convince us that there is a very real order in this seeming chaos, and we shall come to see that if it were possible to make a reproduction of this glowing glory that should be accurate down to the smallest detail, it would also be possible patiently to disentangle it to the uttermost, and to assign every lovely touch of coruscating colour to the very note that called it into existence. it must not be forgotten that very far less detail is given in this illustration than in plate m; for example, each of these points or projections has within it as integral parts, at least the four lines or bands of varying colour which were shown as separate in plate m, but here they are blended into one shade, and only the general effect of the chord is given. in m we combined horizontally, and tried to show, the characteristics of a number of successive notes blended into one, but to keep distinct the effect of the four simultaneous parts by using a differently-coloured line for each. in g we attempt exactly the reverse, for we combine vertically, and blend, not the successive notes of one part, but the chords, each probably containing six or eight notes. the true appearance combines these two effects with an inexpressible wealth of detail. _wagner._--no one who has devoted any study to these musical forms would hesitate in ascribing the marvellous mountain-range depicted in plate w to the genius of richard wagner, for no other composer has yet built sound edifices with such power and decision. in this case we have a vast bell-shaped erection, fully nine hundred feet in height, and but little less in diameter at the bottom, floating in the air above the church out of which it has arisen. it is hollow, like gounod's form, but, unlike that, it is open at the bottom. the resemblance to the successively retreating ramparts of a mountain is almost perfect, and it is heightened by the billowy masses of cloud which roll between the crags and give the effect of perspective. no attempt has been made in this drawing to show the effect of single notes or single chords; each range of mimic rocks represents in size, shape, and colour only the general effect of one of the sections of the piece of music as seen from a distance. but it must be understood that in reality both this and the form given in plate g are as full of minute details as that depicted in plate m, and that all these magnificent masses of colour are built up of many comparatively small bands which would not be separately visible upon the scale on which this is drawn. the broad result is that each mountain-peak has its own brilliant hue, just as it is seen in the illustration--a splendid splash of vivid colour, glowing with the glory of its own living light, spreading its resplendent radiance over all the country round. yet in each of these masses of colour other colours are constantly flickering, as they do over the surface of molten metal, so that the coruscations and scintillations of these wondrous astral edifices are far beyond the power of any physical words to describe. [illustration: plate w. music of wagner] a striking feature in this form is the radical difference between the two types of music which occur in it, one producing the angular rocky masses, and the other the rounded billowy clouds which lie between them. other _motifs_ are shown by the broad bands of blue and rose and green which appear at the base of the bell, and the meandering lines of white and yellow which quiver across them are probably produced by a rippling arpeggio accompaniment. in these three plates only the form created directly by the sound-vibrations has been drawn, though as seen by the clairvoyant it is usually surrounded by many other minor forms, the result of the personal feelings of the performer or of the emotions aroused among the audience by the music. to recapitulate briefly: in plate m we have a small and comparatively simple form pourtrayed in considerable detail, something of the effect of each note being given; in plate g we have a more elaborate form of very different character delineated with less detail, since no attempt is made to render the separate notes, but only to show how each chord expresses itself in form and colour; in plate w we have a still greater and richer form, in the depiction of which all detail is avoided, in order that the full effect of the piece as a whole may be approximately given. naturally every sound makes its impression upon astral and mental matter--not only those ordered successions of sounds which we call music. some day, perhaps, the forms built by those other less euphonious sounds may be pictured for us, though they are beyond the scope of this treatise; meantime, those who feel an interest in them may read an account of them in the little book on _the hidden side of things_.[1] it is well for us ever to bear in mind that there is a hidden side to life--that each act and word and thought has its consequence in the unseen world which is always so near to us, and that usually these unseen results are of infinitely greater importance than those which are visible to all upon the physical plane. the wise man, knowing this, orders his life accordingly, and takes account of the whole of the world in which he lives, and not of the outer husk of it only. thus he saves himself an infinity of trouble, and makes his life not only happier but far more useful to his fellow-men. but to do this implies knowledge--that knowledge which is power; and in our western world such knowledge is practically obtainable only through the literature of theosophy. to exist is not enough; we desire to live intelligently. but to live we must know, and to know we must study; and here is a vast field open before us, if we will only enter upon it and gather thence the fruits of enlightenment. let us, then, waste no more time in the dark dungeons of ignorance, but come forth boldly into the glorious sunshine of that divine wisdom which in these modern days men call theosophy. [footnote 1: by c.w. leadbeater.] bradford: reprinted by percy lund, humphries and co. ltd. +-------------------------------------------------+ |transcriber's note: | | | |obvious typographic errors have been corrected. | | | |the publisher updated some of the text of the | |book list by hand, indicating those which were | |out of print. | |the original text has been retained. | | | +-------------------------------------------------+ echoes from the orient a broad outline of theosophical doctrines by william q. judge [occultus] second point loma edition the theosophical publishing company point loma, california 1910 entered according to act of congress, in the year 1890, in the office of the librarian of congress, at washington, d. c. by william q. judge. [illustration: logo] the aryan theosophical press point loma, california dedicated to helena petrovna blavatsky with love and gratitude by the author to the reader echoes from the orient was written by mr. judge sixteen years ago (1890) as a series of papers for a well known periodical. the author wrote under the name of "_occultus_," as it was intended that his personality should be hidden until the series was completed. the value of these papers as a popular presentation of theosophical teaching was at once seen and led to their publication in book form. as mr. judge wrote in his "antecedent words" to the earlier edition: "the restrictions upon the treatment of the subject growing out of the popular character of the paper in which they were published precluded the detail and elaboration that would have been possible in a philosophical or religious periodical. no pretense is made that the subject of theosophy as understood in the orient has been exhaustively treated, for, believing that millions of years have been devoted by the sages who are the guardians of theosophical truth to its investigation, i think no one writer could do more than to repeat some of the echoes reaching his ears." the reader should remember that the scope and influence of the theosophical movement have since that time (1890) greatly expanded, the work of the universal brotherhood and theosophical society now reaching nearly every country in the world. point loma, california, 1906 echoes from the orient. i. what appears to the western mind to be a very strange superstition prevails in india about wonderful persons who are said to be of immense age, and who keep themselves secluded in places not accessible to the ordinary traveler. so long has this been current in india that the name applied to these beings is well known in the sanskrit language: "mahâtma," a compound of two words, _maha_, great, and _âtma_, soul. the belief in the existence of such persons is not confined to the ignorant, but is shared by the educated of all castes. the lower classes look upon the mahâtmas as a sort of gods, and think most of their wonderful powers and great age. the pundits, or learned class, and educated hindus in general, have a different view; they say that mahâtmas are men or souls with unlimited knowledge of natural laws and of man's history and development. they claim also that the mahâtmas--or rishees, as they sometimes call them--have preserved the knowledge of all natural laws for ages, not only by tradition among their disciples, but also by actual records and in libraries existing somewhere in the many underground temples and passages in india. some believers assert that there are also stores of books and records in secluded parts all over that part of thibet which is not known to europeans, access to them being possible only for the mahâtmas and adepts. the credence given to such a universal theory grows out of an old indian doctrine that man is a spiritual being--a soul, in other words--and that this soul takes on different bodies from life to life on earth in order at last to arrive at such perfect knowledge, through repeated experience, as to enable one to assume a body fit to be the dwelling-place of a mahâtma or perfected soul. then, they say, that particular soul becomes a spiritual helper to mankind. the perfected men are said to know the truth about the genesis of worlds and systems, as well as the development of man upon this and other planets. were such doctrines held only in india, it would be natural to pass the subject by with this brief mention. but when it is found that a large body of people in america and europe hold the same beliefs, it is interesting to note such an un-western development of thought. the theosophical society was founded in new york in 1875, with the avowed object of forming a nucleus for a universal brotherhood, and its founders state that they believe the indian mahâtmas directed them to establish such a society. since its foundation it has gained members in all countries, including people of wealth as well as those in moderate circumstances, and the highly cultured also. within its ranks there flourish beliefs in the mahâtmas of india and in reïncarnation and its twin doctrine, karma. this last holds that no power, human or divine, can save one from the consequences of acts performed, and that in this life we are experiencing the results due to us for all acts and thoughts which were ours in the preceding incarnation. this has brought out a large body of literature in books and magazines published in the united states, england, india, and elsewhere. newspapers are published in the interest of the new-old cult in the vernacular of hindûstan and also in old ceylon. even japan has its periodicals devoted to the same end, and to ignore so wide-spread a movement would bespeak ignorance of the factors at work in our development. when such an eminent authority as the great french savant, emile burnouf, says that the theosophical movement must be counted as one of the three great religious influences in the world to-day, there is no need of an excuse for presenting its features in detail to readers imbued with the civilization of the west. ii. in my former paper i merely hinted at the two principal doctrines promulgated by the theosophical society; it is well now to notice the fact that the society itself was organized amid a shout of laughter, which at intervals ever since has been repeated. very soon after it launched forth it found a new member in a bavarian gentleman, baron henry louis de palm, who not long thereafter died and obligingly left his body to be cremated. the funeral was held at masonic hall, new york city, and attracted widespread attention from both press and public. it was theosophical in its character, and while conducted with befitting dignity in view of the solemnity of the occasion, was along distinctly original lines. all this of course, drew forth satire from the press, but served the purpose of gaining some attention for the young society. its history since then has been remarkable, and it is safe to say that no other similar body in this century has drawn to itself so much consideration, stirred up such a thinking among people on mystical subjects, and grown so rapidly amid the loudest derision and against the fiercest opposition, within the short space of fifteen years. while the press has been sneering and enemies have been plotting, the workers in the society have established centers all over the world, and are to-day engaged persistently in sending out theosophical literature into every nook and corner of the united states. a glance at the theosophical map shows a line of branches of the society dotting a strip of this country which reaches from the city of new york to the pacific coast; at either end this belt spreads out to take in boston and new orleans in the east and san francisco and san diego in the west; while near the middle of the continent there is another accumulation of centers. this is claimed to be strictly and mystically theosophical, because at each end of the magic line of effort and at its central point there is an accumulation of nucleï. it is a fact that the branches of the society in america are rapidly running up into the first hundred. for some little time there existed in washington a branch of the society called the gnostic, but it never engaged in any active work. after it had been once incontinently dissolved by its president, who thereafter withdrew, leaving the presidency in the hands of another, the governing body of the american theosophists formally dischartered the gnostic, and its members joined other branches. there is, however, to-day a washington branch named boldly after the much lauded and belittled mme. h. p. blavatsky, while the theosophical map shows an accumulation of influences in washington that point to an additional branch, and inquiry in official quarters discloses the fact that the matter is already mooted. the theosophical map of which i have spoken is a curiosity, an anomaly in the nineteenth century. few of the members are allowed to see it; but those who are say that it is a register of the actual state, day by day, of the whole united states section--a sort of weather map, with areas of pressure and theosophical humidity in all directions. where a branch is well founded and in good condition, the spot or sensitive surface shows clearness and fixity. in certain places which are in a formative condition there is another appearance symptomatic of a vortex that may soon bring forth a branch; while, wherever the principle of disintegration has crept into an existing organization, there the formerly bright and fixed spots grow cloudy. by means of this map, those who are managing the real growth of the movement can tell how it is going and aid it intelligently. of course all this sounds ridiculous in our age; but, whether true or false, there are many theosophists who believe it. a similar arrangement would be desirable in other branches of our civilization. the grand theories of the theosophists regarding evolution, human races, religions and general civilization, as well as the future state of man and the various planets he inhabits, should engage our more serious attention; and of these i propose to speak at another time. iii. the first echo from the burnished and mysterious east which reverberated from these pages sounded the note of universal brotherhood. among the men of this day such an idea is generally accepted as vague and utopian, but one which it will do no harm to subscribe to; they therefore quickly assent, and as quickly nullify the profession by action in the opposite direction. for the civilization of to-day, and especially of the united states, is an attempt to accentuate and glorify the individual. the oft-repeated declaration that any born citizen may aspire to occupy the highest office in the gift of the nation is proof of this, and the mahâtmas who guard the truth through the ages while nations are decaying, assert that the reaction is sure to come in a relapse into the worst forms of anarchy. the only way to prevent such a relapse is for men to really practice the universal brotherhood they are willing to accept with the tongue. these exalted beings further say that all men are--as a scientific and dynamic fact--united, whether they admit it or not; and that each nation suffers, on the moral as well as the physical plane, from the faults of all other nations, and receives benefit from the others also even against its will. this is due to the existence of an imponderable, tenuous medium which interpenetrates the entire globe, and in which all the acts and thoughts of every man are felt and impressed, to be afterward reflected again. hence, say the adepts, the thoughts or the doctrines and beliefs of men are of the higher importance, because those that prevail among people of a low character are just as much and as easily reflected upon the earth as are the thoughts and beliefs of persons occupying a higher plane of culture. this is a most important tenet, if true; for, with the aid of the discoveries just now admitted by science respecting hypnotism, we are at once able to see that an enormous hypnotizing machine is about. as this tenuous medium--called by the men of the east "akàsa" and by the mediæval philosophers the "astral light"--is entirely beyond our control, we are at the mercy of the pictures made in it and reflected upon us. if to this we add the wonderfully interesting doctrine of reïncarnation, remembering also that the images made in the astral light persist for centuries, it is at once seen that upon returning again to earth-life we are affected for good or evil by the conduct, the doctrine and the aspirations of preceding nations and men. returning here now, for instance, we are moved, without our knowledge, by the impressions made in the astral light at the time when the indians, the spaniards and the harsh puritans lived upon the earth. the words of the immortal shakspere- the evil that men do lives after them; the good is oft interrèd with their bones, receive a striking exemplification under this doctrine. for, as the evil thoughts and deeds are the more material and therefore more firmly impacted into the astral light, while the good, being spiritual, easily fade out, we are in effect at the mercy of the evil done. and the adepts assert that shakspere was, unconsciously to himself, inspired by one of their own number. i shall refer again to this branch of the subject. the scheme of evolution put forth by these beings and their disciples is so broad, deep and far-reaching as to stagger the ordinary mind. it takes in with ease periods of years running up into trillions and quadrillions. it claims that man has been on earth for millions of years more than science yet is willing to admit. it is not bound by the narrow scheme of biblical chronologists, nor startled by the magnificent age of civilizations which disappeared long ago. the keepers of this doctrine say that they and their predecessors lived in those older times, and have preserved not only the memory of them, but also complete records. these records, moreover, are not merely on perishable paper and palm leaf, but on imperishable stone. they point to such remains as the statues twenty-seven feet high found on easter island; to rows of gigantic statues in asia, that by their varying heights show the gradual diminution of human stature, which kept pace with other degenerations; and, to crown all, they say that they possess to-day in the east the immense and well guarded collections of records of all sorts. not only are these records said to relate to the physical history of man, but also to his astral and spiritual evolution. before closing this paper, i can only indicate one of their basic doctrines in the scheme of evolution. that is, that the evolution of the inner, astral form of man came first in order, and continued for an immense number of years before his physical structure was built up around it. this, with other portions of the doctrine, is vital and will aid much in an understanding of the complex questions presented to us by the history of the human race, both that which is known and that which is still resting on conjecture. iv. the records to which in my last paper i referred, as having been kept by the adepts and now in the possession of their present representatives and successors--adepts also--relate not only to the birth of planets in this solar system, but also to the evolution and development of man, through the various kingdoms of nature, until he reaches the most perfect condition which can be imagined. the evolution of the human being includes not only the genesis of his mortal frame, but, as well, the history of the inner man, whom they are accustomed to call the real one. this, then, brings us to a very interesting claim put forward for the wisdom religion, that it pretends to throw light not only upon man's emotions and mental faculties, but also upon his pre-natal and post-mortem states, both of which are of the highest interest and importance. such questions as, "where have i come from?" and, "what shall be my condition after death?" trouble and confuse the minds of all men, ignorant or cultured. priests and thinkers have, from time to time, formulated theories, more or less absurd, as to those pre-natal and post-mortem states, while the science of to-day laughs in derision at the idea of making any inquiry into the matter whatever. theologians have offered explanations, all of which relate only to what they suppose will happen to us after death, leaving entirely out of view and wholly unanswered the natural question, "what were we before we were born here?" and, taking them on their own ground, they are in a most illogical position, because, having once postulated immortality for the soul--the real man--they cannot deny immortality in either direction. if man is immortal, that immortality could never have had a beginning, or else it would have an end. hence their only escape from the dilemma is to declare that each soul is a special creation. but this doctrine of a special creation for each soul born upon the earth, is not dwelt upon or expounded by the priests, inasmuch as it is deemed better to keep it discreetly in the background. the wisdom religion, on the other hand, remains logical from beginning to end. it declares that man is a spiritual being, and allows of no break in the chain of anything once declared immortal. the ego of each man is immortal; "always was existent, always will be, and never can be nonexistent;" appearing now and again, and reäppearing, clothed in bodies on each occasion different, it only appears to be mortal; it always remains the substratum and support for the personality acting upon the stage of life. and in those appearances as mortal, the questions mooted above--as to the pre-natal and post-mortem states--are of vital interest, because knowledge or ignorance concerning them alters man's thought and action while an actor on the stage, and it is necessary for him to know in order that he may so live as to aid in the grand upward sweep of the evolutionary wave. now the adepts have for ages pursued scientific experimentation and investigation upon those lines. seers themselves of the highest order, they have recorded not only their own actual experiences beyond the veil of matter, on both sides, but have collected, compared, analyzed and preserved the records of experiences of the same sort by hundreds of thousands of lesser seers, their own disciples; and this process has been going on from time immemorial. let science laugh as it may, the adepts are the only true scientists, for they take into account every factor in the question, whereas science is limited by brain-power, by circumstance, by imperfection of instruments, and by a total inability to perceive anything deeper than the mere phenomena presented by matter. the records of the visions and experiences of the greater and lesser seers, through the ages, are extant to-day. of their mass, nothing has been accepted except that which has been checked and verified by millions of independent observations; and therefore the adepts stand in the position of those who possess actual experimental knowledge of what precedes the birth of the ego in a human form, and what succeeds when the "mortal coil" is cast away. this recording of experiences still goes on; for the infinity of the changes of nature in its evolution permits of no stoppage, no "last word," no final declaration. as the earth sweeps around the sun, it not only passes through new places in its orbit, but, dragged as it is by the sun through his greater orbit, involving millions of millions of years, it must in that larger circle enter upon new fields in space and unprecedented conditions. hence the adepts go farther yet and state that, as the phenomena presented by matter to-day are different from those presented a million years ago, so matter will in another million of years show different phenomena still. indeed, if we could translate our sight to that time, far back in the past of our globe, we could see conditions and phenomena of the material world so different from those now surrounding us that it would be almost impossible to believe we had ever been in such a state as that then prevailing. and the changes toward the conditions that will prevail at a point equally remote in advance of us, in time, and which will be not less than those that have occurred, are in progress now. nothing in the material world endures absolutely unchanged in itself or its conditions, even for the smallest conceivable portion of time. all that _is_, is forever in process of _becoming_ something else. this is not mere transcendentalism, but is an old established doctrine called, in the east, "the doctrine of the constant, eternal change of atoms from one state into another." v. the ancient doctrine of the constant, eternal change of every atom from state to state, is founded upon, or rather grows out of, another which postulates that there is no such thing as dead matter. at every conceivable point in the universe there are lives; nowhere can be found a spot that is dead; and each life is forever hastening onward to higher evolution. to admit this, we must of course grant that matter is never perceived by the eye or through any instrument. it is but the phenomena of matter that we recognize with the senses, and hence, say the sages, the thing denominated "matter" by us is an illusion. even the protoplasm of the schools is not the original matter; it is simply another of the phenomena. this first original matter is called by paracelsus and others primordial matter, the nearest approach to which in the eastern school is found in the sanskrit word _mulaprakriti_. this is the root of matter, invisible, not to be weighed, or measured, or tested with any instrument of human invention. and yet it is the only real matter underlying all the phenomena to which we erroneously give its name. but even it is not dead, but full of the lives first referred to. now, bearing this in mind, we consider the vast solar system, yet vast only when not compared with the still greater aggregation of stars and planets around it. the great sidereal year covered by the sun in going through the twelve signs of the zodiac includes over 25,000 mortal years of 365 days each. while this immense circuit is being traversed, the sun drags the whole solar system with him around his own tremendous orbit, and we may imagine--for there are no observations on the point--that, while the 25,000 years of travel around the zodiac have been passing, the solar system as a whole has advanced along the sun's own orbit only a little distance. but after millions of years shall have been consumed in these progresses, the sun must bring his train of planets to stellar space where they have never been before; here other conditions and combinations of matter may very well obtain--conditions and states of which our scientists have never heard, of which there never has been recorded one single phenomenon; and the difference between planetary conditions then and now will be so great that no resemblance shall be observed. this is a branch of cyclic law with which the eastern sages are perfectly familiar. they have inquired into it, recorded their observations, and preserved them. having watched the uncountable lives during cycles upon cycles past, and seen their behavior under different conditions in other stellar spaces long ago left behind, they have some basis upon which to draw conclusions as to what will be the state of things in ages yet to come. this brings us to an interesting theory offered by theosophy respecting life itself as exhibited by man, his death and sleep. it relates also to what is generally called "fatigue." the most usual explanation for the phenomenon of sleep is that the body becomes tired and more or less depleted of its vitality and then seeks repose. this, says theosophy, is just the opposite of the truth, for, instead of having suffered a loss of vitality, the body, at the conclusion of the day, has more life in it than when it waked. during the waking state the life-waves rush into the body with greater intensity every hour, and, we being unable to resist them any longer than the period usually observed, they overpower us and we fall asleep. while sleeping, the life waves adjust themselves to the molecules of the body; and when the equilibrium is complete we again wake to continue the contest with life. if this periodical adjustment did not occur, the life current would destroy us. any derangement of the body that tends to inhibit this adjustment is a cause of sleeplessness, and perhaps death. finally, death of the body is due to the inequality of the contest with the life force; it at last overcomes us, and we are compelled to sink into the grave. disease, the common property of the human race, only reduces the power of the body to adjust and resist. children, say the adepts, sleep more than adults, and need earlier repose, because the bodily machine, being young and tender, is easily overcome by life and made to sleep. of course, in so short an article, i cannot elaborate this theory; but, although not probably acceptable now to science, it will be one day accepted as true. as it is beginning to be thought that electricity is all-pervading, so, perhaps, ere long it will be agreed that life is universal even in what we are used to calling dead matter. as, however, it is plain to any observant mind that there seems to be more or less intelligence in the operations of this life energy, we naturally approach another interesting theosophical doctrine as to the beings and hierarchies directing this energy. vi. while studying these ancient ideas, we may as well prepare ourselves to have them clash with many long-accepted views. but since science has very little save conjecture to offer when it attempts to solve the great problems of genesis and cosmo-genesis, and, in the act of denying old dogmas, almost always starts with a hypothesis, the theosophist may feel safe. in important matters, such as the heat of the sun or the history of the moon there is no agreement between scientists or astronomers. newton, pouillet, zöllner, secchi, fizeau, waterston, rosetti, and others all differ about the sun, the divergence between their estimates of its heat being as high as 8,998,600 degrees. if we find the adepts stating that the moon is not a mass thrown off from the earth in cooling, but, on the contrary, is the progenitor of this globe, we need not fear the jeers of a science that is as uncertain and unsafe in many things as it is positive. had i to deal only with those learned men of the schools who abide by the last utterance from the mouths of the leaders of science, i should never attempt the task of speaking of the beings and hierarchies who guide the lives of which i wrote in my last. my pen would drop from a hand paralyzed by negations. but the spiritual beliefs of the common people will still be in vogue when the learned materialist has passed away. the great immanuel kant said: "i confess i am much disposed to assert the existence of immaterial natures in the world, and to place my own soul in the class of these beings. it will hereafter, i know not where nor when, yet be proved that the human soul stands, even in this life, in indissoluble connection with all immaterial natures in the spirit world, that it reciprocally acts upon these, and receives impressions from them." and the greater number of men think so also. that there are hierarchies ruling in the universe is not a new idea. it can be easily found to-day in the christian church. the early fathers taught it, st. paul spoke of it, and the roman catholic church has it clearly now in the book of ritual of the spirits of the stars. the four archangels who guard the four cardinal points represent the groups of rulers in the ancient system, or the heads of each group. in that system the rulers are named dhyan chôhans. although the theosophical philosophy does not postulate a personal god, whether extraor intra-cosmic, it cannot admit that nature is left unaided in her work, but asserts that the dhyan chôhans aid her, and are constantly occupied in directing the all-pervading life in its evolutionary movement. mme. blavatsky, speaking on this subject in her _secret doctrine_, quotes from the old _book of dzyan_ thus: "an army of the sons of light stands at each angle, the lipika in the middle wheel." the four angles are the four quarters, and the "middle wheel" is the center of space; and that center is everywhere, because as space is illimitable, the center of it must be wherever the cognizing consciousness is. and the same author, using the _disciple's catechism_, writes: "what is it that ever is? space, the anupadaka. what is it that ever was? the germ in the root. what is it that is ever coming and going? the great breath. then there are three eternals? no, the three are one. that which ever is is one; that which ever was is one; that which is ever being and becoming is also one; and this is space." in this parentless and eternal space is the wheel in the center where the lipika are, of whom i cannot speak; at the four angles are the dhyan chôhans, and doing their will among men on this earth are the adepts--the mahâtmas. the harmony of the spheres is the voice of the law, and that voice is obeyed alike by the dhyan chôhan and the mahâtma--on their part with willingness, because they are the law; on the part of men and creatures because they are bound by the adamantine chains of the law which they do not understand. when i said that nothing could be spoken about the lipika, i meant that, because of their mysterious nature and incomprehensible powers, it is not possible to know enough to say anything with either sense or certainty. but of the dhyan chôhans and the adepts we may know something, and are often given, as it were, tangible proof of their existence. for the adepts are living men, using bodies similar to ours; they are scattered all over the earth in all nations; they know each other, but not according to mere forms and masonic signs of recognition, unless we call natural, physical, and astral signs masonic. they have times when they meet together and are presided over by some among their number who are more advanced in knowledge and power than the rest; and these higher adepts again have their communications, at which that one who presides is the highest; from these latter begins the communication with the dhyan chôhans. all in their several degrees do that work which pertains to their degree, and although only to the highest can be ascribed any governance or guidance of nature and mankind, yet the very least occupies an important place in the whole scheme. freemasons and the numerous mock-rosicrucians of the day will probably not unanimously accept this view, inasmuch as these adepts have not submitted to their ritual; but that there has always been a widespread--and, if you please, a sometimes sneaking--belief in such beings and orders, is not difficult to discern or prove. vii. an old argument for the existence of an extra-cosmic--a personal--god, is this very intelligence that appears to pervade nature, from which the conclusion is drawn that there is a being who is the intelligent director. but theosophy does not admit any such god, for he is neither necessary nor possible. there are too many evidences of implacability in the operations of nature for us to be able for very long to cherish the notion of a personal god. we see that storms will rage and overwhelm good and bad together; that earthquakes have no respect for age, sex or rank, and that wherever a natural law has to act it will do so regardless of human pain or despair. the wisdom religion in postulating hierarchies such as those i have previously referred to, does not thereby outline a personal god. the difference between the personal god--say jehovah for one--and the lipika with the hosts of the dhyan chôhans, is very great. law and order, good sense, decency and progress are all subservient to jehovah, sometimes disappearing altogether under his beneficent sway; while in the wisdom religion the dhyan chôhans can only follow the immutable laws eternally traced in the universal mind, and this they do intelligently, because they are in fact men become gods. as these eternal laws are far-reaching, and as nature herself is blind, the hierarchies--the hosts at the angles--have to guide the evolutionary progress of matter. in order to grasp the doctrine better, let us take one period of manifestation such as that we are now in. this began millions of millions of years ago, succeeding a vast period of darkness or hibernation. it is called chaos in the christian scheme. and preceding that period of sleep there were eternally other periods of activity or manifestation. now, in those prior periods of energy and action the same evolutionary progress went on, from and out of which came great beings--men perfected and become what to us are gods, who had aided in countless evolutions in the eternal past. these became dhyan chôhans and took part in all succeeding evolutions. such is the great goal for a human soul to strive after. before it the paltry and impossible rewards of the christian heaven turn to dross. the mistake must not be made of confining these great evolutionary periods and the beings spoken of, to our miserable earth. we are only in the chain. there are other systems, other spaces where energy, knowledge and power are exercised. in the mysterious milky-way there are spots vast in size and incomprehensibly distant, where there is room for many such systems as ours; and even while we now watch the assemblage of stars, there is some spot among them where the vast night of death is spreading remorselessly over a once fair system. now these beings, under the sway of the law as they are, seem perhaps to be sometimes implacable. occasions are met where to mortal judgment it would seem to be wise or just to save a city from destruction, or a nation from decay, or a race from total extinction. but if such a fate is the natural result of actions performed or a necessary step in the cyclic sweep, it cannot be averted. as one of the masters of this noble science has written: "we never pretended to be able to draw nations in the mass to this or that crisis in spite of the _general drift of the world's cosmic relations_. the cycles must run their rounds. periods of mental and moral light and darkness succeed each other as day does night. the major and minor yugas must be accomplished _according to the established order of things_. and we, borne along on the mighty tide, can only modify and direct some of its minor currents. if we had the powers of the imaginary personal god, and the immutable laws were but toys to play with, then, indeed, might we have created conditions that would have turned this earth into an arcadia for lofty souls." and so in individual cases--even among those who are in direct relations with some adept--the law cannot be infringed. karma demands that such and such a thing should happen to the individual, and the greatest god or the smallest adept cannot lift a finger to prevent it. a nation may have heaped up against its account as a nation a vast amount of bad karma. its fate is sure, and although it may have noble units in it, great souls even who are adepts themselves, nothing can save it, and it will "go out like a torch dipped in water." such was the end of ancient egypt, of whose former glory no man of this day knows aught. although to us she appears in the historical sky as a full-risen sun, she yet had her period of growth, when mighty adepts sat upon the throne and guided the people. she gradually reached a high point of power and then her people grew material; the adepts retired; pretended adepts took their place, and gradually her glory waned until at last the light of egypt became darkness. the same story was repeated in chaldea and assyria and also upon the surface of our own america. here a great, a glorious civilization once flourished, only to disappear as the others did; and that a grand development of civilization is beginning here again is one of the operations of the just and perfect law of karma to the eye of the theosophist, but one of the mysterious workings of an irresponsible providence to those who believe in a personal god who giveth the land of other men to the good christian. the development of the american nation has a mysterious but potent connection with the wonderful past of the atlanteans, and is one of those great stories outlined in the book of fate by the lipika to whom i referred last week. viii. among the adepts the rise and fall of nations and civilizations are subjects which are studied under the great cyclic movements. they hold that there is an indissoluble connection between man and every event that takes place on this globe, not only the ordinary changes in politics and social life, but all the happenings in the mineral, vegetable and animal kingdoms. the changes in the seasons are for and through man; the great upheavals of continents, the movements of immense glaciers, the terrific eruptions of volcanoes, or the sudden overflowings of great rivers, are all for and through man, whether he be conscious of it or present or absent. and they tell of great changes in the inclination of the axis of the earth, past and to come, all due to man. this doctrine is incomprehensible to the western nineteenth century, for it is hidden from observation, opposed to tradition and contradicted by education. but the theosophist who has passed beyond the elementary stages knows that it is true nevertheless. "what," says the worshipper of science, "has man got to do with the charleston earthquake, or with the showers of cosmic dust that invade our atmosphere? nothing." but the adept, standing on the immeasurable height where centuries lie under his glance, sees the great cycles and the lesser ones rolling onward, influenced by man and working out their changes for his punishment, reward, experience and development. it is not necessary now to try to make it clear how the thoughts and deeds of men effect any changes in material things; that i will lay down for the present as a dogma, if you please, to be made clear later on. the great subject of cycles has been touched upon, and brings us close to a most fascinating statement made by the theosophical adepts. it is this, that the cycles in their movement are bringing up to the surface now, in the united states and america generally, not only a great glory of civilization which was forgotten eleven thousand or more years ago, but also the very men, the monads--the egos, as they call them--who were concerned so many ages since in developing and bringing it to its final lustre. in fact, we of the nineteenth century, hearing of new discoveries and inventions every day, and dreaming of great advances in all arts and sciences, are the same individuals who inhabited bodies among the powerful and brilliant as well as wicked, atlanteans, whose name is forever set immortal in the atlantic ocean. the europeans are also atlantean monads; but the flower, so to speak, of this revival or resurrection, is and is to be on the american continent. i will not say the united states, for mayhap, when the sun of our power has risen again, there may be no united states for it to rise upon. of course, in order to be able to accept in any degree this theory, it is essential that one should believe in the twin theosophical doctrines of karma and reïncarnation. to me it seems quite plain. i can almost see the atlanteans in these citizens of america, sleepy, and not well aware who they are, but yet full of the atlantean ideas, which are only prevented from full and clear expression by the inherited bodily and mental environment which cramps and binds the mighty man within. this again is nemesis-karma that punishes us by means of these galling limitations, penning up our power and for the time frustrating our ambition. it is because, when we were in atlantean bodies, we did wickedly, not the mere sordid wicked things of this day, but high deeds of evil such as by st. paul were attributed to unknown spiritual beings in high places. we degraded spiritual things and turned mighty powers over nature to base uses; we did _in excelsis_ that which is hinted at now in the glorification of wealth, of material goods, of the individual over the spiritual and above the great man--humanity. this has now its compensation in our present inability to attain what we want or to remove from among us the grinding-stones of poverty. we are, as yet, only preparers, much as we may exalt our plainly crude american development. herein lies the very gist of the cycle's meaning. it is a preparatory cycle with much of necessary destruction in it; for, before construction, we must have some disintegration. we are preparing here in america a new race which will exhibit the perfection of the glories that i said were being slowly brought to the surface from the long forgotten past. this is why the americas are seen to be in a perpetual ferment. it is the seething and bubbling of the older races in the refining-pot, and the slow coming up of the material for the new race. here, and nowhere else, are to be found men and women of every race living together, being governed together, attacking nature and the problems of life together, and bringing forth children who combine, each one, two races. this process will go on until in the course of many generations there will be produced on the american continents an entirely new race; new bodies; new orders of intellect; new powers of the mind; curious and unheard-of psychic powers, as well as extraordinary physical ones; with new senses and extensions of present senses now unforeseen. when this new sort of body and mind are generated--then other monads, or our own again, will animate them and paint upon the screen of time the pictures of 100,000 years ago. ix. in dealing with these doctrines one is compelled now and then to greatly extend the scope and meaning of many english words. the word "race" is one of these. in the theosophical scheme, as given out by the sages of the east, seven great races are spoken of. each one of these includes all the different so-called races of our modern ethnology. hence the necessity for having seven great root-races, sub-races, family races, and countless offshoot races. the root-race sends off sub-races, and these divide into family groups; all, however, being included in the great root-race then undergoing development. the appearance of these great root-races is always just when the world's development permits. when the globe was forming, the first root-race was more or less ethereal and had no such body as we now inhabit. the cosmic environment became more dense and the second race appeared, soon after which the first wholly disappeared. then the third came on the scene, after an immense lapse of time, during which the second had been developing the bodies needed for the third. at the coming of the fourth root-race it is said that the present human form was evolved, although gigantic and in some respects different from our own. it is from this point--the fourth race--that the theosophical system begins to speak of man as such. the old book quoted by mme. blavatsky has it in this wise: "thus two by two on the seven zones the third race gave birth to the fourth;" and, "the first race on every zone was moon-colored; the second, yellow, like gold; the third, red; the fourth, brown, which became black with sin." topinard, in his _anthropology_, gives support to this, as he says that there are three fundamental colors in the human organism--red, yellow and black. the brown race, which became black with sin, refers to the atlantean sorcerer race of which i spoke in my last; its awfully evil practices, both mental and physical, having produced a change in the color of the skin. the evolution of these seven great races covers many millions of years, and it must not be forgotten that when the new race is fully evolved the preceding race disappears, as the monads in it have been gradually reïncarnated in the bodies of the new race. the present root-race to which we belong, no matter what the sub-race or family we may be in, is the fifth. it became a separate, distinct and completely-defined race about one million years ago, and has yet many more years to serve before the sixth will be ushered in. this fifth race includes also all the nations in europe, as they together form a family race and are not to be divided off from each other. now, the process of forming the foundation, or great spinal column, for that race which is to usher in the sixth, and which i said is now going on in the americas, is a slow process for us. obliged as we are by our inability to judge or to count except by relativity, the gradual coming together of nations and the fusion of their offspring over and over again so as to bring forth something new in the human line, is so gradual as to seem almost without progress. but this change and evolution go on nevertheless, and a very careful observer can see evidences of it. one fact deserves attention. it is the inventive faculty displayed by americans. this is not accorded much force by our scientists, but the occultist sees in it an evidence that the brains of these inventors are more open to influences and pictures from the astral world than are the brains of the older nations. reports have been brought to me by competent persons of children, boys and girls, who were born with most abnormal faculties of speech, or memory or otherwise, and some such cases i have seen myself. all of these occur in america, and many of them in the west. there is more nervousness here than in the older nations. this is accounted for by the hurry and rush of our civilization; but such an explanation really explains nothing, because the question yet remains, "why is there such hurry and push and change in the united states?" such ordinary arguments go in a circle, since they leave out of sight the fundamental reason, so familiar to the theosophist, that it is human evolution going on right before our eyes in accordance with cyclic laws. the theosophical adepts believe in evolution, but not that sort which claims an ape as our ancestor. their great and comprehensive system is quite able to account for rudimentary muscles and traces of organs found complete only in the animal kingdom without having to call a pithecoid ape our father, for they show the gradual process of building the temple for the use of the divine ego, proceeding ceaselessly, and in silence, through ages upon ages, winding in and out among all the forms in nature in every kingdom, from the mineral up to the highest. this is the real explanation of the old jewish, masonic and archaic saying that the temple of the lord is not made with hands and that no sound of building is heard in it. x. it is well now to say, more definitely than i have as yet, a few words of the two classes of beings, one of which has been much spoken of in theosophical literature, and also by those on the outside who write of the subject either in seriousness or in ridicule. these two classes of exalted personages are the mahâtmas and nirmânakâyas. in respect to the mahâtmas, a great many wrong notions have currency, not only with the public, but as well with theosophists in all parts of the world. in the early days of the theosophical society the name mahâtma was not in use here, but the title then was "brothers." this referred to the fact that they were a band of men who belonged to a brotherhood in the east. the most wonderful powers and, at times, the most extraordinary motives were attributed to them by those who believed in their existence. they could pass to all parts of the world in the twinkling of an eye. across the great distance that india is from here they could precipitate letters to their friends and disciples in new york. many thought that if this were done it was only for amusement; others looked at it in the light of a test for the faithful, while still others often supposed mahâtmas acted thus for pure love of exercising their power. the spiritualists, some of whom believed that mme. blavatsky really did the wonderful things told of her, said that she was only a medium, pure and simple, and that her brothers were familiar spooks of séance rooms. meanwhile the press in general laughed, and mme. blavatsky and her theosophical friends went on doing their work and never gave up their belief in the brothers, who after a few years came to be called mahâtmas. indiscriminately with mahâtma the word adept has been used to describe the same beings, so that we have these two titles made use of without accuracy and in a misleading fashion. the word adept signifies proficiency, and is not uncommon, so that, when using it, some description is necessary if it is to be applied to the brothers. for that reason i used theosophical adepts in a previous paper. a mahâtma is not only an adept, but much more. the etymology of it will make the matter clearer, the word being strictly sanskrit, from _mahâ_, great, and _âtmâ_, soul--hence great soul. this does not mean a noble-hearted man merely, but a perfected being, one who has attained to the state often described by mystics and held by scientific men to be an impossibility, when time and space are no obstacles to sight, to action, to knowledge or to consciousness. hence they are said to be able to perform the extraordinary feats related by various persons, and also to possess information of a decidedly practical character concerning the laws of nature, including that mystery for science--the meaning, operation and constitution of life itself--and concerning the genesis of this planet as well as the races upon it. these large claims have given rise to the chief complaint brought forward against the theosophical adepts by those writers outside of the society who have taken the subject up--that they remain, if they exist at all, in a state of cold and selfish quietude, seeing the misery and hearing the groans of the world, yet refusing to hold out a helping hand except to a favored few; possessing knowledge of scientific principles, or of medicinal preparations, and yet keeping it back from learned men or wealthy capitalists who desire to advance commerce while they turn an honest penny. although, for one, i firmly believe, upon evidence given me, in all that is claimed for these adepts, i declare groundless the complaint advanced, knowing it to be due to a want of knowledge of those who are impugned. adepts and mahâtmas are not a miraculous growth, nor the selfish successors of some who, accidentally stumbling upon great truths, transmitted them to adherents under patent rights. they are human beings trained, developed, cultivated through not only a life but long series of lives, always under evolutionary laws and quite in accord with what we see among men of the world or of science. just as a tyndall is greater than a savage, though still a man, so is the mahâtma, not ceasing to be human, still greater than a tyndall. the mahâtma-adept is a natural growth, and not produced by any miracle; the process by which he so becomes may be to us an unfamiliar one, but it is in the strict order of nature. some years ago a well-known anglo-indian, writing to the theosophical adepts, queried if they had ever made any mark upon the web of history, doubting that they had. the reply was that he had no bar at which to arraign them, and that they had written many an important line upon the page of human life, not only as reigning in visible shape, but down to the very latest dates when, as for many a long century before, they did their work behind the scenes. to be more explicit, these wonderful _men_ have swayed the destiny of nations and are shaping events to-day. pillars of peace and makers of war such as bismarck, or saviors of nations such as washington, lincoln and grant, owe their elevation, their singular power, and their astonishing grasp upon the right men for their purposes, not to trained intellect or long preparation in the schools of their day, but to these very unseen adepts, who crave no honors, seek no publicity and claim no acknowledgment. each one of these great human leaders whom i have mentioned had in his obscure years what he called premonitions of future greatness, or connection with stirring events in his native land. lincoln always felt that in some way he was to be an instrument for some great work, and the stray utterances of bismarck point to silent hours, never openly referred to, when he felt an impulse pushing him to whatever of good he may have done. a long array of instances could be brought forward to show that the adepts have made "an ineffaceable mark upon diverse eras." even during the great uprising in india that threatened the english rule there, they saw long in advance the influence england and india would have in the affairs of the world through the very psychic and metaphysical changes of to-day, and often hastened to communicate, by their own occult and wonderful methods, the news of successes for english arms to districts and peoples in the interior who might have risen under the stimulus of imaginary reports of english disasters. at other times, vague fears were spread instantly over large masses of the hindûs, so that england at last remained master, even though many a patriotic native desired another result. but the adepts do not work for the praise of men, for the ephemeral influence of a day, but for the future races and man's best and highest good. xi. for an exhaustive disquisition upon adepts, mahâtmas and nirmânakâyas, more than a volume would be needed. the development illustrated by them is so strange to modern minds and so extraordinary in these days of general mediocrity, that the average reader fails to grasp with ease the views advanced in a condensed article; and nearly everything one would say about adepts--to say nothing of the nirmânakâyas--requiring full explanation of recondite laws and abstruse questions, is liable to be misunderstood, even if volumes should be written upon them. the development, conditions, powers, and function of these beings carry with them the whole scheme of evolution; for, as said by the mystics, the mahâtma is the efflorescence of an age. the adepts may be dimly understood to-day, the nirmânakâyas have as yet been only passingly mentioned, and the mahâtmas are misconceived by believers and deniers alike. but one law governing them is easy to state and ought not to be difficult for the understanding. they do not, will not, and must not interfere with karma; that is, however apparently deserving of help an individual may be, they will not extend it in the manner desired if his karma does not permit it; and they would not step into the field of human thought for the purpose of bewildering humanity by an exercise of power which on all sides would be looked upon as miraculous. some have said that if the theosophical adepts were to perform a few of their feats before the eyes of europe, an immense following for them would at once arise; but such would not be the result. instead of it there would be dogmatism and idolatry worse than have ever been, with a reaction of an injurious nature impossible to counteract. hypnotism--though by another name--has long been known to them. the hypnotic condition has often aided the schemes of priests and churches. to compel recognition of true doctrine is not the way of these sages, for compulsion is hypnotism. to feed a multitude with only five loaves would be easy for them; but as they never act upon sentiment but continually under the great cosmic laws, they do not advance with present material aid for the poor in their hands. but, by using their natural powers, they every day influence the world, not only among the rich and poor of europe and america, but in every other land, so that what does come about in our lives is better than it would have been had they not had part therein. the other class referred to--nirmânakâyas--constantly engage in this work deemed by them greater than earthly enterprises: the betterment of the soul of man, and any other good that they can accomplish through human agents. around them the long-disputed question of nirvâna revolves, for all that they have not been distinctly considered in it. for, if max müller's view of nirvâna, that it is annihilation, be correct, than a nirmânakâya is an impossibility. paradoxically speaking, they are in and out of that state at one and the same time. they are owners of nirvâna who refuse to accept it in order that they may help the suffering orphan, humanity. they have followed the injunction of the _book of the golden precepts_: "step out from sunlight into shade, to make more room for others." a greater part is taken in the history of nations by the nirmânakâyas than anyone supposes. some of them have under their care certain men in every nation who from their birth are destined to be great factors in the future. these they guide and guard until the appointed time. and such protégés but seldom know that such influence is about them, especially in the nineteenth century. acknowledgment and appreciation of such great assistance are not required by the nirmânakâyas, who work behind the veil and prepare the material for a definite end. at the same time, too, one nirmânakâya may have many different men--or women--whom he directs. as patanjali puts it, "in all these bodies one mind is the moving cause." strange, too, as it may seem, often such men as napoleon buonaparte are from time to time helped by them. such a being as napoleon could not come upon the scene fortuitously. his birth and strange powers must be in the order of nature. the far-reaching consequences going with a nature like his, unmeasurable by us, must in the eastern theosophical philosophy be watched and provided for. if he was a wicked man, so much the worse for him; but that could never deter a nirmânakâya from turning him to his uses. that might be by swerving him, perchance, from a path that would have plunged the world into depths of woe and been made to bring about results in after years which napoleon never dreamed of. the fear of what the world might think of encouraging a monster at a certain point never can deter a sage who sees the end that is best. and in the life of napoleon there are many things going to show at times an influence more powerful than he could grapple. his foolhardy march to moscow was perhaps engineered by these silent campaigners, and also his sudden and disastrous retreat. what he could have done had he remained in france, no present historian is competent to say. the oft-doubted story of the red letter from the red man just when napoleon was in a hesitating mood, may have been an encouragement at a particular juncture. "whom the gods would destroy, they first make mad." nor will the defeat at waterloo be ever understood until the nirmânakâyas give their records up. as a change in the thought of a people who have been tending to gross atheism is one always desired by the sages of the wisdom religion, it may be supposed that the wave of spiritualistic phenomena resulting now quite clearly in a tendency back to a universal acknowledgment of the soul, has been aided by the nirmânakâyas. they are in it and of it; they push on the progress of a psychic deluge over great masses of people. the result is seen in the literature, the religion and the drama of to-day. slowly but surely the tide creeps up and covers the once dry shore of materialism, and, though priests may howl, demanding "the suppression of theosophy with a firm hand," and a venal press may try to help them, they have neither the power nor the knowledge to produce one backward ripple, for the master hand is guided by omniscient intelligence propelled by a gigantic force, and--_works behind the scene_. xii. there have been so many secret societies during the christian era, by whom claims were made to knowledge of nature's secret laws, that a natural question arises: "in what do the theosophic eastern sages differ from the many rosicrucians and others so often heard of?" the old bookshelves of germany are full of publications upon rosicrucianism, or by pretended and genuine members of that order, and to-day it is not uncommon to find those who have temerity enough to dub themselves "rosicrucians." the difference is that which exists between reality and illusion, between mere ritualism and the signs printed by nature upon all things and beings passing forever up the road to higher states of existence. the rosicrucian and masonic fraternities known to history rely upon outward signs and tokens to indicate the status in the order of their members, who, without such guarantees, are only uninitiated outsiders. but the sages we speak of, and their disciples, carry with them the indelible mark and speak the well-known words that show they are beings developed under laws, and not merely persons who, having undergone a childish ordeal, are possessed of a diploma. the adepts may be called rugged oaks that have no disguise, while the undeveloped man dabbling in masonic words and formulas is only a donkey wearing a lion's skin. there are many adepts living in the world, all of whom know each other. they have means of communication unknown to modern civilization, by using which they can transmit to and receive from each other messages at any moment and from immense distances, without using any mechanical means. we might say that there is a society of adepts, provided that we never attach to the word "society" the meaning ordinarily conveyed by it. it is a society which has no place of meeting, which exacts no dues, which has no constitution or by-laws other than the eternal laws of nature; there are no police or spies attached to it and no complaints are made or received in it, for the reason that any offender is punished by the operation of law entirely beyond his control--his mastery over the law being lost upon his infringing it. under the protection and assistance and guidance of this society of adepts are the disciples of each one of its members. these disciples are divided into different degrees, corresponding to the various stages of development; the least developed disciples are assisted by those who are in advance of them, and the latter in a similar manner by others, until the grade of disciple is reached where direct intercourse with the adepts is possible. at the same time, each adept keeps a supervisory eye upon all his disciples. through the agency of the disciples of adepts many effects are brought about in human thought and affairs, for from the higher grades are often sent those who, without disclosing their connection with mysticism, influence individuals who are known to be main factors in events about to occur. it is claimed that the theosophical society receives assistance in its growth and the spreading of its influence from the adepts and their accepted disciples. the history of the society would seem to prove this, for unless there were some hidden but powerful force operating for its advantage it would have long ago sunk into obscurity, destroyed by the storm of ridicule and abuse to which it has been subjected. promises were made, in the early history of the society, that assistance would at all times be rendered, and prophecies were hinted that it would be made the target for vilification and the object of opposition. both prophecies have been fulfilled to the letter. in just the same way as a polished diamond shows the work which gives it value and brilliancy, so the man who has gone through probation and teaching under the adepts carries upon his person the ineffaceable marks. to the ordinary eye untrained in this department, no such indications are visible; but those who can see describe them as being quite prominent and wholly beyond the control of the bearer. for this reason that one who has progressed, say, three steps along the way, will have three marks, and it is useless to pretend that his rank is a step higher, for, if it were, then the fourth mark would be there, since it grows with the being's development. now, as these signatures cannot be imitated or forged, the whole inner fraternity has no need for concealment or signs. no one can commit a fraud upon or extract from them the secrets of higher degrees by having obtained signs and pass-words out of a book or in return for the payment of fees, and none can procure the conferring of any advancement until the whole nature of the man exactly corresponds to the desired point of development. in two ways the difference between the adept fraternity and the worldly secret societies can be seen--in their treatment of nations and of their own direct special disciples. nothing is forced or depends upon favor. everything is arranged in accordance with the best interests of a nation, having in view the cyclic influences at any time prevailing, and never before the proper time. when they desire to destroy the chains forged by dogmatism, they do not make the error of suddenly appearing before the astonished eyes of the people; for they know well that such a course would only alter the dogmatic belief in one set of ideas to a senseless and equally dogmatic adherence to the adepts as gods, or else create in the minds of many the surety that the devil was present. xiii. the training of the disciple by the teachers of the school to which the theosophical adepts belong is peculiar to itself, and not in accord with prevailing modern educational ideas. in one respect it is a specialization of the pilgrimage to a sacred place so common in india, and the enshrined object of the journey is the soul itself, for with them the existence of soul is one of the first principles. in the east the life of man is held to be a pilgrimage, not only from the cradle to the grave, but also through that vast period of time, embracing millions upon millions of years, stretching from the beginning to the end of a manvantara, or period of evolution, and as he is held to be a spiritual being, the continuity of his existence is unbroken. nations and civilizations rise, grow old, decline and disappear; but the being lives on, spectator of all the innumerable changes of environment. starting from the great all, radiating like a spark from the central fire, he gathers experience in all ages, under all rulers, civilizations and customs, ever engaged in a pilgrimage to the shrine from which he came. he is now the ruler and now the slave; to-day at the pinnacle of wealth and power, to-morrow at the bottom of the ladder, perhaps in abject misery, but ever the same being. to symbolize this, the whole of india is dotted with sacred shrines, to which pilgrimages are made, and it is the wish of all men in that so-called benighted land to make such a journey at least once before death, for the religious duties of life are not fully performed without visiting such sacred places. one great reason for this, given by those who understand the inner significance of it, is that the places of pilgrimage are centers of spiritual force from which radiate elevating influences not perceptible to the pig-sticking, wine-drinking traveller. it is asserted by many, indeed, that at most of the famous places of pilgrimage there is an adept of the same order to which the theosophical adepts are said to belong, who is ready always to give some meed of spiritual insight and assistance to those of pure heart who may go there. he, of course, does not reveal himself to the knowledge of the people, because it is quite unnecessary, and might create the necessity for his going elsewhere. superstitions have arisen from the doctrine of pilgrimages, but, as that is quite likely to come about in this age, it is no reason why places of pilgrimage should be abolished, since, if the spiritual centers were withdrawn, good men who are free from superstition would not receive the benefits they now may have. the adepts founded these places in order to keep alive in the minds of the people the soul idea which modern science and education would soon turn into agnosticism, were they to prevail unchecked. but the disciple of the adept knows that the place of pilgrimage symbolizes his own nature, shows him how he is to start on the scientific investigation of it and how to proceed, by what roads and in which direction. he is supposed to concentrate into a few lives the experience and practice which it takes ordinary men countless incarnations to acquire. his first steps, as well as his last, are on difficult, often dangerous places; the road, indeed, "winds up hill all the way," and upon entering it he leaves behind the hope for reward so common in all undertakings. nothing is gained by favor, but all depends upon his actual merit. as the end to be reached is self-dependence with perfect calmness and clearness, he is from the beginning made to stand alone, and this is for most of us a difficult thing which frequently brings on a kind of despair. men like companionship, and cannot with ease contemplate the possibility of being left altogether to themselves. so, instead of being constantly in the company of a lodge of fellow-apprentices, as is the case in the usual worldly secret society, he is forced to see that, as he entered the world alone, he must learn to live there in the same way, leaving it as he came, solely in his own company. but this produces no selfishness, because, being accompanied by constant meditation upon the unseen, the knowledge is acquired that the loneliness felt is only in respect to the lower, personal, worldly self. another rule that this disciple must follow is that no boasting may be indulged in on any occasion, and this gives us the formula that, given a man who speaks of his powers as an adept or boasts of his progress on the spiritual planes, we can be always sure he is neither adept nor disciple. there have been those in the theosophical society who gave out to the world that they were either adepts in fact or very near it, and possessed of great powers. under our formula it follows that they were mere boasters, with nothing behind their silly pretensions but vanity and a fair knowledge of the weakness as well as the gullibility of human nature; upon the latter they play for either their profit or pleasure. but, hiding themselves under an exterior which does not attract attention, there are many of the real disciples in the world. they are studying themselves and other human hearts. they have no diplomas, but there resides in them a consciousness of constant help and a clear knowledge of the true lodge which meets in real secrecy and is never found mentioned in any directory. their whole life is a persistent pursuit of the fast-moving soul which, although appearing to stand still, can distance the lightning; and their death is only another step forward to greater knowledge through better physical bodies in new lives. xiv. looking back into the past the nineteenth-century historian finds his sight speedily striking a mist and at last plunging into inky darkness. bound down in fact by the influence of a ridiculous dogmatism which allows only some six thousand years for man's life on earth, he is unwilling to accept the old chronologies of the egyptians or hindûs, and, while permitting the assumption of vast periods for geological changes, he is staggered by a few millions of years more or less when they are added to the length of time during which humanity has peopled the globe. the student of theosophy, however, sees no reason why he should doubt the statement made by his teachers on this subject. he knows that the periods of evolution are endless. these are called manvantaras, because they are between two manus, or, two men. these periods may be called waves whose succession has no cessation. each grand period, including within it all the minor evolutions, covers 311,040,000,000,000 human years; under a single manu the human years come and go, 306,720,000 in number, and the lesser yugas--or ages--more immediately concerning us, comprise of solar years 4,320,000. during these solar revolutions the human races sweep round and round this planet. cave-dwellers, lake-dwellers and those of a neolithic or any other age appear and disappear over and over again, and in each of those we who now read, write and think of them were ourselves the very egos whose past we are trying to trace. but, going deep into geological strata, the doubt of man's existence contemporaneously with the plesiosaurus arises because no fossil _genus homo_ is discovered in the same stratum. it is here that the theories of the theosophist come in and furnish the key. those hold that before man developed any physical body he clothed himself with an astral form; and this is why h. p. blavatsky writes in her _secret doctrine_: "it teaches the birth of the _astral_ before the _physical_ body, the former being the model for the latter." at the time of the huge antediluvian animals they absorbed in their enormous bodies so much of the total quantity of gross matter available for frames of sentient beings that the astral man remained without a corporeal frame, as yet unclothed "with coats of skin." for this reason he could exist in the same place with those huge birds and reptiles without fear. their massive proportions inspired him with no terror, and by their consumption of food there was no lessening of his sustenance. and, therefore, being of such a composition that he left no impression upon mud or plastic rock, the death of one astral body after another left no fossil and no mark to be unearthed by us in company with the very beasts and birds which were his contemporaries. man was all this time acquiring the power to clothe himself with a dense frame. he threw off astral bodies one after another, in the ceaseless pursuit, each effort giving him a little more density. then he began to cast a shadow, as it were, and the vast, unwieldy animal world--and others as well--felt more and more the draughts made upon it by the coming man. as he thickened they grew smaller, and his remains could not be deposited in any stratum until such time as he had grown to sufficient hardness. but our modern anthropologists have not yet discovered when that was. they are ready enough to make definite statements, but, learned as they are, there are surprises awaiting them not so far off. while, therefore, our explorers are finding, now and then, the remains of animals and birds and reptiles in strata which show an age far greater than any assigned to the human race, they never come upon human skeletons. how could man leave any trace at a stage when he could not press himself into the clay or be caught by soft lava or masses of volcanic dust? i do not mean, however, to say that the period of the plesiosaurus is the period of the man of astral body devoid of a material one. the question of exact period may well be left for a more detailed account; this is only to point to the law and to the explanation for the non-appearance of man's remains in very early geologic strata. but the theosophic adepts insist that there are still in the earth bony remains of man, which carry his first appearance in a dense body many millions of years farther back than have yet been admitted, and these remains will be discovered by us before much time shall have rolled away. one of the first results of these discoveries will be to completely upset the theory as to the succession of ages, as i may call it, which is given and accepted at the present time, and also the estimation of the various civilizations that have passed from the earth and left no trace except in the inner constitution of ourselves--for it is held that _we are those very persons_, now in different bodies, who so long ago lived and loved and died upon the planet. we began to make karma then and have been under its influence ever since, and it seems fitting that that great doctrine should be taken up at another time for a more careful examination. xv. the oriental doctrine of reward and punishment of the human ego is very different from the theological scheme accepted throughout christendom, since the brahmins and buddhists fix the place of punishment and compensation upon this earth of ours, while the christian removes the "bar of god" to the hereafter. we may not profitably stop to argue upon logic with the latter; it will be sufficient to quote to them the words of jesus, st. matthew, and the psalmist. "with what measure ye mete, it shall be measured unto you again," said jesus; and matthew declares that for every word, act, and thought we shall have to answer, while david, the royal poet, sang that those who serve the lord should never eat beggar's bread. we all know well that the first two declarations do away with the vicarious atonement; and as for the jewish singer's notion, it is negatived every day in any city of either hemisphere. among the ceylonese buddhists the name of the doctrine is kamma; with the hindûs it is karma. viewed in its religious light, it "is the good and bad deeds of sentient beings, by the infallible influence or efficacy of which those beings are met with due rewards or punishment, according as they deserve, in any state of being."[a] when a being dies, he emits, as it were, a mass of force or energy, which goes to make up the new personality when he shall be reïncarnated. in this energy is found the summation of the life just given up, and by means of it the ego is forced to assume that sort of body among those appropriate circumstances which together are the means for carrying out the decrees of karma. hence hell is not a mythical place or condition after death in some unknown region specially set apart by the almighty for the punishment of his children, but is in very truth our own globe, for it is on the earth, in earth-lives experienced in human bodies, that we are punished for bad deeds previously done, and meet with happiness and pleasure as rewards for old merit. when one sees, as is so common, a good man suffering much in his life, the question naturally arises, "has karma anything to do with it, and is it just that such a person should be so afflicted?" for those who believe in karma it is quite just, because this man in a previous life must have done such acts as deserve punishment now. and, similarly, the wicked man who is free from suffering, happy and prosperous, is so because in a previous existence he had been badly treated by his fellows or had experienced much suffering. and the perfect justice of karma is well illustrated in his case because, although now favored by fortune, he, being wicked, is generating causes which, when he shall be reborn, will operate then to punish him for his evil-doing now. some may suppose that the ego should be punished after death, but such a conclusion is not logical. for _evil deeds committed here on the objective plane could not with any scientific or moral propriety be punished on a plane which is purely subjective_. and such is the reason why so many minds, both of the young and old, have rejected and rebelled against the doctrine of a hellfire in which they would be eternally punished for commission of sin on earth. even when unable to formulate the reason in metaphysical terms, they instinctively knew that it would be impossible to remove the scene of compensation from the very place where the sin and confusion had been done and created. when the disciples of jesus asked him if the man who was born blind was thus brought into the world for some sin he had committed they had in mind this doctrine of karma, just as all the hindûs and buddhists have when they see some of their fellows crippled or deformed or deprived of sight. the theory above hinted at of the person at death throwing out from himself the new personality, so to speak, ready to await the time when the ego should return to earth seeking a new body, is a general law that operates in a great many other instances besides the birth or death of a being. it is that which is used by the theosophists to explain the relations between the moon and the earth. for, as the moon is held by them to be the planet on which we lived before reaching the earth and before there was any such earth whatever; and that, when our so-called satellite came to die, all the energy contained in it was thrown out into space, where in a single vortex it remained until the time came for that energy to be again supplied with a body--this earth--so the same law prevails with men, the single units in the vast aggregate which is known among advanced theosophists as the great manu. men being, as to their material envelope, derived from the moon, must follow the law of their origin, and therefore the buddhist priest says, as quoted: "at the death of a being nothing goes out from him to the other world for his rebirth; but by the efficacy--or, to use a more figurative expression, by the ray--of influence which kamma emits, a new being is produced in the other world very identical with the one who died away," for in this "new being" is held all the life of the deceased. the term "being," as applied to it may be taken by us with some qualification. it is more properly a mass of energy devoid of conscience and crowded with desires of the person from whom it emanated; and its special province is to await the return of the individuality and form for that the new body in which it shall suffer or enjoy. each man is therefore his own creator under the great cosmic laws that control all creations. a better term in place of "creation" is "evolution," for we, from life to life, are engaged in evolving out of the material provided in this _manvantara_ new bodies at every turn of the wheel of rebirth. the instruments we use in this work are desire and will. desire causes the will to fix itself on objective life; in that plane it produces force and out of that comes matter in its objective form. footnote: [a] the rev. t. p. terunnanse, high-priest at dodanduwa, ceylon. xvi. very many western people say that this oriental doctrine of karma is difficult to understand, being fit only for educated and thoughtful persons. but in india, ceylon and burmah, not to mention other asiatic countries, the whole mass of the people accept and seem to understand it. the reason for this lies probably in the fact that they also firmly believe in reïncarnation, which may be said to be the twin doctrine to karma. indeed, the one cannot be properly considered without keeping the other in view, for karma--whether as punishment or reward--could have no actual or just operation upon the ego unless the means for its operation were furnished by reïncarnation. our deserts are meted out to us while we are associating in life with each other, and not while we are alone, nor in separateness. if being raised to power in a nation or becoming possessed of wealth is called a reward, it would lose all value were there no people to govern and no associated human beings with and upon whom we could spend our wealth and who might aid us in satisfying our manifold desires. and so the law of reïncarnation drags us into life again and again, bringing with us uncounted times the various egos whom we have known in prior births. this is in order that the karma--or causes--generated in company with those egos may be worked out, for to take us off separately into an unknown hell, there to receive some sort of punishment, or into an impossible serio-comic heaven to meet our reward, would be as impossible as unjust. hence, no just-hanged murderer absolved by priest or praising jesus can escape. he, together with his victim, must return to this earth, each to aid the other in adjusting the disturbed harmony, during which process each makes due compensation. with this doctrine we restore justice to her seat in the governance of men, for without it the legal killing of the murderer after condemnation is only a half remedy, since no provision is made by the state for the being hurled out of the body nor for the dependants he may have left behind, and, still further, nothing is done for those who in the family of the murderer survive him. but the theosophical sages of all ages push the doctrine of karma beyond a mere operation upon incarnated men. they view all worlds as being bound together and swayed by karma. as the old hindû book, the _bhagavad-gîtâ_, says, "all worlds up to that of brahmâ are subject to karma." hence it acts on all planes. so viewing it, they say that this world as it is now conditioned is the actual result of what it came to be at the beginning of the _pralaya_ or grand death which took place billions upon billions of years ago. that is, the world evolves just as man does. it is born, it grows old, it dies, and it is reïncarnated. this goes on many times, and during those incarnations it suffers and enjoys in its own way for its previous evolutions. for it the reward is a greater advance along the line of evolution, and the punishment is a degraded state. of course, as i said in a former article, these states have man for their object and cause, for he is the crown of all evolution. and, coming down from the high consideration of great cosmic spaces and phenomena, the theosophist is taught to apply these laws of karma and reïncarnation to every atom in the body in _especial_ and apart from the total karma. since we are made up of a mass of lives, our thoughts and acts affect those atoms or lives and impress them with a karma of their own. as the oriental thinkers say, "not a moment passes without some beings coming to life in us, acquiring karma, dying, and being reïncarnated." the principal divisions of karma are three in number. one sort is that now operating in the present life and body, bringing about all the circumstances and changes of life. of this we see illustrations every day, with now and then strange climaxes which throw upon the doctrine the brightest light. one such is immortalized in india by a building erected by the favored son of fortune, as we would say, and thus it came about. a rajah had a very strange dream, so affecting that he called upon his soothsayers for interpretation. they said that their horoscopes showed he was required next day to give an immense sum of money to the first person he should see after awaking, their intention being to present themselves at an early hour. next day the king arose unusually early, stepped to his window, threw it open, and there before him was a chandalah sweeping up the dirt. to him he gave a fortune, and thus in a moment raised him to affluence from abject poverty. the chandalah then built a huge building to commemorate his sudden release from the grinding chains of poverty. another class of karma is that which is held over and not now in operation because the man does not furnish the appropriate means for bringing it into action. this may be likened to vapor held in suspension in the atmosphere and not visible to the eye, but which will fall as rain upon the earth the moment conditions are ripe. the last chief class is that karma which we are making now, and which will be felt by us in future births. its appropriate symbol is the arrow shot forward in the air by the archer. xvii. the spirit is not affected by karma at any time or under any circumstances, and so the theosophical adepts would not use the terms "cultivation of the spirit." the spirit in man, called by them _ishwara_, is immutable, eternal and indivisible--the fundamental basis of all. hence they say that the body and all objects are impermanent and thus deluding to the soul whenever they are mistaken for reality. they are only real on and for this plane and during the time when the consciousness takes them up here for cognition. they are therefore relatively real and not so in an absolute sense. this can easily be proved from dreams. in the dream state we lose all knowledge of the objects which while awake we thought real and proceed to suffer and enjoy in that new state. in this we find the consciousness applying itself to objects partaking of course of the nature of the experiences of the waking condition, but at the same time producing the sensations of pleasure and pain while they last. let us imagine a person's body plunged in a lethargy extending over twenty years and the mind undergoing a pleasant or unpleasant dream, and we have a life just of that sort, altogether different from the life of one awake. for the consciousness of this dreamer the reality of objects known during the waking state is destroyed. but as material existence is a necessary evil and the one in which alone emancipation or salvation can be obtained, it is of the greatest importance and hence karma which governs it and through whose decrees emancipation may be reached must be well understood and then be accepted and obeyed. karma will operate to produce a deformed or deficient body, to give in a good body a bad disposition or _vicè versâ_; it will cause diseases, hurts or annoyances, or bring about pleasures and favorable situations for the material frame. so we sometimes find with a deformed or disagreeable body a most enlightened and noble mind. in this case the physical karma is bad and the mental good. this leads us to the sort of karma that works upon the mental plane. at the same time that an unfavorable karmic cause is showing forth in the physical structure another and better sort is working out in the mind and disposition or has eventuated in conferring a mind well balanced, calm, cheerful, deep, and brilliant. hence we discover a purely physical as compared with an entirely mental karma. purely physical would be that resulting, say from a removal from the ground of fruit peel which might otherwise cause some unknown person to fall and be hurt. purely mental might be due to a life spent in calm, philosophical thought and the like. there is in one of the hindû books a strange sentence respecting this part of the subject, reading: "perfection of body or superhuman powers are produced by birth or by herbs or by incantations, penances, or meditations." among mental afflictions esteemed as worse than any bodily hurt or loss is that karma from a preceding life which results in obscurity of such a character that there is a loss of all power to conceive of the reality of spirit or the existence of soul--that is, materialism. the last field of operation for this law may be said to be the psychical nature. of this in america we have numerous examples in mediums, clairvoyants, clairaudients, mind-readers, hysteriacs, and all sorts of abnormal sensitives. there could be no clairvoyant according to the oriental scheme if the person so afflicted, using as i think the proper term, had not devoted much of previous lives to a one-sided development of the psychical nature resulting now in powers which make the possessor an abnormality in society. a very strange belief of the hindûs is that one which allows the possibility of a change of state by a mortal of such a character that the once man becomes a _deva_ or lesser god. they divide nature into several departments, in each of which are conscious powers or entities called _devas_, to put it roughly. yet this is not so far apart from the ideas of some of our best scientific men who have said there is no reason why in each ray of the spectrum there may not be beings to us unseen. many centuries ago the hindû thinker admitted this, and pushing further on declared that a man might through a certain sort of karma become one of these beings, with corresponding enjoyment and freedom from care, but with the certainty, however, of eventually changing back again to begin the weary round of birth over again. what might be called the doctrine of the nullification of karma is an application in this department of the well-known law in physics which causes an equilibrium when two equal forces oppose each other. a man may have in his karmic account a very unpleasant cause and at the same time a cause of opposite character. if these come together for expression at the same time they may so counteract each other as that neither will be apparent and the equilibrium is the equivalent of both. in this way it is easy to understand the biblical verse: "charity covereth a multitude of sins," as referring to the palliative effect of charitable deeds as opposed to deeds of wickedness, and giving a reason for the mediæval knight devoting some of the years of his life to almsgiving. in the _bhagavad-gîtâ_, a book revered by all in india, the highest place is given to what is called _karma-yôga_ or the religion of the performance of works and duty, and there it is said: "he who, unattached to the fruits of his actions, performs such actions as must be done, is both renouncer and devotee; not he who kindles no sacrificial fires and performs no ceremonies. he who remains inert, restraining the organs of action, and pondering with his heart on objects of sense, is called a false pietist of bewildered soul. but he who, restraining his senses by his heart and being free from interest in acting, undertakes active devotion through the organs of action, is praiseworthy." xviii. that the doctrine of karma is unjust, unsympathetic, and fatalistic has been claimed by those who oppose it, but such conclusions are not borne out by experience among those races who believe in it, nor will the objections stand a close examination. the hindûs and buddhists thoroughly believe in karma, convinced that no one but themselves punishes or rewards in this or any life, yet we do not find them cold or unsympathetic. indeed, in the relations of life it is well known that the hindû is as loving and tender as his american brother, and there are as many instances of heroic self-sacrifice in their history as in ours. some go further than this and say that the belief in karma and reïncarnation has made the hindû more gentle in his treatment of men and animals than are the europeans, and more spiritual in his daily life. going deeper into their history, the belief in karma is found side by side with material works of great magnitude, and whose remains to this day challenge our wonder, admiration, and respect; it is doubtful whether we could ever show such triumphs over nature as can be seen at any time in the rock-cut temples of hindustan. so it would appear that this doctrine of ours is not likely to produce bad or enervating effects upon the people who accept it. "but," says an objector, "it is fatalism. if karma is karma, if i am to be punished in such and such a manner, then it will come about so whether i will or not, and hence i must, like the turk, say 'kismet,' and do nothing." now, although the mohammedan doctrine of kismet has been abused as fatalism, pure and simple, it was not so held by the prophet nor by his greatest disciples, for they taught that it was law and not fate. and neither is karma amenable to this objection. in the minds of those who, having vaguely apprehended karma as applying to one life only, do not give the doctrine its true majestic, endless sweep, fatalism is the verdict. when, on the other hand, each man is seen as the fashioner of the fate for his next fleeting earth personality, there can be no fatality in it, because in his own hand is the decree. he set in motion the causes which will inevitably have certain results. just as easily he could have made different causes and thus brought about different results. that there are a repellant coldness and want of tenderness in a doctrine which thus deals out inflexible justice and compels us to forever lose our friends and beloved relatives, once death has closed the door, is the feeling of a few who make sentiment their rule in life. but while sentiment and our own wishes are not the guiding laws of nature, there is no reason even on the sentimental ground for this objection; it is due to a partial knowledge of the doctrine which, when fully known, is found to be as full of opportunity for the exercise of what is dear to the heart as any other theory of life. the same law that throws us into life to suffer or enjoy, as may be deserved, decrees that the friends and the relatives who are like unto each other must incarnate together, until by reason of differentiation of character they cannot under any law of attraction remain in company. not unless and until they become different do they separate from each other. and who would wish to be eternally tied to the side of uncongenial relatives or acquaintances merely because there was an accident of birth! for our aid also this law works well and ceaselessly. "those whom you help will help you in other lives," is the declaration. in ages past perhaps we knew those who long since have passed up to greater heights. the very moment in the long series of incarnations we come near to where they are pursuing their pilgrimage, they at once extend assistance, whether that be on the material or moral planes. and it makes no difference whether one or the other is aware of who is assisting or who is being assisted. inflexible law guides the current and brings about the result. thus the members of the whole human family reciprocally act on one another, forced into it by a law which is as kind as it is great, which turns the contempt we bore in the past into present honor and opportunity to help our fellows. there is no favoritism possible in nature; no man has any privilege or gift which he has not deserved, either as a reward or a compensation. looking at the present life spread before our limited vision, we may see perhaps no cause why there should be any such reward to an unworthy man, but karma never errs and will surely repay. and it not only rewards, but to it solely belong those compensations which we with revenge attempt to mete out. it is with this in view that the holy writ of the christians says, "vengeance is mine; i will repay," for so surely as one hurts another so is the certainty of karma striking the offender;--but let the injured one beware that he does not desire the other punished, for by karma will he be punished also. so from all this web of life and ceaselessly revolving wheel, karma furnishes the escape and the means of escape, and by reïncarnation we are given the time for escape. xix. in the egyptian _book of the dead_, chapter x describes the place where, after death, disembodied souls remain in different degrees of perfection. some are shown as taking wheat three cubits high, while others are only permitted to glean it--"he gleaned the fields of aanroo." thus some enjoy the perfection of spiritual bliss, while others attain only to minor degrees in that place or state where divine justice is meted out to the soul. devachan is the land of reward; the domain of spiritual effects. the word spiritual here refers to disembodiment; it must only be used as relative to our material existence. the christian demonstrates this fact by the material _entourage_ of his heaven. in the _secret doctrine_, h. p. blavatsky says: "death itself is unable to deliver man from it [karma], since death is simply the door through which he passes to another life on earth, after a little rest on its threshold--devachan." devachan, then, is the threshold of life. in the hindû system it is etymologically the place of the gods, indra's heaven. indra is the regent of heaven, who gives to those who can reach his realm long-enduring gifts of happiness and dominion. the _bhavagad-gîtâ_ says: "after enjoying felicity for innumerable years in the regions of indra, he is born again upon this earth." for the purpose of this article, we assume that the entire man, minus the body, goes into devachan. this, however, is not so. the _post-mortem_ division of our sevenfold constitution given by theosophy is exact. it exhibits the basis of life, death and reïncarnation. it shows the composite being, man, in analogy with that other composite being, nature. both are a unity in diversity. man, suspended in nature, like her, divides and reünites. this sevenfold division will be treated in a future article. devachan, being a state of prolonged subjective happiness after the death of the body, is plainly the heaven of the christian, but with a difference. it is a heaven made scientifically possible. heaven itself must accord with the divine laws projected into nature. as sleep is a release from the body, during which we have dreams, so death is a complete separation and release, after which in devachan we dream until, on being again incarnated in a new body on earth, we come once more into what we call waking existence. even the human soul would weary of the ceaseless round of rebirths, if some place or state were not provided in which rest could be obtained; in which germinating aspirations, restricted by earth-life, could have their full development. no energy can be annihilated, least of all a psychic energy; these must somewhere find an outlet. it is found in devachan; this realization is the rest of the soul. its deepest desires, its highest needs are there enjoyed. there every hope blooms out in full and glorious flower. to prolong this blissful state, hindû books give many incantations and provide innumerable ceremonies and sacrifices, all of them having for end and aim a long stay in devachan. the christian does precisely the same. he longs for heaven, prays that he may go there, and offers up to his god such propitiatory rites and acts as seem best to him, the only difference being that he does not do it half so scientifically as the hindû. the hindû is also more vivid in his conception of this heaven than the christian is. he postulates many places or conditions adapted to the energic and qualitative differences between souls. kama-loka and other states are where concrete desires, restricted by life in the body, have full expression, while in tribûvana the abstract and benevolent thinkers absorb the joys of lofty thought. the orthodox heaven has no such proviso. it also ignores the fact that a settled monotony of celestial existence would exhaust the soul--would be stagnation, not growth. devachanic life is development of aspiration, passing through the various stages of gestation, birth, cumulative growth, downward momentum and departure to another condition, all rooted in joy. there is nothing in the mere fact of death to mould a soul anew. it is a group of psychic energies, and heaven must have something in common with these, or why should it gravitate there? souls differ as men do. in devachan each one receives that degree of bliss which it can assimilate; its own development determines its reward. the christian places all the snuffy old saints as high as other holy souls, sinking genius to the level of the mediocre mass, while the hindû gives infinite variety of occupation and existence suited to grave and gay, the soul of genius or of poetry. no one sits in undesired seats, nor sings psalms he never liked, nor lives in a city which might pall upon him if he were forever compelled to walk its pearly streets. the laws of cause and effect forbid that devachan should be monotonous. results are proportionate to antecedent energies. the soul oscillates between devachan and earth-life, finding in each conditions suited to its continuous development, until, through effort, it reaches a perfection in which it ceases to be the subject of the laws of action and reäction, becoming instead their conscious co-worker. devachan is a dream, but only in the sense in which objective life can be called such. both last until karma is satisfied in one direction, and begins to work in the other. the devachanee has no idea of space or time except such as he makes for himself. he creates his own world. he is with all he ever loved, not in bodily companionship, but in one to him real, close and blissful. when a man dies, the brain dies last. life is still busy there after death has been announced. the soul marshals up all past events, grasps the sum total, the average tendency stands out, the ruling hope is seen. their final aroma forms the keynote of devachanic existence. the lukewarm man goes neither to heaven nor hell. nature spews him out of her mouth. positive conditions, objective or subjective, are only reached through positive impulsion. devachanic distribution is governed by the ruling motive of the soul. the hater may, by reäction, become the lover, but the indifferent have no propulsion, no growth. xx. it is quite evident to the unprejudiced inquirer that christian priests for some reason or other studiously ignore the composite nature of man, although their great authority, st. paul, clearly refers to it. he spoke of body, soul, and spirit, they only preach of body and soul; he declared we had a spiritual body, they remain misty as to the soul's body and cling to an absurd resurrection of the material casket. it became the duty of theosophists to draw the attention of the modern mind once more to the oriental division of man's constitution, for through that alone can an understanding of his state before and after death be attained. the division laid down by st. paul is threefold, the hindû one is of a sevenfold character. st. paul's is meant for those who require broad outlines, but do not care to inquire into details. spirit, soul, and body, however, include the whole seven divisions, the latter being a more complete analysis; and it is suspected by many deep thinkers that paul knew the complete system but kept it back for good reasons of his own. an analysis of body discloses more than mere molecular structure, for it shows a force or life or power that keeps it together and active throughout its natural period. some writers on theosophical subjects, dealing more or less accurately with the eastern system, have called this _prâna_ or _jîva_; others, however, call it _prâna_ alone, which seems more appropriate, because the human aspect of the life force is dependent upon _prâna_, or _breath_. the _spirit_ of st. paul may be taken for our purposes to be the sanskrit _âtmâ_. spirit is universal, indivisible, and common to all. in other words, there are not many spirits, one for each man, but solely one spirit which shines upon all men alike, finding as many souls--roughly speaking--as there are beings in the world. in man the spirit has a more complete instrument or assemblage of tools with which to work. this spiritual identity is the basis of the philosophy; upon it the whole structure rests; to individualize spirit, assigning to each human being his own spirit, particular to him and separate from the spirit of any other man, is to throw to the ground the whole theosophic philosophy, will nullify its ethics and defeat its object. starting then with _âtmâ_--spirit--as including the whole, being its basis and support, we find the hindû offering the theory of sheaths or covers of the soul or inner man. these sheaths are necessary the moment evolution begins and visible objects appear, so that the aim of the soul may be attained in conjunction with nature. in this way, through a process which would be out of place here, a classification is arrived at by means of which the phenomena of life and consciousness may be explained. the six vehicles used by the spirit and by means of which the ego gains experience are: _body_, as a gross vehicle. _vitality_, or _prâna_. _astral body_, or _linga sharîra_. _animal soul_, or _kâma rûpa_. _human soul_, or _manas_. _spiritual soul_, or _buddhi_. the _linga sharîra_ is needed as a more subtle body than the corporeal frame, because the latter is in fact only stupid, inert matter. _kâma rûpa_ is the body, or collection, of desires and passions; _manas_ may be properly called the mind, and _buddhi_ is the highest intellection beyond brain or mind. it is that which discriminates. at the death of the body, _prâna_ flies back to the reservoir of force; the astral body dissipates after a longer period and often returns with _kâma rûpa_ when aided by certain other forces to séance-rooms, where it masquerades as the deceased, a continual lie and ever-present snare. the human and the spiritual soul go into the state spoken of before as _devachan_ or heaven, where the stay is prolonged or short according to the energies appropriate to that state generated during earth-life. when these begin to exhaust themselves the ego is gradually drawn back to earth-life, where through human generation it takes up a new body, with another astral body, vitality, and animal soul. this is the "wheel of rebirth," from which no man can escape unless he conforms to true ethics and acquires true knowledge and consciousness while living in a body. it was to stop this ceaselessly revolving wheel that buddha declared his perfect law, and it is the aim of the true theosophist to turn his great and brilliant "wheel of the law" for the healing of the nations. xxi. high in the esteem of the hindû stands the serpent, both as a symbol and a creature. moving in a wavy line, he figures the vast revolution of the sun through eternal space carrying the rapidly whirling earth in her lesser orbit; periodically casting his skin, he presents a visible illustration of renewal of life or reïncarnation; coiling to strike, he shows the working of the law of karma-nemesis which, with a basis in our actions, deals an unerring blow. as a symbol with tail in mouth, forming a circle, he represents eternity, the circle of necessity, all-devouring time. for the older initiates he spoke to them also of the astral light which is at once devilish and divine. probably in the whole field of theosophic study there is nothing so interesting as the astral light. among the hindûs it is known as akâsa, which can also be translated as æther. through a knowledge of its properties they say that all the wonderful phenomena of the oriental yogis are accomplished. it is also claimed that clairvoyance, clairaudience, mediumship, and seership as known to the western world are possible only through its means. it is the register of our deeds and thoughts, the great picture gallery of the earth, where the seer can always gaze upon any event that has ever happened, as well as those to come. swimming in it as in a sea are beings of various orders and also the astral remains of deceased men and women. the rosicrucians and other european mystics called these beings sylphs, salamanders, gnomes, undines, elementals; the hindû calls them gandharbhas or celestial musicians, yakshas, rakshâsas and many more. the "spooks" of the dead--mistaken by spiritualists for the individuals who are no more--float in this akâsic substance, and for centuries have been known to the mystical hindû as bhûta, another name for devil, or pisâcha, a most horrible devil; neither of them any more than the cast-off soul-body nearest earth, devoid of conscience and only powerful for evil. but the term "astral light," while not new, is purely of occidental origin. porphyry spoke of it when referring to the celestial or soul-body, which he says is immortal, luminous, and "star-like;" paracelsus called it the "sidereal light;" later it grew to be known as astral. it was said to be the same as the _anima mundi_ or soul of the world. modern scientific investigators approach it when they speak of "luminiferous ether" and "radiant matter." the great astronomer, camille flammarion, who was a member of the theosophical society during his life, speaks of the astral light in his novel _uranie_ and says: "the light emanating from all these suns that people immensity, the light reflected through space by all these worlds lighted by these suns, _photographs_ throughout the boundless heaven the centuries, the days, the moments as they pass.... from this it results that the histories of all the worlds are travelling through space without dispersing altogether, and that all the events of the past are present and live evermore in the bosom of the infinite." like all unfamiliar or occult things the astral light is difficult to define, and especially so from the very fact that it is called "light." it is not the light as we know it, and neither is it darkness. perhaps it was said to be a light because when clairvoyants saw by means of it, the distant objects seemed to be illuminated. but as equally well distant sounds can be heard in it, heavy bodies levitated by it, odors carried thousands of miles through it, thoughts read in it, and all the various phenomena by mediums brought about under its action, there has been a use of the term "light" which while unavoidable is none the less erroneous. a definition to be accurate must include all the functions and powers of this light, but as those are not fully known even to the mystic, and wholly _terra incognita_ for the scientist, we must be content with a partial analysis. it is a substance easily imagined as imponderable ether which, emanating from the stars, envelopes the earth and permeates every atom of the globe and each molecule upon it. obeying the laws of attraction and repulsion, it vibrates to and fro, making itself now positive and now negative. this gives it a circular motion which is symbolized by the serpent. it is the great final agent, or prime mover, cosmically speaking, which not only makes the plant grow but also keeps up the diastole and systole of the human heart. very like the action of the sensitive photographic plate is this light. it takes, as flammarion says, the pictures of every moment and holds them in its grasp. for this reason the egyptians knew it as the recorder; it is the recording angel of the christian, and in one aspect it is yâma, the judge of the dead in the hindû pantheon, for it is by the pictures we impress therein that we are judged by karma. as an enormous screen or reflector the astral light hangs over the earth and becomes a powerful universal hypnotizer of human beings. the pictures of all acts good and bad done by our ancestors as by ourselves, being ever present to our inner selves, we constantly are impressed by them by way of suggestion and go then and do likewise. upon this the great french priest-mystic, éliphas lévi, says: "we are often astonished when in society at being assailed by evil thoughts and suggestions that we would not have imagined possible, and we are not aware that we owe them solely to the presence of some morbid neighbor; this fact is of great importance, since it relates to the manifestation of conscience--one of the most terrible and incontestable secrets of the magic art.... so diseased souls have a bad breath, and vitiate the moral atmosphere; that is to say, they mingle impure reflections with the astral light which penetrates them, and thus establish deleterious currents." there is also a useful function of this light. as it preserves the pictures of all past events and things, and as there is nothing new under the sun, the appliances, the ideas, the philosophy, the arts and sciences of long buried civilizations are continually being projected in pictures out of the astral into the brains of living men. this gives a meaning not only to the oft-recurring "coïncidence" of two or more inventors or scientists hitting upon the same ideas or inventions at about the same time and independently of each other, but also to other events and curious happenings. some self-styled scientists have spoken learnedly of telepathy, and other phenomena, but give no sufficient reason in nature for thought-transference or apparitions or clairvoyance or the hundred and one varieties of occurrences of an occult character noticed from day to day among all conditions of men. it is well to admit that thought may be transferred without speech directly from one brain to another, but how can the transference be effected without a medium? that medium is the astral light. the moment the thought takes shape in the brain it is pictured in this light, and from there is taken out again by any other brain sensitive enough to receive it intact. knowing the strange properties of the astral plane and the actual fate of the sheaths of the soul spoken of in another article, the theosophical adepts of all times gave no credit to pretended returning of the dead. éliphas lévi learned this well and said: "the astral light combining with ethereal fluids forms the astral phantom of which paracelsus speaks. this astral body being freed at death, attracts to itself and preserves for a long time, by the sympathy of likeness, the reflection of the past life; if a powerfully sympathetic will draws it into the proper current it manifests itself in the form of an apparition." but with a sensitive, abnormally constituted person present--a medium, in other words, and all of that class are nervously unbalanced--the strong will is not needed, for the astral light and the living medium's astral body recall these soulless phantoms, and out of the same reservoir take their speech, their tones, their idiosyncrasies of character, which the deluded devotees of this debasing practice are cheated into imagining as the returned self of dead friend or relative. yet all i have referred to here are only instances of a few of the various properties of the astral light. so far as concerns our world it may be said that astral light is everywhere, interpenetrating all things; to have a photographic power by which it grasps pictures of thoughts, deeds, events, tones, sounds, colors, and all things; reflective in the sense that it reflects itself into the minds of men; repellant from its positive side and attractive from the negative; capable of assuming extreme density when drawn in around the body by powerful will or by abnormal bodily states, so that no physical force can penetrate it. this phase of its action explains some facts officially recorded during the witchcraft excitement in salem. it was there found that although stones and other flying objects came toward the possessed one they always fell as it were from the force of gravity _just at the person's feet_. the hindû yogi gives evidence of a use of this condensation of the astral light when he allows arrows and other projectiles to be thrown at him, all of them falling at his feet no matter how great their momentum, and the records of genuine spiritualistic phenomena in the united states furnish similar experiences. the astral light is a powerful factor, unrecognized by science, in the phenomenon of hypnotism. its action will explain many of the problems raised by binet, charcot and others, and especially that class in which two or more distinct personalities seem to be assumed by the subject, who can remember in each only those things and peculiarities of expression which belong to that particular stratum of their experience. these strange things are due to the currents in the astral light. in each current will be found a definite series of reflections, and they are taken up by the inner man, who reports them through speech and action on this plane as if they were his own. by the use of these currents too, but unconsciously, the clairvoyants and clairaudients seem to read in the hidden pages of life. this light can therefore be impressed with evil or good pictures, and these are reflected into the subconscious mind of every human being. if you fill the astral light with bad pictures, just such as the present century is adept at creating, it will be our devil and destroyer, but if by the example of even a few good men and women a new and purer sort of events are limned upon this eternal canvas, it will become our divine uplifter. _there is no religion higher than truth_ the universal brotherhood and theosophical society _established for the benefit of the people of the earth and all creatures_ objects this brotherhood is a part of a great and universal movement which has been active in all ages. this organization declares that brotherhood is a fact in nature. its principal purpose is to teach brotherhood, demonstrate that it is a fact in nature and make it a living power in the life of humanity. its subsidiary purpose is to study ancient and modern religions, science, philosophy and art; to investigate the laws of nature and the divine powers in man. the universal brotherhood and theosophical society, founded by h. p. blavatsky at new york, 1875, continued after her death under the leadership of the co-founder, william q. judge, and now under the leadership of their successor, katherine tingley, has its headquarters at the international theosophical center, point loma, california. this organization is not in any way connected with nor does it endorse any other societies using the name of theosophy. the universal brotherhood and theosophical society, welcomes to membership all who truly love their fellow men and desire the eradication of the evils caused by the barriers of race, creed, caste or color, which have so long impeded human progress; to all sincere lovers of truth and to all who aspire to higher and better things than the mere pleasures and interests of a worldly life, and are prepared to do all in their power to make brotherhood a living energy in the life of humanity, its various departments offer unlimited opportunities. the whole work of the organization is under the direction of the leader and official head, katherine tingley, as outlined in the constitution. * * * do not fail to profit by the following: it is a regrettable fact that many people use the name of theosophy and of our organization for self-interest, as also that of h. p. blavatsky the foundress, to attract attention to themselves and to gain public support. this they do in private and public speech and in publications, also by lecturing throughout the country. without being in any way connected with the universal brotherhood and theosophical society, in many cases they permit it to be inferred that they are, thus misleading the public, and many honest inquirers are hence led away from the truths of theosophy as presented by h. p. blavatsky and her successors, william q. judge and katherine tingley, and practically exemplified in their theosophical work for the uplifting of humanity. the international brotherhood league founded in 1897 by katherine tingley its objects are: 1. to help men and women to realize the nobility of their calling and their true position in life. 2. to educate children of all nations on the broadest lines of universal brotherhood, and to prepare destitute and homeless children to become workers for humanity. 3. to ameliorate the condition of unfortunate women, and assist them to a higher life. 4. to assist those who are, or have been, in prisons, to establish themselves in honorable positions in life. 5. to abolish capital punishment. 6. to bring about a better understanding between so-called savage and civilized races, by promoting a closer and more sympathetic relationship between them. 7. to relieve human suffering resulting from flood, famine, war, and other calamities; and, generally, to extend aid, help and comfort to suffering humanity throughout the world. for further information regarding the above notices, address katherine tingley international theosophical headquarters, point loma, california books recommended to inquirers for _complete_ book list write to the theosophical publishing co., point loma, california isis unveiled (h. p. blavatsky). 2 vols., royal 8vo, about 1400 pages; cloth; with portrait of the author. _point loma edition, with a preface._ postpaid 7.00 key to theosophy, the (h. p. blavatsky). _point loma edition, with glossary and exhaustive index. portraits of h. p. blavatsky and w. q. judge._ 8vo, cloth, 400 pages. postpaid 2.25 _a clear exposition of theosophy in form of question and answer._ the book for students. secret doctrine, the (h. p. blavatsky). the synthesis of science, religion, and philosophy. new point loma edition, 2 vols., royal 8vo, about 1500 pages; cloth postpaid 10.00 voice of the silence, the (for the daily use of disciples). translated and annotated by h. p. blavatsky pocket size, leather .75 light on the path (m. c.), with comments, and a chapter on karma; leather .75 embossed paper .25 mysteries of the heart doctrine, the. prepared by katherine tingley and her pupils. square 8vo, cloth 2.00 paper 1.00 a series of eight pamphlets, comprising different articles in above, paper, each .25 bhagavad gîtâ (recension by w. q. judge, american edition) pocket size, morocco, gilt edges 1.00 _the pearl of the scriptures of the east._ yoga aphorisms (translated by w. q. judge). pocket size, leather .75 epitome of theosophical teachings, an (w. q. judge) 40 pages .15 concentration, culture of. (w. q. judge) .15 incidents in the history of the theosophical movement (joseph h. fussell). 24 pages, royal 8vo .15 life at point loma, the. some notes by katherine tingley, leader and official head of the universal brotherhood and theosophical society. .15 reprinted from _los angeles post_, dec., 1902 katherine tingley, humanity's friend; a visit to katherine tingley (by john hubert greusel); a study of râja yoga at point loma (reprint from the san francisco _chronicle_, january 6th, 1907). the above three comprised in a pamphlet of 50 pages, published by the woman's theosophical propaganda league, point loma .15 echoes from the orient (w. q. judge); cloth .50 paper .25 21 valued articles, giving a broad outline of the theosophical doctrines, written for the newspaper-reading public. errors of christian science, some of the. criticism by h. p. blavatsky and w. q. judge .15 hypnotism: theosophical views on. (40 pp.) .15 nightmare tales. (h. p. blavatsky). _newly illustrated by r. machell._ a collection of the weirdest tales ever written down. they contain paragraphs of the profoundest mystical philosophy. cloth .60 paper .35 the plough and the cross. a story of new ireland (william patrick o'ryan); 12mo, 378 pages, illustrated, cloth 1.00 occultism, studies in (h. p. blavatsky). pocket size, 6 vols., cloth; per set 1.50 vol. 1. practical occultism. occultism _vs._ the occult arts. the blessing of publicity. .35 vol. 2. hypnotism. black magic in science. signs of the times .35 vol. 3. psychic and noetic action .35 vol. 4. kosmic mind. dual aspect of wisdom .35 vol. 5. esoteric character of the gospels .35 vol. 6. astral bodies. constitution of the inner man .35 theosophical manuals elementary handbooks for students price, each, paper .25; cloth .35 no. 1. elementary theosophy. no. 2. the seven principles of man. no. 3. karma. no. 4. reincarnation. no. 5. man after death. no. 6. kâmaloka and devachan. no. 7. teachers and their disciples. no. 8. the doctrine of cycles. no. 9. psychism, ghostology, and the astral plane. no. 10. the astral light. no. 11. psychometry, clairvoyance, and thought-transference. no. 12. the angel and the demon. 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(a study of man) the path series specially adapted for inquirers in theosophy already published no. 1. the purpose of the universal brotherhood and theosophical society .05 no. 2. theosophy generally stated (w. q. judge) .05 no. 3. mislaid mysteries (h. coryn, m. d.) .05 no. 4. theosophy and its counterfeits .05 no. 5. some perverted presentations of theosophy (h. t. edge, b. a.) .05 thirty copies $1.00; 100 copies $3.00 lotus group literature lotus library for children _introduced under the direction of katherine tingley_ 1. the little builders and their voyage to rangi (r. n.) .50 2. the coming of the king (machell); cloth, gilt edges .35 lotus song book. fifty original songs with copyrighted music .50 lotus song--"the sun temple"--_with music_ .15 theosophical periodicals century path. illustrated weekly, edited by katherine tingley a magazine devoted to the brotherhood of humanity, the promulgation of theosophy, and the study of ancient and modern ethics, philosophy, science, and art year $4.00 single copy .10 write for a sample copy to new century corporation point loma, california, u. s. a. râja yoga messenger. _illustrated._ monthly. yearly subscription .50 unsectarian publication for young folk, conducted by a staff of pupils of the râja yoga school at lomaland. address master albert g. spalding, business manager, râja yoga messenger, point loma, california. international theosophical chronicle. _illustrated._ monthly. yearly subscription, postpaid 1.00 the theosophical book co., 18 bartlett's buildings holborn circus, london, e. c. theosophia. _illustrated._ monthly. yearly subscription, postpaid 1.50 universella broderskapets förlag, box 265, stockholm 1, sweden. universale bruderschaft. _illustrated._ monthly. yearly subscription, postpaid 1.50 j. th. heller, vestnertorgraben 13, nürnberg, germany lotus-knoppen. _illustrated._ monthly. yearly subscription, postpaid .75 a. goud, steentilstraat 40, groningen, holland subscriptions to the above four magazines may be secured also through the theosophical publishing co., point loma, california. neither the editors of the above publications, nor the officers of the universal brotherhood and theosophical society, or of any of its departments, receive salaries or other remuneration. all profits arising from the business of the theosophical publishing co., are devoted to humanitarian work. all who assist in this work are directly helping that cause. correspondence relating to executions in turkey for apostacy from islamism. [stamped:] bibliothèque du palais de la paix presented to the house of lords, by her majesty's command. may, 1844. london: printed by t. r. harrison. correspondence relating to executions in turkey for apostacy from islamism. no. 1. _sir stratford canning to the earl of aberdeen_.--(_received september_ 20.) (extract.) _buyukderé, august_ 27, 1843. within the last few days an execution has taken place at constantinople under circumstances which have occasioned much excitement and indignation among the christian inhabitants. the sufferer was an armenian youth of eighteen or twenty years, who having, under fear of punishment, declared himself a turk, went to the island of syra, and returning, after an absence of some length, resumed his former religion. apprehensive of the danger but resolved not to deny his real faith a second time, he kept out of sight till accident betrayed him to the police, and he was then thrown into prison. in spite of threats, promises, and blows, he there maintained his resolution, refused to save his life by a fresh disavowal of christianity, and was finally decapitated in one of the most frequented parts of the city with circumstances of great barbarity. inclosed herewith is a statement of the particulars drawn up by mr. alison. it is not merely on grounds of humanity that i would draw your lordship's attention to this incident: political considerations of serious importance are connected with it; and on this account, no less than from regard for the tears and entreaties of a distracted family, i exhausted my influence in vain endeavours to divert the porte from its purpose. every member of the council to whom i applied, returned the same answer, expressing a willingness to meet my wishes, and regretting the inexorable necessity of the law. for my own part i do not believe that any such necessity exists. the determination of the government to sacrifice the armenian youth, in spite of my earnest solicitations, unless he recanted publicly, is part and parcel of that system of reaction which preceded my arrival here, against which i have constantly struggled, and which, notwithstanding the assurances given to me, and the efforts of its partisans to conceal it, is day by day gaining strength, to the despair of every enlightened turkish statesman, to the prejudice of our relations with this country, and to the visible decline of those improvements which, in my humble judgment, can alone avert the dissolution of the sultan's empire. the law, which, in this instance, has torn a youth from the bosom of his family, and consigned him to an ignominious and cruel death, would apply with equal force to a subject of any christian power. such of my colleagues as i have consulted upon this subject appear to take a view of it similar to my own, i refer, in particular, to the austrian, french, russian, and prussian ministers: each of them has told me that he intended to recommend the question to the serious consideration of his government. since my arrival here one british and two french subjects have declared in favour of mahomedanism, and much difficulty has been experienced in dealing with the individuals concerned. the british subject, a maltese, returned to the catholic faith a few days after he had declared himself a turk, and he was privately conveyed out of this country. the porte, on that occasion, evidently identified the change of allegiance with the change of creed, and not only would a trifling incident have sufficed to raise the question arising out of that principle between her majesty's embassy and the porte, but had the man been arrested after his recantation, i should perhaps have been reduced to the necessity of putting all to hazard in order to snatch him from the hands of the executioner. the only* articles relating to this matter in our capitulations with the porte are the sixty-first and seventy-first. the french have an article of similar meaning in their capitulations, and by the treaty of kainardji between russia and the porte it was agreed that individuals who had changed their religion should be mutually exempted from the operation of the article, which otherwise stipulates for the extradition of refugees and malefactors. * article lxi.--that if any englishman should turn turk, and it should be represented and proved that besides his own goods he has in his hands any property belonging to another person in england, such property shall be taken from him and delivered up to the ambassador or consul, that they may convey the same to the owner thereof. article lxxi.--that should any englishman coming with merchandize turn turk, and the goods so imported by him be proved to belong to merchants of his own country, from whom he had taken them, the whole shall be detained, with the ready money, and delivered up to the ambassador, in order to his transmitting the same to the right owners, without any of our judges or officers interposing any obstacle or hindrance thereto. under these impressions i trust that your lordship will not think i have exceeded the bounds of prudence in stating confidentially, though without reserve, to the grand vizier the impressions made upon my mind by the recent execution. couched as my message was in respectful and kindly terms, i hope it will operate as a salutary admonition. the interpreter's report of his highness' reply is inclosed with this despatch. inclosure l in no. 1. _case of the armenian avakim, son of yagya, of the parish of top kapousee_. about a year and a half ago avakim having had a drunken quarrel with some neighbours, was sentenced at the war office to receive 500 bastinadoes. fear and intoxication induced him to become a mussulman, and he was conducted on the spot to the mehkemé where the name of mehemet was given him. some days afterwards avakim repented of what he had done, and fled to syra, from whence he returned a few months ago. about three months ago, while returning from his sister's house with a small bundle containing wearing apparel, he was recognized by the kolaga of the quarter, mustapha, and denounced at the war office of having renegaded from islamism. he was then submitted to the most cruel punishment to compel him to re-abandon his original belief, and was even paraded through the streets with his hands tied behind his back as if for execution. avakim, however, unintimidated by torture or the prospect of death, proclaimed aloud his firm belief in christianity, and was led forth to suffer on wednesday last amidst the execrations of the ulema partisans. only one man, taouk-bazarli ali, among the thirty armed police who conducted him, could be prevailed upon to strike the blow. many of the turks spat on him as they passed, and openly reviled the faith for which he had died. a yafta, in the following terms, was affixed on the opposite shop:-"the armenian shoemaker, avakim, son of yagya, having last year, in the beginning of moharrem, while at an age of discretion, accepted islamism, and received the name of mehemet, some time afterwards renegaded, and having now obstinately persisted in refusing the proffer made to him by the law to re-become a moslem, sentence of death was awarded unto him according to fetwa, and he has thereby suffered." the first intelligence received in pera of this occurrence was the appearance in the streets of the unfortunate lad's mother tearing her grey hair, and rushing distractedly from the scene of bloodshed. the poor old woman, when assured of her boy's fate, returned and sat in grief by the corpse, from which she was afterwards removed. a petition of the armenians for the corpse was rejected, and it was after three days exposure cast into the sea. _constantinople, august_ 27, 1843. inclosure 2 in no. 1. m. pisani to sir stratford canning. excellence, _péra, le_ 24 _août_, 1843. conformément à vos ordres, j'ai vu le grand vizir, et je lui ai rendu, mot à mot, le message contenu dans votre instruction confidentielle en date d'hier, relativement au jeune arménien qui vient d'être exécuté. son altesse a répondu de la manière suivante: "quant à moi, personnellement, j'ai en horreur même d'égorger une poule. les exécutions, si fréquentes dans l'ancien système, sont très rares aujourd'hui. mais dans le cas récent, je vous ai déjà dit, et je vous répète, qui ni les ministres, ni le sultan, ne pouvaient absolument pas sauver la vie de l'arménien. les lois du coran ne forcent personne de se faire musulman; mais elles sont inexorables tant à l'égard du musulman qui embrasse une autre religion, qu'à l'égard du non-musulman qui, après avoir de son propre gré embrassé publiquement l'islamisme, est convaincu d'y avoir renoncé. nulle considération ne peut faire commuer la peine capitale à laquelle la loi le condamne sans miséricorde. le seul, l'unique moyen d'échapper à la mort, c'est pour l'accusé de déclarer qu'il s'est fait de nouveau musulman. c'est dans le seul but de sauver la vie a l'individu en question que nous avons, contre la lettre de la loi, qui exige que la sentence dans le cas dont il s'agit soit mise à exécution aussitôt qu'elle a été prononcée, que nous lui avons laissé quelques jours de temps pour y bien réflêchir, avec l'assurance que la déclaration voulue par la loi une fois faite, il serait mis en liberté, et qu'il pourrait partir de constantinople; mais comme il a résisté à toutes les tentatives faites pour le persuader de recourir au seul moyen d'échapper à la mort, force fut à la fin d'obéir à la loi, sans quoi les oulémas se souleveraient contre nous. l'exécution a dû, aux termes de la loi, être faite publiquement." voyant que le grand vizir n'avait rien dit par rapport aux observations de votre excellence sur ce qui arriverait si un étranger, un anglais par exemple, se trouvait dans des circonstances analogues, j'ai prié son altesse de considérer et de faire considérer au ministère ottoman, dans quelle position la porte se mettrait vis à vis du gouvernement anglais, si elle recourait à des violences. le grand vizir a dit alors: "je ne sais pas vraiment ce qu'un cas pareil exigerait s'il s'agissait d'un étranger; j'ignore ce que les lois disent à l'égard d'un franc qui se trouverait compromis par les circonstances qui ont fait condamner à la mort l'arménien, qui est un rayah." le grand vizir a fini par dire; "faites mes complimens à monsieur l'ambassadeur, et dites lui que j'apprécie ses sentimens d'humanité et de bienveillance; mais que ce qui vient d'arriver était un mal tout à fait sans remêde." j'ai l'honneur. &c., (signé) fred. pisani. (translation.) excellency, _pera, august_ 24, 1843. in conformity with your orders i saw the grand vizier and communicated to him, word for word, the message contained in your confidential instruction of yesterday respecting the young armenian who has just been executed. his highness made answer to the following effect:-"as regards myself personally, i have a horror of even putting a fowl to death. executions, so frequent under the old system, are now of rare occurrence. but in the late instance, as i have already said to you, and again repeat, positively neither the ministers nor the sultan could have saved the life of the armenian. the laws of the koran compel no man to become a mussulman, but they are inexorable both as respects a mussulman who embraces another religion, and as respects a person not a mussulman, who, after having of his own accord publicly embraced islamism, is convicted of having renounced that faith. no consideration can produce a commutation of the capital punishment to which the law condemns him without mercy. the only mode of escaping death is for the accused to declare that he has again become a mussulman. it was only with a view to saving the life of the individual in question, that we--contrary to the letter of the law, which requires that the sentence in cases of this nature, should be executed as soon as pronounced--allowed him some days respite to think over the matter carefully, with the assurance that having once made the declaration required by law, he would be set at liberty and would be able to leave constantinople; but inasmuch as he resisted all the attempts which were made to induce him to have recourse to the only means of escaping death, it finally became necessary to obey the law, otherwise the ulemas would have risen against us. the execution, according to the terms of the law, was necessarily public." seeing that the grand vizier had said nothing with reference to your excellency's observations as to what would occur if a foreigner, an englishman for instance, were to be placed in similar circumstances, i begged his highness to consider, and to direct the consideration of the ottoman ministry to the nature of the position in which the porte would place itself as regards the british government, were it to have recourse to violence. the grand vizier then said, "i really do not know what would become necessary in such a case if a foreigner were concerned; i am ignorant as to what is said in the law as regards a frank who should be compromised by the circumstances which caused the armenian, who was a rayah, to be condemned to death." the grand vizier concluded by saying, "present my compliments to the ambassador, and tell him that i appreciate his humane and well-intentioned sentiments, but that what has occurred was a misfortune for which there was no remedy whatever." i have, &c. (signed) f. pisani. no. 2. _lord cowley to the earl of aberdeen_.--(_received september_ 20.) my lord, _paris, september_ 18, 1843. m. guizot informed me this morning that he had received a communication from m. de bourqueney, relative to a most unjustifiable act of the turkish government, in having, under circumstances of great cruelty, put to death an armenian turk who had embraced christianity, and had refused to renounce that religion and resume the ottoman faith. m. bourqueney having asked for instructions for his guidance in this matter, the minister for foreign affairs sent him a protest which he is to present to the ottoman government on the behalf of the government of france. m. guizot observed, that as the great powers of europe were using their best endeavours to induce the sultan's christian subjects to live peaceably under the ottoman rule, they could not allow of such arbitrary acts of cruelty as that which had been perpetrated, and which was sufficient to rouse the whole of the christian population against the government. he understood, he said, that sir stratford canning had asked for instructions from your lordship in this matter, and that he trusted that they would be in a similar tenor to those he was about to send to m. de bourqueney. i have, &c., (signed) cowley. no. 3. _chevalier bunsen to the earl of aberdeen_.--(_received september_ 29.) le soussigné, envoyé extraordinaire et ministre plénipotentiaire de sa majesté le roi de prusse, a l'honneur de transmettre à son excellence le comte de aberdeen, principal secrétaire d'etat de sa majesté britannique pour les affaires etrangères, copie d'une dépêche qu'il vient de recevoir, avec l'ordre d'en donner connaissance à sa seigneurie. en s'acquittant de cette commission, il profite, &c. (signé) bunsen. _londres, le_ 28 _septembre_, 1843. (translation.) the undersigned, envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary from his majesty the king of prussia, has the honour to transmit to his excellency the earl of aberdeen, her britannic majesty's principal secretary of state for foreign affairs, a copy of a despatch which he has just received, with instructions to communicate it to his lordship. in executing this instruction, he avails himself, &c. (signed) bunsen. _london, september_ 28, 1843. inclosure 1 in no. 3. _baron bülow to chevalier bunsen_. monsieur, _berlin, ce_ 21 _septembre_, 1843. vos rapports au roi jusqu'au no. 91 du 15 du courant nous sont parvenus et ont été placés sous les yeux de sa majesté. vous êtes sans doute déjà instruit, par la voie des journaux, des détails de l'exécution de l'arménien serkiz papazoghlou, mis à mort dernièrement à constantinople pour avoir renié la foi de mahomet qu'il avait embrassée quelque temps avant. a la vérité, la lettre du coran inflige la peine de mort à tous ceux qui abandonnent le mahométisme, mais longtemps déjà l'usage avait adouci la rigueur d'une loi si peu en harmonie avec les préceptes de la civilisation, et depuis nombre d'années aucune exécution de ce genre n'avait eu lieu. celle du malheureux serkiz doit par conséquent être considérée comme un triste retour aux barbaries du fanatisme musulman. elle le doit d'autant plus que, d'un côté, l'énergique intercession de sir stratford canning en faveur de la victime est restée infructueuse; et que, de l'autre, les autorités turques, en conduisant serkiz, quoique arménien, en costume franc et la casquette sur la tête au supplice, semblent avoir voulu donner à ce sanglant spectacle le caractère d'un défi public porté par l'ancienne cruauté mahométane à l'influence des moeurs européennes et de la civilisation chrétienne. partant de ce point de vue et regardant la catastrophe qui vient d'avoir lieu comme un symptôme de plus d'une tendance rétrograde et pour ainsi dire anti-européenne dont, dans son propre intérêt, il importe de détourner le gouvernement ottoman, les répresentans des cinq grandes puissances à constantinople ont cru qu'un avertissement unanime, à la fois bienveillant et sérieux, que ces puissances feraient parvenir à cet effet à la sublime porte, produirait sur elle une impression salutaire. ils ont, en conséquence, et sur l'invitation spéciale de sir stratford canning, sollicité de leurs cours respectives les instructions nécessaires pour se porter à la démarche en question, et m. l'ambassadeur d'angleterre voulait en outre proposer à lord aberdeen de s'employer dans le même sens auprès des cabinets de berlin, de vienne, de paris, et de st. pétersbourg. je n'ai pas encore reçu de communication à ce sujet de la part de monsieur le principal secrétaire d'etat, mais je me suis empressé de répondre par la dépêche dont je joins ici une copie, à celle que l'envoyé du roi à constantinople a adressé à sa majesté sur cette affaire. veuillez, monsieur, en donner connaissance, ainsi que de la présente dépêche, à lord aberdeen, et exprimer de ma part à sa seigneurie l'espoir d'être allé de cette manière au devant des ouvertures qu'elle serait peut-être dans le cas de me faire faire [sic] sur la démarche proposée par les cinq représentans à constantinople, mais mise, de préférence, sur le tapis par m. l'ambassadeur d'angleterre. recevez, &c., (signé) bulow. (translation.) sir, _berlin, september_ 21, 1843. your reports to the king, to no. 91 of the 15th instant, have been received and laid before his majesty. you are doubtless already acquainted, by means of the newspapers, with the details of the execution of the armenian, serkiz papazoghlou, lately put to death at constantinople for having renounced the mahomedan faith, which he had embraced some time before. in truth, the letter of the koran inflicts the punishment of death upon all those who abandon mahomedanism, but for some time past custom had mitigated the rigour of a law so little in harmony with the precepts of civilization, and for a number of years no execution of this kind had taken place. that of the unfortunate serkiz must therefore be considered as a sad return to the barbarity of mahomedan fanaticism. it must be so much the more so because, on the one hand, the energetic intercession of sir stratford canning in behalf of the victim was fruitless; and because, on the other, the turkish authorities, in leading serkiz, although he was an armenian, in the frank costume and with a cap upon his head to execution, seem to have wished to give to this bloody spectacle the character of a public defiance offered by the old mahomedan cruelty to the influence of european manners and christian civilization. setting out from this view of the case and looking upon the catastrophe which has just taken place as a fresh symptom of the retrograde, and it may be said anti-european, tendency from which it is important that the turkish government should, in its own interest, be diverted, the representatives of the five great powers at constantinople thought that a joint representation, at once kind and earnest, which those powers should make for this purpose to the sublime porte, would produce a salutary impression upon it. they, therefore, and at the special request of sir stratford canning, applied to their respective courts for the instructions necessary to enable them to take the step in question, and the english ambassador wished moreover to propose to lord aberdeen to communicate in the same sense with the cabinets of berlin, vienna, paris, and st. petersburgh. i have not yet received any communication upon this subject from the principal secretary of state; but i lost no time in replying by the despatch of which i inclose a copy, to that which the envoy of the king at constantinople addressed to his majesty respecting this affair. have the goodness, sir, to communicate it, as well as this despatch, to lord aberdeen, and to express to his lordship, on my part, the hope that i have in this manner anticipated the overtures which he would perhaps have caused to be made to me with reference to the step proposed by the five representatives at constantinople, but especially suggested by the english ambassador. accept, &c., (signed) bulow inclosure 2 in no. 3. _baron bülow to m. le coq_. monsieur, _berlin, ce_ 20 _septembre_, 1843. vos rapports au roi, &c., &c. ce que vous avez mandé sur l'exécution de l'arménien serkiz papazoghlou n'a pu manquer de nous inspirer un intérêt aussi vif que douloureux. en effet tous les détails de cette sanglante catastrophe sont bien de nature à mériter la sérieuse attention des puissances européennes. ce sont autant de symptômes d'une tendance rétrograde à laquelle la sublime porte paraît s'être abandonnée depuis quelques années, et qui, en tolérant et en favorisant peut-être même les excès du fanatisme musulman, est aussi contraire aux lois de l'humanité qu'aux règles qu'une saine politique devrait dicter au gouvernement ottoman. a en juger d'après les circonstances qui ont précédé, accompagné et suivi la mort de cette malheureuse victime de la rigueur mahométane, ne serait-on pas tenté de croire que ce gouvernement a oublié ce qu'il doit aux efforts réunis des grandes puissances, à leurs conseils désintéressés, à la salutaire influence de la civilisation européenne? ne semble-t-il pas, en opposant aux moeurs plus douces qui sont la suite de cette civilisation la lettre impitoyable du coran, avoir l'intention de faire sentir à l'europe entière le peu de cas qu'il fait du bienveillant intérêt, de la constante sollicitude que lui ont voués les cabinets européens, or, les graves conséquences, qu'un pareil sytème [sic] entraînerait pour la porte, en finissant par lui aliéner réellement l'intérêt de ces cabinets, sont si évidentes, que nous aimons à croire qu'un avertissement unanime de leur part suffira pour la détourner d'une voie également désastreuse sous le point de vue politique et moral. je me range sous ce rapport entièrement à l'avis de sir stratford canning, et après avoir pris les ordres du roi, notre auguste maître, je vous invite, monsieur, à vous associer à la démarche que, je n'en doute pas, messieurs vos collègues d'autriche, de france et de russie seront également autorisés à faire à cet effet auprès du gouvernement turc en commun avec m. l'ambassadeur d'angleterre. dans cette occasion où les représentans des cinq grandes puissances agiront en quelque sorte comme organes de la civilisation européenne, il importera surtout de constater leur unanimité. veuillez par ce motif, monsieur, attendre que les instructions que messieurs vos collègues ont sollicitées, leur soient parvenues, et alors vous concerter avec eux sur la meilleure forme à donner à la démarche qu'elles prescrivent. si contre toute attente ces instructions n'étaient pas de nature à établir un accord entier des cinq puissances dans cette affaire, vous voudrez bien, monsieur, m'en informer, pour que je puisse, selon les circonstances, vous faire parvenir des directions ultérieures. en tout cas la démarche en question devra se borner à être simultanée et non pas collective, et le langage que vous tiendrez à la porte, pour être sérieux et ferme, ne s'en tiendra pas moins dans les bornes d'un conseil amical, et évitera tout ce qui pourrait blesser la susceptibilité politique et religieuse du gouvernement ottoman. nous n'avons pas encore reçu la communication à laquelle nous pouvons nous attendre de la part de lord aberdeen, en suite de la demande que sir stratford canning lui a adressée au sujet de l'affaire qui fait l'objet de la présente dépêche. mais j'envoie une copie de cette dernière à l'envoyé du roi à londres, pour en donner connaissance à m. le principal secrétaire d'etat, et pour informer de cette manière sa seigneurie que, d'accord avec sir stratford canning sur l'opportunité de la démarche qu'il a proposée, le cabinet du roi s'est empressé de vous autoriser à y concourir. recevez, &c., (signé) bulow. (translation.) sir, _berlin, september_ 20, 1843. your reports to the king, &c. &c. the account which you have given of the execution of the armenian serkiz papazoghlou could not fail to excite our lively and painful interest. indeed all the details of this bloody catastrophe are well calculated to deserve the serious attention of the european powers. they are so many symptoms of a retrograde tendency to which the sublime porte appears to have given itself up for some years past, and which, by tolerating, and perhaps even encouraging the excesses of mahomedan fanaticism, is as contrary to the laws of humanity as to the rules which a wholesome policy should dictate to the turkish government. to judge from the circumstances which preceded, attended, and followed the death of this unhappy victim of mahomedan severity, should we not be tempted to think that that government has forgotten what it owes to the united exertions of the great powers, to their disinterested advice, and to the salutary influence of european civilization? does it not appear, by placing in opposition to the milder customs which are the result of that civilization the inexorable letter of the koran, to intend to make the whole of europe feel the little importance which it attaches to the benevolent interest and the constant solicitude with which the european cabinets have regarded it? wherefore, the serious consequences, which such a system would entail upon the porte, by finally alienating from it in reality the interest of those cabinets, are so evident, that we are fain to believe that an unanimous intimation on their part will suffice to turn it aside from a course equally disastrous in a political and in a moral point of view. i side entirely in this respect with the opinion of sir stratford canning, and after having taken the orders of the king, our august master, i request you, sir, to join in the step which i doubt not your colleagues of austria, france and russia will be equally authorized to take to this effect towards the turkish government, in common with the ambassador of england. on this occasion when the representatives of the five powers will act in some manner as the organs of european civilization, it will above all things be important to evince their unanimity. for this reason, have the goodness, sir, to wait until the instructions for which your colleagues have applied, have reached them, and thereupon concert with them as to the best form to be given to the step which those instructions prescribe. if, contrary to all expectation, those instructions should not be such as to demonstrate an entire agreement of the five powers on this matter, you will have the goodness, sir, to inform me of the fact, in order that i may, according to circumstances, transmit to you further instructions. in any case the step in question should be limited to being simultaneous and not collective, and the language which you will hold to the porte, while it is serious and firm, must not the less be confined within the bounds of friendly counsel, and must avoid everything that could wound the political and religious susceptibility of the ottoman government. we have not yet received the communication which we may expect from lord aberdeen, in pursuance of the application made to him by sir stratford canning, on the subject of the matter treated of in this despatch. but i send a copy of this last to the king's envoy in london, in order that he may communicate it to the principal secretary of state, and in this manner acquaint his lordship that the king's cabinet, agreeing with sir stratford canning as to the fitness of the step which he has proposed, has hastened to authorize you to concur in it. receive, &c., (signed) bulow. no. 4. _the earl of aberdeen to sir stratford canning_. sir, _foreign office, october_ 4, 1843. the barbarous execution of the armenian, recorded in your excellency's despatch of the 27th of august, has excited the attention and interest of her majesty's government in an unusual degree; and they highly approve the line of conduct which you pursued in reference to it. her majesty's government had hoped that the time had passed away when the perpetration of such acts of atrocity could have been tolerated; and that the law by which they are permitted or enjoined, although it might still disgrace the mahomedan code, had fallen so completely into disuse as to have become virtually null and of no effect. it is, therefore, with the most painful feelings, that her majesty's government have seen so cruel a law brought so injudiciously again into operation; and they consider every christian government not only justified, but imperatively called upon to raise their voices against such proceedings, whether the law be executed to the prejudice of their own subjects, or of the christian community in general. her majesty's government confidently trust that no repetition of so unjustifiable an act as that against which your excellency so properly remonstrated will ever be suffered, and still less authorized by the turkish government; and they earnestly counsel that government to take immediate measures for effectually preventing the future commission of such atrocities. under the full conviction that the sultan will have the humanity and wisdom to listen to this counsel, which is given with the most friendly feeling, and which will, i doubt not, be equally impressed on his highness by other christian governments, i do not think it necessary to enter further at present into the other points set forth in your excellency's despatch above referred to. you will not fall to communicate this despatch to rifaat pasha. i am, &c., (signed) aberdeen. no. 5. _the earl of westmorland to the earl of aberdeen_.--(_received october_ 30.) my lord, _berlin, october_ 23, 1843. i have communicated to baron bülow your lordship's despatch of the 4th instant to sir stratford canning relative to the late execution of an armenian at constantinople, and his excellency has requested me to express the interest with which he had learnt your lordship's views on that subject. i have, &c., (signed) westmorland. no. 6. _sir stratford canning to the earl of aberdeen_.--(_received november_ 2.) my lord, _buyukderé, october_ 11, 1843. the prussian minister has communicated to me an instruction addressed to him by baron bülow in reply to his representations on the subject of the armenian youth, whose execution and its natural consequences were brought under your lordship's notice in my despatch of august the 27th. the french minister has also communicated to me a note, transmitted to him from paris for presentation to the porte, with reference to the same deplorable act of the turkish government. copies of these two papers have not been given to me; but i understand that the prussian instruction has been sent to your lordship, and it is probable that the same degree of confidence has been shewn to your lordship by m. guizot. i have only to remark that the terms in which these documents are respectively expressed, appear to me highly creditable to the cabinets from which they have issued, and, should your lordship see fit to instruct me in a similar sense, it would afford me great satisfaction to repeat to the turkish minister, with the immediate authority of her majesty's government, what i ventured at the time to intimate by anticipation on my own suggestion. baron bülow and m. guizot appear to be equally impressed with the dangerous character of that policy to which the armenian execution is traceable, and their reprobation of the act itself is proportionally strong. baron de bourqueney is prepared to give in his note without waiting for the concurrence of his colleagues. m. le coq is instructed to act simultaneously with the other representatives of the five powers. with respect to the austrian and russian ministers, i am informed by m. de titow that the emperor of russia's absence from st. petersburgh has prevented his receiving an immediate answer to his despatches; and i hear that the internuncio refers to a communication made by prince metternich to the turkish ambassador at vienna as sufficiently expressive of the sentiments of his court and superseding the necessity of any step on his part without further instructions. i would venture humbly to submit that a concurrent expression of the sentiments of the five courts on such an occasion would hardly fail of producing a most beneficial effect upon the counsels of the porte. i have, &c., (signed) stratford canning. no. 7. _the earl of aberdeen to sir stratford canning_. (extract.) _foreign office, november_ 4, 1843. i have received your despatch of the 11th of october, reporting that the french and prussian ministers had received instructions from their respective governments on the subject of the execution of the armenian referred to in your despatch of the 27th of august. i calculate that your excellency will have received on the 24th ultimo my despatch of the 4th, by which your excellency will have been enabled to acquaint the porte with the feelings with which her majesty's government had received the intelligence of that melancholy transaction. i have nothing to add to that instruction. no. 8. _sir stratford canning to the earl of aberdeen_.--(_received november_ 23.) my lord, _buyukdéré, october_ 31, 1843. the instruction which i have received from your lordship respecting the armenian decapitated for returning to the christian faith, cannot fail of making a deep and, i hope, a salutary impression upon the ottoman ministers. i have had it carefully translated into turkish, and placed in m. pisani's hands for communication to the porte, accompanied with an instruction of which i have the honour to inclose a copy herewith. monsieur de bourqueney having been directed to present an official note upon the same subject, i thought it advisable to give a certain degree of formality to the communication of your lordship's despatch, and particularly to leave it with the minister for foreign affairs in writing. a copy of the french minister's note is herewith inclosed. the presentation of this remonstrance has strongly excited the public attention, and occasioned no small embarrassment at the porte. it was proposed in council to return it, but the suggestion was overruled, and i hear that nothing will be added to the verbal reply already given. the substance of that reply, which m. de bourqueney read to me from the report of his first interpreter, is by no means unfavourable. the language employed by rifaat pasha in speaking of the french minister's note to m. pisani, admitted, in substance, that much might be said with reason against the manner and circumstances of the execution, but as to the act itself, he said that nothing could be alleged against a judgment founded upon the express will of god. his answer to the communication of your lordship's instruction has not yet reached me. it will have the greater interest as two more cases of religion involving capital punishment have recently occurred. the offender in each instance is a native mussulman; and nothing, i conceive, but the late expression of indignation has prevented the porte from executing the sentence of the law. i am informed that rifaat pasha, on consulting the grand mufti as to one of these cases, was advised not to bring it under his holiness' notice as he had no choice but to declare the law; and a charitable intimation was added, that where a state necessity existed, the porte would herself be found the most competent judge. the russian minister informs me that he is still in expectation of instructions from st. petersburgh. the internuncio refers to the remarks addressed by prince metternich himself to the turkish ambassador at vienna. m. de le coq reserves the communication of his instruction, in the hope of being able to act simultaneously with m. de titow. the silence of any one of the leading courts on such an occasion would be a cause of just regret. i have, &c., (signed) stratford canning. inclosure l in no 8. _baron de bourqueney to rifaat pasha_. _thérapia_, 17 _octobre_, 1843. le soussigné, ministre plénipotentiaire de sa majesté le roi des français près la porte ottomane, a reçu de son gouvernement l'ordre de faire à son excellence le ministre des affaires etrangères la communication suivante. c'est avec un douloureux étonnement que le gouvernement du roi a appris la récente exécution d'un arménien qui, après avoir embrassé la religion musulmane, était revenu à la foi de ses pères, et que pour ce seul fait on a frappé de la peine capitale, parcequ'il refusait à racheter sa vie par une nouvelle abjuration. en vain pour expliquer un acte aussi déplorable voudrait-on se prévaloir des dispositions impérieuses de la législation. on devait croire que la législation faite pour d'autres temps était tombée en désuétude; et en tout cas il était trop facile de fermer les yeux sur un pareil fait pour qu'on puisse considérer ce qui vient d'arriver comme une de ces déplorables nécessités dans lesquelles la politique trouve quelquefois non pas une justification mais une excuse. lors même que l'humanité, dont le nom n'a jamais été invoqué en vain en france, n'aurait pas été aussi cruellement blessée par le supplice de cet arménien, lors même que le gouvernement du roi, qui a toujours protégé, et protégera toujours la religion chrétienne en orient, pourrait oublier que c'est le christianisme qui a reçu ce sanglant outrage, l'intérêt qu'il prend à l'empire ottoman et à son indépendance, lui ferait encore voir avec une profonde douleur ce qui vient de se passer. cette indépendance ne peut aujourd'hui trouver une garantie efficace que dans l'appui de l'opinion européenne. les efforts du gouvernement du roi ont constamment tendu à lui ménager cet appui. cette tâche lui deviendra bien plus difficile en présence d'un acte qui soulevera dans l'europe entière une indignation universelle. le gouvernement du roi croit accomplir un devoir impérieux en faisant connaître à la porte l'impression qu'il a reçue d'un fait malheureusement irréparable, mais qui, s'il pouvait se renouveler, serait de nature à appeler des dangers réels sur le gouvernement assez faible pour faire de telles concessions à un odieux et déplorable fanatisme. le soussigné, &c., (translation.) _therapia, october_ 17, 1843. the undersigned, minister plenipotentiary of his majesty the king of the french at the ottoman porte, has received orders from his government to make the following communication to the minister for foreign affairs. it has been with a painful astonishment that the king's government has learnt the late execution of an armenian who, after embracing the musulman religion, returned to the faith of his fathers, and who, for this act alone, has been capitally punished, because he refused to redeem his life by a fresh recantation. in vain can the imperious terms of the law be appealed to for an explanation of so lamentable an act. it might have been supposed that a system of law formed for other times had fallen into desuetude; and at all events it was too easy to overlook such a circumstance to admit of that which has happened being considered as one of those lamentable cases of necessity, in which policy sometimes finds not so much a justification as an excuse. even had not humanity, whose name has never been vainly invoked in france, been so cruelly hurt by the punishment of this armenian,--even could the king's government, which has always protected, and ever will protect, the christian religion in the east, forget that it is christianity which has been thus cruelly outraged,--the interest which it takes in the ottoman empire and in its independence would still cause it to behold what has occurred with profound regret. that independence can in these times find a real security only in the support of the public opinion of europe. the efforts of the king's government have been constantly directed towards obtaining for it that support. this task will become much more difficult after an act which will excite universal indignation throughout the whole of europe. the king's government considers that it discharges an imperious duty in making known to the porte the impression which has been made upon it by an event unfortunately irreparable, and which, were it to occur again, would be likely to cause real danger to a government weak enough to make such concessions to a hateful and lamentable fanaticism. the undersigned, &c., inclosure 2 in no. 8. _sir stratford canning to m. pisani_. sir, _buyukderé, october_ 30, 1843. in presenting to the minister for foreign affairs the accompanying translation of an instruction addressed to me by the earl of aberdeen, with reference to the armenian who was lately executed at constantinople, you will be careful to impress his excellency with a conviction of the deep and painful sentiments excited throughout great britain by that deplorable act. you will require that the instruction be forthwith submitted not only to his highness the grand vizier, but also to his imperial majesty the sultan. a copy of this letter, with a translation in turkish, is to be left with rifaat pasha. (signed) stratford canning. no. 9. _sir stratford canning to mr. addington_.--(_received november_ 23.) sir, _buyukderé, november_ 3, 1843. a delay in the departure of the messenger affords me the opportunity of transmitting to you at once the inclosed report addressed to me to-day by m. pisani. though not official, it shews the strong impression which has been made upon the porte by a knowledge of the sentiments entertained throughout europe with reference to the armenian lately executed. the porte will probably seek to avoid replying ostensibly to the remonstrances of the several leading courts, but means will, no doubt, be taken to prevent the necessity of practising such atrocities in future. a degree of success so important, though limited, might reasonably encourage the allied courts to enter into a more complete understanding for the removal of other blots from the legal or political practice of the turks, in their intercourse with christians. i have, &c., (signed) stratford canning. inclosure in no. 9. _m. pisani to sir stratford canning_. excellence, _péra, ce_ 3 _novembre_, 1843. j'ai conformément à vos ordres remis à rifaat pacha la traduction en turc des instructions du comte d'aberdeen et de la lettre de votre excellence, avec une copie de votre lettre. rifaat pacha a lu la traduction des deux pièces qu'il a trouvées très-importantes. il m'a dit qu'il mettra les instructions de lord aberdeen sous les yeux du grand vizir et du sultan. rifaat pacha m'a dit confidentiellement que les mesures qu'il est question de prendre sont, d'ordonner à toutes les autorités à constantinople et dans les provinces, d'avoir désormais soin, lorsqu'un turc qui était chrétien, se fait chrétien de nouveau, et lorsqu'un turc dit des injures contre mahomet ou contre les prophètes, ou vomit d'autres blasphèmes, de ne pas permettre qu'il soit traduit et jugé devant un mehkemé quelconque; mais si le cas arrive à constantinople, d'envoyer l'accusé à la porte, et s'il arrive dans un pays hors de constantinople, de l'envoyer au pacha de la province, sans aucune espèce de jugement préalable. de cette manière-ci, dit rifaat pacha, la porte et les pachas au-dehors songeront aux moyens de terminer ces sortes d'affaires sans éclat, et (j'ose inférer des paroles de son excellence) sans recourir à la peine capitale. rifaat pacha a ajouté que la porte ne peut faire aucune réponse par écrit sur cette affaire sans se compromettre, soit vis-à-vis des puissances chrétiennes, en disant qu'elle est obligée de mettre à exécution la loi qui regarde les chrétiens qui, après avoir embrassé l'islamisme de leur propre gré, y renoncent et redeviennent chrétiens, et qui encourent par là la peine de mort,--soit vis-à-vis de la loi, en déclarant qu'elle ne sera pas exécutée à l'avenir dans un cas semblable à celui de l'arménien. mais rifaat pacha m'a paru convaincu qu'après le bruit que l'europe a fait, une scène semblable à celle de l'arménien ne se renouvellera point. les mesures que le gouvernement se propose de prendre ont pour but d'éviter un jugement; et sans jugement on ne peut condamner personne à mort. l'arménien avait été jugé au mehkemé dit du stambol effendi, avant d'être envoyé à la porte. le kiatib qui est en prison pour avoir dit des injures contre mahomet, a été jugé au mehkemé de salonique, avant d'être envoyé à constantinople; et le conseil suprême l'a déclaré digne de mort, quoiqu'il n'ait pas été juridiquement et formellement condamné ici encore. la circonstance que le kiatib a été jugé déjà et convaincu d'avoir blasphémé le nom de mahomet, expose ses jours au plus grand danger. j'ai l'honneur, &c., (signé) frederic pisani. (translation.) excellency, _pera, november_ 3, 1843. in conformity with your orders, i placed in the hands of rifaat pasha the turkish translation of lord aberdeen's instructions and of your excellency's letter, with a copy of your letter. rifaat pasha read the translation of the two documents which he considered to be of great importance. he told me that he will lay lord aberdeen's instructions before the grand vizier and the sultan. rifaat pasha told me confidentially that the measures which it is proposed to take, are to order all the authorities at constantinople and and [sic] in the provinces henceforth to take care that when a turk who was a christian, becomes again a christian, and when a turk speaks insultingly of mahomet or the prophets, or utters other blasphemies, he shall not be allowed to be given up to, and judged by, any mehkemé whatever; but if the case occurs at constantinople, the accused shall be sent to the porte, or if it occurs in a district beyond constantinople, he shall be sent to the pasha of the province without any previous judgment. in this manner, said rifaat pasha, the porte and the provincial pashas will devise means for terminating affairs of this kind without noise, and (i venture to infer from his excellency's words) without having recourse to capital punishment. rifaat pasha added, that the porte can give no written answer respecting this affair without compromising itself either as regards the christian powers, by stating that it is forced to execute the law regarding christians who, after having of their own accord embraced islamism, renounce it and become christians again, and thus incur capital punishment,--or as regards the law, by declaring that it will not for the future be executed in cases similar to that of the armenian. rifaat pasha, however, seemed to me convinced that after the noise which has been made in europe, a scene similar to that of the armenian cannot be renewed. the measures which the government are about to adopt have for their object to avoid a trial, and without a trial no one can be condemned to death. the armenian was tried at the mehkemé called that of the stambol effendi, before being sent to the porte. the kiatib who is in prison for having uttered blasphemies against mahomet, was judged at the mehkemé of salonica, before he was sent to constantinople; and the supreme council has declared him worthy of death, although he has not yet been judicially and formally condemned here. the circumstance of the kiatib having already been tried and convicted of uttering blasphemy against the name of mahomet puts his life in the most imminent danger. i have, &c., (signed) frederick pisani. no. 10. _sir stratford canning to the earl of aberdeen.--(received december 5_.) (extract.) _buyukderé, november_ 17, 1843. i am happy to state that a serious and salutary impression has been made upon the turkish government by the communication of your lordship's instruction respecting the armenian decapitated in the streets of constantinople. preceded as that communication was by the delivery of m. guizot's impressive note, and followed, as i believe it to have been, by the presentation of baron bülow's instruction to m. de le coq, the porte has felt, even in the absence of any similar declaration from the austrian and russian legations, that she cannot with prudence or safety repeat an atrocity tending so directly to excite the indignant feelings of christendom against her. i have not received, nor indeed have i yet demanded, an official answer to my remonstrance. m. de bourqueney, though, like myself, without instructions on that point, has made the demand, but, at my request, he has abstained from pressing it, agreeing, on reflection, with me, that it would be advisable at all events to afford time for m. de titow to hear from his government, and to take a step more or less in harmony with ours. it remains indeed to be considered whether it would be prudent, even with that advantage, to insist upon receiving a formal answer. i have already forwarded to your lordship's office the substance of rifaat pasha's remarks, and they convey an assurance that the porte will in future find means to avoid the application of the law in cases like that which proved fatal to the unfortunate armenian. the apparent consequences of what has been done in this matter are, a ministerial understanding that occasions of calling the law into action as to religious offences involving a capital punishment are for the future to be avoided, and a proclamation addressed to the turkish authorities in roumelia for the better treatment and protection of the sultan's christian subjects. i venture to believe that your lordship will derive the same gratification which i do from this result. no. 11. _sir stratford canning to the earl of aberdeen_.--(_received december_ 18.) my lord, _buyukderé, november_ 20, 1843. i have the satisfaction to state, that the russian envoy has informed me of his having received an instruction from his court on the subject of the armenian youth decapitated at constantinople. his excellency has given me to understand that the terms of this instruction are in harmony with the sentiments of her majesty's government; and i presume that he will make me a more complete communication of its contents the first time we meet. i have, &c., (signed) stratford canning. no. 12. _sir stratford canning to the earl of aberdeen_.--(_received december_ 24.) (extract.) _constantinople, december_ l, 1843. having sounded rifaat pasha as to his intention of answering the representations of the five powers concerning the late religious execution, i was told by his excellency that, although the porte wished to avoid any recurrence of that atrocity, yet, as such executions, divested of the objectionable forms which accompanied the armenian's death, were obligatory under the law considered by mahomedans divine, and might be forced incidentally upon the government, it would be embarrassing to give an official declaration to that effect. some ostensible record of the porte's intention to avoid religious exeutions [sic] in future would, i humbly conceive, be satisfactory to her majesty's government, and it would not perhaps be impossible to frame a reply, which might convey the required security without coming into collision with the mussulman faith. there is reason otherwise to apprehend that the advantage now obtained will be of very short duration. p.s.--there is reason to fear that another religious execution has recently taken place in the pashalic of brussa. no. 13. _sir stratford canning to the earl of aberdeen_.--(_received january_ 5, 1844.) (extract.) _buyukderé, december_ 17, 1843. i have the honour to state, and i do so with much concern, that the rumour, which has for some time prevailed, of another execution, similar to that of the armenian youth, having taken place by order of the porte, is now confirmed. the statements inclosed herewith describe the circumstances as far they are known. one of them is an extract of a despatch addressed to me by her majesty's consul at brussa, which is at no great distance from biligik where the greek was executed. the other was communicated to me by one of my diplomatic colleagues. rifaat pasha in conversing with me some time ago alluded to this execution, of which i had then scarcely heard the rumour, and he spoke of it as a kind of accident, which had occurred prior to the late remonstrances respecting the armenian, and which was not to be taken in proof of an objectionable policy at the porte. with a variation of terms, and in some degree of facts also, he has offered the same kind of vague excuse to others, and i believe in particular to the internuncio. i presume that your lordship would not approve of such an occurrence being thrown into oblivion without an attempt at explanation, and i am persuaded that any backwardness under such circumstances would only serve to confirm the porte in her present infatuated course of policy. i have, therefore, communicated upon the subject with my colleagues of austria, france, russia, and prussia, and finding them all substantially of the same mind, i have drawn up the instruction of which a copy is here inclosed, and sent it to rifaat pasha by m. pisani. similar instructions were sent in by the others, though neither collectively, nor simultaneously, and perhaps not in writing by the austrian and russian ministers. your lordship will observe that we ask for a distinct assurance from the porte that measures shall be taken to prevent the recurrence of such revolting punishments in future. in proposing to make this demand i had in view the corresponding passage in your lordship's instruction, communicated to rifaat pasha, and i thought to satisfy m. de bourqueney, who had presented an official note in the former instance and applied for an answer, without exceeding the limits which my other colleagues were prepared to observe. their joint acceptance of the suggestion, and their engagements to make the same demand, induce me to hope that the porte's reply will prove satisfactory, though i cannot yet speak with confidence in that respect. inclosure i in no. 13. _mr. consul sandison to sir stratford canning_. (extract.) _brussa, december_ 9, 1843. a fresh instance, i learn, has unfortunately occurred about a week ago of the sanguinary spirit of the turkish law and people against relapsed proselytes. a young greek at biligik in the adjoining district, who had become a mussulman and returned to his own creed, has been put to death by hanging. he must have been a willing victim from what my informant states, as his profession of islamism had been complete according to the usual rites. p.s.--the execution of the greek at biligik took place, i further learn, after the return of an answer from the turkish government to a report on the case from the municipality of biligik. inclosure 2 in no. 13. _extract of letter communicated by m. de cordoba to sir stratford canning_. _constantinople_, 6 _décembre_, 1843. un jeune grec s'était fait turc dans un moment de mauvaise humeur; revenu a lui, il était allé trouver un prêtre et avait témoigné le désir de rentrer dans sa croyance. l'ecclésiastique, approuvant sa pensée, lui dit qu'il devait réparer sa faute en revenant publiquement sur son erreur. le jeune homme, âgé de 22 ans, fit la chose comme elle lui était ordonnée. aussitôt les autorités turques s'emparent de lui et le mettent au secret: ceci se passe aux environs de brousse. l'on rapporte le fait à constantinople: ici, en dépit des notes française, anglaise, &c., on tient conseil, et l'ordre est envoyé de l'exécuter, et en effet il y a quatorze à quinze jours cet infortuné a été pendu publiquement à biligik. l'effet qui cet événement a produit sur les habitans turcs du lieu a été tel que le gouverneur a dû prendre les plus grandes précautions pour empêcher le massacre de tous les habitans. (translation.) _constantinople, december_ 6, 1843. a young greek turned turk in a moment of ill temper; having come to himself, he went to a priest and evinced a desire to return to his faith. the priest, approving his intention, told him that he must repair his fault by a public retractation of his error. the young man, who was twenty-two years of age, did as he was ordered. forthwith the turkish authorities lay hold of him and shut him up: this happens in the neighbourhood of brussa. the transaction is reported to constantinople: here, notwithstanding the french and english notes, &c., a council is held, and the order to execute him is sent off, and in fact this unfortunate person was publicly hanged at biligik fourteen or fifteen days ago. the effect which this event produced on the turkish inhabitants of the place has been such that the governor has been under the necessity of taking the greatest precautions to prevent the massacre of all the inhabitants. inclosure 3 in no. 13. _sir stratford canning to m. pisani_. sir, _buyukderé, december_ 16, 1843. it is with sentiments of deep concern that i have received unquestionable intelligence of another religious execution, similar in principle to that of the armenian avakim. in stating this circumstance without delay to the minister for foreign affairs, you will lay before his excellency the substance of the two accompanying papers, which contain a relation of the principal facts. you will express the surprise and disappointment which i feel in the contemplation of so revolting an act, after the very distinct communications which had recently taken place between his excellency and myself respecting the previous case. a full knowledge of the sentiments entertained by her majesty's government, and also by four other leading cabinets of europe, has not to all appearance prevented the porte from again publicly outraging the principles of humanity, and again exposing herself to the just animadversion of those friendly powers. under these circumstances, and referring to the instructions of my government already communicated to rifaat pasha, i deem it an indispensable duty to invite the explanations of the porte, and to state my expectation that the turkish government will not only declare its regret for the two executions in suitable terms, but that it will accompany the declaration with an assurance, admitting of no question for the future, that effective measures will be immediately taken to preclude the recurrence of such unwise and odious acts. you will conclude by leaving with rifaat pasha a copy of this instruction, and by calling upon his excellency to lay it before the sultan, and to apprize you on an early day of the answer sanctioned by his majesty, for the information of my government. i am, &c., (signed) stratford canning. no. 14. _m. guizot to count ste. aulaire_.--(_communicated by count ste. aulaire to the earl of aberdeen, january_ 13.) (extract.) _paris, le_ 9 _janvier_, 1844. malgré les promesses formelles de la porte, et les mesures qu'elle disait avoir prises pour empêcher le renouvellement du douloureux scandale auquel avait donné lieu, il y a quelques mois, l'exécution d'un arménien supplicié pour être revenu à la religion chrétienne après avoir embrassé l'islamisme, un grec des environs de brousse vient encore d'être mis à mort dans des circonstances absolument semblables. interpellé à ce sujet par m. de bourqueney, la porte n'a su alléguer pour se justifier que des malentendus et des méprises dont les allégations même sont contradictoires. un tel fait n'est plus seulement un outrage à l'humanité, c'est une insulte jetée à l'europe civilisée par le fanatisme d'un parti que le gouvernement ottoman n'a pas le courage de contenir et de réprimer, à supposer qu'il n'en soit pas lui-même le complice dans une certaine mesure. ce courage, il faut le lui donner en lui faisant craindre d'encourir le sérieux mécontentement des puissances dont l'appui bienveillant lui est si nécessaire. je vais charger m. de bourqueney de faire à cet effet une démarche énergique auprès de la porte, et je ne doute pas que lord aberdeen ne donne à sir stratford canning des instructions analogues. le gouvernement britannique croira certainement aussi devoir se joindre à nous pour demander le concours des autres grandes puissances. (translation.) _paris, january_ 9, 1844. notwithstanding the formal promises of the porte, and the measures which it had declared that it had taken to prevent the repetition of the mournful scandal to which a few months ago the execution of an armenian who was punished for having returned to christianity after having embraced islamism, gave rise, a greek of the neighbourhood of brussa, has now been put to death, under circumstances precisely similar. on being questioned on this subject by m. de bourqueney, the porte could only allege in its justification misunderstandings and mistakes the very allegations with regard to which are contradictory. such a transaction is no longer only an outrage to humanity, it is an insult cast upon civilized europe, by the fanaticism of a party which the ottoman government has not the courage to keep within bounds and repress, supposing that it is not itself to a certain degree an accomplice in the measure. this courage must be given to it by causing it to apprehend that it will incur the serious displeasure of the powers whose benevolent support is so necessary to it. i am about to instruct m. de bourqueney to take an energetic step for this purpose towards the porte, and i doubt not that lord aberdeen will furnish sir stratford canning with corresponding instructions. the british government will likewise assuredly think fit to unite with us in demanding the concurrence of the other great powers. no. 15. _the earl of aberdeen to sir stratford canning_. sir, _foreign office, january_ 16, 1844. i have received your excellency's despatch of the 17th of december, reporting that a greek had been executed near brussa as an apostate from islamism, and inclosing a copy of the communication which you had directed mr. dragoman frederick pisani to make to the porte in consequence of that transaction. i have to state to your excellency that her majesty's government entirely approve the promptitude with which you acted on this occasion. but the repetition of a scene of this revolting kind so soon after that which had, in the course of last summer, excited the horror and indignation of europe, evinces such total disregard, on the part of the porte, for the feelings and remonstrances of the christian powers, that it is incumbent upon her majesty's government without loss of time to convey their sentiments on the matter still more explicitly to the knowledge of the porte. they take this course singly, and without waiting for the co-operation of the other christian powers, because they desire to announce to the porte a determination which, though it doubtless will be concurred in by all, great britain is prepared to act upon alone. her majesty's government feel too that they have an especial right to require to be listened to by the porte on a matter of this nature, for they can appeal to the justice and to the favour with which the vast body of mahomedans subject to the british rule are treated in india, in support of their demand that all persons, subjects of the porte and professing christianity, shall be exempt from cruel and arbitrary persecution on account of their religion, and shall not be made the victims of a barbarous law, which it may be sought to enforce for their destruction. whatever may have been tolerated in former times by the weakness or indifference of christian powers, those powers will now require from the porte due consideration for their feelings as members of a religious community, and interested as such in the fate of all who, notwithstanding shades of difference, unite in a common belief in the essential doctrines of christianity; and they will not endure that the porte should insult and trample on their faith by treating as a criminal any person who embraces it. her majesty's government require the porte to abandon, once for all, so revolting a principle. they have no wish to humble the porte by imposing upon it an unreasonable obligation; but as a christian government, the protection of those who profess a common belief with themselves, from persecution and oppression, on that account alone, by their mahomedan rulers, is a paramount duty with them, and one from which they cannot recede. your excellency will therefore press upon the turkish government that, if the porte has any regard for the friendship of england,--if it has any hope that, in the hour of peril or of adversity, that protection which has more than once saved it from destruction, will be extended to it again, it must renounce absolutely, and without equivocation, the barbarous practice which has called forth the remonstrance now addressed to it. your excellency will require an early answer; and you will let the turkish ministers understand that if that answer does not fully correspond with the expectations which her majesty's government entertain, your excellency is instructed to seek an audience of the sultan, and to explain to his highness, in the most forcible terms, the feelings of the british government, and the consequences, so injurious to turkey, which a disregard for those feelings will involve. her majesty's government are so anxious for the continuance of a good understanding with turkey, and that the porte should entitle itself to their good offices in the hour of need, that they wish to leave no expedient untried before they shall be compelled to admit the conviction that all their interest and friendship is misplaced, and that nothing remains for them but to look forward to, if not promote the arrival of, the day when the force of circumstances shall bring about a change which they will have vainly hoped to procure from the prudence and humanity of the porte itself. your excellency will seek an interview with the reis effendi, and, having read to him this despatch, leave a copy of it, with an accurate translation in his hands. i am, &c., (signed) aberdeen. no. 16. _the earl of aberdeen to sir stratford canning_. sir, _foreign office, january_ 16, 1844. with reference to my other despatch of this day upon the subject of the execution of the greek near brussa as an apostate from islamism, i inclose, for your excellency's information, an extract of so much of a despatch from m. guizot to count ste. aulaire as relates to this matter, which count ste. aulaire communicated to me a few days ago. your excellency will perceive from this paper that m. guizot anticipates that her majesty's government will be disposed to invite the co-operation of the other great powers with the view of making a simultaneous appeal to the porte on that subject. but although her majesty's government would certainly be glad to see the other powers of europe declaring their abhorrence of so revolting a system as that against which your excellency and your french colleague will be instructed to protest, they consider it, nevertheless, unnecessary formally to solicit their co-operation in a matter in which they all may be supposed to take a common interest, and to be prepared to act without previous concert with each other. i have however directed her majesty's ambassador at paris to communicate to m. guizot a copy of my other despatch of this day; and i should wish your excellency to concert with m. de bourqueney as to the manner in which the instructions which i have addressed to your excellency and those which m. de bourqueney will receive from his court on this matter, and which i conclude will closely correspond with those addressed to yourself, shall be carried into execution so as to produce a salutary impression on the porte. a copy of my former instruction will be transmitted to her majesty's ambassador at st. petersburgh for communication to the russian government; but lord stuart de rothsay will not be instructed, for the reason stated in this despatch, to invite the russian government to make a similar representation to the porte. i inclose a copy of my despatch to lord stuart de rothsay. a corresponding despatch will be addressed to sir robert gordon and to lord westmorland. i am, &c., (signed) aberdeen. no. 17. _the earl of aberdeen to lord cowley_. my lord, _foreign office, january_ 16, 1844. i inclose, for your excellency's information, a copy of a despatch from m, guizot which has been placed in my hands by the count de ste. aulaire, expressive of the just indignation of the french government on receiving the tidings that, notwithstanding the representations which were made to the porte by the five powers on the occasion of the execution of the armenian at constantinople in september last, a greek has now been put to death near brussa for returning to christianity after having embraced islamism. this event had been already made known to her majesty's government by a despatch from sir stratford canning of which i herewith transmit a copy. the government of the queen share entirely the feelings of indignation and disgust which the french government evince on this occasion; and i have consequently instructed her majesty's ambassador at the porte to make a fresh and more energetic representation than before to the turkish government, in condemnation of this repeated act of barbarity. i inclose a copy of this instruction to sir stratford canning, and also of a further one of the same date, in which i direct his excellency to concert with the baron de bourqueney in carrying that instruction into effect. your excellency will communicate these instructions to m. guizot. i am, &c., (signed) aberdeen. no. 18. _the earl of aberdeen to lord cowley_. my lord, _foreign office, january_ 16, 1844. with reference to my other despatch of this day, inclosing, for communication to m. guizot, a copy of an instruction which i have addressed to sir stratford canning respecting the execution of a greek near brussa who had apostatized from islamism, i have to state to your excellency that, in the event of your making the communication to m. guizot in sufficient time to enable him to send his instructions to the french minister at constantinople by the steam-vessel which leaves marseilles on the 21st of this month, the post for which is made up in paris on the evening of the 18th, i should wish your excellency to acquaint sir stratford canning by that opportunity with what may have passed between you and m. guizot. the despatch will be sent this evening by post through france so as to go on by the marseilles steam-vessel of the 21st. i am, &c., (signed) aberdeen. no. 19. _the earl of aberdeen to lord stuart de rothsay_*. my lord, _foreign office, january_ 16, 1844. i inclose for your excellency's information, a copy of a despatch from sir stratford canning reporting that a greek has been executed near brussa as an apostate from islamism; and a copy of an instruction which i have in consequence addressed to that ambassador. your excellency will communicate this instruction to count nesselrode for the information of the russian government; but although her majesty's government would doubtless see with pleasure that the other powers of europe should declare their abhorrence of so revolting a system as that which the porte has twice acted upon within the last few months, they do not think it necessary formally to solicit their co-operation in a matter in which they all may be supposed to take a common interest, and to be prepared to act without previous concert with each other. your excellency will therefore merely put count nesselrode in possession of the instructions given to sir stratford canning, and leave to the russian government to determine for itself whether it shall instruct m. de titow to the same effect. i am, &c., * a similar despatch was addressed on the 20th january to sir robert gordon and the earl of westmorland. (signed) aberdeen. no. 20. _lord cowley to the earl of aberdeen_.--(_received january_ 22.) my lord, _paris, january_ 19, 1844. with reference to your lordship's despatches of the 16th instant on the subject of the execution of a greek for returning to christianity after having embraced islamism, i have the honour to report that i had yesterday evening an interview with m. guizot, when i communicated to him the contents of those despatches, and also of your lordship's instructions to sir stratford canning in consequence of the aforesaid transaction; and i have now the honour to inclose a copy of the despatch which, conformably to your lordship's instructions, i have addressed to sir stratford canning informing him of what passed upon this subject between m. guizot and me. my despatch was forwarded last night to her majesty's ambassador at constantinople, and will reach marseilles in time to go by the steam-vessel which sails from that port on the 21st. i have, &c., (signed) cowley. inclosure in no. 20. _lord cowley to sir stratford canning_. sir, _paris, january_ 18, 1844. i have received instructions from lord aberdeen to communicate to the french minister for foreign affairs your excellency's despatches to his lordship respecting the execution of a greek near brussa who had apostatized from islamism, as also his instructions to your excellency, under date the 16th instant, in consequence of that transaction. i am also desired to take the earliest opportunity of acquainting you with what may have passed between m. guizot and me after this communication. i had this evening a conference with the minister for foreign affairs, when i communicated to him the contents of your despatches upon this subject, and also lord aberdeen's instructions to you of the 16th instant, and i am happy to be enabled to state that m. guizot expressed his entire approbation of those instructions. he also assured me that he had signified to m. de bourqueney, in terms not less strong than those used by lord aberdeen in his instructions to you, the indignation and disgust of the french government at this transaction, affording as it did a painful testimony of the total disregard of the porte to the remonstrances of the allies upon a previous act of a similar kind. the minister for foreign affairs then assured me that he had directed m. de bourqueney to consult with your excellency as to the best manner of carrying into effect the instructions of the two governments. the representatives of france at st. petersburgh, vienna, and berlin, have likewise been directed to bring the subject under the consideration of those courts; but m. guizot inclines to the opinion that a separate, rather than joint, representation to the turkish government would be advisable. he trusts, however, that the british and french plenipotentiaries will act in concert upon this occasion, as they have done successfully in every other transaction at constantinople in which the allies have taken any interest. i have, &c., (signed) cowley. no. 21. _the earl of westmorland to the earl of aberdeen_.--(_received january_ 30.) my lord, _berlin, january_ 24, 1844. in compliance with the directions contained in your lordship's despatch of the 20th instant, i have communicated to baron bülow your instructions to sir stratford canning relative to the late execution of a greek at brussa. baron bülow gave me an instruction to read addressed to m. de le coq, which was dated only two days later than your lordship's, and which expressed in strong terms his reprobation of the conduct of the turkish government upon this occasion. baron bülow felt the greatest satisfaction at the statements made by your lordship, and determined to write again to m. le coq directing him to act in accordance with them. he hopes that by conduct and language so energetic as that adopted by your lordship an impression may be made upon the turkish government, and an end be put to the barbarous cruelties of which it has of late been guilty. i have, &c., (signed) westmorland. no. 22. _sir robert gordon to the earl of aberdeen_.--(_received february_ 24.) (extract.) _vienna, february_ 16, 1844. in compliance with your lordship's instructions, i have communicated to prince metternich, for the information of the austrian government, your despatch to sir stratford canning relating to the execution of the greek renegade by the turkish authorities at brussa on the ground of his apostacy from islamism. whilst i stated to his highness that my government did not think it necessary formally to solicit the co-operation of the internuncio in a matter which could only be viewed by every government in europe with the greatest abhorrence, i have been anxious to ascertain in how far the instructions which are forwarded from hence would be made to coincide with your lordship's; and i have now to state that, although agreeing in the principle upon which have been founded the remonstrances of her majesty's government, and seeking to arrive at the same result, the austrian minister has nevertheless a decided objection to the wording of your lordship's instructions, and the peremptory terms in which it is endeavoured by them to enforce the sultan's compliance. no. 23. _lord stuart de rothsay to the earl of aberdeen_.--(_received february_ 24.) (extract.) _st. petersburgh, february_ 6, 1844. in obedience to the orders contained in your lordship's despatch of the 16th january, i have communicated to count nesselrode a copy of your instructions to sir stratford canning upon the subject of a greek who had been executed near brussa as an apostate from islamism. i did so without alluding to the wish of her majesty's government that the russian minister at constantinople might be furnished with instructions on the subject. the vice-chancellor, nevertheless, said that he should consider attentively the communication i had made, and see how far it might be useful to adopt a similar course, adding, that although he quite participated in the feelings which actuated her majesty's government, he thought that other means might be tried which would be more efficacious in attaining our common object. he afterwards remarked that through the instrumentality of some of the russian consular agents pashas had not unfrequently been persuaded, in an unofficial manner, to facilitate the removal from their government of greeks and others who had rendered themselves liable to capital punishment for apostacy; and he gave me to understand that he was of opinion that greater security to christians would be obtained by the exercise of the individual influence of foreign agents, than by seeking an alteration in the fundamental laws of the turkish empire, such as appeared to be the object of her majesty's government. count nesselrode appears disposed to instruct m. titow to give his general support to her majesty's ambassador. no. 24. _sir stratford canning to the earl of aberdeen_.--(_received march_ 8.) (extract.) _constantinople, february_ 10, 1844. on the 5th instant i received your lordship's instructions of the 16th ultimo, relating to the execution of a greek near brussa for relapsing from islamism, and directing me to require of the porte an unequivocal renunciation of the principle involved in that barbarous act. i received at the same time, from her majesty's ambassador at paris a despatch informing me that he had communicated those instructions to m. guizot, and was authorized by him to express that minister's approbation of their contents, and his intention of ordering m. de bourqueney to concur with me for the attainment of the object to which they were directed. i proceeded at once to execute the commands of her majesty's government. to the french minister i read your lordship's first instruction, and also lord cowley's despatch. he returned my confidence by putting me in possession of m. guizot's instructions to him of the 13th ultimo, and by expressing his readiness to act in concert with me for the accomplishment of our common purpose. to rifaat pasha i communicated a copy, together with an exact translation, of your lordship's first instruction. i waited upon his excellency by appointment for this object on the 9th instant, having apprized the russian, austrian, and prussian ministers of my intention the day before. the ottoman minister for foreign affairs read, in my presence, the whole of your lordship's instruction translated into turkish. having finished it, he rose from his seat rather abruptly, without saying a word, and left the room for a few minutes. on his return, he told me that the subject was too important for him to give me an answer without referring to the council; but, if i were inclined to listen, he would at once impart to me such observations as occurred to his mind. i assured him that i was willing to receive with becoming consideration whatever he thought proper to state; and he then proceeded to draw a strong line of distinction between custom and divine law, intimating that a practice derived from the former source might be abandoned to meet the wishes of europe, or even of great britain alone, but that a law, prescribed by god himself, was not to be set aside by any human power; and that the sultan in attempting it might be exposed to a heavy, perhaps even to a dangerous, responsibility. he sought to learn from me whether your lordship had been fully aware of this view of the case in writing the instruction communicated to him; and it seemed to be his object both to prepare me for an unsatisfactory answer, and to obtain from me some admission which might give him an advantage in shaping the decision of the council. i had already, in presenting the instruction, endeavoured to make it clearly understood, that her majesty's government had no object in view but the one so distinctly and powerfully stated therein; and also to show how imperiously the welfare of the porte itself requires that a practice and principle which operate as moral barriers between turkey and christendom, should now be once for all renounced and utterly abandoned. i had every reason to believe that your lordship had instructed me with a full knowledge of the question in all its bearings and eventual consequences; that the course deliberately adopted by her majesty's government, and announced to the principal courts of europe previously united in reprobation of the late impolitic and atrocious executions, was not to be receded from; and that any opening to a compromise on so vital a point could only encourage resistance and endanger the most important interests. i, therefore, rested entirely on the terms of your lordship's instruction, to which, in truth, there was nothing for me to add. although i replied to some of rifaat pasha's remarks in a considerate and conciliatory manner, i referred him steadily to your lordship's instructions, and left no reason to hope that any evasive or temporizing assurance would be accepted as satisfactory by her majesty's government. no. 25. _sir stratford canning to the earl of aberdeen_.--(_received march_ 8.) my lord, _constantinople, february_ 12, 1844. the interview which i had on the 9th instant with rifaat pasha was followed yesterday by one of a similar character between that minister and the french representative. m. de bourqueney obligingly called upon me as soon as he returned from the pasha's house; and his report of the conference presented in substance a counterpart of what had before passed between his excellency and myself. he stated that he had given in a paper composed of the strongest passages from m. guizot's instruction to him of the 13th ultimo; that he had found in rifaat pasha's remarks the same indication of resistance on the ground of religion which i had experienced; that in reprobating the executions complained of, and urging the abandonment of so barbarous a law for the future, he had placed himself as nearly as possible on the same ground with me, and that he had carefully avoided any premature discussion of the form of declaration by which the porte would probably, in the end, attempt to satisfy the remonstrating governments without a surrender of the principle, or more than a virtual suspension of the practice. notwithstanding the want of any instruction from m. guizot, subsequent to lord cowley's communication to that minister, baron de bourqueney found himself sufficiently authorized by the instruction of the 13th to give me his cordial and unqualified support. agreeably to m. guizot's suggestion, as conveyed to me in lord cowley's despatch, we have acted separately in form, though concurrently in substance. i have, &c., (signed) stratford canning. no. 26. _the earl of aberdeen to sir stratford canning_. sir, _foreign office, march_ 19, 1844. i have received your excellency's despatch of the 10th of february, giving an account of the manner in which you had executed the instruction of the 16th of january, which i addressed to your excellency on receiving your report of the execution of a greek near brussa on the ground of his having renounced his profession of islamism and returned to christianity. i have to acquaint you that her majesty's government entirely approve of your having rested your communication to the turkish minister on the terms of my instruction, and of your having steadily referred his excellency to that document, while replying in a considerate and conciliatory manner to the remarks which he addressed to you. nothing, indeed, can be further from the wish of her majesty's government than that a communication which they have been compelled by a strong sense of duty, and, i may add, by a sincere regard for the welfare of turkey, to make to the porte, should be rendered more unpalatable than from its nature it was likely to be, by being conveyed in harsh or dictatorial terms; and they wish, if the question is still under discussion when this despatch reaches your excellency's hands, that you should constantly bear in mind, that her majesty's government, although they propose to abide by the general tenour of the communication which you have been directed to make to the porte, have no desire, and would deeply regret, that the acquiescence of the porte in the demand which they have addressed to it, should be attended with unnecessary pain to the feelings of the turkish government. her majesty's government are persuaded that if the ministers of the porte will dispassionately consider what has been desired of them, they will find that, without any real sacrifice of national or religious opinion, they may place themselves in harmony with the wishes and the feelings of the christian powers. her majesty's government have not urged, and do not propose to urge, them to abrogate any law, divine or human, but merely to revert to the system which her majesty's government believe to have been for some time past constantly acted upon, and to allow the law to remain practically dormant, and thus silently withdraw from a practice which cannot be enforced without rousing the feelings of christendom, and rendering it impossible for the turkish government to retain the good-will of christian powers. the ministers of the porte cannot, on calm reflection, suppose that if they deliberately deprive their government of the moral or physical support of christendom, the turkish empire can long be preserved from the destruction with which, from numerous causes, it is continually menaced; neither can they believe that, although the sentiments of the various powers of europe on the question to which the revival of an obsolete practice has now unfortunately given rise, may be conveyed to the porte in terms more or less decided, there is any real and essential difference between the expectations and the intentions of all. all must yield to public opinion universally expressed; and the porte may rest assured that christian states will, with one accord, refuse to tolerate any longer a practice which, both in the principle on which it rests and the manner in which it is carried into execution, is designed to stigmatize the faith which they profess and cherish. i am, &c., (signed) aberdeen. no. 27. _count nesselrode to m. de titow_.--(_communicated by baron brunnow to the earl of aberdeen_, march 19.) _st. pétersbourg, le_ 15/27 _février_, 1844. je n'ai pas manqué de prendre les ordres de l'empereur sur le contenu de votre rapport no. 10, du 21 janvier/2 février, par lequel vous nous avez rendu compte de la fâcheuse impression que la nouvelle exécution religieuse qui a eu lieu à biligik a produite à constantinople. sa majesté a voué une attention sérieuse aux diverses considérations que vous nous avez exposées pour décider du plus ou moins d'opportunité qu'il y aurait pour les puissances de l'europe en général, et pour la russie en particulier, à protester contre des actes de cruauté incompatibles avec les principes d'humanité dont la porte devrait se montrer pénétrée à l'égard de ses sujets chrétiens. d'une part, nous avons reconnu la difficutté, pour ne pas dire l'impossibilité, de découvrir le moyen propre pour paralyser d'une manière définitive les effets de la loi du coran qui concerne les apostasies; d'autre part, nous ne saurions ne pas élever la voix, lorsqu'il s'agit de l'application de la peine de mort à des individus qui, en embrassant le christianisme, ou en retournant dans le sein de l'eglise, invoquent notre protection, et nous imposent le devoir de les soustraire aux rigueurs d'une législation barbare. dans un tel état de choses, l'opinion que vous a communiquée m. le comte de stürmer, nous a paru celle qui offre le plus de chances de succès. cette opinion est d'ailleurs conforme aux vues que j'ai été dans le cas de vous développer sur la même matière dans une occasion précédente. il est donc de l'intention de l'empereur que vous déclariez à la porte ottomane, sous la forme d'un conseil bienveillant, que nous nous attendons positivement à ne plus voir se renouveler des exécutions qui soulèvent contre elle l'indignation de toute la chrétienté. c'est dans son propre intérêt que nous lui adressons cette demande. la porte ne doit pas se faire illusion sur les élémens qui fermentent en turquie. au lieu de s'aliéner les sentimens des populations chrétiennes, le gouvernement ottoman doit travailler plus que jamais, à se les concilier. qu'il comprenne enfin la nécessité de laisser tomber en désuétude des dispositions surannées de la loi mahométane, qui ne peuvent être maintenues qu'au mépris des représentations unanimes de toutes les puissances. tel serait à peu près le langage que vous auriez à tenir, monsieur, à la porte ottomane, de concert avec les autres représentans, et nous espérons qu'en la rappelant ainsi à la conscience de ses devoirs et de ses intérêts réels, nous l'empêcherons de retomber dans la voie vicieuse qu'elle a suivie en dernier lieu. recevez, &c., (signé) nesselrode. (translation.) _st. petersburgh_, 15/27 _february_, 1844. i have not failed to take the orders of the emperor upon the contents of your despatch no. 10, of the 21 january/2 february, in which you have reported the painful impression which the fresh religious execution which has taken place at biligik has produced at constantinople. his majesty has given his serious attention to the various considerations which you have laid before us in order to determine the greater or less degree of propriety there would be in the principal powers of europe generally, and in russia particularly, protesting against acts of cruelty incompatible with the principles of humanity with which the porte should show itself animated as regards its christian subjects. on the one hand, we have perceived the difficulty, not to say the impossibility, of discovering the suitable means of definitively paralyzing the effects of the law of the koran relating to apostacy; on the other hand, we cannot but raise our voice when it is a question of inflicting the penalty of death upon individuals who, in embracing christianity, or in returning into the bosom of the church, appeal to our protection, and impose upon us the duty of withdrawing them from the rigours of a barbarous legislation. in such a state of things the opinion which m. de stürmer has communicated to you, has appeared to us to be that which offers the greatest chance of success. this opinion is, moreover, in conformity with the views which i have had occasion to explain to you on the same subject on a former occasion. it is then the emperor's intention that you should declare to the ottoman porte, in the form of friendly counsel, that we positively expect no longer to witness executions which array against it the indignation of all christendom. it is with a view to its own interest that we address to it this demand. the porte must not delude itself with regard to the elements now in a state of fermentation in turkey. instead of alienating from itself the feelings of the christian population, the ottoman government ought more than ever to labour to conciliate them to itself. let it comprehend, in fine, the necessity of allowing to become obsolete antiquated enactments of the mahomedan law, which cannot be upheld but in disregard of the unanimous representations of all the powers. such should be the purport of the language which, sir, you should hold to the ottoman porte, in concert with the other representatives; and we trust that in thus recalling it to a sense of its duties and real interests, we shall prevent it from again falling into the vicious system which it has recently followed. receive, &c., (signed) nesselrode. no. 28. _lord cowley to the earl of aberdeen_.--(_received march_ 21.) (extract.) _paris, march_ 18, 1844. with reference to the representations made to the ottoman government by the french and english representatives at constantinople on the subject of the execution of a greek near brussa, as reported in sir stratford canning's despatches of the 10th and 12th february, i have the honour to state that m. guizot has communicated to me the substance of what passed at a conference which he has had within these few days with reshid pasha upon that subject. the pasha said that he was instructed to express in strong terms the concern of the sultan at this interference of the allied sovereigns (of great britain and france in particular) in the internal concerns of his empire; that a compliance with these demands might be attended with very serious consequences to himself and his government; and that he (the pasha) was instructed to express the fervent hope of his master, that they would not be persisted in. m. guizot replied that the french and british governments never could desist from expressing their abhorrence of such atrocious acts of cruelty as had been perpetrated upon the late occasion, and which had given rise to a renewal of the requisition that the practice should be entirely abandoned, and that they confidently expected that their representations would have the desired effect upon the ottoman government. no. 29. _the earl of aberdeen to lord cowley_. (extract.) _foreign office, march_ 22, 1844. i transmit to your excellency herewith a copy of an instruction which i addressed on the 19th instant to sir stratford canning, in reply to his excellency's despatch of the 10th of february last relative to the execution of the greek near brussa, a copy of which was forwarded to your excellency on the 15th instant. you will lose no time in communicating this instruction to m. guizot and you will at the same time, suggest to him the propriety of instructing the french minister at the porte to make it perfectly clear to the turkish government, that neither great britain nor france demand the abrogation of any law of the turkish empire; and that all that we desire is an assurance that the practice which has so justly called forth the reprobation of all christian countries, shall cease, by the law being suffered to remain, as it had long been, dormant. no. 30. _sir stratford canning to the earl of aberdeen_.--(_received march_ 24.) (extract.) _constantinople, february_ 29, 1844. i applied to rifaat pasha on the 24th instant, in concert with the french minister, for an answer to your lordship's requisition on the subject of the executions for apostacy from islamism. my application was made in the form of an instruction to m. frederick pisani, and baron de bourqueney adopted a similar line of proceeding. copies of my instruction to m. pisani and of his report of rifaat pasha's reply, identical with the report of the french interpreter, are inclosed herewith for your lordship's more complete information. several councils have been held, as well at the porte as at the sheik-ul-islam's residence. i inclose with this despatch a short report from m. pisani, which preceded the instruction referred to above. inclosure l in no. 30. _sir stratford canning to m. pisani_. monsieur, _péra, le_ 22 _février_, 1844. le message que vous m'avez transmis avant-hier de la part de son excellence rifaat pacha, laisse tout-à-fait incertaine l'époque où je recevrai une réponse à la communication importante que j'ai eu l'honneur de lui faire le 8 du courant par l'ordre exprès de ma cour. il est pourtant à désirer que cette incertitude ne soit pas prolongée hors de mesure. la question dont il s'agit est toute entière dans la dépêche officielle dont la copie se trouve depuis quinze jours entre les mains du ministre, et j'attends du gouvernement ottoman la prompte solution d'une affaire qui touche de trop près ses intérêts, son avenir, et ses rapports avec les puissances amies, pour que son excellence soit autorisée à la regarder comme purement du ressort de la religion. il me semble, au contraire, que cette question est, à ne pas en douter, essentiellement liée avec les considérations les plus élevées de la politique. j'aime par conséquent à croire que les ministres de sa hautesse ne méconnaîtront pas leur obligation d'en mesurer la portée par les principes de la raison et les règles de la prudence dont aucun etat ne pourrait impunément se dispenser. eviter la responsabilité qui appartient nécessairement à leur position serait-ce en effet autre chose que priver leur souverain du gage le plus sûr de leur exactitude à en remplir les conditions conformément au but de leur nomination, aux exigeances de la conjoncture, et aux inspirations de la sagacité que la providence leur a accordée? je vous invite donc, monsieur, à vous rendre de nouveau auprès du ministre des affaires etrangères, et à exprimer formellement à son excellence ma juste attente que le conseil ne tardera pas à me faire remettre par son canal une réponse catégorique et comme je l'espère, satisfaisante à la demande d'un gouvernement sincèrement ami de la porte. vous lui laisserez une copie de cette instruction, et vous vous entendrez quant au temps de sa présentation avec monsieur l'interprète de l'ambassade française, qui est muni d'une instruction pareille par son ministre. je suis, &c., (signé) stratford canning. (translation.) sir, _pera, february_ 22, 1844. the message which you yesterday conveyed to me from his excellency rifaat pasha leaves altogether uncertain the time at which i shall receive an answer to the important communication which i had the honour to make to him on the 8th instant by the express order of my court. it is however to be desired that this uncertainty should not indefinitely be prolonged. the question at issue is altogether contained in the official despatch the copy of which has been for the last fortnight in the minister's hands, and i expect from the ottoman government the speedy settlement of a matter which affects its interests, its future position, and its relations with friendly powers too nearly for his excellency to be authorized in considering it merely as a religious question. on the contrary it appears to me that without doubt this question is essentially connected with the highest political considerations. i am consequently fain to believe that the ministers of his highness will not overlook their obligation to estimate the bearing of it by the principles of reason and the rules of prudence which no state can with impunity disregard. to shrink from the responsibility which necessarily attaches to their position, what else would that be than to deprive their sovereign of the surest pledge of their diligence in discharging the conditions thereof consistently with the object of their appointment, the emergencies of the state of affairs, and the inspirations of the sagacity which providence has bestowed upon them? i accordingly request you, sir, to go again to the minister for foreign affairs, and formally to intimate to his excellency my just expectation that the council will not delay to cause to be delivered to me through him a categorical answer, and, as i hope, a satisfactory answer to the demand of a government sincerely friendly to the porte. you will leave with him a copy of this instruction, and you will concert as to the time of its delivery with the interpreter of the french embassy, who is furnished by his minister with a similar instruction. i have, &c., (signed) stratford canning. inclosure 2 in no. 30. _answer of rifaat pasha to m. pisani, february_ 22, 1844. aucune nouvelle démarche n'était nécessaire pour nous faire sentir l'importance de cette question, importance dont nous sommes profondément pénétrés. nous la traitons avec tout le sérieux et tous les soins que sa gravité exige. oui, ce que vos chefs respectifs disent est vrai; cette question a son côté politique aussi bien que son côté religieux. il faut en effet que nous nous séparions de la nation, ou bien des puissances chrétiennes; ce sont là deux grands maux également à éviter. le sultan a ordonné que cette question soit discutée dans un conseil d'oulémas qui s'ouvrira samedi prochain chez le sheik-ul-islam, auquel seront appelés le cazi-asker et d'autres notabilités parmi les hommes de loi; après quoi, le conseil des ministres s'en occupera de nouveau. ne croyez-pas au reste que nous nous soyons bornés à appeler leur attention purement et simplement sur la question sous le rapport religieux; nous leur avons remis aussi les protocoles des conférences, les dépêches des deux gouvernemens, et même des extraits des journaux qui ont agité cette question, et nous leur communiquerons également les instructions que vous venez de me remettre, et qui, bien que superflues pour la porte, peuvent encore ajouter à l'impression produite par les autres pièces qui sont entre leurs mains. comme nous ne devons pas douter des bonnes intentions des puissances, nous espérons que mm. les représentans d'angleterre et de france, dans leur haute sagesse et avec l'esprit d'équité qui les anime, ne se refuseront pas à prendre en considération les graves difficultés qui existent, et qu'ils se prêteront à amener une solution qui nous sauverait des deux maux que je vous ai signalés. c'est là le but que nous devons nous efforcer d'atteindre. c'était pour vous informer de la marche de cette affaire que je vous ai prié ce matin de passer chez moi. (translation.) no fresh step was requisite to make us sensible of the importance of this question, with which we are deeply impressed. we are dealing with it with all the seriousness and all the care which its gravity requires. yes, what your respective chiefs say is true; this question has its political as also its religious side. it is requisite, in fact, that we should separate ourselves from the nation, or otherwise from the christian powers; those are two great evils to be equally avoided. the sultan has commanded that this question shall be discussed in the council of oulemas which will be opened next saturday at the sheik-ul-islam's, to which the cazi-asker and the other principal persons among the men of the law will be summoned; after which, the council of ministers will again apply themselves to it. do not suppose, however, that we have confined ourselves to directing their attention purely and simply to the question as it regards religion; we have likewise submitted to them the protocols of the conferences, the despatches of the two governments, and even the extracts of the newspapers which have discussed this question, and we shall likewise communicate to them the instructions which you have just delivered to me, and which, although superfluous as far as the porte is concerned, may still add to the impression produced by the other documents in their hands. as we must not doubt the good intentions of the powers, we trust that the representatives of england and france, in their profound wisdom, and with the spirit of equity by which they are animated, will not refuse to take into consideration the serious difficulties which exist, and that they will lend themselves to bring about a solution which would preserve us from the two evils which i have pointed out to you. that is the object which we must strive to attain. it was in order to acquaint you with the progress of this matter that i requested you to call upon me this morning. inclosure 3 in no. 30. _answer of rifaat pasha to m. pisani, february_ 20, 1844. nous connaissons toute l'importance de la question dont il s'agit. mais il faut considérer que cette question n'est ni politique ni administrative, et qu'elle regarde la religion. il faut donc que nous consultions préalablement les docteurs de la loi, et la mission d'examiner cette affaire leur a été donnée de la part du conseil; cette affaire reviendra ensuite au divan. j'accomplis ma mission, qui est celle de porter exactement à la connaissance des ministres de la sublime porte tout ce que les deux représentans me disent, et je ne manquerai pas de leur faire savoir la réponse du conseil. ainsi, non seulement je ne suis pas à même de répondre aujourd'hui, mais il m'est encore impossible de vous dire avec précision quel jour je pourrais vous la donner. je ferai savoir au conseil le message dont vous vous êtes acquitté aujourd'hui. (translation.) we know all the importance of the case in question. but it is necessary to consider that this question is neither one of policy nor of administration, and that it concerns religion. we must therefore first consult the doctors of the law, and the charge of inquiring into this matter has been entrusted to them by the council; the matter will then come back to the divan. i discharge my duty, which is to represent exactly to the ministers of the sublime porte what the two representatives say to me, and i shall not fail to let the latter know the answer of the council. for this reason, not only is it not in my power to give you an answer to-day, but it is also impossible for me to say to you precisely on what day i can give it to you. i will let the council know the message which you have communicated to-day. no. 31. _sir stratford canning to the earl of aberdeen_.--(_received march_ 24.) (extract.) _constantinople, march_ 3, 1844. i have this moment received important information, and i rely so much upon its correctness that i send off an express to overtake the messenger. the turkish government has virtually decided on complying with your lordship's requisition. rifaat pasha has written to propose in rather urgent terms a private interview with me. i have assented to this proposal, repeating at the same time my opinion that no advantage is likely to result from it. the french minister will be present, and we shall probably meet on the 5th. in reply to our renewed demand for the porte's official answer, rifaat pasha has pressed for an additional delay of eight or ten days, alleging that the deliberations of the council are not yet closed. on the expiration of that term, or shortly afterwards, i trust it will be in my power to forward the official confirmation of what i now submit to your lordship with confidence. no. 32. _lord cowley to the earl of aberdeen_.--(_received march_ 27.) my lord, _paris, march_ 25, 1844. with reference to your lordship's despatch of the 22nd instant inclosing a copy of your instructions to sir stratford canning under date the 19th instant, i have the honour to state that upon communicating those instructions to the minister for foreign affairs, he assured me that he would without loss of time send instructions of a similar tenour to m. de bourqueney, although that minister was already in possession of the sentiments of his government relative to those barbarous executions; which are, that the government of france had no intention of requiring of the ottoman government that they should abrogate any law, but they expect a satisfactory assurance in writing should be given to the allies that the practice complained of should cease. i have, &c., (signed) cowley. no. 33. _sir stratford canning to the earl of aberdeen_.--(_received march_ 30.) my lord, _constantinople, march_ 6, 1844. the confidential interview to which i was invited by rifaat pasha, took place yesterday, and the french minister was also present. in order to mark more emphatically the private character of this meeting we trusted entirely to foad effendi, who accompanied rifaat pasha at my request, for the interpretation of what passed between us. i am happy to say that although the pasha repeated all the arguments stated in m. pisani's report, of which a copy has been already transmitted to your lordship, nothing occurred to shake my confidence in the information previously conveyed to me and recorded in my preceding despatch. the french minister participated fully in this impression, and gave me his support in a most frank and effectual manner. the pasha's main position was this: if we refuse, we lose the friendship of europe; if we consent, we hazard the peace of the empire; you come as friends, and therefore we reckon upon your helping us to find some course by which we may satisfy you without injuring ourselves. in answer we confirmed his persuasion that our intentions were friendly; but we added that our course was prescribed by the instructions; that we could not admit the supposition of our governments having acted without a full consideration of the consequences; and that although we were not called upon to require an express and formal repeal of the law which they termed religious, we must, at the very least, require an official declaration that effectual measures would be taken to prevent the recurrence of executions for apostacy, and a disclaimer of every idea involving insult to christianity, or the persecution of its followers, on account of their faith. this explanation appeared to produce a good effect on the pasha's mind, and i observed with particular satisfaction, that he admitted that the mufti had expressed to the porte a personal opinion, which drew a very desirable distinction between the strict language of the law and the discretion warranted by state necessity. upon the whole, my lord, it was sufficiently apparent that the objections entertained by the porte are far from insuperable; that much of the remaining difficulty arises from the reference unwisely made to the ulemah; and that, with every wish to escape from our demand, and every determination to give us the least acceptable degree of satisfaction, there is no intention ultimately to refuse, although it is possible that we shall not be able to obtain as complete a declaration as we could desire without a reference to london and paris. i have, &c., (signed) stratford canning. no. 34. _sir stratford canning to the earl of aberdeen_.--(_received april_ 4.) (extract.) _constantinople, march_ 14, 1844. since i had last the honour of addressing your lordship the turkish ministers have been almost exclusively occupied with the great question which formed the subject matter of your lordship's instruction of 16th january. the deferred settlement of this question is, indeed, a source of much inconvenience to all who have business to transact with the porte. the affairs of her majesty's embassy, and those of the french and even of the austrian legation, are almost suspended. i have, therefore, been doubly anxious to obtain the porte's definitive answer; but notwithstanding every exertion consistent with the consideration due to an independent and friendly government, i have only this moment succeeded in obtaining it; and i lament to say that it is so unsatisfactory as to induce me to reject it without a moment's hesitation. in this decision the french minister concurs with equal promptitude and completeness. i inclose herewith the terms of the answer, as reported to us by our respective interpreters. it was given verbally, but with some additional authority derived from the presence of the grand vizier and the president of the council. the 16th instant had been previously fixed for the delivery of the porte's answer, and we were content to wait. this morning, however, i received through several channels a confirmation of intelligence which had reached me imperfectly the evening before, to the effect that an unfavourable resolution had already been adopted by the council, and that the turkish ministers deferred the communication of it for the sole purpose of engaging the sultan's word, and frustrating any eventual appeal to his majesty. at the same time, therefore, that, in concurrence with the french minister, i directed m. pisani to demand an audience, if an immediate and satisfactory answer were not delivered at the porte, i sent to the grand marshal of the palace and called upon him to apprize the sultan forthwith of my intention to seek a formal audience of his majesty, and to entreat that the royal decision might be withheld until i had an opportunity of executing your lordship's instruction in that respect. meanwhile in spite of adverse appearances, i still retain the opinion expressed in a former part of my correspondence. the porte, i am satisfied, is prepared to give way in the end, though with much reluctance. nothing whatever has occurred to warrant the alarming rumours of popular excitement and insurrection diligently circulated, and even countenanced by rifaat pasha, some days ago. if my information be correct, there is reason, on the contrary, to believe that not only the mussulman inhabitants of the capital are sufficiently indifferent to the question at issue, but that many of the upper classes, some of the most distinguished turkish statesmen, and a few even of the ulemah are favourable to our view of the subject. inclosure in no. 34. _answer of rifaat pasha to m. frederic pisani, march_ 14, 1844. la réponse de son excellence rifaat pacha, dite verbalement et officiellement, se trouve dans une pièce qui nous a été présentée. cette pièce était un extrait d'une dépêche à aali effendi et à réchid pacha. nous avons refusé de la prendre parcequ'elle n'est pas satisfaisante. elle est conçue ainsi: "comme la loi ne permet nullement de changer les dispositions à l'égard de la punition des apostats, la sublime porte prendra des mesures efficaces, les mesures possibles, pour que l'exécution des chrétiens qui, devenus musulmans, retournent au christianisme, n'ait pas lieu." (translation.) the answer of his excellency rifaat pasha, verbally and officially pronounced, is contained in a document which was presented to us. this document was an extract from a despatch to aali effendi and to reshid pasha. we refused to take it, because it is not satisfactory. it is couched in these terms: "as the law does not admit of any change being made in the enactments regarding the punishment of apostates, the sublime porte will take efficacious measures, the measures which are possible, in order that the execution of christians who, having become mussulmans, return to christianity, shall not take place." no. 35. _the earl of aberdeen to sir stratford canning_. (extract.) _foreign office, april_ 6, 1844. the latest account which i have received from your excellency of your proceedings with regard to the question pending with the porte, arising out of the execution of the greek near brussa on the charge of apostacy from islamism, is contained in your despatch of the 14th of march. from that despatch it appears that, in conjunction with your french colleague, you had rejected as unsatisfactory the communication made to your dragomans on that day by the ministers of the porte, and that you were taking measures to secure an audience of the sultan, in the event of your failing to obtain from the porte without further delay, a more satisfactory reply. on the statements in that despatch i have to acquaint your excellency that her majesty's government concur with you in considering that the communication made to you through your dragoman on the 14th of march, was not of that absolute and unequivocal character which you were instructed in my despatch of the 16th of january to require from the porte; and that you consequently acted rightly in refusing to receive it, and in taking steps to obtain either a more satisfactory communication from the ministers of the porte, or admission to the presence of the sultan for the purpose of addressing to his highness in person that appeal which you were directed in case of necessity to make to him. with regard, however, to the nature of the communication which her majesty's government would consider satisfactory, i have to state to your excellency that her majesty's government are content to abide by the terms which, it appears from your despatch of the 6th of march, were suggested to rifaat pasha on the preceding day by your excellency and m. de bourqueney, namely, that the porte should make "an official declaration that effectual measures would be taken to prevent the recurrence of executions for apostacy," or, as the proposition has been reported by m. de bourqueney to his government, "that the porte will take effectual measures to prevent the renewal of executions similar to those which have recently taken place at constantinople and biligik." with such a declaration, officially made, her majesty's government would be perfectly satisfied, even without the additional clause reported by your excellency, which appears to them to be unnecessary. i need scarcely inform your excellency that her majesty's government look with much anxiety to an early solution of this question. they are sensible of the many inconveniences which the continued agitation of it may involve, although it is with no small satisfaction that they perceive from your excellency's despatch that there is no present appearance of the difficulties necessarily attached to the question being increased by any insurrectionary or fanatical movement on the part of the mussulman inhabitants of the capital. i have not yet received from the turkish ambassador in this country any communication of the despatch from which the answer given to your excellency, through m. pisani, appears to be an extract. it is greatly to be desired that the porte should act with promptitude. much of the embarrassment to which the agitation of this question has given rise, may be traced to the attempt of the porte to invest it exclusively with a religious character. no. 36. _sir stratford canning to the earl of aberdeen_.--(_received april_ 10.) (extract.) _constantinople, march_ 23, 1844. i have the honour and satisfaction to inform your lordship that the question of religious executions is happily and, to all appearance, conclusively settled. the concession has been obtained with great difficulty; and, even to the last moment, it required the firmness of resolution inspired by your lordship's instruction to overcome the obstacles which were raised against us, and to keep the turkish ministers steady to their professions. i felt it to be my duty to accept nothing short of your lordship's requisition in its full extent. but this obligation did not preclude me either from adopting such means of success as were best calculated to hasten a favourable result, or from accepting that result in a conciliatory though effective shape. by availing myself of an overture to communicate directly with the sultan, i succeeded in obtaining all that was necessary, and in receiving his highness' acknowledgments for the consideration i had shewn to his wishes. these transactions have so little interest now, that it would be a waste of your lordship's time to enter upon a narration of them. it may suffice for me to state that, after several unacceptable propositions, the porte's definitive reply was communicated to me and to the french minister in suitable terms, and also in writing, which had been long refused; that to leave no doubt of what i understand to be the meaning of the porte, i sent in an acknowledgment, of which a copy is herewith inclosed, together with a translated copy of the porte's declaration; and that to-day, at my audience of the sultan, his highness not only confirmed what the porte had declared, but added, in frank and explicit language, the assurances which i had previously required as to the general good treatment of the christians throughout his dominions. he, in fact, gave me his royal word that, henceforward, neither should christianity be insulted in his dominions, nor should christians be in any way persecuted for their religion. important as it was to obtain this assurance from the lips of the sovereign himself, i should have thought it right to demand an audience for the mere purpose of removing false impressions from his highness' mind respecting the motives and objects of her majesty's government. in this respect, also, i had every reason to be satisfied. the sultan expressed the strongest reliance on the friendly intentions of great britain; he fully appreciated the motives which had actuated her on the present occasion; he acknowledged more than once the signal and frequent services rendered to his empire by british arms and counsels; he declared that the great concession which he had now confirmed, though entirely consonant with his own feelings, had been made to his sense of obligation towards the british government; he called upon me to convey his thanks to her majesty for the good treatment experienced by the millions of mussulman subjects living under british sway in india, and his anxious desire that the engagements which he had taken to protect from violent and undue interference the christians established in his empire, should be appreciated by her majesty's government, and prove a source of increased good-will between the two nations, and an occasion of eliciting fresh proofs of friendly interest on the part of great britain towards his dominions. what passed at this audience is the more important and binding, as it was one of a formal character, applied for on public grounds; and, to give it still greater value, the sultan, after i had retired from his presence, called back the dragoman of the porte, and desired him to assure me that what he had said in public proceeded from his real conviction, and was, in fact, the sincere expression of his personal sentiments. inclosure 1 in no. 36. _official declaration of the sublime porte, relinquishing the practice of executions for apostacy_. (translation.) it is the special and constant intention of his highness the sultan that his cordial relations with the high powers be preserved, and that a perfect reciprocal friendship be maintained, and increased. the sublime porte engages to take effectual measures to prevent henceforward the execution and putting to death of the christian who is an apostate. _march_ 21, 1844. inclosure 2 in no. 36. _acknowledgment of the sublime porte's official declaration respecting executions for apostacy. march_ 22, 1844. the official declaration communicated by his excellency the minister for foreign affairs shall be transmitted to the british government, who will understand with satisfaction that the sublime porte, in taking effectual measures to prevent henceforward the execution and putting to death of any christian, an apostate from islamism, relinquishes for ever a principle inconsistent with its friendly professions; and the further assurances to be given at the ambassador's audience of the sultan, in the sense of the instruction presented in copy to the porte on the 9th ultimo, will fully satisfy the british government that christianity is not to be insulted in his highness' empire, nor any one professing it to be treated as a criminal, or persecuted on that account. (signed) stratford cann1ng. no. 37. _earl of westmorland to the earl of aberdeen_.--(_received april_ 12.) my lord, _berlin, april_ 7, 1844. i received a private letter from sir stratford canning, dated constantinople, march 23, announcing the termination of his negotiation with the turkish government as to its future conduct in the cases of christians who have renounced the mahomedan religion, and bearing witness to the cordial manner in which m. de le coq, the prussian minister, under baron bülow's instruction, had assisted his exertions. i thought it my duty to communicate this feeling to baron bülow, who has expressed himself obliged by the expressions of sir stratford canning, and most happy to have contributed to so good a work as the attainment of a written pledge from the turkish government that it will take effectual means to prevent henceforward the execution of the christian who is an apostate. i have, &c., (signed) westmorland. no. 38. _lord cowley to the earl of aberdeen_.--(_received april_ 17.) my lord, _paris, april_ 15, 1844. at the desire of her majesty's ambassador at constantinople i have the honour to forward to your lordship copies of a despatch and of its inclosures which his excellency has addressed to me in consequence of the acquiescence of the porte in the representations of great britain and france on the subject of the execution of apostates from islamism. m. guizot read to me yesterday baron de bourqueney's report announcing the successful termination of these negotiations, and expressing his entire satisfaction at the assurances afforded him by the sultan, at the audience to which his majesty has been graciously pleased to invite him, of his determination to adhere strictly to the engagements he had entered into with the two powers. i have, &c., (signed) cowley. inclosure 1 in no. 38. _sir stratford canning to lord cowley_. my lord, _constantinople, march_ 27, 1844. as the question relating to the execution of apostates from islamism is now successfully terminated, it will be satisfactory for your lordship to learn that the entire approbation expressed by m. guizot of the instructions addressed to me on the 16th of january by the earl of aberdeen, procured me the active support of baron de bourqueney throughout the late negotiations with the porte, and that by acting separately, according to m. guizot's suggestion, i was enabled to give the fullest effect to my instructions, marked and decisive as they were, without losing any part of the advantage derived from the french minister's concurrence. together we rejected the unsatisfactory answer at first and more than once proposed by the porte; together we accepted what appeared to offer a sufficient guarantee for the accomplishment of our common object. the terms in which the final declaration of the porte was conveyed to us on the 21st instant, are recorded in the accompanying paper translated exactly from the turkish original. i thought it advisable to acknowledge this communication, and as i was entitled to expect some additional assurances from the sultan at the public audience which i had demanded of his majesty according to my instructions, i avoided embarrassing the french minister by proposing to him to take part in a step which related exclusively to my position. a copy of this acknowledgment is inclosed herewith; and in order to give your lordship a complete view of the transaction in its full extent, i add the very terms, as translated to me, in which the sultan was pleased to confirm and to enlarge the engagement of his government. i may venture to add that his majesty's assurances were given in the most gracious form, accompanied with an expression of thanks for the liberal manner in which the millions of mahomedan subjects in india are treated by the british authorities, and followed by a message, after i had left his presence, to the effect that the sentiments which he had declared to me were not only those of the monarch but of the individual. in short, my lord, i am sanguine enough to hope that her majesty's government have laid the foundation of a more real improvement in the temper and policy of this state than was to have been previously expected; and it is a subject of just congratulation that the counsels of two great nations have united successfully for the attainment of so beneficent an object. the invitation to baron de bourqueney to wait upon the sultan the day after my audience, and to receive, for the information of his court, a repetition of the assurances addressed to me, affords another proof of his majesty's sincerity. i have, &c., (signed) stratford canning. p.s.--i request that a copy of this despatch and its inclosures may be forwarded immediately to her majesty's government. s. c. inclosure 2 in no. 38. _official declaration of the sublime porte, relinquishing the practice of executions for apostacy from islamism_. [see inclosure l in no. 36.] inclosure 3 in no. 38. _acknowledgment of the sublime porte's official declaration respecting executions for apostacy_. [see inclosure 2 in no. 36.] inclosure 4 in no. 38. _declaration of his highness the sultan to sir stratford canning at his audience on the 23rd of march_, 1844. "henceforward neither shall christianity be insulted in my dominions, nor shall christians be in any way persecuted for their religion." no. 39. _the earl of aberdeen to sir stratford canning_. (extract.) _foreign office, april_ 19, 1844. i received on the 10th of this month your excellency's despatch of the 23rd of march conveying the gratifying intelligence that the porte had given way on the question of the execution of apostates from islamism. the concession made by the porte in this respect, entirely consistent as it is with the wishes and intentions of her majesty's government, as expressed in my several instructions of the 16th of january, 19th of march, and 6th of april, has given them the greatest satisfaction; and i have been happy to receive the queen's commands to signify to your excellency her majesty's gracious approbation of the manner in which you have executed your instructions, and brought to a successful close a question of which the importance cannot be too highly rated. _theosophical manuals. no. 3._ death--and after? by annie besant. (20th thousand) theosophical publishing society london and benares city agents, percy lund humphries & co. amen corner, london, e.c. 1906 _price one shilling_ preface. _few words are needed in sending this little book out into the world. it is the third of a series of manuals designed to meet the public demand for a simple exposition of theosophical teachings. some have complained that our literature is at once too abstruse, too technical, and too expensive for the ordinary reader, and it is our hope that the present series may succeed in supplying what is a very real want. theosophy is not only for the learned; it is for all. perhaps among those who in these little books catch their first glimpse of its teachings, there may be a few who will be led by them to penetrate more deeply into its philosophy, its science, and its religion, facing its abstruser problems with the student's zeal and the neophyte's ardour. but these manuals are not written for the eager student, whom no initial difficulties can daunt; they are written for the busy men and women of the work-a-day world, and seek to make plain some of the great truths that render life easier to bear and death easier to face. written by servants of the masters who are the elder brothers of our race, they can have no other object than to serve our fellow-men._ death--and after? who does not remember the story of the christian missionary in britain, sitting one evening in the vast hall of a saxon king, surrounded by his thanes, having come thither to preach the gospel of his master; and as he spoke of life and death and immortality, a bird flew in through an unglazed window, circled the hall in its flight, and flew out once more into the darkness of the night. the christian priest bade the king see in the flight of the bird within the hall the transitory life of man, and claimed for his faith that it showed the soul, in passing from the hall of life, winging its way not into the darkness of night, but into the sunlit radiance of a more glorious world. out of the darkness, through the open window of birth, the life of a man comes to the earth; it dwells for a while before our eyes; into the darkness, through the open window of death, it vanishes out of our sight. and man has questioned ever of religion, whence comes it? whither goes it? and the answers have varied with the faiths. to-day, many a hundred year since paulinus talked with edwin, there are more people in christendom who question whether man has a spirit to come anywhence or to go anywhither than, perhaps, in the world's history could ever before have been found at one time. and the very christians who claim that death's terrors have been abolished, have surrounded the bier and the tomb with more gloom and more dismal funeral pomp than have the votaries of any other creed. what can be more depressing than the darkness in which a house is kept shrouded, while the dead body is awaiting sepulture? what more repellent than the sweeping robes of lustreless crape, and the purposed hideousness of the heavy cap in which the widow laments the "deliverance" of her husband "from the burden of the flesh"? what more revolting than the artificially long faces of the undertaker's men, the drooping "weepers", the carefully-arranged white handkerchiefs, and, until lately, the pall-like funeral cloaks? during the last few years, a great and marked improvement has been made. the plumes, cloaks, and weepers have well-nigh disappeared. the grotesquely ghastly hearse is almost a thing of the past, and the coffin goes forth heaped over with flowers instead of shrouded in the heavy black velvet pall. men and women, though still wearing black, do not roll themselves up in shapeless garments like sable winding-sheets, as if trying to see how miserable they could make themselves by the imposition of artificial discomforts. welcome common-sense has driven custom from its throne, and has refused any longer to add these gratuitous annoyances to natural human grief. in literature and in art, alike, this gloomy fashion of regarding death has been characteristic of christianity. death has been painted as a skeleton grasping a scythe, a grinning skull, a threatening figure with terrible face and uplifted dart, a bony scarecrow shaking an hour-glass--all that could alarm and repel has been gathered round this rightly-named king of terrors. milton, who has done so much with his stately rhythm to mould the popular conceptions of modern christianity, has used all the sinewy strength of his magnificent diction to surround with horror the figure of death. the other shape, if shape it might be called, that shape had none distinguishable in member, joint, or limb, or substance might be called that shadow seemed, for each seemed either; black it stood as night, fierce as ten furies, terrible as hell, and shook a dreadful dart; what seemed his head the likeness of a kingly crown had on. satan was now at hand, and from his seat the monster moving onward came as fast, with horrid strides; hell trembled as he strode.... ... so spoke the grisly terror: and in shape so speaking, and so threatening, grew tenfold more dreadful and deform.... ... but he, my inbred enemy, forth issued, brandishing his fatal dart, made to destroy: i fled, and cried out _death!_ hell trembled at the hideous name, and sighed from all her caves, and back resounded _death_.[1] that such a view of death should be taken by the professed followers of a teacher said to have "brought life and immortality to light" is passing strange. the claim, that as late in the history of the world as a mere eighteen centuries ago the immortality of the spirit in man was brought to light, is of course transparently absurd, in the face of the overwhelming evidence to the contrary available on all hands. the stately egyptian ritual with its _book of the dead_, in which are traced the post-mortem journeys of the soul, should be enough, if it stood alone, to put out of court for ever so preposterous a claim. hear the cry of the soul of the righteous: o ye, who make the escort of the god, stretch out to me your arms, for i become one of you. (xvii. 22.) hail to thee, osiris, lord of light, dwelling in the mighty abode, in the bosom of the absolute darkness. i come to thee, a purified soul; my two hands are around thee. (xxi. 1.) i open heaven; i do what was commanded in memphis. i have knowledge of my heart; i am in possession of my heart, i am in possession of my arms, i am in possession of my legs, at the will of myself. my soul is not imprisoned in my body at the gates of amenti. (xxvi. 5, 6.) not to multiply to weariness quotations from a book that is wholly composed of the doings and sayings of the disembodied man, let it suffice to give the final judgment on the victorious soul: the defunct shall be deified among the gods in the lower divine region, he shall never be rejected.... he shall drink from the current of the celestial river.... his soul shall not be imprisoned, since it is a soul that brings salvation to those near it. the worms shall not devour it. (clxiv. 14-16.) the general belief in re-incarnation is enough to prove that the religions of which it formed a central doctrine believed in the survival of the soul after death; but one may quote as an example a passage from the _ordinances of manu_, following on a disquisition on metempsychosis, and answering the question of deliverance from rebirths. amid all these holy acts, the knowledge of self [should be translated, knowledge of the _self_, atmâ] is said (to be) the highest; this indeed is the foremost of all sciences, since from it immortality is obtained.[2] the testimony of the great zarathustrean religion is clear, as is shown by the following, translated from the _avesta_, in which, the journey of the soul after death having been described, the ancient scripture proceeds: the soul of the pure man goes the first step and arrives at (the paradise) humata; the soul of the pure man takes the second step and arrives at (the paradise) hukhta; it goes the third step and arrives at (the paradise) hvarst; the soul of the pure man takes the fourth step and arrives at the eternal lights. to it speaks a pure one deceased before, asking it: how art thou, o pure deceased, come away from the fleshy dwellings, from the earthly possessions, from the corporeal world hither to the invisible, from the perishable world hither to the imperishable, as it happened to thee--to whom hail! then speaks ahura-mazda: ask not him whom thou asketh, (for) he is come on the fearful, terrible, trembling way, the separation of body and soul.[3] the persian _desatir_ speaks with equal definiteness. this work consists of fifteen books, written by persian prophets, and was written originally in the avestaic language; "god" is ahura-mazda, or yazdan: god selected man from animals to confer on him the soul, which is a substance free, simple, immaterial, non-compounded and non-appetitive. and that becomes an angel by improvement. by his profound wisdom and most sublime intelligence, he connected the soul with the material body. if he (man) does good in the material body, and has a good knowledge and religion he is _hartasp_.... as soon as he leaves this material body, i (god) take him up to the world of angels, that he may have an interview with the angels, and behold me. and if he is not hartasp, but has wisdom and abstains from vice, i will promote him to the rank of angels. every person in proportion to his wisdom and piety will find a place in the rank of wise men, among the heavens and stars. and in that region of happiness he will remain for ever.[4] in china, the immemorial custom of worshipping the souls of ancestors shows how completely the life of man was regarded as extending beyond the tomb. the _shû king_--placed by mr. james legge as the most ancient of chinese classics, containing historical documents ranging from b.c. 2357-627--is full of allusions to these souls, who with other spiritual beings, watch over the affairs of their descendants and the welfare of the kingdom. thus pan-kang, ruling from b.c. 1401-1374, exhorts his subjects: my object is to support and nourish you all. i think of my ancestors (who are now) the spiritual sovereigns.... were i to err in my government, and remain long here, my high sovereign (the founder of our dynasty) would send down on me great punishment for my crime, and say, "why do you oppress my people?" if you, the myriads of the people, do not attend to the perpetuation of your lives, and cherish one mind with me, the one man, in my plans, the former kings will send down on you great punishment for your crime, and say, "why do you not agree with our young grandson, but go on to forfeit your virtue?" when they punish you from above, you will have no way of escape.... your ancestors and fathers will (now) cut you off and abandon you, and not save you from death.[5] indeed, so practical is this chinese belief, held to-day as in those long-past ages, that "the change that men call death" seems to play a very small part in the thoughts and lives of the people of the flowery land. these quotations, which might be multiplied a hundred-fold, may suffice to prove the folly of the idea that immortality came to "light through the gospel". the whole ancient world basked in the full sunshine of belief in the immortality of man, lived in it daily, voiced it in its literature, went with it in calm serenity through the gate of death. it remains a problem why christianity, which vigorously and joyously re-affirmed it, should have growing in its midst the unique terror of death that has played so large a part in its social life, its literature, and its art. it is not simply the belief in hell that has surrounded the grave with horror, for other religions have had their hells, and yet their followers have not been harassed by this shadowy fear. the chinese, for instance, who take death as such a light and trivial thing, have a collection of hells quite unique in their varied unpleasantness. maybe the difference is a question of race rather than of creed; that the vigorous life of the west shrinks from its antithesis, and that its unimaginative common-sense finds a bodiless condition too lacking in solidity of comfort; whereas the more dreamy, mystical east, prone to meditation, and ever seeking to escape from the thraldom of the senses during earthly life, looks on the disembodied state as eminently desirable, and as most conducive to unfettered thought. ere passing to the consideration of the history of man in the post-mortem state, it is necessary, however briefly, to state the constitution of man, as viewed by the esoteric philosophy, for we must have in mind the constituents of his being ere we can understand their disintegration. man then consists of _the immortal triad_: atmâ. buddhi. manas. _the perishable quaternary_: kâma. prâna. etheric double. dense body. the dense body is the physical body, the visible, tangible outer form, composed of various tissues. the etheric double is the ethereal counterpart of the body, composed of the physical ethers. prâna is vitality, the integrating energy that co-ordinates the physical molecules and holds them together in a definite organism; it is the life-breath within the organism, the portion of the universal life-breath, appropriated by the organism during the span of existence that we speak of as "a life". kâma is the aggregate of appetites, passions, and emotions, common to man and brute. manas is the thinker in us, the intelligence. buddhi is the vehicle wherein atmâ, the spirit, dwells, and in which alone it can manifest. now the link between the immortal triad and the perishable quaternary is manas, which is dual during earth life, or incarnation, and functions as higher manas and lower manas. higher manas sends out a ray, lower manas, which works in and through the human brain, functioning there as brain-consciousness, as the ratiocinating intelligence. this mingles with kâma, the passional nature, the passions and emotions thus becoming a part of mind, as defined in western psychology. and so we have the link formed between the higher and lower natures in man, this kâma-manas belonging to the higher by its mânasic, and to the lower by its kâmic, elements. as this forms the battleground during life, so does it play an important part in post-mortem existence. we might now classify our seven principles a little differently, having in view this mingling in kâma-manas of perishable and imperishable elements: { atmâ. _immortal_. { buddhi. { higher-manas. _conditionally immortal_. kâma-manas. { prâna. _mortal_. { etheric double. { dense body. some christian writers have adopted a classification similar to this, declaring spirit to be inherently immortal, as being divine; soul to be conditionally immortal, _i.e._, capable of winning immortality by uniting itself with spirit; body to be inherently mortal. the majority of uninstructed christians chop man into two, the body that perishes at death, and the something--called indifferently soul or spirit--that survives death. this last classification--if classification it may be called--is entirely inadequate, if we are to seek any rational explanation, or even lucid statement, of the phenomena of post-mortem existence. the tripartite view of man's nature gives a more reasonable representation of his constitution, but is inadequate to explain many phenomena. the septenary division alone gives a reasonable theory consistent with the facts we have to deal with, and therefore, though it may seem elaborate, the student will do wisely to make himself familiar with it. if he were studying only the body, and desired to understand its activities, he would have to classify its tissues at far greater length and with far more minuteness than i am using here. he would have to learn the differences between muscular, nervous, glandular, bony, cartilaginous, epithelial, connective, tissues, and all their varieties; and if he rebelled, in his ignorance, against such an elaborate division, it would be explained to him that only by such an analysis of the different components of the body can the varied and complicated phenomena of life-activity be understood. one kind of tissue is wanted for support, another for movement, another for secretion, another for absorption, and so on; and if each kind does not have its own distinctive name, dire confusion and misunderstanding must result, and physical functions remain unintelligible. in the long run time is gained, as well as clearness, by learning a few necessary technical terms, and as clearness is above all things needed in trying to explain and to understand very complicated post-mortem phenomena, i find myself compelled--contrary to my habit in these elementary papers--to resort to these technical names at the outset, for the english language has as yet no equivalents for them, and the use of long descriptive phrases is extremely cumbersome and inconvenient. for myself, i believe that very much of the antagonism between the adherents of the esoteric philosophy and those of spiritualism has arisen from confusion of terms, and consequent misunderstanding of each others meaning. one eminent spiritualist lately impatiently said that he did not see the need of exact definition, and that he meant by spirit all the part of man's nature that survived death, and was not body. one might as well insist on saying that man's body consists of bone and blood, and asked to define blood, answer: "oh! i mean everything that is not bone." a clear definition of terms, and a rigid adherence to them when once adopted, will at least enable us all to understand each other, and that is the first step to any fruitful comparison of experiences. the fate of the body. the human body is constantly undergoing a process of decay and of reconstruction. first builded into the etheric form in the womb of the mother, it is built up continually by the insetting of fresh materials. with every moment tiny molecules are passing away from it; with every moment tiny molecules are streaming into it. the outgoing stream is scattered over the environment, and helps to rebuild bodies of all kinds in the mineral, vegetable, animal, and human kingdoms, the physical basis of all these being one and the same. the idea that the human tabernacle is built by countless _lives_, just in the same way as the rocky crust of our earth was, has nothing repulsive in it for the true mystic.... science teaches us that the living as well as the dead organism of both man and animal are swarming with bacteria of a hundred various kinds; that from without we are threatened with the invasion of microbes with every breath we draw, and from within by leucomaines, robes, ærobes, anærobes, and what not. but science never yet went so far as to assert with the occult doctrine that our bodies, as well as those of animals, plants, and stones, are themselves altogether built up of such beings, which, except larger species, no microscope can detect. so far as regards the purely animal and material portion of man, science is on its way to discoveries that will go far towards corroborating this theory. chemistry and physiology are the two great magicians of the future, who are destined to open the eyes of mankind to the great physical truths. with every day, the identity between the animal and physical man, between the plant and man, and even between the reptile and its nest, the rock, and man, is more and more clearly shown. the physical and chemical constituents of all being found to be identical, chemical science may well say that there is no difference between the matter which composes the ox and that which forms man. but the occult doctrine is far more explicit. it says: not only the chemical compounds are the same, but the same infinitesimal _invisible lives_ compose the atoms of the bodies of the mountain and the daisy, of man and the ant, of the elephant, and of the tree which shelters him from the sun. each particle--whether you call it organic or inorganic--_is a life_.[6] these "lives" which, separate and independent, are the minute vehicles of prâna, aggregated together form the molecules and cells of the physical body, and they stream in and stream out, during all the years of bodily life, thus forming a continual bridge between man and his environment. controlling these are the "fiery lives," the devourers, which constrain these to their work of building up the cells of the body, so that they work harmoniously and in order, subordinated to the higher manifestation of life in the complex organism called man. these fiery lives on our plane correspond, in this controlling and organising function, with the one life of the universe,[7] and when they no longer exercise this function in the human body, the lower lives run rampant, and begin to break down the hitherto definitely organised body. during bodily life they are marshalled as an army; marching in regular order under the command of a general, performing various evolutions, keeping step, moving as a single body. at "death" they become a disorganised and tumultuous mob, rushing hither and thither, jostling each other, tumbling over each other, with no common object, no generally recognised authority. the body is never more alive than when it is dead; but it is alive in its units, and dead in its totality; alive as a congeries, dead as an organism. science regards man as an aggregation of atoms temporarily united by a mysterious force called the life-principle. to the materialist, the only difference between a living and a dead body is that in the one case that force is active, in the other latent. when it is extinct or entirely latent, the molecules obey a superior attraction, which draws them asunder and scatters them through space. this dispersion must be death, if it is possible to conceive such a thing as death, where the very molecules of the dead body manifest an intense vital energy.... says eliphas levi: "change attests movement, and movement only reveals life. the corpse would not decompose if it were dead; all the molecules which compose it are living and struggle to separate."[8] those who have read _the seven principles of man_,[9] know that the etheric double is the vehicle of prâna, the life-principle, or vitality. through the etheric double prâna exercises the controlling and co-ordinating force spoken of above, and "death" takes triumphant possession of the body when the etheric double is finally withdrawn and the delicate cord which unites it with the body is snapped. the process of withdrawal has been watched by clairvoyants, and definitely described. thus andrew jackson davis, "the poughkeepsie seer", describes how he himself watched this escape of the ethereal body, and he states that the magnetic cord did not break for some thirty-six hours after apparent death. others have described, in similar terms, how they saw a faint violet mist rise from the dying body, gradually condensing into a figure which was the counterpart of the expiring person, and attached to that person by a glistening thread. the snapping of the thread means the breaking of the last magnetic link between the dense body and the remaining principles of the human constitution; the body has dropped away from the man; he is excarnated, disembodied; six principles still remain as his constitution immediately after death, the seventh, or the dense body, being left as a cast-off garment. death consists, indeed, in a repeated process of unrobing, or unsheathing. the immortal part of man shakes off from itself, one after the other, its outer casings, and--as the snake from its skin, the butterfly from its chrysalis--emerges from one after another, passing into a higher state of consciousness. now it is the fact that this escape from the body, and this dwelling of the conscious entity either in the vehicle called the body of desire, the kâmic or astral body, or in a yet more ethereal thought body, can be effected during earth-life; so that man may become familiar with the excarnated condition, and it may lose for him all the terrors that encircle the unknown. he can know himself as a conscious entity in either of these vehicles, and so prove to his own satisfaction that "life" does not depend on his functioning through the physical body. why should a man who has thus repeatedly "shed" his lower bodies, and has found the process result, not in unconsciousness, but in a vastly extended freedom and vividness of life--why should he fear the final casting away of his fetters, and the freeing of his immortal self from what he realises as the prison of the flesh? this view of human life is an essential part of the esoteric philosophy. man is primarily divine, a spark of the divine life. this living flame, passing out from the central fire, weaves for itself coverings within which it dwells, and thus becomes the triad, the atmâ-buddhi-manas, the reflection of the immortal self. this sends out its ray, which becomes encased in grosser matter, in the desire body, or kâmic elements, the passional nature, and in the etheric double and the physical body. the once free immortal intelligence thus entangled, enswathed, enchained, works heavily and laboriously through the coatings that enwrap it. in its own nature it remains ever the free bird of heaven, but its wings are bound to its side by the matter into which it is plunged. when man recognises his own inherent nature, he learns to open his prison doors occasionally and escapes from his encircling gaol; first he learns to identify himself with the immortal triad, and rises above the body and its passions into a pure mental and moral life; then he learns that the conquered body cannot hold him prisoner, and he unlocks its door and steps out into the sunshine of his true life. so when death unlocks the door for him, he knows the country into which he emerges, having trodden its ways at his own will. and at last he grows to recognise that fact of supreme importance, that "life" has nothing to do with body and with this material plane; that life is his conscious existence, unbroken, unbreakable, and that the brief interludes in that life, during which he sojourns on earth, are but a minute fraction of his conscious existence, and a fraction, moreover, during which he is less alive, because of the heavy coverings which weigh him down. for only during these interludes (save in exceptional cases) may he wholly lose his consciousness of continued life, being surrounded by these coverings which delude him and blind him to the truth of things, making that real which is illusion, and that stable which is transitory. the sunlight ranges over the universe, and at incarnation we step out of it into the twilight of the body, and see but dimly during the period of our incarceration; at death we step out of the prison again into the sunlight, and are nearer to the reality. short are the twilight periods, and long the periods of the sunlight; but in our blinded state we call the twilight life, and to us it is the real existence, while we call the sunlight death, and shiver at the thought of passing into it. well did giordano bruno, one of the greatest teachers of our philosophy in the middle ages, state the truth as to the body and man. of the real man he says: he will be present in the body in such wise that the best part of himself will be absent from it, and will join himself by an indissoluble sacrament to divine things, in such a way that he will not feel either love or hatred of things mortal. considering himself as master, and that he ought not to be servant and slave to his body, which he would regard only as the prison which holds his liberty in confinement, the glue which smears his wings, chains which bind fast his hands, stocks which fix his feet, veil which hides his view. let him not be servant, captive, ensnared, chained, idle, stolid, and blind, for the body which he himself abandons cannot tyrannise over him, so that thus the spirit in a certain degree comes before him as the corporeal world, and matter is subject to the divinity and to nature.[10] when once we thus come to regard the body, and by conquering it we gain our liberty, death loses for us all his terrors, and at his touch the body slips from us as a garment, and we stand out from it erect and free. on the same lines of thought dr. franz hartmann writes: according to certain views of the west man is a developed ape. according to the views of indian sages, which also coincide with those of the philosophers of past ages and with the teachings of the christian mystics, man is a god, who is united during his earthly life, through his own carnal tendencies, to an animal (his animal nature). the god who dwells within him endows man with wisdom. the animal endows him with force. after death, _the god effects his own release from the man_ by departing from the animal body. as man carries within him this divine consciousness, it is his task to battle with his animal inclinations, and to raise himself above them, by the help of the divine principle, a task which the animal cannot achieve, and which therefore is not demanded of it.[11] the "man", using the word in the sense of personality, as it is used in the latter half of this sentence, is only conditionally immortal; the true man, the evolving god, releases himself, and so much of the personality goes with him as has raised itself into union with the divine. the body thus left to the rioting of the countless lives--previously held in constraint by prâna, acting through its vehicle the etheric double--begins to decay, that is to break up, and with the disintegration of its cells and molecules, its particles pass away into other combinations. on our return to earth we may meet again some of those same countless lives that in a previous incarnation made of our then body their passing dwelling; but all that we are just now concerned with is the breaking up of the body whose life-span is over, and its fate is complete disintegration. to the dense body, then, death means dissolution as an organism, the loosing of the bonds that united the many into one. the fate of the etheric double. the etheric double is the ethereal counterpart of the gross body of man. it is the double that is sometimes seen during life in the neighbourhood of the body, and its absence from the body is generally marked by the heaviness or semi-lethargy of the latter. acting as the reservoir, or vehicle, of the life-principle during earth-life, its withdrawal from the body is naturally marked by the lowering of all vital functions, even while the cord which unites the two is still unbroken. as has been already said, the snapping of the cord means the death of the body. when the etheric double finally quits the body, it does not travel to any distance from it. normally it remains floating over the body, the state of consciousness being dreamy and peaceful, unless tumultuous distress and violent emotion surround the corpse from which it has just issued. and here it may be well to say that during the slow process of dying, while the etheric double is withdrawing from the body, taking with it the higher principles, as after it has withdrawn, extreme quiet and self-control should be observed in the chamber of death. for during this time the whole life passes swiftly in review before the ego, the individual, as those have related who have passed in drowning into this unconscious and pulseless state. a master has written: _at the last moment the whole life is reflected in our memory, and emerges from all the forgotten nooks and corners, picture after picture, one event after another.... the man may often appear dead, yet from the last pulsation, from and between the last throbbing of his heart and the moment when the last spark of animal heat leaves the body_, the brain thinks, _and the ego lives over in those few brief seconds his whole life. speak in whispers, ye who assist at a deathbed, and find yourselves in the solemn presence of death. especially have ye to keep quiet just after death has laid her clammy hand upon the body. speak in whispers, i say, lest ye disturb the quiet ripple of thought, and hinder the busy work of the past, casting its reflection upon the veil of the future._[12] this is the time during which the thought-images of the ended earth-life, clustering around their maker, group and interweave themselves into the completed image of that life, and are impressed in their totality on the astral light. the dominant tendencies, the strongest thought-habits, assert their pre-eminence, and stamp themselves as the characteristics which will appear as "innate qualities" in the succeeding incarnation. this balancing-up of the life-issues, this reading of the kârmic records, is too solemn and momentous a thing to be disturbed by the ill-timed wailings of personal relatives and friends. at the solemn moment of death every man, even when death is sudden, sees the whole of his past life marshalled before him, in its minutest details. for one short instant the _personal_ become one with the _individual_ and all-knowing ego. but this instant is enough to show to him the whole chain of causes which have been at work during his life. he sees and now understands himself as he is, unadorned by flattery or self-deception. he reads his life, remaining as a spectator, looking down into the arena he is quitting.[13] this vivid sight is succeeded, in the ordinary person, by the dreamy, peaceful semi-consciousness spoken of above, as the etheric double floats above the body to which it has belonged, now completely separated from it. sometimes this double is seen by persons in the house, or in the neighbourhood, when the thought of the dying has been strongly turned to some one left behind, when some anxiety has been in the mind at the last, something left undone which needed doing, or when some local disturbance has shaken the tranquillity of the passing entity. under these conditions, or others of a similar nature, the double may be seen or heard; when seen, it shows the dreamy, hazy consciousness alluded to, is silent, vague in its aspect, unresponsive. as the days go on, the five higher principles gradually disengage themselves from the etheric double, and shake this off as they previously shook off the grosser body. they pass on, as a fivefold entity, into a state to be next studied, leaving the etheric double, with the dense body of which it is the counterpart, thus becoming an ethereal corpse, as much as the body had become a dense corpse. this ethereal corpse remains near the dense one, and they disintegrate together; clairvoyants see these ethereal wraiths in churchyards, sometimes showing likeness to the dead dense body, sometimes as violet mists or lights. such an ethereal corpse has been seen by a friend of my own, passing through the horribly repulsive stages of decomposition, a ghastly vision in face of which clairvoyance was certainly no blessing. the process goes on _pari passu_, until all but the actual bony skeleton of the dense body is completely disintegrated, and the particles have gone to form other combinations. one of the great advantages of cremation--apart from all sanitary conditions--lies in the swift restoration to mother nature of the physical elements composing the dense and ethereal corpses, brought about by the burning. instead of slow and gradual decomposition, swift dissociation takes place, and no physical remnants are left, working possible mischief. the ethereal corpse may to some extent be revivified for a short period after its death. dr. hartmann says: the fresh corpse of a person who has suddenly been killed may be galvanised into a semblance of life by the application of a galvanic battery. likewise the astral corpse of a person may be brought back into an artificial life by being infused with a part of the life principle of the medium. if that corpse is one of a very intellectual person, it may talk very intellectually; and if it was that of a fool it will talk like a fool.[14] this mischievous procedure can only be carried out in the neighbourhood of the corpse, and for a very limited time after death, but there are cases on record of such galvanising of the ethereal corpse, performed at the grave of the departed person. needless to say that such a process belongs distinctly to "black" magic, and is wholly evil. ethereal corpses, like dense ones, if not swiftly destroyed by burning, should be left in the silence and the darkness, a silence and a darkness that it is the worst profanity to break. kâmaloka, and the fate of prâna and kâma. loka is a sanskrit word that may be translated as place, world, land, so that kâmaloka is literally the place or the world of kâma, kâma being the name of that part of the human organism that includes all the passions, desires, and emotions which man has in common with the lower animals.[15] in this division of the universe, the kâmaloka, dwell all the human entities that have shaken off the dense body and its ethereal double, but have not yet disentangled themselves from the passional and emotional nature. kâmaloka has many other tenants, but we are concerned only with the human beings who have lately passed through the gateway of death, and it is on these that we must concentrate our study. a momentary digression may be pardoned on the question of the existence of regions in the universe, other than the physical, peopled with intelligent beings. the existence of such regions is postulated by the esoteric philosophy, and is known to the adepts and to very many less highly evolved men and women by personal experience; all that is needed for the study of these regions is the evolution of the faculties latent in every man; a "living" man, in ordinary parlance, can leave his dense and ethereal bodies behind him, and explore these regions without going through death's gateway. thus we read in the _theosophist_ that real knowledge may be acquired by the spirit in the living man coming into conscious relations with the world of spirit. as in the case, say, of an initiated adept, who brings back upon earth with him the clear and distinct recollection--correct to a detail--of facts gathered, and the information obtained, in the invisible sphere of _realities_.[16] in this way those regions become to him matters of knowledge as definite, as certain, as familiar, as if he should travel to africa in ordinary fashion, explore its deserts, and return to his own land the richer for the knowledge and experience gained. a seasoned african explorer would care but little for the criticisms passed on his report by persons who had never been thither; he might tell what he saw, describe the animals whose habits he had studied, sketch the country he had traversed, sum up its products and its characteristics. if he was contradicted, laughed at, set right, by untravelled critics, he would be neither ruffled nor distressed, but would merely leave them alone. ignorance cannot convince knowledge by repeated asseveration of its nescience. the opinion of a hundred persons on a subject on which they are wholly ignorant is of no more weight than the opinion of one such person. evidence is strengthened by many consenting witnesses, testifying each to his knowledge of a fact, but nothing multiplied a thousand times remains nothing. strange, indeed, would it be if all the space around us be empty, mere waste void, and the inhabitants of earth the only forms in which intelligence could clothe itself. as dr. huxley said: without stepping beyond the analogy of that which is known, it is easy to people the cosmos with entities, in ascending scale, until we reach something practically indistinguishable from omnipotence, omnipresence, and omniscience.[17] if these entities did not have organs of sense like our own, if their senses responded to vibrations different from those which affect ours, they and we might walk side by side, pass each other, meet each other, pass through each other, and yet be never the wiser as to each other's existence. mr. crookes gives us a glimpse of the possibility of such unconscious co-existence of intelligent beings, and but a very slight effort of imagination is needed to realise the conception. it is not improbable that other sentient beings have organs of sense which do not respond to some or any of the rays to which our eyes are sensitive, but are able to appreciate other vibrations to which we are blind. such beings would practically be living in a different world to our own. imagine, for instance, what idea we should form of surrounding objects were we endowed with eyes not sensitive to the ordinary rays of light, but sensitive to the vibrations concerned in electric and magnetic phenomena. glass and crystal would be among the most opaque of bodies. metals would be more or less transparent, and a telegraph wire through the air would look like a long narrow hole drilled through an impervious solid body. a dynamo in active work would resemble a conflagration, whilst a permanent magnet would realise the dream of mediæval mystics, and become an everlasting lamp with no expenditure of energy or consumption of fuel.[18] kâmaloka is a region peopled by intelligent and semi-intelligent entities, just as our own is thus peopled; it is crowded, like our world, with many types and forms of living things, as diverse from each other as a blade of grass is different from a tiger, a tiger from a man. it interpenetrates our own world and is interpenetrated by it, but, as the states of matter in the two worlds differ, they co-exist without the knowledge of the intelligent beings in either. only under abnormal circumstances can consciousness of each other's presence arise among the inhabitants of the two worlds; by certain peculiar training a living human being can come into conscious contact with and control many of the sub-human denizens of kâmaloka; human beings, who have quitted earth and in whom the kâmic elements were strong, may very readily be attracted by the kâmic elements in embodied men, and by their help become conscious again of the presence of the scenes they had left; and human beings still embodied may set up methods of communication with the disembodied, and may, as said, leave their own bodies for awhile, and become conscious in kâmaloka by the use of faculties through which they have accustomed their consciousness to act. the point which is here to be clearly grasped is the existence of kâmaloka as a definite region, inhabited by a large diversity of entities, among whom are disembodied human beings. from this necessary digression we return to the particular human being whose fate, as a type, we may be said to be tracing, and of whose dense body and etheric double we have already disposed. let us contemplate him in the state of very brief duration that follows the shaking off of these two casings. says h.p. blavatsky, after quoting from plutarch a description of the man after death: here you have our doctrine, which shows man a _septenary_ during life; a _quintile_ just after death, in kâmaloka.[19] prâna, the portion of the life-energy appropriated by the man in his embodied state, having lost its vehicle, the ethereal double, which, with the physical body, has slipped away from its controlling energy, must pass back into the great life-reservoir of the universe. as water enclosed in a glass vessel and plunged into a tank mingles with the surrounding water if the vessel be broken, so prâna, as the bodies drop from it, mingles again with the life universal. it is only "just after death" that man is a quintile, or fivefold in his constitution, for prâna, as a distinctively human principle, cannot remain appropriated when its vehicle disintegrates. the man now is clothed, but with the kâma rûpa, or body of kâma, the desire body, a body of astral matter, often termed "fluidic," so easily does it, during earth-life, take any form impressed upon it from without or moulded from within. the living man is there, the immortal triad, still clad in the last of its terrestrial garments, in the subtle, sensitive, responsive form which lent it during embodiment the power to feel, to desire, to enjoy, to suffer, in the physical world. when the man dies, his three lower principles leave him for ever; _i.e._, body, life, and the vehicle of the latter, the etheric body, or the double of the living man. and then his four principles--the central or middle principle (the animal soul or kâma rûpa, with what it has assimilated from the lower manas) and the higher triad--find themselves in kâmaloka.[20] this desire body undergoes a marked change soon after death. the different densities of the astral matter of which it is composed arrange themselves in a series of shells or envelopes, the densest being outside, shutting the consciousness away from all but very limited contact and expression. the consciousness turns in on itself, if left undisturbed, and prepares itself for the next step onwards, while the desire body gradually disintegrates, shell after shell. up to the point of this re-arrangement of the matter of the desire body, the post-mortem experience of all is much the same; it is a "dreamy, peaceful semi-consciousness," as before said, and this, in the happiest cases, passes without vivid awakening into the deeper "pre-devachanic unconsciousness" which ends with the blissful wakening in devachan, for the period of repose that intervenes between two incarnations. but as, at this point, different possibilities arise, let us trace a normal uninterrupted progression in kâmaloka, up to the threshold of devachan, and then we can return to consider other classes of circumstances. if a person has led a pure life, and has steadfastly striven to rise and to identify himself with the higher rather than the lower parts of his nature, after shaking off the dense body and the etheric double, and after prâna has re-mingled with the ocean of life, and he is clothed only with the kâma rûpa, the passional elements in him, being but weak and accustomed to comparatively little activity, will not be able to assert themselves strongly in kâmaloka. now during earth-life kâma and the lower manas are strongly united and interwoven with each other; in the case we are considering kâma is weak, and the lower manas has purified kâma to a great extent. the mind, woven with the passions, emotions, and desires, has purified them, and has assimilated their pure part, absorbed it into itself, so that all that is left of kâma is a mere residue, easily to be gotten rid of, from which the immortal triad can readily free itself. slowly this immortal triad, the true man, draws in all his forces; he draws into himself the memories of the earth-life just ended, its loves, its hopes, its aspirations, and prepares to pass out of kâmaloka into the blissful rest of devachan, the "abode of the gods", or as some say, "the land of bliss". kâmaloka is an astral locality, the limbus of scholastic theology, the hades of the ancients, and, strictly speaking, a _locality_ only in a relative sense. it has neither a definite area, nor boundary, but exists _within_ subjective space, _i.e._, is beyond our sensuous perceptions. still it exists, and it is there that the astral _eidolons_ of all the beings that have lived, animals included, await their _second death_. for the animals it comes with the disintegration and the entire fading out of their astral particles to the last. for the human _eidolon_ it begins when the atmâ-buddhi-mânasic triad is said to "separate" itself from its lower principles or the reflection of the ex-personality, by falling into the devachanic state.[21] this second death is the passage, then, of the immortal triad from the kâmalokic sphere, so closely related to the earth sphere, into the higher state of devachan, of which we must speak later. the type of man we are considering passes through this, in the peaceful dreamy state already described, and, if left undisturbed, will not regain full consciousness until these stages are passed through, and peace gives way to bliss. but during the whole period that the four principles--the immortal triad and kâma--remain in kâmaloka, whether the period be long or short, days or centuries, they are within the reach of the earth-influences. in the case of such a person as we have been describing, an awakening may be caused by the passionate sorrow and desires of friends left on earth, and these violently vibrating kâmic elements in the embodied persons may set up vibrations in the desire body of the disembodied, and so reach and rouse the lower manas, not yet withdrawn to and reunited with its parent, the spiritual intelligence. thus it may be roused from its dreamy state to vivid remembrance of the earth-life so lately left, and may--if any sensitive or medium is concerned, either directly, or indirectly through one of these grieving friends in communication with the medium--use the medium's etheric and dense bodies to speak or write to those left behind. this awakening is often accompanied with acute suffering, and even if this be avoided, the natural process of the triad freeing itself is rudely disturbed, and the completion of its freedom is delayed. in speaking of this possibility of communication during the period immediately succeeding death and before the freed man passes on into devachan, h.p. blavatsky says: whether any living mortal, save a few exceptional cases--when the intensity of the desire in the dying person to return for some purpose forced the higher consciousness _to remain awake_, and, therefore, it was really the _individuality_, the "spirit", that communicated--has derived much benefit from the return of the spirit into the _objective_ plane is another question. the spirit is dazed after death, and falls very soon into what we call "pre-devachanic unconsciousness."[22] intense desire may move the disembodied entity to spontaneously return to the sorrowing ones left behind, but this spontaneous return is rare in the case of persons of the type we are just now considering. if they are left at peace, they will generally sleep themselves quietly into devachan, and so avoid any struggle or suffering in connection with the second death. on the final escape of the immortal triad there is left behind in kâmaloka only the desire body, the "shell" or mere empty phantom, which gradually disintegrates; but it will be better to deal with this in considering the next type, the average man or woman, without marked spirituality of an elevated kind, but also without marked evil tendencies. when an average man or woman reaches kâmaloka, the spiritual intelligence is clothed with a desire body, which possesses considerable vigour and vitality; the lower manas, closely interwoven with kâma during the earth-life just ended, having lived much in the enjoyment of objects of sense and in the pleasures of the emotions, cannot quickly disentangle itself from the web of its own weaving, and return to its parent mind, the source of its own being. hence a considerable delay in the world of transition, in kâmaloka, while the desires wear out and fade away to a point at which they can no longer detain the soul with their clinging arms. as said, during the period that the immortal triad and kâma remain together in kâmaloka, communication between the disembodied entity and the embodied entities on earth is possible. such communication will generally be welcomed by these disembodied ones, because their desires and emotions still cling to the earth they have left, and the mind has not sufficiently lived on its own plane to find therein full satisfaction and contentment. the lower manas still yearns towards kâmic gratifications and the vivid highly coloured sensations of earth-life, and can by these yearnings be drawn back to the scenes it has regretfully quitted. speaking of the possibility of communication between the ego of the deceased person and a medium, h.p. blavatsky says in the _theosophist_,[23] as from the teachings received by her from the adept brothers, that such communication may occur during two intervals: interval the first is that period between the physical death and the merging of the spiritual ego into that state which is known in the arhat esoteric doctrine as bar-do. we have translated this as the "gestation" period [pre-devachanic]. some of the communications made through mediums are from this source, from the disembodied entity, thus drawn back to the earth-sphere--a cruel kindness, delaying its forward evolution and introducing an element of disharmony into what should be an orderly progression. the period in kâmaloka is thus lengthened, the desire body is fed and its hold on the ego is maintained, and thus is the freedom of the soul deferred, the immortal swallow being still held down by the bird-lime of earth. persons who have led an evil life, who have gratified and stimulated their animal passions, and have full fed the desire body while they have starved even the lower mind--these remain for long, denizens of kâmaloka, and are filled with yearnings for the earth-life they have left, and for the animal delights that they can no longer--in the absence of the physical body--directly taste. these gather round the medium and the sensitive, endeavouring to utilise them for their own gratification, and these are among the more dangerous of the forces so rashly confronted in their ignorance by the thoughtless and the curious. another class of disembodied entities includes those whose lives on earth have been prematurely cut short, by their own act, the act of others, or by accident. their fate in kâmaloka depends on the conditions which surrounded their outgoings from earthly life, for not all suicides are guilty of _felo de se_, and the measure of responsibility may vary within very wide limits. the condition of such has been thus described: _suicides, although not wholly dissevered from their sixth and seventh principles, and quite potent in the séance room, nevertheless to the day when they would have died a natural death, are separated from their higher principles by a gulf. the sixth and seventh principles remain passive and negative, whereas in cases of_ accidental death _the higher and the lower groups actually attract each other. in cases of good and innocent egos, moreover, the latter gravitates irresistibly toward the sixth and seventh, and thus either slumbers surrounded by happy dreams, or sleeps a dreamless profound sleep until the hour strikes. with a little reflection and an eye to the eternal justice and fitness of things, you will see why. the victim, whether good or bad, is irresponsible for his death. even if his death were due to some action in a previous life or an antecedent birth, was an act, in short, of the law of retribution, still it was not the_ direct _result of an act deliberately committed by the_ personal _ego of that life during which he happened to be killed. had he been allowed to live longer he might have atoned for his antecedent sins still more effectually, and even now, the ego having been made to pay off the debt of his maker, the personal ego is free from the blows of retributive justice. the dhyân chohans, who have no hand in the guidance of the living human ego, protect the helpless victim when it is violently thrust out of its element into a new one, before it is matured and made fit and ready for it._ these, whether suicides or killed by accident, can communicate with those in earth-life, but much to their own injury. as said above, the good and innocent sleep happily till the life-period is over. but where the victim of an accident is depraved and gross, his fate is a sad one. _unhappy shades, if sinful and sensual, they wander about (not shells, for their connection with their two higher principles is not quite broken) until their_ death-_hour comes. cut off in the full flush of earthly passions which bind them to familiar scenes, they are enticed by the opportunities which mediums afford to gratify them vicariously. they are the pishâchas, the incubi and succubæ of mediæval times; the demons of thirst, gluttony, lust, and avarice--elementaries of intensified craft, wickedness, and cruelty; provoking their victims to horrid crimes, and revelling in their commission! they not only ruin their victims, but these psychic vampires, borne along by the torrent of their hellish impulses, at last--at the fixed close of their natural period of life--they are carried out of the earth's aura into regions where for ages they endure exquisite suffering and end with entire destruction. * * * * * now the causes producing the "new being" and determining the nature of karma are trishnâ (tanhâ)--thirst, desire for sentient existence--and upâdâna, which is the realisation or consummation of trishnâ, or that desire. and both of these the medium helps to develop_ ne plus ultra _in an elementary, be he a suicide or a victim. the rule is that a person who dies a natural death will remain from "a few hours to several short years" within the earth's attraction--_i.e._, the kâmaloka. but exceptions are the cases of suicides and those who die a violent death in general. hence, one of such egos who was destined to live, say, eighty or ninety years--but who either killed himself or was killed by some accident, let us suppose at the age of twenty--would have to pass in the kâmaloka not "a few years," but in his case sixty or seventy years, as an elementary, or rather an "earth-walker," since he is not, unfortunately for him, even a "shell." happy, thrice happy, in comparison, are those disembodied entities who sleep their long slumber and live in dream in the bosom of space! and woe to those whose trishnâ will attract them to mediums, and woe to the latter who tempt them with such an easy upâdâna. for, in grasping them and satisfying their thirst for life, the medium helps to develop in them--is, in fact, the cause of--a new set of skandhas, a new body with far worse tendencies and passions than the one they lost. all the future of this new body will be determined thus, not only by the karma of demerit of the previous set or group, but also by that of the new set of the future being. were the mediums and spiritualists but to know, as i said, that with every new "angel-guide" they welcome with rapture, they entice the latter into a upâdâna, which will be productive of untold evils for the new ego that will be reborn under its nefarious shadow, and that with every séance, especially for materialization, they multiply the causes for misery, causes that will make the unfortunate ego fail in his spiritual birth, or be reborn into a far worse existence than ever--they would, perhaps, be less lavish in their hospitality._ premature death brought on by vicious courses, by over-study, or by voluntary sacrifice for some great cause, will bring about delay in kâmaloka, but the state of the disembodied entity will depend on the motive that cut short the life. _there are very few, if any, of the men who indulge in these vices, who feel perfectly sure that such a course of action will lead them eventually to premature death. such is the penalty of mâyâ. the "vices" will not escape their punishment; but it is the_ cause, _not the effect, that will be punished, especially an unforeseen, though probable effect. as well call a man a "suicide" who meets his death in a storm at sea, as one who kills himself with "over-study". water is liable to drown a man, and too much brain work to produce a softening of the brain matter which may carry him away. in such a case no one ought to cross the_ kâlapâni, _nor even to take a bath for fear of getting faint in it and drowned (for we all know of such cases), nor should a man do his duty, least of all sacrifice himself for even a laudable and highly beneficial cause as many of us do. motive is everything, and man is punished in a case of direct responsibility, never otherwise. in the victim's case the natural hour of death was anticipated_ accidentally, _while in that of the suicide death is brought on voluntarily and with a full and deliberate knowledge of its immediate consequences. thus a man who causes his death in a fit of temporary insanity is_ not _a_ felo de se, _to the great grief and often trouble of the life insurance companies. nor is he left a prey to the temptations of the kâmaloka, but falls_ asleep _like any other victim._ the population of kâmaloka is thus recruited with a peculiarly dangerous element by all the acts of violence, legal and illegal, which wrench the physical body from the soul and send the latter into kâmaloka clad in the desire body, throbbing with pulses of hatred, passion, emotion, palpitating with longings for revenge, with unsatiated lusts. a murderer in the body is not a pleasant member of society, but a murderer suddenly expelled from the body is a far more dangerous entity; society may protect itself against the first, but in its present state of ignorance it is defenceless as against the second. finally, the immortal triad sets itself free from the desire body, and passes out of kâmaloka; the higher manas draws back its ray, coloured with the life-scenes it has passed through, and carrying with it the experiences gained through the personality it has informed. the labourer is called in from the field, and he returns home bearing his sheaves with him, rich or poor, according to the fruitage of the life. when the triad has quitted kâmaloka, it passes wholly out of the sphere of earth attractions: _as soon as it has stepped outside the kâmaloka--crossed the "golden bridge" leading to the "seven golden mountains"--the ego can confabulate no more with easy-going mediums._ there are some exceptional possibilities of reaching such an ego, that will be explained later, but the ego is out of the reach of the ordinary medium and cannot be recalled into the earth-sphere. but ere we follow the further course of the triad, we must consider the fate of the now deserted desire body, left as a mere _reliquum_ in kâmaloka. kâmaloka. the shells. the shell is the desire body, emptied of the triad, which has now passed onwards; it is the third of the transitory garments of soul, cast aside and left in kâmaloka to disintegrate. when the past earth-life has been noble, or even when it has been of average purity and utility, this shell retains but little vitality after the passing onwards of the triad, and rapidly dissolves. its molecules, however, retain, during this process of disintegration, the impressions made upon them during the earth-life, the tendency to vibrate in response to stimuli constantly experienced during that period. every student of physiology is familiar with what is termed automatic action, with the tendency of cells to repeat vibrations originally set up by purposive action; thus are formed what we term habits, and we unconsciously repeat motions which at first were done with thought. so strong is this automatism of the body, that, as everyone knows by experience, it is difficult to break off the use of a phrase or of a gesture that has become "habitual." now the desire body is during earth-life the recipient of and the respondent to all stimuli from without, and it also continually receives and responds to stimuli from the lower manas. in it are set up habits, tendencies to repeat automatically familiar vibrations, vibrations of love and desire, vibrations imaging past experiences of all kinds. just as the hand may repeat a familiar gesture, so may the desire body repeat a familiar feeling or thought. and when the triad has left it, this automatism remains, and the shell may thus simulate feelings and thoughts which are empty of all true intelligence and will. many of the responses to eager enquiries at _séances_ come from such shells, drawn to the neighbourhood of friends and relatives by the magnetic attractions so long familiar and dear, and automatically responding to the waves of emotion and remembrance, to the impulse of which they had so often answered during the lately closed earth-life. phrases of affection, moral platitudes, memories of past events, will be all the communications such shells can make, but these may be literally poured out under favourable conditions under the magnetic stimuli freely applied by the embodied friends and relatives. in cases where the lower manas during earth-life has been strongly attached to material objects and to intellectual pursuits directed by a self-seeking motive, the desire body may have acquired a very considerable automatism of an intellectual character, and may give forth responses of considerable intellectual merit. but still the mark of non-originality will be present: the apparent intellectuality will only give out reproductions, and there will be no sign of the new and independent thought which would be the inevitable outcome of a strong intelligence working with originality amid new surroundings. intellectual sterility brands the great majority of communications from the "spirit world"; reflections of earthly scenes, earthly conditions, earthly arrangements, are plentiful, but we usually seek in vain for strong, new thought, worthy of intelligences freed from the prison of the flesh. the communications of a loftier kind occasionally granted are, for the most part, from non-human intelligences, attracted by the pure atmosphere of the medium or sitters. and there is an ever-present danger in this commerce with the shells. just because they are shells, and nothing more, they answer to the impulses that strike on them from without, and easily become malicious and mischievous, automatically responding to evil vibrations. thus a medium, or sitters of poor moral character, will impress the shells that flock around them with impulses of a low order, and any animal desires, petty and foolish thoughts, will set up similar vibrations in the blindly responsive shells. again, the shell is very easily taken possession of by elementals, the semi-conscious forces working in the kingdoms of nature, and may be used by them as a convenient vehicle for many a prank and trick. the etheric double of the medium, and the desire bodies emptied of their immortal tenants, give the material basis by which elementals can work many a curious and startling result; and frequenters of _séances_ may be confidently appealed to, and asked whether many of the childish freaks with which they are familiar--pullings of hair, pinchings, slaps, throwing about of objects, piling up of furniture, playing on accordions, &c.--are not more rationally accounted for as the tricky vagaries of sub-human forces, than as the actions of "spirits" who, while in the body, were certainly incapable of such vulgarities. let us leave the shells alone to peacefully dissolve into their elements, and mingle once again in the crucible of nature. the authors of the _perfect way_ put very well the real character of the shell. the true "ghost" consists of the exterior and earthly portion of the soul, that portion which, being weighted with cares, attachments, and memories merely mundane, is detached by the soul and remains in the astral sphere, an existence more or less definite and personal, and capable of holding, through a sensitive, converse with the living. it is, however, but as a cast-off vestment of the soul, and is incapable of endurance _as ghost_. the true soul and real person, the _anima divina_, parts at death with all those lower affections which would have retained it near its earthly haunts.[24] if we would find our beloved, it is not among the decaying remnants in kâmaloka that we should seek them. "why seek ye the living among the dead?" kâmaloka. the elementaries. the word "elementary" has been so loosely used that it has given rise to a good deal of confusion. it is thus defined by h.p. blavatsky: properly, the disembodied _souls_ of the depraved; these souls having, at some time prior to death, separated from themselves their divine spirits, and so lost their chance for immortality. but at the present stage of learning it has been thought best to apply the term to the spooks or phantoms of disembodied persons, in general to those whose temporary habitation is the kâmaloka.... once divorced from their higher triads and their bodies, these souls remain in their kâma rûpic envelopes, and are irresistibly drawn to the earth amid elements congenial to their gross natures. their stay in the kâmaloka varies as to its duration; but ends invariably in disintegration, dissolving like a column of mist, atom by atom, in the surrounding elements.[25] students of this series of manuals know that it is possible for the lower manas to so entangle itself with kâma as to wrench itself away from its source, and this is spoken of in occultism as "the loss of the soul."[26] it is, in other words, the loss of the personal self, which has separated itself from its parent, the higher ego, and has thus doomed itself to perish. such a soul, having thus separated itself from the immortal triad during its earth-life, becomes a true elementary, after it has quitted the dense and etheric bodies. then, clad in its desire body, it lives for awhile, for a longer or shorter time according to the vigour of its vitality, a wholly evil thing, dangerous and malignant, seeking to renew its fading vitality by any means laid open to it by the folly or ignorance of still embodied souls. its ultimate fate is, indeed, destruction, but it may work much evil on its way to its self-chosen doom. the word elementary is, however, very often used to describe the lower manas in its garment the desire body, not broken away from the higher principles, but not yet absorbed into its parent, the higher manas. such elementaries may be in any stage of progress, harmless or mischievous. some writers, again, use elementary as a synonym for shell, and so cause increased confusion. the word should at least be restricted to the desire body _plus_ lower manas, whether that lower manas be disentangling itself from the kâmic elements, in order that it may be re-absorbed into its source, or separated from the higher ego, and therefore on the road to destruction. devachan. among the various conceptions presented by the esoteric philosophy, there are few, perhaps, which the western mind has found more difficulty in grasping than that of devachan, or devasthân, the devaland, or land of the gods.[27] and one of the chief difficulties has arisen from the free use of the words illusion, dream-state, and other similar terms, as denoting the devachanic consciousness--a general sense of unreality having thus come to pervade the whole conception of devachan. when the eastern thinker speaks of the present earthly life as mâyâ, illusion, dream, the solid western at once puts down the phrases as allegorical and fanciful, for what can be less illusory, he thinks, than this world of buying and selling, of beefsteaks and bottled stout. but when similar terms are applied to a state beyond death--a state which to him is misty and unreal in his own religion, and which, as he sadly feels, is lacking in all the substantial comforts dear to the family man--then he accepts the words in their most literal and prosaic meaning, and speaks of devachan as a delusion in his own sense of the word. it may be well, therefore, on the threshold of devachan to put this question of "illusion" in its true light. in a deep metaphysical sense all that is conditioned is illusory. all phenomena are literally "appearances", the outer masks in which the one reality shows itself forth in our changing universe. the more "material" and solid the appearance, the further is it from reality, and therefore the more illusory it is. what can be a greater fraud than our body, so apparently solid, stable, visible and tangible? it is a constantly changing congeries of minute living particles, an attractive centre into which stream continually myriads of tiny invisibles, that become visible by their aggregation at this centre, and then stream away again, becoming invisible by reason of their minuteness as they separate off from this aggregation. in comparison with this ever-shifting but apparently stable body how much less illusory is the mind, which is able to expose the pretensions of the body and put it in its true light. the mind is constantly imposed on by the senses, and consciousness, the most real thing in us, is apt to regard itself as the unreal. in truth, it is the thought-world that is the nearest to reality, and things become more and more illusory as they take on more and more of a phenomenal character. again, the mind is permanent as compared with the transitory physical world. for the "mind" is only a clumsy name for the living thinker in us, the true and conscious entity, the inner man, "that was, that is, and will be, for whom the hour shall never strike". the less deeply this inner man is plunged into matter, the less unreal is his life; and when he has shaken off the garments he donned at incarnation, his physical, ethereal, and passional bodies, then he is nearer to the soul of things than he was before, and though veils of illusion still dim his vision they are far thinner than those which clouded it when round him was wrapped the garment of the flesh. his freer and less illusory life is that which is without the body, and the disembodied is, comparatively speaking, his normal state. out of this normal state he plunges into physical life for brief periods in order that he may gain experiences otherwise unattainable, and bring them back to enrich his more abiding condition. as a diver may plunge into the depths of the ocean to seek a pearl, so the thinker plunges into the depths of the ocean of life to seek the pearl of experience; but he does not stay there long; it is not his own element; he rises up again into his own atmosphere and shakes off from him the heavier element he leaves. and therefore it is truly said of the soul that has escaped from earth that it has returned to its own place, for its home is the "land of the gods", and here on earth it is an exile and a prisoner. this view was very clearly put by a master of wisdom in a conversation reported by h.p. blavatsky, and printed under the title "life and death."[28] the following extracts state the case: _the vedântins, acknowledging two kinds of conscious existence, the terrestrial and the spiritual, point only to the latter as an undoubted actuality. as to the terrestrial life, owing to its changeability and shortness, it is nothing but an illusion of our senses. our life in the spiritual spheres must be thought an actuality because it is there that lives our endless, never-changing immortal i, the sûtrâtmâ. whereas in every new incarnation it clothes itself in a perfectly different personality, a temporary and short-lived one.... the very essence of all this, that is to say, spirit, force, and matter, has neither end nor beginning, but the shape acquired by this triple unity during its incarnations, their exterior, so to speak, is nothing but a mere illusion of personal conceptions. this is why we call the posthumous life the only reality, and the terrestrial one, including the personality itself, only imaginary._ why in this case should we call the reality sleep, and the phantasm waking? _this comparison was made by me to facilitate your comprehension. from the standpoint of your terrestrial notions it is perfectly accurate._ note the words: "from the standpoint of your terrestrial notions," for they are the key to all the phrases used about devachan as an "illusion." our gross physical matter is not there; the limitations imposed by it are not there; the mind is in its own realm, where to will is to create, where to think is to see. and so, when the master was asked: "would it not be better to say that death is nothing but a birth for a new life, or still better, a going back to eternity?" he answered: _this is how it really is, and i have nothing to say against such a way of putting it. only with our accepted views of material life the words "live" and "exist" are not applicable to the purely subjective condition after death; and were they employed in our philosophy without a rigid definition of their meanings, the vedântins would soon arrive at the ideas which are common in our times among the american spiritualists, who preach about spirits marrying among themselves and with mortals. as amongst the true, not nominal, christians so amongst the vedântins--the life on the other side of the grave is the land where there are no_ _tears, no sighs, where there is neither marrying nor giving in marriage, and where the just realise their full perfection._ the dread of materialising mental and spiritual conceptions has always been very strong among the philosophers and oral teachers of the far east. their constant effort has been to free the thinker as far as possible from the bonds of matter even while he is embodied, to open the cage for the divine swallow, even though he must return to it for awhile. they are ever seeking "to spiritualise the material", while in the west the continual tendency has been "to materialise the spiritual". so the indian describes the life of the freed soul in all the terms that make it least material--illusion, dream, and so on--whereas the hebrew endeavours to delineate it in terms descriptive of the material luxury and splendour of earth--marriage feast, streets of gold, thrones and crowns of solid metal and precious stones; the western has followed the materialising conceptions of the hebrew, and pictures a heaven which is merely a double of earth with earth's sorrows extracted, until we reach the grossest of all, the modern summerland, with its "spirit-husbands", "spirit-wives", and "spirit-infants" that go to school and college, and grow up into spirit-adults. in "notes on devachan",[29] someone who evidently writes with knowledge remarks of the devachanî: _the_ à priori _ideas of space and time do not control his perceptions; for he absolutely creates and annihilates them at the same time. physical existence has its cumulative intensity from infancy to prime, and its diminishing energy from dotage to death; so the dream-life of devachan is lived correspondentially. nature cheats no more the devachanî than she does the living physical man. nature provides for him far more_ real _bliss and happiness_ there _than she does_ here, _where all the conditions of evil and chance are against him. to call the devachan existence a "dream" in any other sense than that of a conventional term, is to renounce for ever the knowledge of the esoteric doctrine, the sole custodian of truth._ "dream" only in the sense that it is not of this plane of gross matter, that it belongs not to the physical world. let us try and take a general view of the life of the eternal pilgrim, the inner man, the human soul, during a cycle of incarnation. before he commences his new pilgrimage--for many pilgrimages lie behind him in the past, during which he gained the powers which enable him to tread the present one--he is a spiritual being, but one who has already passed out of the passive condition of pure spirit, and who by previous experience of matter in past ages has evolved intellect, the self-conscious mind. but this evolution by experience is far from being complete, even so far as to make him master of matter; his ignorance leaves him a prey to all the illusions of gross matter, so soon as he comes into contact with it, and he is not fit to be a builder of a universe, being subject to the deceptive visions caused by gross matter--as a child, looking through a piece of blue glass, imagines all the outside world to be blue. the object of a cycle of incarnation is to free him from these illusions, so that when he is surrounded by and working in gross matter he may retain clear vision and not be blinded by illusion. now the cycle of incarnation is made up of two alternating states: a short one called life on earth, during which the pilgrim-god is plunged into gross matter, and a comparatively long one, called life in devachan, during which he is encircled by subtle matter, illusive still, but far less illusive than that of earth. the second state may fairly be called his normal one, as it is of enormous extent as compared with the breaks in it that he spends upon earth; it is comparatively normal also, as being less removed from his essential divine life; he is less encased in matter, less deluded by its swiftly-changing appearances. slowly and gradually, by reiterated experiences, gross matter loses its power over him and becomes his servant instead of his tyrant. in the partial freedom of devachan he assimilates his experiences on earth, still partly dominated by them--at first, indeed, almost completely dominated by them so that the devachanic life is merely a sublimated continuation of the earth-life--but gradually freeing himself more and more as he recognises them as transitory and external, until he can move through any region of our universe with unbroken self-consciousness, a true lord of mind, the free and triumphant god. such is the triumph of the divine nature manifested in the flesh, the subduing of every form of matter to be the obedient instrument of spirit. thus the master said: _the spiritual ego of the man moves in eternity like a pendulum between the hours of life and death, but if these_ _hours, the periods of life terrestrial and life posthumous, are limited in their continuation, and even the very number of such breaks in eternity between sleep and waking, between illusion and reality, have their beginning as well as their end, the spiritual pilgrim himself is eternal. therefore the_ hours of his posthumous life, _when unveiled he stands face to face with truth, and the short-lived mirages of his terrestrial existence are far from him,_ compose _or make up, in our ideas,_ the only reality. _such breaks, in spite of the fact that they are finite, do double service to the sûtrâtmâ, which, perfecting itself constantly, follows without vacillation, though very slowly, the road leading to its last transformation, when, reaching its aim at last, it becomes a divine being. they not only contribute to the reaching of this goal, but without these finite breaks sûtrâtmâ-buddhi could never reach it. sûtrâtmâ is the actor, and its numerous and different incarnations are the actor's parts. i suppose you would not apply to these parts, and so much the less to their costumes, the term of personality. like an actor the soul is bound to play, during the cycle of births up to the very threshold of parinirvâna, many such parts, which often are disagreeable to it, but like a bee, collecting its honey from every flower, and leaving the rest to feed the worms of the earth, our spiritual individuality, the sûtrâtmâ, collecting only the nectar of moral qualities and consciousness from every terrestrial personality in which it has to clothe itself, forced by karma, unites at last all these qualities in one, having then become a perfect being, a dhyân chohan._[30] it is very significant, in this connection, that every devachanic stage is conditioned by the earth-stage that precedes it, and the man can only assimilate in devachan the kinds of experience he has been gathering on earth. _a colourless, flavourless personality has a colourless, feeble devachanic state._[31] husband, father, student, patriot, artist, christian, buddhist--he must work out the effects of his earth-life in his devachanic life; he cannot eat and assimilate more food than he has gathered; he cannot reap more harvest than he has sown seed. it takes but a moment to cast a seed into a furrow; it takes many a month for that seed to grow into the ripened ear; but according to the kind of the seed is the ear that grows from it, and according to the nature of the brief earth-life is the grain reaped in the field of aanroo. _there is a change of occupation, a continual change in devachan, just as much and far more than there is in the life of any man or woman who happens to follow in his or her whole life one sole occupation, whatever it may be, with this difference, that to the devachanî this spiritual occupation is always pleasant and fills his life with rapture. life in devachan is the function of the aspirations of earth-life; not the indefinite prolongation of that "single instant," but its infinite developments, the various incidents and events based upon and outflowing from that one "single moment" or moments. the dreams of the objective become the realities of the subjective existence.... the reward provided by nature for men who are benevolent in a large systematic way, and who have not focussed their affections on an individual or speciality, is that, if pure, they pass the quicker for that through the kâma and rûpa lokas into the higher sphere of tribhuvana, since it is one where the formulation of abstract ideas and the consideration of general principles fill the thought of its occupant._[32] into devachan enters nothing that defileth, for gross matter has been left behind with all its attributes on earth and in kâmaloka. but if the sower has sowed but little seed, the devachanic harvest will be meagre, and the growth of the soul will be delayed by the paucity of the nutriment on which it has to feed. hence the enormous importance of the earth-life, _the field of sowing, the place where experience is to be gathered_. it conditions, regulates, limits, the growth of the soul; it yields the rough ore which the soul then takes in hand, and works upon during the devachanic stage, smelting it, forging it, tempering it, into the weapons it will take back with it for its next earth-life. the experienced soul in devachan will make for itself a splendid instrument for its next earth-life; the inexperienced one will forge a poor blade enough; but in each case the only material available is that brought from earth. in devachan the soul, as it were, sifts and sorts out its experiences; it lives a comparatively free life, and gradually gains the power to estimate the earthly experiences at their real value; it works out thoroughly and completely as objective realities all the ideas of which it only conceived the germ on earth. thus, noble aspiration is a germ which the soul would work out into a splendid realisation in devachan, and it would bring back with it to earth for its next incarnation that mental image, to be materialised on earth when opportunity offers and suitable environment presents itself. for the mind sphere is the sphere of creation, and earth only the place for materialising the pre-existent thought. and the soul is as an architect that works out his plans in silence and deep meditation, and then brings them forth into the outer world where his edifice is to be builded; out of the knowledge gained in his past life, the soul draws his plans for the next, and he returns to earth to put into objective material form the edifices he has planned. this is the description of a logos in creative activity: whilst brahmâ formerly, in the beginning of the kalpas, was meditating on creation, there appeared a creation beginning with ignorance and consisting of darkness.... brahmâ, beholding that it was defective, designed another; and whilst he thus meditated, the animal creation was manifested.... beholding this creation also imperfect, brahmâ again meditated, and a third creation appeared, abounding with the quality of goodness.[33] the objective manifestation follows the mental meditation; first idea, then form. hence it will be seen that the notion current among many theosophists that devachan is waste time, is but one of the illusions due to the gross matter that blinds them, and that their impatience of the idea of devachan arises from the delusion that fussing about in gross matter is the only real activity. whereas, in truth, all effective action has its source in deep meditation, and out of the silence comes ever the creative word. action on this plane would be less feeble and inefficient if it were the mere blossom of the profound root of meditation, and if the soul embodied passed oftener out of the body into devachan during earth-life, there would be less foolish action and consequent waste of time. for devachan is a state of consciousness, the consciousness of the soul escaped for awhile from the net of gross matter, and may be entered at any time by one who has learned to withdraw his soul from the senses as the tortoise withdraws itself within its shell. and then, coming forth once more, action is prompt, direct, purposeful, and the time "wasted" in meditation is more than saved by the directness and strength of the mind-engendered act. devachan is the sphere of the mind, as said, it is the land of the gods, or the souls. in the before quoted "notes on devachan" we read: _there are two fields of causal manifestations: the objective and the subjective. the grosser energies find their outcome in the new personality of each birth in the cycle of evoluting individuality. the moral and spiritual activities find their sphere of effects in devachan._ as the moral and spiritual activities are the most important, and as on the development of these depends the growth of the true man, and therefore the accomplishing of "the object of creation, the liberation of soul", we may begin to understand something of the vast importance of the devachanic state. the devachanî. when the triad has shaken off its last garment, it crosses the threshold of devachan, and becomes "a devachanî". we have seen that it is in a peaceful dreamy state before this passage out of the earth sphere, the "second death", or "pre-devachanic unconsciousness". this condition is otherwise spoken of as the "gestation" period, because it precedes the birth of the ego into the devachanic life. regarded from the earth-sphere the passage is death, while regarded from that of devachan it is birth. thus we find in "notes on devachan": _as in actual earth-life, so there is for the ego in devachan the first flutter of psychic life, the attainment of prime, the gradual exhaustion of force passing into semi-consciousness and lethargy, total oblivion, and--not death but birth, birth into another personality, and the resumption of action which daily begets new congeries of causes that must be worked out in another term of devachan, and still another physical birth as a new personality. what the lives in devachan and upon earth shall be respectively in each instance is determined by karma, and this weary round of birth must be ever and ever run through until the being reaches the end of the seventh round, or attains in the interim the wisdom of an arhat, then that of a buddha, and thus gets relieved for a round or two._ when the devachanic entity is born into this new sphere it has passed beyond recall to earth. the embodied soul may rise to it, but it cannot be drawn back to our world. on this a master has spoken decisively: _from sukhâvatî down to the "territory of doubt," there is a variety of spiritual states, but ... as soon as it has stepped outside the kâmaloka, crossed the "golden bridge" leading to the "seven golden mountains," the ego can confabulate no more with easy-going mediums. no ernest or joey has ever returned from the rûpa loka, let alone the arupa loka, to hold sweet intercourse with men._ in the "notes on devachan," again, we read: _certainly the new ego, once that it is reborn (in devachan), retains for a certain time--proportionate to its earth-life--a complete recollection "of his life on earth"; but it can never revisit the earth from devachan except in re-incarnation._ the devachanî is generally spoken of as the immortal triad, atmâ-buddhi-manas, but it is well always to bear in mind that atman is no individual property of any man, but is the divine essence which has no body, no form, which is imponderable, invisible, and indivisible, that which does not _exist_ and yet _is_, as the buddhists say of nirvâna. it only overshadows the mortal; that which enters into him and pervades the whole body being only it's omni-present rays or light, radiated through buddhi, its vehicle and direct emanation.[34] buddhi and manas united, with this overshadowing of atmâ, form the devachanî; now, as we have seen in studying the seven principles, manas is dual during earth-life, and the lower manas is redrawn into the higher during the kâmalokic interlude. by this reuniting of the ray and its source, manas re-becomes one, and carries the pure and noble experiences of the earth-life into devachan with it, thus maintaining the past personality as the marked characteristic of the devachanî, and it is in this prolongation of the "personal ego", so to speak, that the "illusion" of the devachanî consists. were the mânasic entity free from all illusion, it would see all egos as its brother-souls, and looking back over its past would recognise all the varied relationships it had borne to others in many lives, as the actor would remember the many parts he had played with other actors, and would think of each brother actor as a man, and not in the parts he had played as his father, his son, his judge, his murderer, his master, his friend. the deeper human relationship would prevent the brother actors from identifying each other with their parts, and so the perfected spiritual egos, recognising their deep unity and full brotherhood, would no longer be deluded by the trappings of earthly relationships. but the devachanî, at least in the lower stages, is still within the personal boundaries of his past earth-life; he is shut into the relationships of the one incarnation; his paradise is peopled with those he "_loved best with an undying love, that holy feeling that alone survives_," and thus the purified personal ego is the salient feature, as above said, in the devachanî. again quoting from the "notes on devachan": "_who goes to devachan?" the personal ego, of course; but beatified, purified, holy. every ego--the combination of the sixth and seventh principles[35]--which after the period of unconscious gestation is reborn into the devachan, is of necessity as innocent and pure as a new-born babe. the fact of his being reborn at all shows the preponderance of good over evil in his old personality. and while the karma [of evil] steps aside for the time being to follow him in his future earth re-incarnation, he brings along with him but the karma of his good deeds, words and thoughts into this devachan. "bad" is a relative term for us--as you were told more than once before--and the law of retribution is the only law that never errs. hence all those who have not slipped down into the mire of unredeemable sin and bestiality go to the devachan. they will have to pay for their sins, voluntary and involuntary, later on. meanwhile they are rewarded; receive the effects of the causes produced by them._ now in some people a sense of repulsion arises at the idea that the ties they form on earth in one life are not to be permanent in eternity. but let us look at the question calmly for a moment. when a mother first clasps her baby-son in her arms, that one relationship seems perfect, and if the child should die, her longing would be to re-possess him as her babe; but as he lives on through youth to manhood the tie changes, and the protective love of the mother and the clinging obedience of the child merge into a different love of friends and comrades, richer than ordinary friendship from the old recollections; yet later, when the mother is aged and the son in the prime of middle life, their positions are reversed and the son protects while the mother depends on him for guidance. would the relation have been more perfect had it ceased in infancy with only the one tie, or is it not the richer and the sweeter from the different strands of which the tie is woven? and so with egos; in many lives they may hold to each other many relationships, and finally, standing as brothers of the lodge closely knit together, may look back over past lives and see themselves in earth-life related in the many ways possible to human beings, till the cord is woven of every strand of love and duty; would not the final unity be the richer not the poorer for the many-stranded tie? "finally", i say; but the word is only of this cycle, for what lies beyond, of wider life and less separateness, no mind of man may know. to me it seems that this very variety of experiences makes the tie stronger, not weaker, and that it is a rather thin and poor thing to know oneself and another in only one little aspect of many-sided humanity for endless ages of years; a thousand or so years of one person in one character would, to me, be ample, and i should prefer to know him or her in some new aspect of his nature. but those who object to this view need not feel distressed, for they will enjoy the presence of their beloved in the one personal aspect held by him or her in the one incarnation they are conscious of _for as long as the desire for that presence remains_. only let them not desire to impose their own form of bliss on everybody else, nor insist that the kind of happiness which seems to them at this stage the only one desirable and satisfying, must be stereotyped to all eternity, through all the millions of years that lie before us. nature gives to each in devachan the satisfaction of all pure desires, and manas there exercises that faculty of his innate divinity, that he "never wills in vain". will not this suffice? but leaving aside disputes as to what may be to us "happiness" in a future separated from our present by millions of years, so that we are no more fitted now to formulate its conditions than is a child, playing with its dolls, to formulate the deeper joys and interests of its maturity, let us understand that, according to the teachings of the esoteric philosophy, the devachanî is surrounded by all he loved on earth, with pure affection, and the union being on the plane of the ego, not on the physical plane, it is free from all the sufferings which would be inevitable were the devachanî present in consciousness on the physical plane with all its illusory and transitory joys and sorrows. it is surrounded by its beloved in the higher consciousness, but is not agonised by the knowledge of what they are suffering in the lower consciousness, held in the bonds of the flesh. according to the orthodox christian view, death is a separation, and the "spirits of the dead" wait for reunion until those they love also pass through death's gateway, or--according to some--until after the judgment-day is over. as against this the esoteric philosophy teaches that death cannot touch the higher consciousness of man, and that it can only separate those who love each other so far as their lower vehicles are concerned; the man living on earth, blinded by matter, feels separated from those who have passed onwards, but the devachanî, says h.p. blavatsky, has a complete conviction "that there is no such thing as death at all", having left behind it all those vehicles over which death has power. therefore, to its less blinded eyes, its beloved are still with it; for it, the veil of matter that separates has been torn away. a mother dies, leaving behind her little helpless children, whom she adores, perhaps a beloved husband also. we say that her "spirit" or ego--that individuality which is now wholly impregnated, for the entire devachanic period, with the noblest feelings held by its late _personality, i.e._, love for her children, pity for those who suffer, and so on--is now entirely separated from the "vale of tears," that its future bliss consists in that blessed ignorance of all the woes it left behind ... that the _post-mortem_ spiritual consciousness of the mother will represent to her that she lives surrounded by her children and all those whom she loved; that no gap, no link will be missing to make her disembodied state the most perfect and absolute happiness.[36] and so again: as to the ordinary mortal his bliss in devachan is complete. it is an absolute oblivion of all that gave it pain or sorrow in the past incarnation, and even oblivion of the fact that such things as pain or sorrow exist at all. the devachanî lives its intermediate cycle between two incarnations surrounded by everything it had aspired to in vain, and in the companionship of everything it loved on earth. it has reached the fulfilment of all its soul-yearnings. and thus it lives throughout long centuries an existence of _unalloyed_ happiness, which is the reward for its sufferings in earth-life. in short, it bathes in a sea of uninterrupted felicity spanned only by events of still greater felicity in degree.[37] when we take the wider sweep in thought demanded by the esoteric philosophy, a far more fascinating prospect of persistent love and union between individual egos rolls itself out before our eyes than was offered to us by the more limited creed of exoteric christendom. "mothers love their children with an immortal love," says h.p. blavatsky, and the reason for this immortality in love is easily grasped when we realise that it is the same egos that play so many parts in the drama of life, that the experience of each part is recorded in the memory of the soul, and that between the souls there is no separation, though during incarnation they may not realise the fact in its fulness and beauty. we are with those whom we have lost in material form, and far, far nearer to them now than when they were alive. and it is not only in the fancy of the devachanî, as some may imagine, but in reality. for pure divine love is not merely the blossom of a human heart, but has its roots in eternity. spiritual holy love is immortal, and karma brings sooner or later all those who loved each other with such a spiritual affection to incarnate once more in the same family group.[38] love "has its roots in eternity", and those to whom on earth we are strongly drawn are the egos we have loved in past earth-lives and dwelt with in devachan; coming back to earth these enduring bonds of love draw us together yet again, and add to the strength and beauty of the tie, and so on and on till all illusions are lived down, and the strong and perfected egos stand side by side, sharing the experience of their well-nigh illimitable past. the return to earth. at length the causes that carried the ego into devachan are exhausted, the experiences gathered have been wholly assimilated, and the soul begins to feel again the thirst for sentient material life that can be gratified only on the physical plane. the greater the degree of spirituality reached, the purer and loftier the preceding earth-life, the longer the stay in devachan, the world of spiritual, pure, and lofty effects. [i am here ignoring the special conditions surrounding one who is forcing his own evolution, and has entered on the path that leads to adeptship within a very limited number of lives.] the "average time [in devachan] is from ten to fifteen centuries", h.p. blavatsky tells us, and the fifteen centuries cycle is the one most plainly marked in history.[39] but in modern life this period has much shortened, in consequence of the greater attraction exercised by physical objects over the heart of man. further, it must be remembered that the "average time" is not the time spent in devachan by any person. if one person spends there 1000 years, and another fifty, the "average" is 525. the devachanic period is longer or shorter according to the type of life which preceded it; the more there was of spiritual, intellectual, and emotional activity of a lofty kind, the longer will be the gathering in of the harvest; the more there was of activity directed to selfish gain on earth, the shorter will be the devachanic period. when the experiences are assimilated, be the time long or short, the ego is ready to return, and he brings back with him his now increased experience, and any further gains he may have made in devachan along the lines of abstract thought; for, while in devachan, in one sense we can acquire more knowledge; that is, we can develop further any faculty which we loved and strove after during life, provided it is concerned with abstract and ideal things, such as music, painting, poetry, &c.[40] but the ego meets, as he crosses the threshold of devachan on his way outwards--dying out of devachan to be reborn on earth--he meets in the "atmosphere of the terrestrial plane", the seeds of evil sown in his preceding life on earth. during the devachanic rest he has been free from all pain, all sorrow, but the evil he did in his past has been in a state of suspended animation, not of death. as seeds sown in the autumn for the spring-time lie dormant beneath the surface of the soil, but touched by the soft rain and penetrating warmth of sun begin to swell and the embryo expands and grows, so do the seeds of evil we have sown lie dormant while the soul takes its rest in devachan, but shoot out their roots into the new personality which begins to form itself for the incarnation of the returning man. the ego has to take up the burden of his past, and these germs or seeds, coming over as the harvest of the past life, are the skandhas, to borrow a convenient word from our buddhist brethren. they consist of material qualities, sensations, abstract ideas, tendencies of mind, mental powers, and while the pure aroma of these attached itself to the ego and passed with it into devachan, all that was gross, base and evil remained in the state of suspended animation spoken of above. these are taken up by the ego as he passes outwards towards terrestrial life, and are built into the new "man of flesh" which the true man is to inhabit. and so the round of births and deaths goes on, the turning of the wheel of life; the treading of the cycle of necessity, until the work is done and the building of the perfect man is completed. nirvâna. what devachan is to each earth-life, nirvâna is to the finished cycle of re-incarnation, but any effective discussion of that glorious state would here be out of place. it is mentioned only to round off the "after" of death, for no word of man, strictly limited within the narrow bounds of his lower consciousness, may avail to explain what nirvâna is, can do aught save disfigure it in striving to describe. what it is not may be roughly, baldly stated--it is not "annihilation", it is not destruction of consciousness. mr. a.p. sinnett has put effectively and briefly the absurdity of many of the ideas current in the west about nirvâna. he has been speaking of absolute consciousness, and proceeds: we may use such phrases as intellectual counters, but for no ordinary mind--dominated by its physical brain and brain-born intellect--can they have a living signification. all that words can convey is that nirvâna is a sublime state of conscious rest in omniscience. it would be ludicrous, after all that has gone before, to turn to the various discussions which have been carried on by students of exoteric buddhism as to whether nirvâna does or does not mean annihilation. worldly similes fall short of indicating the feeling with which the graduates of esoteric science regard such a question. does the last penalty of the law mean the highest honour of the peerage? is a wooden spoon the emblem of the most illustrious pre-eminence in learning? such questions as these but faintly symbolise the extravagance of the question whether nirvâna is held by buddhism to be equivalent to annihilation.[41] so we learn from the _secret doctrine_ that the nirvânî returns to cosmic activity in a new cycle of manifestation, and that _the thread of radiance which is imperishable and dissolves only in nirvâna, re-emerges from it in its integrity on the day when the great law calls all things back into action._[42] communications between the earth and other spheres. we are now in position to discriminate between the various kinds of communication possible between those whom we foolishly divide into "dead" and "living," as though the body were the man, or the man could die. "communications between the embodied and the disembodied" would be a more satisfactory phrase. first, let us put aside as unsuitable the word spirit: spirit does not communicate with spirit in any way conceivable by us. that highest principle is not yet manifest in the flesh; it remains the hidden fount of all, the eternal energy, one of the poles of being in manifestation. the word is loosely used to denote lofty intelligences, who live and move beyond all conditions of matter imaginable by us, but pure spirit is at present as inconceivable by us as pure matter. and as in dealing with possible "communications" we have average human beings as recipients, we may as well exclude the word spirit as much as possible, and so get rid of ambiguity. but in quotations the word often occurs, in deference to the habit of the day, and it then denotes the ego. taking the stages through which the living man passes after "death", or the shaking off of the body, we can readily classify the communications that may be received, or the appearances that may be seen: i. while the soul has shaken off only the dense body, and remains still clothed in the etheric double. this is a brief period only, but during it the disembodied soul may show itself, clad in this ethereal garment. for a very short period after death, while the incorporeal principles remain within the sphere of our earth's attraction, it is _possible_ for spirit, under _peculiar_ and _favourable_ conditions, to appear.[43] it makes no communications during this brief interval, nor while dwelling in this form. such "ghosts" are silent, dreamy, like sleep-walkers, and indeed they are nothing more than astral sleep-walkers. equally irresponsive, but capable of expressing a single thought, as of sorrow, anxiety, accident, murder, &c., are apparitions which are merely a thought of the dying, taking shape in the astral world, and carried by the dying person's will to some particular person, with whom the dying intensely longs to communicate. such a thought, sometimes called a mayâvi rûpa, or illusory form _may be often thrown into objectivity, as in the case of apparitions after death; but, unless it is projected with the knowledge of (whether latent or potential), or owing to the intensity of the desire to see or appear to some one shooting through, the dying brain, the apparition will be simply automatical; it will not be due to any sympathetic attraction, or to any act of volition, any more than the reflection of a person passing unconsciously near a mirror is due to the desire of the latter._ when the soul has left the etheric double, shaking it off as it shook off the dense body, the double thus left as a mere empty corpse may be galvanised into an "artificial life"; but fortunately the method of such galvanisation is known to few. ii. while the soul is in kâmaloka. this period is of very variable duration. the soul is clad in an astral body, the last but one of its perishable garments, and while thus clad it can utilise the physical bodies of a medium, thus consciously procuring for itself an instrument whereby it can act on the world it has left, and communicate with those living in the body. in this way it may give information as to facts known to itself only, or to itself and another person, in the earth-life just closed; and for as long as it remains within the terrestrial atmosphere such communication is possible. the harm and the peril of such communication has been previously explained, whether the lower manas be united with the divine triad and so on its way to devachan, or wrenched from it and on its way to destruction. iii. while the soul is in devachan, if an embodied soul is capable of rising to its sphere, or of coming into _rapport_ with it. to the devachanî, as we have seen, the beloved are present in consciousness and full communication, the egos being in touch with each other, though one is embodied and one is disembodied, but the higher consciousness of the embodied rarely affects the brain. as a matter of fact, all that we know on the physical plane of our friend, while we both are embodied, is the mental image caused by the impression he makes on us. this is, to our consciousness, our friend, and lacks nothing in objectivity. a similar image is present to the consciousness of the devachanî, and to him lacks nothing in objectivity. as the physical plane friend is visible to an observer on earth, so is the mental plane friend visible to an observer on that plane. the amount of the friend that ensouls the image is dependent on his own evolution, a highly evolved person being capable of far more communication with a devachanî than one who is unevolved. communication when the body is sleeping is easier than when it is awake, and many a vivid "dream" of one on the other side of death is a real interview with him in kâmaloka or in devachan. love beyond the grave, illusion though you may call it,[44] has a magic and divine potency that re-acts on the living. a mother's ego, filled with love for the imaginary children it sees near itself, living a life of happiness, as real to it as when on earth--that love will always be felt by the children in flesh. it will manifest in their dreams and often in various events--in providential protections and escapes, for love is a strong shield, and is not limited by space or time. as with this devachanic "mother", so with the rest of human relationships and attachments, save the purely selfish or material.[45] remembering that a thought becomes an active entity, capable of working good or evil, we easily see that as embodied souls can send to those they love helping and protecting forces, so the devachanî, thinking of those dear to him, may send out such helpful and protective thoughts, to act as veritable guardian angels round his beloved on earth. but this is a very different thing from the "spirit" of the mother coming back to earth to be the almost helpless spectator of the child's woes. the soul embodied may sometimes escape from its prison of flesh, and come into relations with the devachanî. h.p. blavatsky writes: whenever years after the death of a person his spirit is claimed to have "wandered back to earth" to give advice to those it loved, it is always in a subjective vision, in dream or in trance, and in that case it is the soul of the living seer that is drawn to the _disembodied_ spirit, and not the latter which wanders back to our spheres.[46] where the sensitive, or medium, is of a pure and lofty nature, this rising of the freed ego to the devachanî is practicable, and naturally gives the impression to the sensitive that the departed ego has come back to him. the devachanî is wrapped in its happy "illusion", and _the souls, or astral egos, of pure loving sensitives, labouring under the same delusion, think their loved ones come down to them on earth, while it is their own spirits that are raised towards those in the devachan._[47] this attraction can be exercised by the departed soul from kâmaloka or from devachan: a "spirit" or the spiritual ego, cannot _descend_ to the medium, but it can _attract_ the spirit of the latter to itself, and it can do this only during the two intervals--before and after its "gestation period". interval the first is that period between the physical death and the merging of the spiritual ego into that state which is known in the arhat esoteric doctrine as "bar-do". we have translated this as the "gestation period", and it lasts from a few days to several years, according to the evidence of the adepts. interval the second lasts so long as the merits of the old [personal] ego entitle the being to reap the fruit of its reward in its new regenerated egoship. it occurs after the gestation period is over, and the new spiritual ego is reborn--like the fabled phoenix from its ashes--from the old one. the locality which the former inhabits is called by the northern buddhist occultists "devachan."[48] so also may the incorporeal principles of pure sensitives be placed _en rapport_ with disembodied souls, although information thus obtained is not reliable, partly in consequence of the difficulty of transferring to the physical brain the impressions received, and partly from the difficulty of observing accurately, when the seer is untrained.[49] a pure medium's ego can be drawn to and made, for an instant, to unite in a magnetic(?) relation with a real disembodied spirit, whereas the soul of an impure medium can only confabulate with the _astral soul_, or shell, of the deceased. the former possibility explains those extremely rare cases of direct writing in recognised autographs, and of messages from the higher class of disembodied intelligences. but the confusion in messages thus obtained is considerable, not only from the causes above-named, but also because even the best and purest sensitive can at most only be placed at any time _en rapport_ with a particular spiritual entity, and can only know, see, and feel what that particular entity knows, sees, and feels. hence much possibility of error if generalisations are indulged in, since each devachanî lives in his own paradise, and there is no "peeping down to earth," nor is there any _conscious_ communication with the flying souls that come as it were to learn where the spirits are, what they are doing, and what they think, feel, and see. what then is being _en rapport_? it is simply an identity of molecular vibration between the astral part of the incarnated sensitive and the astral part of the dis-incarnated personality. the spirit of the sensitive gets "odylised", so to speak, by the aura of the spirit, whether this be hybernating in the earthly region or dreaming in the devachan; identity of molecular vibration is established, and for a brief space the sensitive becomes the departed personality, and writes in its handwriting, uses its language, and thinks its thoughts. at such times sensitives may believe that those with whom they are for the moment _en rapport_ descend to earth and communicate with them, whereas, in reality, it is merely their own spirits which, being correctly attuned to those others, are for the time blended with them.[50] in a special case under examination, h.p. blavatsky said that the communication might have come from an elementary, but that it was far more likely that the medium's spirit really became _en rapport_ with some spiritual entity in devachan, the thoughts, knowledge, and sentiments of which formed the substance, while the medium's own personality and pre-existing ideas more or less governed the forms of the communication.[51] while these communications are not reliable in the facts and opinions stated, we would remark that it may _possibly_ be that there really is a distinct spiritual entity impressing our correspondent's mind. in other words, there may, for all we know, be some spirit, with whom his spiritual nature becomes habitually, for the time, thoroughly harmonised, and whose thoughts, language, &c., become his for the time, the result being that this spirit seems to communicate with him.... it is possible (though by no means probable) that he habitually passes into a state of _rapport_ with a genuine spirit, and, for the time, is assimilated therewith, thinking (to a great extent if not entirely) the thoughts that spirit would think, writing in its handwriting, &c. but even so, mr. terry must not fancy that that spirit is consciously communicating with him, or knows in any way anything of him, or any other person or thing on earth. it is simply that, the _rapport_ established, he, mr. terry, becomes for the nonce assimilated with that other personality, and thinks, speaks, and writes as it would have done on earth.... the molecules of his astral nature may from time to time vibrate in perfect unison with those of some spirit of such a person, now in devachan, and the result may be that he appears to be in communication with that spirit, and to be advised, &c., by him, and clairvoyants may see in the astral light a picture of the earth-life form of that spirit. iv. communications other than those from disembodied souls, passing through normal _post mortem_ states. (a) _from shells._ these, while but the cast-off garment of the liberated soul, retain for some time the impress of their late inhabitant, and reproduce automatically his habits of thought and expression, just as a physical body will automatically repeat habitual gestures. reflex action is as possible to the desire body as to the physical, but all reflex action is marked by its character of repetition, and absence of all power to initiate movement. it answers to a stimulus with an appearance of purposive action, but it initiates nothing. when people "sit for development", or when at a _séance_ they anxiously hope and wait for messages from departed friends, they supply just the stimulus needed, and obtain the signs of recognition for which they expectantly watch. (b) _from elementaries._ these, possessing the lower capacities of the mind, _i.e._, all the intellectual faculties that found their expression through the physical brain during life, may produce communications of a highly intellectual character. these, however, are rare, as may be seen from a survey of the messages published as received from "departed spirits". (c) _from elementals._ these semi-conscious centres of force play a great part at _séances_, and are mostly the agents who are active in producing physical phenomena. they throw about or carry objects, make noises, ring bells, etc., etc. sometimes they play pranks with shells, animating them and representing them to be the spirits of great personalities who have lived on earth, but who have sadly degenerated in the "spirit-world", judging by their effusions. sometimes, in materialising _séances_, they busy themselves in throwing pictures from the astral light on the fluidic forms produced, so causing them to assume likenesses of various persons. there are also elementals of a high type who occasionally communicate with very gifted mediums, "shining ones" from other spheres. (d) _from nirmânakâyas._ for these communications, as for the two classes next mentioned, the medium must be of a very pure and lofty nature. the nirmânakâya is a perfected man, who has cast aside his physical body but retains his other lower principles, and remains in the earth-sphere for the sake of helping forward the evolution of mankind. nirmânakâyas have, out of pity for mankind and those they left on earth, renounced the nirvânic state. such an adept, or saint, or whatever you may call him, believing it a selfish act to rest in bliss while mankind groans under the burden of misery produced by ignorance, renounces nirvâna and determines to remain invisible _in spirit_ on this earth. they have no material body, as they have left it behind; but otherwise they remain with all their principles even _in astral life_ in our sphere. and such can and do communicate with a few elect ones, only surely not with _ordinary_ mediums.[52] (e) _from adepts now living on earth._ these often communicate with their disciples, without using the ordinary methods of communication, and when any tie exists, perchance from some past incarnation, between an adept and a medium, constituting that medium a disciple, a message from the adept might readily be mistaken for a message from a "spirit". the receipt of such messages by precipitated writing or spoken words is within the knowledge of some. (f) _from the medium's higher ego._ where a pure and earnest man or woman is striving after the light, this upward striving is met by a downward reaching of the higher nature, and light from the higher streams downward, illuminating the lower consciousness. then the lower mind is, for the time, united with its parent, and transmits as much of its knowledge as it is able to retain. from this brief sketch it will be seen how varied may be the sources from which communications apparently from "the other side of death" may be received. as said by h.p. blavatsky: the variety of the causes of phenomena is great, and one need be an adept, and actually look into and examine what transpires, in order to be able to explain in each case what really underlies it.[53] to complete the statement it may be added that what the average soul can do when it has passed through the gateway of death, it can do on this side, and communications may be as readily obtained by writing, in trance, and by the other means of receiving messages, from embodied as from disembodied souls. if each developed within himself the powers of his own soul, instead of drifting about aimlessly, or ignorantly plunging into dangerous experiments, knowledge might be safely accumulated and the evolution of the soul might be accelerated. this one thing is sure: man is to-day a living soul, over whom death has no power, and the key of the prison-house of the body is in his own hands, so that he may learn its use if he will. it is because his true self, while blinded by the body, has lost touch with other selves, that death has been a gulf instead of a gateway between embodied and disembodied souls. * * * * * appendix. the following passage on the fate of suicides is taken from the _theosophist_, september, 1882. we do not pretend--we are not permitted--to deal exhaustively with the question at present, but we may refer to one of the most important classes of entities, who can participate in objective phenomena, other than elementaries and elementals. this class comprises the spirits of conscious sane suicides. they are _spirits_, and not _shells_, because there is not in their cases, at any rate until later, a total and permanent divorce between the fourth and fifth principles on the one hand, and the sixth and seventh on the other. the two duads are divided, they exist apart, but a line of connection still unites them, they may yet reunite, and the sorely threatened personality avert its doom; the fifth principle still holds in its hands the clue by which, traversing the labyrinth of earthly sins and passions, it may regain the sacred penetralia. but for the time, though really a spirit, and therefore so designated, it is practically not far removed from a shell. this class of spirit can undoubtedly communicate with men, but, as a rule, its members have to pay dearly for exercising the privilege, while it is scarcely possible for them to do otherwise than lower and debase the moral nature of those with and through whom they have much communication. it is merely, broadly speaking, a question of degree; of much or little injury resulting from such communication; the cases in which real, permanent good can arise are too absolutely exceptional to require consideration. understand how the case stands. the unhappy being revolting against the trials of life--trials, the results of its own former actions, trials, heaven's merciful medicine for the mentally and spiritually diseased--determines, instead of manfully taking arms against a sea of troubles, to let the curtain drop, and, as it fancies, end them. it destroys the body, but finds itself precisely as much alive mentally as before. it had an appointed life-term determined by an intricate web of prior causes, which its own wilful sudden act cannot shorten. that term must run out its appointed sands. you may smash the lower half of the hand hour-glass, so that the impalpable sand shooting from the upper bell is dissipated by the passing aerial currents as it issues; but that stream will run on, unnoticed though it remain, until the whole store in that upper receptacle is exhausted. so you may destroy the body, but not the appointed period of sentient existence, foredoomed (because simply the effect of a plexus of causes) to intervene before the dissolution of the personality; this must run on for its appointed period. this is so in other cases, _e.g._, those of the victims of accident or violence; they, too, have to complete their life-term, and of these, too, we may speak on another occasion--but here it is sufficient to notice that, whether good or bad, their mental attitude at the time of death alters wholly their subsequent position. they, too, have to wait on within the "region of desires" until their wave of life runs on to and reaches its appointed shore, but they wait on, wrapped in dreams soothing and blissful, or the reverse, according to their mental and moral state at, and prior to the fatal hour, but nearly exempt from further material temptations, and, broadly speaking, incapable (except just at the moment of real death) of communicating _scio motu_ with mankind, though not wholly beyond the possible reach of the higher forms of the "accursed science," necromancy. the question is a profoundly abstruse one; it would be impossible to explain within the brief space still remaining to us, how the conditions immediately after death differ so entirely as they do in the case (1) of the man who deliberately _lays down_ (not merely _risks_) his life from altruistic motives in the hope of saving those of others; and (2) of him who deliberately sacrifices his life from selfish motives, in the hope of escaping trials and troubles which loom before him. nature or providence, fate, or god, being merely a self-adjusting machine, it would at first sight seem as if the results must be identical in both cases. but, machine though it be, we must remember that it is a machine _sui generis_- out of himself he span the eternal web of right and wrong; and ever feels the subtlest thrill, the slenderest thread along. a machine compared with whose perfect sensitiveness and adjustment the highest human intellect is but a coarse clumsy replica, _in petto_. and we must remember that thoughts and motives are material, and at times marvellously potent material, forces, and we may then begin to comprehend why the hero, sacrificing his life on pure altruistic grounds, sinks as his life-blood ebbs away into a sweet dream, wherein all that he wishes and all that he loves, come smiling round his sunny way, only to wake into active or objective consciousness when reborn in the region of happiness, while the poor unhappy and misguided mortal who, seeking to elude fate, selfishly loosens the silver string and breaks the golden bowl, finds himself terribly alive and awake, instinct with all the evil cravings and desires that embittered his world-life, without a body in which to gratify these, and capable of only such partial alleviation as is possible by more or less vicarious gratification, and this only at the cost of the ultimate complete rupture with his sixth and seventh principles, and consequent ultimate annihilation after, alas! prolonged periods of suffering. let it not be supposed that there is no hope for this class--the sane deliberate suicide. if, bearing steadfastly his cross, he suffers patiently his punishment, striving against carnal appetites still alive in him, in all their intensity, though, of course, each in proportion to the degree to which it had been indulged in earth-life. if, we say, he bears this humbly, never allowing himself to be tempted here or there into unlawful gratifications of unholy desires, then when his fated death-hour strikes, his four higher principles reunite, and, in the final separation that then ensues, it may well be that all may be well with him, and that he passes on to the gestation period and its subsequent developments. * * * * * footnotes: [footnote 1: book ii., from lines 666-789. the whole passage bristles with horrors.] [footnote 2: xii. 85. trans., of burnell and hopkins.] [footnote 3: from the translation of dhunjeebhoy jamsetjee medhora, _zoroastrian and some other ancient systems_, xxvii.] [footnote 4: trans., by mirza mohamed hadi. _the platonist_, 306.] [footnote 5: _the sacred books of the east_, iii, 109, 110.] [footnote 6: _secret doctrine_, vol. i. p. 281.] [footnote 7: see _ibid._, p. 283.] [footnote 8: _isis unveiled_, vol. i. p. 480.] [footnote 9: theosophical manuals, no. 1.] [footnote 10: _the heroic enthusiasts_, trans., by l. williams. part ii. pp. 22, 23.] [footnote 11: _cremation_, theosophical siftings, vol. iii.] [footnote 12: _man: fragments of forgotten history_, pp. 119, 120.] [footnote 13: _key to theosophy_, h.p. blavatsky, p. 109. third edition.] [footnote 14: _magic, white and black_, dr. franz hartmann, pp. 109, 110. third edition.] [footnote 15: see _the seven principles of man_, pp. 17-21.] [footnote 16: _theosophist_, march, 1882, p. 158, note.] [footnote 17: _essays upon some controverted questions_, p. 36.] [footnote 18: _fortnightly review_, 1892, p. 176.] [footnote 19: _key to theosophy_, p. 67.] [footnote 20: _ibid._, p. 97.] [footnote 21: _key to theosophy_, p. 97] [footnote 22: _ibid._, p. 102.] [footnote 23: june, 1882, art. "seeming discrepancies."] [footnote 24: pp. 73, 74. ed. 1887.] [footnote 25: _theosophical glossary_, elementaries.] [footnote 26: see _the seven principles of man_, p.p. 44-46.] [footnote 27: the name sukhâvatî, borrowed from tibetan buddhism, is sometimes used instead of that of devachan. sukhâvatî, according to schlagintweit, is "the abode of the blessed, into which ascend those who have accumulated much merit by the practice of virtues", and "involves the deliverance from metempsychosis" (_buddhism in tibet_, p. 99). according to the prasanga school, the higher path leads to nirvâna, the lower to sukhâvatî. but eitel calls sukhâvatî "the nirvâna of the common people, where the saints revel in physical bliss for æons, until they reënter the circle of transmigration" (_sanskrit-chinese dictionary_). eitel, however, under "amitâbha" states that the "popular mind" regards the "paradise of the west" as "the haven of final redemption from the eddies of transmigration". when used by one of the teachers of the esoteric philosophy it covers the higher devachanic states, but from all of these the soul comes back to earth.] [footnote 28: see _lucifer_, oct, 1892, vol. xi. no. 62.] [footnote 29: _the path_, may, 1890.] [footnote 30: _ibid._] [footnote 31: "notes on devachan," as cited.] [footnote 32: "notes on devachan," as before. there are a variety of stages in devachan; the rûpa loka is an inferior stage, where the soul is still surrounded by forms. it has escaped from these personalities in the tribhuvana.] [footnote 33: _vishnu purâna_, bk. i. ch. v.] [footnote 34: _key to theosophy_, p. 69. third edition.] [footnote 35: sixth and seventh in the older nomenclature, fifth and sixth in the later--_i.e._, manas and buddhi.] [footnote 36: _key to theosophy_, p. 99. third edition.] [footnote 37: _ibid._, p. 100.] [footnote 38: _ibid._, p. 101.] [footnote 39: see manual no. 2 _re-incarnation_, pp. 60, 61. third edition.] [footnote 40: _key to theosophy_, p. 105. third edition.] [footnote 41: _esoteric buddhism_, p. 197. eighth edition.] [footnote 42: quoted in the _secret doctrine_, vol. ii. p. 83. the student will do well to read, for a fair presentation of the subject, g.r.s. mead's "note on nirvâna" in _lucifer_, for march, april, and may, 1893. (re-printed in _theosophical siftings_).] [footnote 43: _theosophist_, sept., 1882, p. 310.] [footnote 44: see on "illusion" what was said under the heading "devachan".] [footnote 45: _key to theosophy_, p. 102. third edition.] [footnote 46: _theosophist_, sept. 1881.] [footnote 47: "notes on devachan", _path_, june, 1890, p. 80.] [footnote 48: _theosophist_, june, 1882, p. 226.] [footnote 49: summarised from article in _theosophist_, sept., 1882.] [footnote 50: _ibid._, p. 309.] [footnote 51: _ibid._, p. 310.] [footnote 52: _key to theosophy,_ p. 151.] [footnote 53: _theosophist_, sept., 1882, p. 310.] * * * * * index. accident, death by, 37. appendix, 81. astral body, 19, fate of, 31. astral shell or soul, 75. _avesta_, quoted, 9. blavatsky, h.p., quoted, 16, 17, 24, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35, 45, 49, 60, 65, 66, 67, 73, 74, 78. _book of the dead_, quoted, 8. bruno, giordano, quoted, 21. _buddhism in tibet_, quoted, 47, (note). communications between earth and other spheres, 70. " between earth and soul in etheric body, 71. " between earth, and soul in devachan, 72, " between earth and soul in kâmaloka, 72. " from adepts now living, 79. " from elementals, 78. " from elementaries, 77. " from medium's higher ego, 79. " from nirmânakâyas, 78. " from shells, 43, 77. _controverted questions, essays upon some_, quoted, 28. _cremation_, quoted, 21. cycle of incarnation, 52 et seq. death, a gateway, 79. " chinese ideas of, 11. " christian ideas of, 6. " egyptian ideas of, 8. " theosophic ideas of, 18. _desatir_, quoted, 9. devachan, 33, 46. et seq. devachan, passing into, of the average-living, 33. devachan, the soul in, 72. devachanî, the, 58 et seq. earth, the return to, 66. egos, many lives of, 63 et seq. elementals, 44, 78. elementaries, 45, 77. _esoteric buddhism_, quoted, 69. etheric double, 12, 22 et seq., 24, 25, 71 et seq. fiery lives, 17. _fortnightly review_, quoted, 29. _heroic enthusiasts, the_, quoted, 21. immortal triad, the, 12, 13, 31, 33, 58, 60. _isis unveiled_, quoted, 17. kâmaloka, 26, 27, 29, 32, 34, 41. kâmaloka, the soul in, 72. kâma rûpa, 30. _key to theosophy_, quoted, 24, 30, 31, 33, 60, 65, 67, 73, 78. _lucifer_, quoted, 49, 70. _magic, white and black_, quoted, 26. _man: fragments of forgotten history_, quoted, 23. man: how made, 12 et seq. mâyâ, 47. medium, communications from higher egos of, 79. nirvâna, 69. _ordinances of manu_, quoted, 9. _paradise lost_, quoted, 7. _path_, quoted, 51, 54, 55, 56, 59 et seq. _perfect way_, quoted, 44. perishable quaternary, 12. pishâchas, 38. prâna, 26, 30. premature death, 36, 39. re-incarnation, 8, 67. _sanskrit-chinese dictionary_, quoted, 47 (footnote: 27). _seven principles of man_, quoted, 26, 45. shell, astral soul, or, 75. shells, the, 41. _shû king_, quoted, 10. soul, growth of, in devachan, 56, " powers of the, 80. " relations of, with devachanî, 74 et seq. " the disembodied, 71 et seq. spiritualism and esoteric philosophy, 15. suicides, 36, et seq., 81. _theosophical glossary_, quoted, 45. _theosophical siftings_, quoted, 21. _theosophist, the_, quoted, 27, 35, 71, 74, 75 et seq. _theosophist. the_, summarised, 75, 79, 81. unconscious co-existence of intelligent beings, 28 et seq. _vishnu purâna_, quoted, 57. * * * * * made available by the hathitrust digital library.) _the theosophy of islam._ letters from a sûfî teacher _shaikh sharfuddîn manerî_ or _makhdûm-ul-mulk_. translated from the persian by baijnâth singh theosophical publishing society. benares city and london theosophist office, aydar; madras, s. printed by thakur das manager, at the tara printing works, benares. _all rights reserved._ registered under act xxv of 1867. _foreword._ =shaikh sharf-ud-dîn= was the son of =shaikh yahiâ=. his birthplace is =maner=, a village near =patnâ= in =behâr= (india). a love of knowledge and the religious life, and signs of spiritual greatness, were found in him from his early childhood. a strange being was once seen by the cradle of the baby. the mother, frightened, reported the matter to her father, =shahâb-ud-dîn=, a great saint. the latter consoled her, saying that the mysterious presence was no less a being than the prophet =khezar=[1] himself, and that the baby was expected to be a man of great spiritual advancement. he acquired secular knowledge under =ashraf-ud-dîn=, a famous professor of those days. he first refused to marry, but had to yield when, being ill, he was advised by the physician to take to marriage as the remedy for his disease. he left home after the birth of a son, travelled in many places, and was at last initiated (at, or near =dehli=) by =najîb-ud-dîn firdausî=. the latter made him his deputy on earth under a deed drawn twelve years earlier under the direction of the prophet of =islâm= himself, asked him to leave the place, and quitted his body shortly after. [1] a mysterious personage, according to some, a prophet; according to others, a _walî_ or 'friend of god'. he is supposed to be an immortal being, an invisible teacher and helper of mankind. moses was sent by god to seek his instruction. '_khezar_' literally means 'green', a metaphorical expression for auspiciousness, blessedness, wholesomeness and fertility. on his initiation, =sharf-ud-dîn= lived for many a long year in the woods of =bihiâ= and the =râjgiri= hills. in his later days he adopted =bihâr= (now a subdivisional town) as his residence, at the request of some of his friends and disciples. he died on thursday, the 6th of shawwâl, 782 hijra, in the opening years of the 15th century a. d. his titular name is =makhdûm-ul-mulk=, 'master of the kingdom or the world.' he was equally proficient in secular learning and esoteric knowledge, and possessed superhuman powers. his tomb at =bihâr= is still resorted to as a place of sanctity by a large number of devout mahomedans. he wrote many works, of which three only have yet been published. these are:-(1.) _maktûbât-i-sadî_, a 'series of a hundred letters' (or rather essays on definite subjects) addressed to his disciple =qâzî shams-ud-dîn= in 747 hijra. (2.) _maktûbât-i-bist-o-hasht_, a 'series of 28 letters', being replies to the correspondence of his senior disciple, =mozaffar=, the prince of =balkh=. (3.) _fawâed-i-ruknî_, a number of brief notes prepared for the use of his disciple =rukn-ud-dîn=. the present booklet consists of the translation of copious extracts from _maktûbât-i-sadî_, the most elaborate and comprehensive of the three published works, with notes occasionally added from the other two with a view to elucidate or complete the subject in hand. these extracts, it is hoped, will cover the greater part of, if not all, the _principles_ inculcated in these books, and are expected to give the reader a fair knowledge of the _teaching_ of the author _in all its phases_. matters relating to mere exoteric rites, legends and traditions have been omitted. the translation does not pretend to be always very literal, but an honest attempt has been made to present a faithful rendering of the original to the english-knowing public, that they may be able to better appreciate the teachings of =islâm=, and that the brotherhood of creeds may have one more advocate to plead its cause before the tribunal of the human intellect. gayâ, (behâr.) baijnâth singh. _1908._ contents. page. foreword on monotheism 1 turning to god, or conversion 5 on seeking the teacher 8 on the qualifications of a teacher 12 on discipleship 15 on discipleship (continued) 16 the friend of god 19 the brotherhood of friends 20 polytheism, and the friendship of god 22 lights 23 the unveiling of the supersensuous 25 on the same 28 illumination 29 dreams 30 on misconceptions 32 the outer and inner ailments 34 the origin of theosophy 36 seeking the path 37 the pillars of the path 39 religion, the path and truth 39 accessory to prayers 41 purification 42 the motive 44 prayer 45 invoking the divine help 46 the divine allegiance 47 the sacred formula 48 the naked faith 49 the inner polytheism 51 the divine knowledge 52 love and devotion 55 seeking god 58 the way to god 60 speech and conduct 62 magnanimity 64 knowledge 65 the steps of a disciple 67 islâm 71 the noble qualities 73 contemplation 76 renunciation 78 on the same 80 the clearing of the path 81 self-control 83 truth 84 the descent from adam 87 confidence 91 pursuit and renunciation 92 the company of the saints 93 service 97 the transmutation of evil qualities 99 avarice 101 the evil of the world 103 renunciation of the world 104 the final doom 106 the soul 108 the heart 109 the desire-nature (=nafs=) 110 desire 112 discipline of the desire-nature 114 discipline of the desire-nature (continued) 115 alienation from the desire-nature 117 self-toleration 118 hidden differences of stages 118 heedlessness 120 sorrow 121 conduct 122 seclusion 124 death 126 hell 128 heaven 129 letters from a sûfî teacher. on monotheism (tauhîd). masters of the path have divided monotheism into four stages. the first stage consists in repeating, vocally, without any inner conviction, "there is no god save allâh."[2] this is hypocrisy, and does not profit on the day of resurrection. the second stage consists in repeating the said _logion_ vocally with an inner conviction based upon conventional imitation (as in the case of ordinary people), or some form of reasoning (as in the case of an intellectual theist). this is verily the visible body of monotheism, frees one from gross polytheism and from hell, and leads to heaven. this second stage, though safer than the first, and less unstable, is for all that a low one, fit for old women.[3] the third stage consists in light shining in the heart, which reveals the one agent alone as the root of all phenomena, and the non-agency of all else. this is quite unlike the conviction of ordinary people or that of an intellectual theist. such a conviction is a fetter to the soul, whereas the vision of the light breaks all fetters. there must be a difference between one who believes a certain gentleman to be in his house, on the testimony of others (as in the case of ordinary people), another who infers the residence of that gentleman in the house, because he sees his horses and servants at the gate (as in the case of the intellectual theist), and another who actually sees the gentleman in the house (as in the case of the third stage). in the third stage one sees the creatures and the creator, and distinguishes them from him. this much of separation still persists--hence it is not perfect union in the eyes of the masters. [2] =lâ elâha ill' allâh=. [3] weak souls.--_trs._ the fourth stage consists in the pouring forth of the divine light so profusely, that it absorbs all individual existences in the eyes of the pilgrim. as in the case of the absorption of particles floating in the atmosphere in the light of the sun, the particles become invisible--they do not cease to exist, nor do they become the sun, but they are inevitably lost to sight in the overpowering glare of the sun--so, here, a creature does not become god, nor does it cease to exist. ceasing to exist is one thing, invisibility is another.... when thou lookest through a mirror, thou dost not see the mirror, for thou mergest it into the reflexion of thy face, and yet thou canst not say that the mirror has ceased to exist, or that it has become that reflexion, or that the reflexion has become the mirror. such is the vision of the divine energy in all beings without distinction. this state is called by the sûfîs, absorption in monotheism. many have lost their balance here: no one can pass through this forest without the help of the divine grace and the guidance of a teacher, perfect, open-eyed, experienced in the elevations and depressions of the path and inured to its blessings and sufferings.... some pilgrims attain to this lofty state only for an hour a week, some for an hour a day, some for two hours a day, some remain absorbed for the greater portion of their time.... beyond the four is the stage of complete absorption, _i. e._, losing the very consciousness of being absorbed and of seeking after god--for such a consciousness still implies separation. here, the soul merges itself and the universe into the divine light, and loses the consciousness of merging as well. "merge into him, this is monotheism: lose the sense of merging, this is unity." here there are neither formulæ nor ceremonies, neither being nor non-being, neither description nor allusion, neither heaven nor earth. it is this stage alone that unveils the mystery: "all are non-existent save him;" "all things are perishable save his face;" "i am the true and the holy one." absolute unity without duality is realised here. "do not be deluded, but know: every one who merges in god is not god." the first stage of monotheism is like the outermost shell of the almond; the second stage is like the second shell; the third stage is like the core; the fourth stage is like the essence of the core--the oil of the almond. all these are known by the name of the almond, but each differs immensely from the others in status, result, and use. this note should be studied patiently and intelligently, since it deals with the basis of all developments, activities, and supersensuous phenomena. it will explain the phraseology and the allusions in the writings of the saints, and throw light on the verses on monotheism and the stages thereof. o brother! though an ant, thou mayest turn out to be a solomon. do not think thou art an impure sinner: though a gnat, thou mayest become a lion.... god raises the monotheist out of the dualist, the faithful out of the faithless, and the devotee out of the sinner.--_letter 1._ [the following extracts on monotheism from _the series of 28 letters_, another work of the author, may be aptly added.--_trs._] according to a tradition of the prophet, all beings were created out of darkness, but each took in light according to its capacity, and thus became luminous. hence all beings are sparks of the divine light, and their luminosity is derived from it. now one can fully understand the sacred verse: "god is the light of heaven and earth."--_letter 17._ thou-ness and i-ness pertain to our world. they do not exist in the region of the beloved. he is the one reality: futile is the assertion of any existence but his.--_letter 2._ turning to god or conversion (=taubâh=). =taubâh= literally means to turn back. but the nature of the turning must be different with different individuals according to the difference in their conditions and stages. ordinary people would turn from sin with apology in order to escape punishment; middling ones would turn from their deeds to secure the regard of the master; the elect would turn from all worlds, here and hereafter, and feel the insignificance and non-existence thereof in order to realise the glory of the maker. the turning of a beginner cannot be permanent. a saint says of himself: "i turned back 70 times and failed each time; but my seventy-first turning proved steady, and i failed no more." =khwâjâ= (master) =zunnoon= of egypt observes that the =taubâh= of ordinary people consists in turning from sins, that of the elect in turning from heedlessness. =khwâjâ sobaid= and many others are of opinion that =taubâh= consists in remembering one's past transgressions and being ever ashamed of them, so that one may not grow proud of one's many virtues. on the other hand, =khwâjâ junnaid= and many others hold the view that =taubâh= consists in forgetting past transgressions, _i. e._, in expunging their impressions from the heart, so that it may become as pure as if it had never committed them. =taubâh= is obligatory for all pilgrims at all times, since for each pilgrim there is always a stage higher than his present one. if he halts at any stage, he stops his pilgrimage and commits sin. =taubâh= consists in a firm and sincere resolution to abstain from sins, so as to assure god of one's unwillingness to commit them in future; and in compensating, to one's best ability, those one has harmed in any way.... =taubâh= is the basis of all developments, as the ground is for the foundation of a building. the chief requisite is =îmân= (peace, faith, or moral sense). =taubâh= and =îmân= appear together, and the latter illumines the heart in proportion to the former. the real =taubâh= lies in turning from one's nature. when the disciple turns from his nature he becomes another; _i. e._, he does not become another man, but his qualities change. then he unfolds true =îmân=, which sweeps away many-ness and leads to unity. ere the turning, =îmân= is but conventional and nominal. "how long will you worship god with your tongue only? this is no better than worshipping desires. so long as thou dost not become a moslem from _within_, how canst thou be a moslem merely from _without_?" the lame ass of conventional faith and the lip-behaviour that we have cannot help us to tread the path. none ought to despair under any circumstance whatsoever. here work is without a motive, and requires no payment. many are instantly raised from the level of image-worship to a stage higher than the angels and heaven. the lord does whatever he wishes. "how" and "why" find no room here. may god make thee a seer of his, and remove thee from thyself! do thou aspire high, though thou art low at present. o brother, human aspiration should stoop to nothing, either on earth or in heaven! "such men are so constituted as to care for neither hell nor heaven. they seek god and god only, and spurn what is not he." theosophy (=tasavvuf=) is ceaseless motion, since standing water becomes stagnant. a man may corporeally be in his closet, yet his spirit may run to the =malakût=[4] and the =jabrût=.[5] rapid motion, like the morning breeze, can neither be seen nor grasped.--_letters 2-4._ [4] the astral and lower mental planes. [5] the higher mental plane. on seeking the teacher. the saints on the path--blessed be they--unanimously declare that it is incumbent upon a neophyte, after the maturity of his conversion (=taubâh=), to seek a teacher, perfect, experienced in the elevations and depressions of the path, its joys and sorrows, possessed of balance, and versed in the internal ailments of a disciple and their remedies.... though in the beginning one does not need a teacher, and the seed can be sown merely with the help of divine grace, the seed, when sown in the soil of the heart, does need a teacher for its further growth, for the following reasons given in the books of the saints: 1. since one cannot go to the =kâbâ=[6] without a guide, albeit the way is visible and sensuous, and the pilgrim possesses eyes and feet, it is impossible without a guide to tread the occult path trodden by 120,000 prophets, which has no visible track and is supersensuous. [6] the sacred shrine at =meccâ=. 2. as there are many thieves and robbers on a sensuous way, and one cannot travel without a guide, so on the occult path there are many robbers in the guise of the world, the desire-nature and the elementals, and one cannot travel without the guidance of a master. 3. there are many precipices and dangers on the path, leading to one or other of the many heretic schools formed by those who, having entered the path without a perfect guide, on the strength of their own intellectual resources, fell and perished in the forest and deserted the law. others, more fortunate, have safely crossed those dangers under the protection of masters, and have seen the victims, and known where and why they fell. all pilgrims are liable to these dangers. if one secures the help of a mighty teacher, one can be saved and progress with the help of his secret hints and instructions, else one may fall into some heresy and lose the fruit of one's labour. 4. the pilgrim may pass, on the way, through certain spiritual conditions, and the soul may put off the physical garment, catch the reflection of the divine light, display superhuman powers as a divine agent during the continuance of the experiences, taste the relish of "i am god, the holy one," and become proud of having reached the goal. the pilgrim cannot understand this intellectually: but if the soul, during the continuance of these experiences, is not helped by a mighty master, he may, it is feared, lose faith, and fall a victim to a false notion of unity. 5. the pilgrim on the way unfolds supersensuous powers, and sees supersensuous phenomena--devilish, passional, and divine. but he cannot understand them, as they are spoken in a supersensuous language (_i. e._ revealed through an unfamiliar medium).... if, at this stage, he is not aided by a teacher, helping him on behalf of god, and versed in the interpretation of supersensuous words and symbols, he cannot progress further.... when god opens the eyes of a man, so that he distinguishes good from evil, and resolves to follow the one and avoid the other, but does not know how to do it, he must betake himself to a divine man and make a firm determination to change his condition. then the divine man will take him up, help him to subdue the desire-nature, gently induce him to abstain from his defects and blemishes, and keep him away from bad companions. a disciple can, with the help of a teacher, do in an hour what he would do unaided in a year.... it is said: a disciple may reach the goal with the help of a single teacher, or of more than one teacher. (in the latter case) each teacher may be the means of the revelation of one stage only; yet it is more consistent with decency and politeness for the disciple to refrain from looking upon such a stage as the limit of development attained by his teacher, ... inasmuch as the perfect ones are not at all concerned with the business of stages and conditions. but one cannot leave one teacher for another without the permission of the former. who does so deserts the path. it is the practice of the masters--blessed be they!--to impose a threefold discipline on a student. if he observes it, he receives the robe (the real one, not the conventional)--else he is rejected. the threefold discipline consists of: 1. service of the world for a year. 2. service of god for a year. 3. watching the heart for a year.--_letter 5._ on the qualifications of a teacher. broadly speaking there are five qualifications: (1) devotion to god. one cannot be thus devoted, unless one is free from servility to all save him. (2) capacity to receive truths direct from god without any intermediary. one cannot unfold this capacity without completely getting rid of the lower human nature. (3) nearness to god. one cannot approach god unless one is equipped with the divine character, and one's spirit reflects the light of the divine attributes. (4) acquisition of knowledge from god without any intermediary. for this the heart should be cleansed of all impressions, sensual and intellectual. (5) being an elect of the heart doctrine, which relates to the knowledge of the divine essence, the divine qualities, and the divine works. one cannot attain to this stage without a second birth. "one born of the mother's womb sees this world; one born of the self (_i. e._, quitting the lower human nature) sees the supersensuous world." nevertheless it is said that the qualifications of a teacher are indescribable and innumerable. a teacher is not the body, the head, or the beard, visible to man. he is in reality the inner being by the side of god, in the region of truth, clothed in divine mercy and glory.... here is a query: how can a beginner find out such a teacher and guide, know and follow him? it is not meet for a beginner to weigh divine men with the balance of his little intellect and to look at them with his limited vision. nor is it meet to follow another on his mere assertion. then how to know if such a one is a genuine teacher or a mere pretender? answer: each seeker is furnished with materials appropriate to his lot. he cannot transcend them, ... nor can anything hinder him from using them. query: is there any sign whereby to distinguish a pretender from a true teacher, the worthy from the unworthy? answer: there are many signs, but it is impossible to describe and fix them. for all that, there is no sign or mood, the presence or absence of which _alone_ would mark a teacher or a pretender. in short, one blessed with the divine grace should set his feet on the path, turn away from sensual pleasures and passional gratifications, and fix his attention on god. then the glance of some perfect teacher will shine in the mirror of the heart.... when a true disciple catches such a glance, he instantly contracts a love for the beauty of his godly strength, becomes restless and uneasy, and comes to the path. this uneasiness forbodes fortune and success. perfect discipleship consists in perfect love for the beauty of the teacher's godly strength. a disciple should follow the wishes of his teacher, and not his own wishes.... in each locality there is a teacher who protects men living in that area. the king of the time is only one, but there is an ordinary teacher in each town. according to tradition there are always 365 friends of god, who are the props of the world and the channels of the transmission of blessing and mercy from heaven to earth.... o brother, know for certain that this work has been before thee and me (_i. e._, in bygone ages), and that each man has already reached a certain stage. no one has begun this work for the first time. everything is according to divine dispensation. do you suppose 100,024 prophets to have ushered any new work into the world? by no means. they stirred up what lay already in the bosom, and led man to what was ordained for him by god....--_letter 6._ on discipleship. desire is a craving in the heart for a certain object. the craving produces a stir in the heart, the stir arouses a tendency to seek for the object. the nobler the object, the purer the desire.... desire is threefold:-(1) desire for the world. it consists in the absorption of a man in the seeking of worldly objects. such a desire is a downright danger. when it clouds the heart of a neophyte, it keeps him back from all virtues, and lures him to failure. a life spent in the gratification of such a desire deprives one of eternal happiness after resurrection. (2) desire for heaven. the soul transcends the previous stage, longs for the heavenly state and permanent happiness, and practises lifelong asceticism, so that he may attain his object on the day of resurrection. the desire for heaven is nobler than the desire for the world.... (3) desire for god. a man (at this stage) unfolds the inner sight, aspires to transcend the created universe, and considers it disgraceful to seize anything contained in that area--so that he develops a longing for the creator himself and is respected in heaven as well as on earth. when a disciple ceases to hanker after the world and heaven, and regards everything save his object as a hindrance to his (onward) march, he should heartily endeavour to seek god, come manfully to the path, and resort to a compassionate teacher, so that the latter may help him in treading the path, and tell him of its dangers, thus securing him a safe journey without any break or failure. the teacher cannot turn an unruly candidate into an earnest disciple.... if the spirit of the path lies latent in a candidate, it will unfold by his company and service. the divine law works in this way. on discipleship. (_continued._) when a man calls himself a disciple, he ought to justify the title to the fullest extent and firmly tread the straight path. he should constantly use the collyrium of turning back (=taubâh=), put on the robe of detachment from connexions and from self, drink the wine of seeking out of the cup of purity, draw the sword of magnanimity from the sheath of religion, dismiss the cravings of the infidel desire, practise absorption, and not care for the higher or the lower worlds. when he has become proficient in the truths of discipleship and the subtleties of seeking, has gathered the fruits of purification and asceticism, begun to tread the path and passed through several stages of the journey--then, if asked whether he is a disciple, he can say: "i may be one, god helping." thus is discipleship justified, and pretension avoided. this is the way of those endowed with insight and divine wisdom. not to look to personality at any stage, nor to depend upon its possessions. many saints with a lifelong devotion have slipped down from dizzy heights.... a disciple who concentrates in himself the purity of all the angels and the piety of all men is self-conceited and sure to fall, if he knows himself to be better than a dog.... the beginner has a tongue, the proficient scholar is silent.--_letter 54._ a disciple is a worshipper of his teacher. if his rest and movements are in accordance with his commands, he is a disciple; if he follows his own desires, he is a follower of his desires, not of his teacher. a disciple is he who loses himself in the teacher. he shakes off his desires, as a serpent casts its slough. if he has even the least remnant of desire left in him, and doubts and protests find room in his heart, he is a worshipper of himself, not of the teacher.... a disciple should be a worshipper of the teacher, [so that he may become a worshipper of god]. one who obeys the messenger verily obeys god.--_fawâed-i-ruknî._ god has concealed precious gifts under the difficulties he has imposed upon these men (_i. e._ the disciples). a disciple should manfully discharge his duties without fail, in spite of the hardships and trials of the path. god does not work in one way only, and it is difficult to know which way will lead the disciple to him--joy or sorrow, gifts or privation. there is a divine secret underneath all sufferings and enjoyments in the world.--_the series of 28 letters, letter 1._ "a long journey is needed to ripen the raw." as a fruit requires both sunshine and shadow for its maturity, so a pilgrim requires the dual experience--joy and sorrow, union and separation, presence and absence,--for his perfection.--_ibid, letter 5._ there is no bar to the reception of the divine light. if there is any, it is due to lack of capacity. how can an unpolished mirror reflect an image?... the pilgrim needs patience and endurance, not hurry and unrest. god knows each man as he is, and sheds the light when he deserves it.--_ibid, letter 4._ contentment is a _sine quâ non_; one without it should abandon occultism and go to the market. the performance of duties to the best of one's abilities cannot be dispensed with, as it is necessary for the safe passage of the pilgrim. while sane, he should follow truth. truth in words and conduct is ever beneficial, never harmful.--_ibid, letter 15._ the friend of god--(the =walî=). the =walî= (or the friend of god) is one who constantly receives the favours of the deity, which consist in his being guarded against all troubles, the hardest of which is the commission of sins. as a prophet must be sinless, so must a friend be protected. the distinction between the two is this: the one is beyond the commission of a sin; the other is liable to commit a sin on rare occasions, but does not persist therein.... the friend is endowed with all possible virtues.... again, it is said, the friend is he who does not fail in his duties to god and the universe. he does not serve through hope and fear of agreeable and disagreeable consequences. he does not set any value on his individuality.... a friend may be either known or unknown to the people. if unknown, he is not affected by the evils of fame.... a friend is he who does not long for the world or for heaven, who forsakes himself for the divine friendship and turns his heart to the true one.... the friends are the special objects of the love of god. owing to their devotion, they have been chosen as the governors of his kingdom, the channels of his activities, receive special powers, and are liberated from the bondage of the desire-nature. they do not desire anything save him, nor feel attachment to anything save him. they have been before us, are in these days, and will be till the end of the world.... they are to-day the appointed agents of god to serve as channels for the propagation of the messages of the ancient prophets, and to govern the world--so that the rain may pour from heaven by their blessings, that plants may grow from the earth by their purity, and that the faithful may prevail over the faithless by their strength. superhuman powers are a kind of idols in this world. if a saint is content with their possession, he stops his onward progress. if he turns away from them he advances the cause of his union with god. here is a subtile mystery, and it is this: true friendship consists in the rejection of all save the beloved. but attention to superhuman powers and reliance upon them means the rejection of the beloved, and satisfaction with something other than himself.--_letter 8._ the brotherhood of friends. [there is a passage on the hierarchy of divine friends in =fawâed-i-ruknî=, another work of the author, which is translated below as a supplement to the present subject.--_trs._] there are 4,000 =walîs= who are not known to the world. they do not know one another, nor are they conscious of their exalted position. they ever remain veiled from the world, as well as from themselves. there are 300 =akhyâr= (the charitable or the benevolent) who solve the difficulties of the world and keep the gate of the divine sanctuary. there are forty =abdâl= (the substitutes); 17 =abrâr= (the liberated); 5 =nujabâ= (the pure); 4 =autâd= (the pegs); 3 =nuqabâ= (the watchers); 1 =qutub= (the pole), also called =gaus=, the 'redresser of grievances'. all these know one another and are interdependent for the discharge of their respective duties. (total, 370--_trs._) according to another authority (=majma-us-sâerîn=) there are 356 =walîs= ever working in the world. when one of them retires, another takes his place, so that there is never any diminution in the number 356. they are made up of 300 + 40 + 7 + 5 + 3 + 1. the =one= is the =qutub= of the world, the preservation of which is due to his holy existence. if he retired without another to take his place, the world would fall to pieces. when the =qutub= retires, one of the _three_ takes his place; one of the _five_ fills up the gap in the _three_, one of the _seven_ fills up the gap in the _five_, one of the _forty_ fills up the gap in the _seven_, one of the _three hundred_ fills up the gap in the _forty_, and a man is posted to the vacancy in the rank of the _three hundred_--so that 356 ever continue working in the world, and every spot is blessed by their auspicious feet. their outer life is similar to that of ordinary people, so the latter cannot know them. inwardly, they are united with god. love, friendship, and the mysteries have to do with the _within_, not with the _without_. they (the =walîs=) are too strong to be hindered by earth, water, fire, air, plains and hills. being in the east, they can see and hear men in the west. they can instantly go from the east to the west, come from the west to the east, go to and come back from =arsh= (the divine throne). theirs are many superhuman powers of like nature. polytheism, and the friendship of god. polytheism is twofold:-(1) the outer, which consists in worshipping a god other than the one highest god.... (2) the inner, which consists in thinking of a being, other than god, as a helper at the time of need. some say that to see anything save him, is polytheism for an occultist. some say that to refer to any separated self in any way, to be inclined to do anything with one's own will, and to resort to one's own schemes and plans in any emergency, are all forms of polytheism.... the chosen friend is he who is of god alone, both without and within. he neither acts nor thinks against [the divine will]. he does not mix with the desire-nature, forgets his services in the presence of the master, and cannot do without him.... he is so filled with him in all respects--both without and within--that it is impossible for anything else to enter into him.... he loses his desire, will, and all individual qualities, and exists merely through god's desire and will. he gets what he wills--not because he wills anything other than what is god's will, but because his will is one with god's. nay god unfolds his will in him.--_letter 9._ lights. when the mirror of the heart is cleansed of impurities, it becomes capable of reflecting the supersensuous lights. they appear in the beginning as flashes, but gain in power and volume as the heart becomes purer--manifesting [gradually] as the lamp, the flame, the stars, the moon, and the sun. the forms of flashes arise from ablutions and prayers ...; those of the lamp, the flame and the stars, from the _partial_ purity of the heart; that of the full moon, from its _perfect_ purity; that of the sun, from the soul reflecting its glory in the perfectly purified heart. a time comes when [the inner light] is a thousand times more luminous than the [external] sun. if [the visions of] the sun and moon are simultaneous, the latter signifies the heart reflecting the light of the soul, the former the soul itself. the light of the soul is _formless_, but is seen behind a _veil_ distorting the _idea_ into the form of the sun. sometimes the light of the divine attributes may cast its reflection in the mirror of the heart according to the purity of the latter.... this light distinguishes itself by a feeling of bliss in the heart, which shows that it comes from god and not from others. it is hard to describe this bliss. it is said that the light of the constructive attributes is illuminative, but not scorching; that of the disintegrating attributes scorching, but not illuminative. this is beyond the comprehension of intellect. sometimes, when the purity of the heart is complete, the seer sees the true one _within_ him, if he looks _within_, the true one _without_ him, if he looks to the universe. when the divine light is reflected in the light of the soul, the vision gives bliss. when the divine light shines _without_ the media of the soul and the heart, the vision manifests formlessness and infinity, uniqueness and harmony, the basis and support of _all_ existence. here there is neither rising nor setting, neither right nor left, neither up nor down, neither space nor time, neither far nor near, neither night nor day, neither heaven nor earth. here the pen breaks, the tongue falters, intellect sinks into nothingness, intelligence and knowledge miss the way in the wilderness of amazement.--_letter 12_. the unveiling of the supersensuous. the essence of the unveiling lies in coming _out_ of the veils. the seer perceives things not perceived by him before. the "veils" mean hindrances keeping one back from the perfect vision of the divine beauty, and consist of the various worlds--according to some, 18,000 in number, according to others, 80,600--all present in the constitution of man. man has an eye correlated to each world, with which he observes that world during the unveiling. these worlds are included under a twofold division: light and darkness, heaven and earth, invisible and visible, spiritual and physical,--each pair expressing the same sense in different words.... when a sincere pilgrim, impelled by his aspiration, turns from the lower nature to follow the law, and begins to tread the path under the protection of a teacher, he unfolds an eye for each of the veils uplifted by him, to observe the conditions of the world before him. first, he unfolds the eye of intellect and comprehends the intellectual mysteries to the extent of the uplifting of the veil. this is called the _intellectual unveiling_, and should not be depended on. most of the philosophers are at this stage and take it as the final goal. this stage transcended, the sincere pilgrim comes to unveil the heart, and perceives various lights. this is called the _perceptual unveiling_. next, he unveils the secrets; this is the _inspirational unveiling_, and the mysteries of creation and existence are revealed to him. next, he unveils the soul; this is the _spiritual unveiling_, and he can now view heaven and hell, and communicate with the angels. when the soul is completely cleansed of earthly impurities, and is thoroughly pure, he unveils infinity and is privileged to gaze at the circle of eternity, to comprehend instantly both past and future, getting rid of the limitations of space and time, ... to see both fore and aft ... to read hearts, know events, and tread on water, fire, and air. such miracles are not to be relied on.... next comes the _innermost unveiling_, enabling the pilgrim to enter the plane of the divine attributes.... the innermost is the bridge between the divine attributes and the plane of the soul, enabling the soul to experience the divine vision, and reflect the divine character. this is called the _unveiling of the divine attributes_. during this stage, the disciple unfolds esoteric knowledge, revelation from god, his vision, his bliss, real absorption, real existence, or unity,--according as he unveils the divine attributes of intelligence, audition, sight, construction, disintegration, stability, or oneness. similarly one may think of other qualities.--_letter 13._ * * * * * [the last two extracts tacitly refer to the following =sûfî= classification of the human constitution:-1. the body (=tan=), the brain-consciousness, or intellect, correlated to the physical plane (=nâsût=). 2. the heart (=dil=), the desires and the lower mind, correlated to the astral and lower mental planes (=malakût=). 3. the soul (=rûh=), the higher mind, the ego, correlated to the higher mental plane (=jabarût=). 4. the spirit (=sirr=, or the _mystery_), correlated to the spiritual planes (=lâhût=)--_trs._] on the same. [the following supplementary notes from _the series of 28 letters_ may prove both instructive and interesting.--_trs._] you say you hear certain words, but not from the organ of speech, or through the organ of sound. speech and sound belong to this world: what you hear belongs to =malakût=.--_loc. cit., letter 10._ a pilgrim may hear the _sound_ in his body, nay, in the minerals, plants, and animals. but if he hears from them the same =zikr= (_i. e._, the sacred formula) as practised by him, it is but an echo of his practice--an imaginary phenomenon, not a real one: whereas, if he hears from them the =zikr= peculiar to them, the phenomenon is real.... the universe being endless, the phenomena are endless.--_ibid, letter 15._ powers and phenomena are trials for a pilgrim. regard them as obstacles, and never care for them.... it is a rare boon to pass from the name to the named.... the vision of the prophet khezar foretells your success on the path.... the odours, sacred and unearthly, experienced by you, pertain to the =malakût=: how can you find their likeness on earth?--_ibid, letter 16._ illumination. there is a difference between divine illumination and soul-illumination. when the mirror of the heart is cleansed of all impurities, and has become thoroughly clear, it may serve to focus the rays of the divine sun and so reflect the divinity and all his attributes. but this boon is not enjoyed by every clean heart. every runner does not catch the game (lit., the antelope), but only he who runs _can_ catch it.... a clean heart reflects some of the qualities of the soul. if thoroughly clean, it may at times reflect all the qualities. sometimes the essence of the soul--the divine viceroy--may display its nature, and assert "i am the true one" by virtue of its viceroyalty. sometimes the whole universe may be seen making obeisance at the viceregal throne, and the soul may mistake the divine viceroy for god.... such mistakes are common, and cannot be avoided without the divine grace and the help of the teacher. now to come to the difference: (1) soul-illumination conquers the lower nature temporarily, _i. e._, so long as the illumination continues;--divine illumination conquers it permanently. (2) soul-illumination is not inconsistent with the foulness of the heart, does not solve all doubts, nor does it impart the bliss of divine knowledge;--divine illumination is the reverse of this. (3)--soul-illumination may induce pride, self-conceit, and egoism.... divine illumination does away with all these, and increases the fervour of seeking. 'illumination' and 'obscuration' are two words generally used among the =sûfîs=. the former means the unfolding of god, the latter means the infolding of god. these expressions do not apply to his essence, since it is changeless. as when one finds the solution of a problem, and says, "the problem is solved"--the problem is not solved, but one's mind unfolds so as to grasp the problem; knowledge being called the solution of the problem, ignorance its obscuration--so, when one sees all from god, and not from self, when self does away with the lower nature and sees the unknowable,--this is designated illumination.--_letter 14._ dreams. _first_, a pilgrim passing through the _earthly_ qualities sees in his dreams heights and depths, streets and wells, gloomy and deserted sites, waters and mountains. _secondly_, passing through the _watery_ qualities, he sees greens and pastures, trees and sown fields, rivers and springs. _thirdly_, passing through the _airy_ qualities, he sees himself walking or flying in the air, going up the heights. _fourthly_, passing through the _fiery_ qualities, he sees lamps and flames. _fifthly_, passing through the _etheric_, he finds himself walking or flying over the heavens, going from one heaven to another, sees the circling of the sky, and the angels. _sixthly_, passing through the _starry_ region, he sees the stars, the sun and the moon. _seventhly_, passing through the _animal_ qualities, he sees the corresponding animals. if he finds himself prevailing over an animal, it indicates his conquest over the corresponding quality. if he finds himself overcome by an animal, it denotes the predominance of the corresponding quality, and he should guard himself against it. the pilgrim has to pass through thousands of worlds, and in each world he perceives visions and experiences difficulties peculiar to it. o brother, the soul is for the goal. it should boldly cry out: "let me either cease to live, or reach the goal."--_letter 16._ on misconceptions. many men fall from doubt and suspicion. a class of people say, "god does not need our worship and services, and has no concern with our virtues and vices: why should we restrain ourselves?" such a doubt arises from sheer ignorance, and supposes that the law enjoins duties for the sake of god. no. duties are for the sake of man alone.... an ignorant man of this sort fitly compares with a patient who, being prescribed a certain treatment by his physician, does not follow it, and says that his abstinence does no harm to the physician. he speaks truly enough, but works his own destruction. the physician did not prescribe to please himself, but to cure him. a second class of men transgress the law and depend on the divine mercy. god is both merciful and a chastiser. we find that there are many distressed and poor men in this world in spite of his mercy and his mountains of treasure, that not a single grain of wheat grows without laborious cultivation, and that no man can be healthy without food, water and medicine. as he has ordained means for health and wealth without which they cannot be had, such is the case in the moral sphere also. denial and ignorance are poisons to the soul, and idleness its disease. the antidotes for the poisons are knowledge and wisdom alone. the remedies for the disease are prayers and worship alone. he who takes poison while depending on the divine mercy, kills himself. the disease of the heart consists in desires. he who does not restrain his desires risks his life if he knows them as sinful. but if he does not regard them as harmful he has no life to risk, since he is already dead. for such disregard is denial, and denial poisons faith. a third set would understand by self-discipline, as imposed by the law, complete freedom from lust, anger and other evils. when they fail after practising self-discipline for a length of time, they regard the task as impossible. "man, as he is constituted, cannot be pure, just as a black blanket cannot turn into a white one. why should we undertake an impossible feat?" (so they think).--it is ignorance and vanity to suppose that the law enjoins complete freedom from lust and other impulses inherent in human nature. the prophet has said, "i am a man, and may be angry," and signs of anger were at times visible in him. god praises one who controls anger, not one who is devoid of anger. again, the prophet had nine wives, and a man destitute of the sexual desire should be medically treated. the prophet has countenanced the begetting of progeny and the perpetuation of the race. but he has instructed that the two (lust and anger) should be subdued so as to be under the control of the law, as a horse under the control of the rider, or a dog under the control of the hunter. the animals should be trained, else they will set upon and overthrow the man. lust and anger are like the dog and the horse, and it is impossible to catch the heavenly game without them. but they should be under control, else they will destroy _us_. in short, the object of self-discipline is to break and subdue these impulses, and this is possible. a _fourth_ set proudly declare that everything is according to the divine will. what is the use of exertion?--when the prophet spoke of the divine will, his companions said, "we shall depend upon it and refrain from exertion." the prophet replied, "_ye shall exert_, and [then] what has been ordained will be given." thus, man should not refrain from exertion. if he has in the beginning been ordained to a noble destiny, he will attain to it [by exertion]. good and evil destinies hinge upon virtue and vice, in the same way as health and death upon food and starvation.--_letter 18._ the outer and inner ailments. man has been formed of two different substances, the earthly and the heavenly. as his earthly frame is liable to ailments, so is the heavenly; and there are doctors for the treatment and cure of both. the doctors of the bodily ailments are the physicians, and those of the moral ailments are the prophets and [later on] the saints who are their successors. as a sick man would certainly die if not treated by a skilled physician, so a soul suffering from the moral diseases would certainly die, if not helped by a prophet or a perfect saint. as a physician examines the pulse to ascertain the disease of a patient, and recommends him to resort to one thing and abstain from another, with a view to restore physical equilibrium and health,--so also the divine messenger ascertains the moral ailments of the disciple, and prescribes different duties based on the law according to his receptivity and capacity, recommending this, disallowing that, so as to reduce his inner perplexities and desires to a state of harmony required by the law, and bring about moral health in the shortest possible time. as a sick man going against the instructions of his physician gets worse and worse and has to die, so a moral patient disobeying the law gets more and more perverse and has to perish through ignorance.--_letter 19._ the origin of theosophy the institution of theosophy (=tasavvuf=) is ancient. it has been practised by the prophets and the saints. as evil impulses predominate in the world, the theosophist (=sûfî=) is looked down upon by men. the theosophist is one who has lost the self, exists in the true one, is beyond the reach of the lower nature, and is at one with truth. a theosophical student (=mutasavvif=) is he who seeks to become a theosophist through asceticism and purification, and disciplines himself in the ways of the theosophist.... the prophet had a place in his mosque set apart to discourse privately with his elect companions, who trod the path. there were senior disciples such as =abû bakar=, =omar=, =osman=, =alî= and =salmân=; and mediocre ones, such as =belal= and others. the arab chiefs and his ordinary companions were not admitted there. the elect companions were about 70 in number. when the prophet wished to shew his special regard to a particular companion (=sûfî=), he favoured him with a piece of his garment (n. b. the word =sûfî= may be derived either from =safâ=, purity, or from =sûf=, dress.--_trs._) the first theosophist was adam, and the last mohammad; and theosophy has continued amongst the followers of mohammad.--_letter 22._ seeking the path. the aspiration of the seeker should be such that, if offered this world with its pleasures, the next with its heaven, and the universe with its sufferings, he should leave the world and its pleasures for the profane, the next world and its heaven for the faithful, and choose the sufferings for himself. he turns from the lawful in order to avoid heaven, in the same way that common people turn from the unlawful to avoid hell. he seeks the master and his vision in the same way that worldly men seek ease and wealth. the latter seek increase in all their works; he seeks the one alone in all. if given anything, he gives it away; if not given, he is content. the marks of the seeker are as follows. he is happy if he does not get the desired object, so that he may be liberated from all bonds; he opposes the desire-nature so much, that he would not gratify its craving, even if it cried therefor for seventy years; he is so harmonised with god that ease and uneasiness, a boon and a curse, admission and rejection are the same to him; he is too resigned to beg for anything either from god or from the world; his asceticism keeps him as fully satisfied with his little all--a garment or a blanket--as others might be with the whole world.... he vigilantly melts his desire-nature in the furnace of asceticism and does not think of anything save the true one. he sees him on the right and on the left, sitting and standing. such a seeker is called the divine seer. he attaches no importance to the sovereignty of earth or of heaven. his body becomes emaciated by devotional aspirations, while his heart is cheered with divine blessedness. thoughts of wife and children, of this world and the next, do not occupy his heart. though his body be on earth, his soul is with god. though here, he has already been there, reached the goal, and seen the beloved with his inner eye. this stage can be reached only under the protection of a perfect teacher, the path safely trodden under his supervision only.... it is indispensable for a disciple to put off his desires and protests, and place himself before the teacher as a dead body before the washer of the dead, so that he may deal with him as he likes. virtue and vice have their uses and evils. often a virtue throws one the farther from god, and a vice leads one the nearer to him.... the virtue that begins in peace and ends in pride throws one the farther from god; the vice that begins in fear and ends in repentance leads one the nearer to him.--_letter 23._ the pillars of the path. their words enliven the heart; their deeds liberate men; their compassion is universal; they do not care for feeding and clothing themselves, but feed and clothe all; they do not look to the evil of others, but stand as their saviours, return good for evil, and bless them that curse. why?--for they are protected: no gale save the zephyr of love can blow over the world from the horizon of their heart. their compassion shines as the sun over friend and foe alike. they are humble as the earth, trodden by the feet of all. they are not hostile to any man, nor do they grasp at anything of the world. all creatures are their children, they are not the children of any. they are absolute compassion for the whole universe, for east and west,--for they are liberated and see all from the one root.... one void of these qualities cannot tread the path. in the case of a theosophist, the heart goes first, then comes the tongue. in the case of a worldly-wise man, the tongue goes first, and then the heart.--_letter 24._ religion, the path and truth. religion (=sharîat=), the path (=tarîqat=), and truth (=haqîqat=). _religion_ is a way laid down by a prophet for his followers, with the help of god. all prophets equally call the attention of men to monotheism and service. so there is but _one_ religion, _one_ appeal, and _one_ god. their teachings cannot be contradictory, as they are based on divine inspiration. the difference is merely verbal and formal, but there is no difference in the essentials. they are the [spiritual] physicians of humanity, and have prescribed religions for their respective followers according to their needs. religion consists of a series of injunctions and prohibitions, and deals with monotheism, bodily purification, prayers, fasts, pilgrimages, the holy war, charity, and so on. the _path_ is based on religion, and consists in seeking the essence of the forms [dealt with by religion], investigating them, purifying the heart, and cleansing the moral nature of impurities such as hypocrisy, avarice, polytheism, and so on. religion deals with external conduct and bodily purification; the path deals with the inner purification. religion is the soundness of external purification. _truth_ is the soundness of the inner condition. the one is liable to alterations, is the work of man and can be acquired; the other is immutable, the same from the time of adam to the end of the world, and is the divine grace. the one is like matter, or the body. the other is like spirit, or the soul.--_letters 25 and 26._ [a higher stage is simply mentioned, in _fawâed-i-ruknî_, as =mârfat= (the divine knowledge), without any detailed explanation. thus, =sharîat= corresponds to the exoteric religion of any given nation; =tarîqat= to the lesser mysteries of the ancient western mystic, or the probationary path of the eastern mystic; =haqîqat= to the greater mysteries of the ancient western mystic, or the path proper of the eastern mystic; =mârfat= to the stage of the perfect man, or the master.--_trs._] accessory to prayers. after the morning prayer, the twilight should be spent in muttering the divine names, sacred recitations, repentance and apology. one should not speak at this time, except to obey an express injunction or prohibition of the scriptures, to bless or benefit the faithful, and to instruct a student in need of knowledge. the company of a saint, a knower of god, or one's own teacher, if available, is preferable to mutterings and recitations. before the sunset prayer, some time should be spent in attentively examining the desire-nature _i. e._, reviewing the gains made and the losses incurred during the day. one should go to sleep pure, and with holy recitations, and should not sleep unless overpowered. one should get up in the latter part of the night before twilight, and immediately take to the sacred duties.--_letter 28._ purification. it is purity which makes man respectable. it is the storehouse of all boons and virtues.... =islâm= is based on purity, and cannot tolerate the slightest stain. she does not show her face to the impure. _first_:--the purity of the body, the garment, and food. _second_:--the purity of the senses, _i. e._, abstinence from sins and transgressions. _third_:--the purity of the heart, _i. e._, renunciation of all evil qualities, such as uncharitableness, envy and malice. with the first purity, the disciple takes the first step on the path; with the second, he takes the second step; with the third, the third. this is the essence of =taubâh=--turning from impurity to purity. at first he was a temple of idols; now he becomes a mosque. at first he was a demon; now he becomes a man. at first he was dark as the night; now he becomes bright as day. it is now that the sun of =îmân= (peace or faith) shines in his heart, and =islâm= shows her face and leads him to the divine knowledge. any work whatsoever, without this purity, is but a ceremony or tradition on the lines of the forefathers, but is _not_ =islâm=. * * * * * know god as your constant guardian. living under his ever-watchful eye, one ought to be modest and feel ashamed to bring one's transgressions to his notice. * * * * * as prayers cannot be duly performed without the outer purity, so the divine knowledge is impossible without the inner purity. as fresh water--not water already used--is necessary for the one, so pure monotheism--not mixed--is necessary for the other.[7] [7] see "monotheism"--_trs._ * * * * * the inner purification is hinted at in the prophet's prayer: "o god, purge out hypocrisy from my heart."--_letters 29 & 30._ the motive. the value of a disciple's act lies in his motive. the motive is to the act as life is to the body and light to the eye. as the body without life or the eye without light is useless, so the acts of a disciple without a pure motive are mere forms. with the seers, forms are denial and destruction, not faith and salvation. a valid motive arises from purity, as rays from the sun and sparks from the flame. when the motive is not biassed by worldly attractions, it is called _ascetic_ purity by the sûfîs. when the motive is not biassed by heavenly attractions, it is called _spiritual_ purity. it is said that the motive of a man is according to his knowledge and wisdom. if desire and love of the world predominate in the heart of a man, all his acts will be worldly--even his prayers and fasts. if desire and love of heaven predominate in his heart, all his acts will be heavenly--even his eating and sleeping. again there are others, of loftier aspiration, caring neither for earth nor for heaven, but for god only. all acts done by such men will be purely divine.... a disciple should always be careful to purify his motive and to get out of mere forms. for this, he should obey the instructions of a teacher, his motive, though in the beginning mixed with hypocrisy and insincerity, will ultimately be purified by obeying his instructions.... the disciple should act as the earth, so that the teacher may act as the sky--wet him with his rains, warm him with his sun, shade him under his clouds, perfume him with the fragrant breeze of his compassion--and thus help his growth.--_letter 31._ prayer. the daily routine of a disciple, in the absence of his teacher, should be such as to secure purity of heart, whether by prayer, sacred study, mutterings, or meditation. the secret of prayer is inexpressible. when the disciple, renouncing separateness, stands for prayer in a mood of self-surrender, his body ranks with =kâbâ's= shrine, his heart with =arsh= (the divine throne); and his spirit sees the vision divine.... the devotee mostly prays with the fire of love without observing external forms (_e. g._ kneeling and prostration), takes all devotees as one, and does not stigmatise any man with the brand of infidelity and damnation. in the state of prayer, one merged in the divine cannot be conscious of anything else; as alî, while praying, was operated upon, and an arrow drawn out of his thigh, but he did not feel it.--_letter 32._ invoking the divine help. opinions vary as to which is the better course, invocation of the divine help, or self-surrender to the divine will. in some cases the one is preferable, in others the other, according to the tendency and condition of each individual. if invocation induces _unfolding_, it is good. if it induces _infolding_,[8] it should be stopped. if it induces neither the one nor the other, its performance and omission are of equal value. if _knowledge_ preponderates at the time of invocation, it is to be continued, for such an invocation is a worship in itself. if _divine wisdom_ preponderates at the time, silence is preferable.... [8] see p. 30. what is the use of invoking the divine help, if the divine will is irrevocable?--answer: the revocation by invocation is also in accordance with the divine will, the invocation being simply an ordained means, as a shield is a means to repel an arrow, and watering is a means to grow seeds. if one resorts to an invocation, it is to be repeated three, five or seven times.--_letter 36._ the divine allegiance. the divine allegiance gives freedom and the sovereignty of the whole world.... god never made anything so precious as the heart of his servant, because it is there that he treasured up the wealth of his wisdom: "i cannot be contained in heaven or earth, but i am contained in the heart of my faithful servant." what is service?--to be resigned to the divine will without a murmur. a servant is he who does not think of wages, and has been liberated from the bonds of desire. he who serves god for wages is the servant of the wages, not of god. =khwâjâ hasân basri= says: "seek the knowledge that is revealed by service, and seek the service that is revealed by knowledge." knowledge and service are equally necessary, but knowledge is superior, being the root and guide. hence it is that the prophet says: "knowledge rules conduct, and conduct follows it." again, he says that the sleep of the wise is better than the prayers of the ignorant, and that the ignorant do more evil than good by their acts.--_letters 37-39._ the sacred formula. the disciple should ever practise the formula: "there is no god except =allâh="--vocally or inaudibly, whether he be alone or in company. let him not for a moment step out of this fort. the fort is made of the negative "no god" and the affirmative "except =allâh=" phrases; and it protects the pilgrim entering therein against the two highway robbers: the desire-nature and satan. when the disciple unfolds the inner eye in the plane of unity, he transcends affirmation and denial, as they are inconsistent with unity. affirmation and denial inhere in the nature of man, and a disciple does not attain to unity unless he goes beyond human nature. affirmation and denial are in themselves a form of polytheism, since a valid affirmation and a valid denial each need three elements--the affirmer, the affirmation and the affirmed; the denier, the denial and the denied. when a believer in _two_ is a polytheist, how can a believer in _six_ be a monotheist? when the non-god has no existence, what is to be denied? when thou thyself art not, how canst thou affirm?... this is the zenith of unity, and the stage of the perfect ones.... he who sees with the eye of unity finds the non-god non-existent.... whenever mohammad, transcending the realm of his mission, looked with the inner eye into the realm of unity, he eagerly and yearningly wished his personality blotted out, the dividing line erased, and the human limitation cast away. but the compassion of the beloved would ever intervene, and bring him back to the realm of his mission for the delivery of the message.--_letter 40._ the naked faith. intellect is a bondage; faith, the liberator. the disciple should be stripped naked of everything in the universe in order to gaze at the beauty of faith. but thou lovest thy personality, and canst not afford to put off the hat of self-esteem and exchange reputation for disgrace.... all attachments have dropped from the masters. their garment is pure of all material stain. their hands are too short to seize anything tainted with impermanence. light has shone in their hearts enabling them to see god. absorbed in his vision are they, so that they look not to their individualities, exist not for their individualities, have forgotten their individualities in the ecstasy of his existence, and have become completely his. they speak, yet do not speak; hear, yet do not hear; move, yet do not move; sit, yet do not sit. there is no [individual] being in their being, no speech in their speech, no hearing in their hearing. speakers, they are dumb; hearers, they are deaf. they care little for material conditions, and think of the true one [alone]. worldly men are not aware of their whereabouts. physically with men, they are internally with god. they are a boon to the universe--not to themselves, for they _are not_ themselves.... the knowledge that accentuates personality is verily a hindrance. the knowledge that leads to god is alone true knowledge. the learned are confined in the prison of the senses, since they but gather their knowledge through sensuous objects. he that is bound by sense-limitations is barred from supersensuous knowledge. real knowledge wells up from the fountain of life, and the student thereof need not resort to senses and gropings. the iron of human nature must be put into the melting-pot of discipline, hammered on the anvil of asceticism, and then handed over to the polishing agency of the divine love, so that the latter may cleanse it of all material impurities. it then becomes a mirror capable of reflecting the spiritual world, and may fitly be used by the king for the beholding of his own image.--_letter 41._ the inner polytheism. the prophet says, "polytheism in my followers is more imperceptible than the motion of an ant on a black stone on a dark night." such a polytheism, though not affecting the [exoteric] faith, injures the essence and fruit of faith. pure gold and an alloy of gold are both gold, but the latter cannot be as precious as the former. true faith consists in monotheism, which is the antithesis of polytheism. real monotheism appears only when the root of polytheism[9] has been destroyed. in order to secure true faith or monotheism, every impurity that stains it should be cast away. such impurities constitute the inner polytheism. looking to any save god for help or hindrance; hoping or fearing from any save him; hypocrisy, anger and pride, even in their most subtile forms; pleasure and pain at being praised and blamed by others; regarding virtue and vice as means of union with and separation from god--all these come under the _inner_ polytheism. in short, no one can be established in faith unless his character comes up to the standard: "he is wholly from god, by god, and for god." [9] separateness. again the prophet says: "there is no peace for the faithful except in the presence of god, and death is anything save his presence."--_letter 44._ the divine knowledge. divine knowledge is the essence of the faithful soul. one destitute of it does not really exist. the knowledge of the creator follows from the knowledge of created objects, and leads to the safety and permanence of the knower. one way to the divine knowledge is to see the whole universe as subject to the divine will, to sever connection from all, and to realize the unity of god and the eternity of his nature and attributes. another is through one's own nature. "he that knows his own nature, verily knows his god." god first shewed his powers in the universe to enable monotheists to gain knowledge of him by observing it. this way being too long for the sages, he placed in man the essences of the entire creation, thus making human nature the facsimile of the whole universe and the ladder to his knowledge. pilgrims tread the path of divine knowledge _in_ themselves, look for the pure and the foul _in_ themselves, and find the indication and proof of that knowledge _in_ themselves. god engages some men in observation, and they know him by pondering over his creation. he leads others to his knowledge through asceticism. there is another class of men whose hearts he illumines at once. again, some are debarred from the _essence_ of the divine knowledge, others from the path itself. "the divine beauty has thousands of aspects, each atom presenting some peculiar one." =noori= was asked: "what is the proof of god?" he replied: "the proof of god is god himself." they asked him again: "then what is the use of intellect?" he said: "intellect is a failure, it cannot lead save to what is a failure like itself." intellect can only look upon an entity either as _body_, _essence_ or _accident_; or in space and time. it cannot go beyond those limitations. if it fixes any of those limitations on god, it sinks to infidelity. if, bewildered, it exclaims: "i do not find any existence save with these properties. so, god being without any of these properties, is perhaps naught,"--it is still dragged down to infidelity.... in short, divine knowledge depends upon divine illumination alone. divine knowledge is the knowledge of god as he is in his essence, attributes, and works. the sage should know god in the same way as god knows himself, and as he has described himself in the =qurân=. there are two theories as to the _perfection_ of this knowledge. some intellectualists hold that the sage knows god in the same way as god knows himself. if he does not know him perfectly, he knows a part of him. but god is partless. so sages are equal in divine knowledge. intellectualists hold to the possibility of perfect divine knowledge. the other theory is held by the sûfîs and a few intellectualists as well, _viz._, that no one knows god perfectly. they know him to exist, and know it to the extent necessary for their salvation. they do not hold to the possibility of perfect divine knowledge. with the masters of the path, divine knowledge is the actual and direct perception of god: with the intellectualists, it is the sound intellectual knowledge of god. it is incumbent on a pilgrim not to be satisfied and stand still until he reaches the goal. the more he knows, the more he should seek.... the whole world is satisfied with a smell or a word (_i. e._ very little), and no one has received even a drop from the holy cup. "i asked him, 'whose art thou with all this beauty?' he said, 'i am my own, for i am verily one. i am the lover, the beloved, and love; i am the mirror, the image and the beholder'."--_letter 45._ love and devotion. this world and the next are intended to be used in seeking god. an objection raised against such a use of the next world is untenable: for prayer and fast, pilgrimage and the holy war, and all the exoteric obligations cease _as such_ in the next world; but devotion--seeking after god--ever endures. if you go to heaven, each day of the heavenly life will open up new vistas of divine knowledge. an endless work is this, may it never end! when god loves a man, he inflicts troubles on him and takes away his wealth, wife and children, so that he may be bound to naught, and estranged from all save him. if he suffers patiently, he receives boons without toil. if he endures cheerfully, he is purified of all evils. again, god's love for a man makes him aware of the defects of his desire-nature, so that he becomes its instructor and censor. the following are the signs of a man's love for god:-1. being given to prayer and seclusion. 2. according to others, preferring the divine word to human words, the divine presence to the sight of man, the service of god to the service of the world; and not grieving for any loss save separation from him. 3. according to =junnaid=: not being tired in his service. 4. according to a certain sage: avoiding sins. * * * * * it is dangerous to assert one's love for god. the word "=mahabbat=" (love) is derived from "=hibba=" (a seed.) the seed is the germ of life, as it is there that lies the real plant. the seed is put into the soil, lies concealed therein, and receives sun and rain, heat and cold, without any [apparent] change. when the time comes, it sprouts, flowers, and fructifies. so, when love takes root in the heart, it bears presence and absence, joy and sorrow, union and separation, with equanimity.... devotion is the perfection of love. worship makes a servant, knowledge makes a knower, abstinence makes an ascetic, sincere seeking makes an earnest aspirant, sacrifice of all the world makes a friend, self-sacrifice makes a lover, losing the perishable and imperishable elements of self in the beloved makes a devotee. it has been said: devotion is born of the light of the presence of the eternal beloved. it is like a flash of lightning, illuminating the eye of the devotee, speaking to his ear, enlivening his movements, and alienating him from all the world--so that his acts are not for self nor for others, but are works of impersonal devotion to the beloved. devotion is beyond words, intellect, and astral perception. "i am devotion, beyond this world and the next; i conquer all without arrow or bow; i shine as the sun in every atom, yet my presence for its very brightness is unperceived; i speak in every tongue, i hear in every ear; yet, strange to say, i am tongueless and earless; as every thing in the universe is verily myself, my like cannot be found therein."--_letters 46 to 48._ [the following extract from _fawâed-i-ruknî_ may appropriately find place here.--_trs._] as prayers and fasts are the _outer_ duties, so love and devotion are the _inner_ duties. their ingredients are pain and sorrow. devotion leads the devotee to god. hence devotion is necessary to tread the path. know devotion as life, its absence as death. the privilege of devotion is not granted to every man, nor does every man deserve it. he who deserves it is worthy of his god; he who does not deserve it is unworthy of him. a devotee alone can appreciate the value of devotion. a vast multitude seek after heaven, while very few seek after devotion; for heaven is the lot of the desire-nature, while devotion is the lot of the soul. get rid of the notion of selfhood, and give up thy self to devotion. when thou hast done so, thou hast reached the goal. dost thou know why so many obstacles have been set up on the path?--in order that the devotee may gradually develop strength, and be able to see the beloved without a veil. the boat on the sea [of life] is devotion; the boatman is the divine grace. seeking god. nothing is more binding upon you than to seek god. if you go to market, seek him. if you come home, seek him. if you enter a tavern, seek him. if the angel of death come to you, take care not to neglect the seeking. tell him, "do thou thy work, i do mine." ... if you be taken down to hell, you shall not neglect the seeking. say to the angel of hell, "strike my useless personality with the whip of chastisement: i, on my part, tread the path of seeking"--so that the work may go on. if you are taken up to heaven, do not look to the _houris_ and palaces, but speed on the way of seeking. "tho' they offer me both the worlds, i will not have them without thy presence." the first stage on the path of seeking is _humility_. the great ones say: 'humility is the messenger from god to man.' sown in the heart, it impels to god. practised for some time, it turns into _courage_. masters unanimously hold that love cannot put up save with the courage of the disciple. practised for some time, courage turns into _seeking_. this seeking is led by the divine will to the secrets of [the holy formula], "there is no god except allâh." the drum of seeking proclaims at the gate of the divine sanctuary, "he who seeks god obtains him." a cry resounds: "let neither sky nor earth, heaven nor hell, hinder the path of my seekers, for they seek me, and i am their goal." these are the steps on the ladder of human progress. each pilgrim has his own stage, according to his aspiration. the vigilant seeker should kill out self-conceit and self-respect with asceticism and purification, transcend both the worlds, and be ready to lose his life. it is unlawful for him to aspire after anything in the universe. "one does not unite with the all, unless one parts with all." it is said: when adam was lodged in paradise, the law commanded him not to approach the tree, while the path dictated to him to turn away from all. adam said unto himself. "this paradise is full of wonders, and i am its lord. but my heart longs to visit the abode of sorrow: lordship will not serve my purpose." a voice spoke to his spirit, "adam, wilt thou remove to a foreign country?" "yes," answered adam, "for i have something to do." the voice said, "do this work here." adam: "the other is more important." the voice: "heretofore, paradise and the angels have been thy servants. now thou shalt have to exchange the home of peace for the abode of condemnation, the crown for poverty, reputation for disgrace." adam: "i accept all these, and will proclaim my freedom throughout the universe." so it cannot be said that adam was deprived of paradise, but rather that paradise was deprived of adam.--_letter 50._ the way to god. =khwâjâ bâyazîd= was asked, "what is the way to god?" he replied: "when _thou_ hast vanished on the way, _then_ hast thou come to god." mark this: if one attached to the way cannot see god, how can one attached to self see god? when the sun of divine knowledge rises, all modes of knowledge become ignorance; when divine aspiration appears, all desires melt away.... whoever is bound to his exterior--his turban, his robe, the size and colour of his garment--is still attached to the personality and a worshipper thereof. thou canst serve either personality or the law: two contraries cannot unite. so long as you hanker after approbation and dignity, so long as you become angry at an insult, you are with your old genius and self-conceit, and have not been accepted by the law. you should sacrifice yourself in the self. to no purpose do you change your dress and food. if you eat a single blade of grass in a lifetime, remain clad in a single garment for a thousand years, are shut up in a monastery away from the sight of men,--beware, lest you should be deluded. all these are but the subtleties of the desire-nature, its cunning and craft. many pious men are as motionless as a serpent or a scorpion frozen with cold. their piety is not due to rectitude and purity, but to lack of opportunity. when summer comes in and the surroundings change, one may behold what they do.... no one can safely tread the path without a guide.... in the beginning, a disciple is not a fit recipient of the divine light. he is like a bat, unable to bear the light of the sun. as it is dangerous folly to travel in utter darkness, he needs a light less dazzling than the sun, in order to illumine the path for his safety. such a light is that coming from the masters, who, like the moon [reflecting the light of the sun], have become fit reflectors of the spiritual light.--_letter 51._ speech and conduct. all learned men base conduct on speech. they have gathered their learning through the avenues of hearing and speaking. the masters of truth have received their knowledge through divine inspiration, which depends on following the law. with them, knowledge does not depend upon words or speech. it has no connection with the tongue. knowledge is that which makes a man follow the law. secular learning deals with words. knowledge deals with truth, and is not to be found save in the region of the real. the province of the tongue is letters, and they are limited. knowledge comes from the heart, and the heart does not perish. god has not given knowledge to all, whereas he has not withheld speech from any. knowledge is that which controls desire and leads to god. that which contributes to the gratification of desire and leads to the courts of chiefs and oppressors is not knowledge, but a snare. knowledge makes one humble and frees from ostentation and disputes.... the end of all learning is the beginning of discipleship. the _first_ robe worn by a disciple consists in coming out of the self. the _second_ robe consists in setting no value on what he heretofore took as divine, so that the flame of discipleship burns all things in him. then, he begins to see lights and utter charming words, leading to self-conceit and the admiration of others. this is a snare of the desire-nature, and stops his progress. here comes in the necessity of a teacher to help him cross this stage and bring him from stagnation to motion. thus _light is a thicker veil than darkness_. hence is it that the wise are dumb and blind, unaffected by the opinion of the people. hence is it, again, that the difficulties of a disciple cannot be solved by a learned man, as the latter is but versed in religion, while the difficulties of the former are connected with the path. it is useless for a disciple to follow the learned, as the dicta of the latter are concerned with _outer_ conduct, while he has to deal with the _inner_ life. the one is preparing for the destruction of self; the other seeks salvation for the self through knowledge. the business of the learned is to gather up what has been left by others, and store in his bosom the knowledge of the past. the business of the disciple is to throw away and renounce what he has, and to unlearn what he has learned. so they are opposites and cannot be reconciled in any way.--_letter 52._ magnanimity. a disciple lacking in magnanimity makes no progress at all. one whose aspiration does not go beyond heaven, is not fit for this battle. the wise hold that the desire to have everything in the world according to one's own wishes, befits a woman, not a _man_.... in short, a magnanimous disciple should first of all tread upon his own life, and try his sword on his own desire-nature, not on an infidel. for the infidel can only hurt the body, and plunder earthly possessions; whereas the desire-nature injures the very root of religion and destroys faith.... be on the alert, and take no step without due caution, for time is a penalty to the heedless. it is said:--when a man wishes to enter the path, the chief of the evil ones, satan, seizes his skirt and says: "i bear the cross of curse for this work, that no unclean fellow may enter the path. if any dare come in without the robe of monotheism and sincere earnestness, i lop off his feet." ... "should thy inner eyes unfold, every atom would tell thee a hundred secrets. then wouldst thou see each atom ever advancing. all are absorbed in the march--_thou_ art blind--and the march goes on _in thee_ as well. there is no limit to the progress of love. such _has been_, there is no help." from highest heaven to lowest abyss, all things are seeking and striving. it is the wicked man alone who has made peace with the enemy, and cut himself off from the beloved.--_letter 53._ knowledge. knowledge is to purification and asceticism what ablution is to prayer. no practice is possible without knowledge, as no prayer is possible without ablution.... knowledge is of two kinds: that received from teachers and books, and that unfolded in the soul. again the latter kind is twofold: (1) the knowledge transmitted from the divine sanctuary into:- (_a_) the soul of a prophet. such knowledge is called =wahî=.[10] (_b_) the soul of a master. such knowledge is =ilbâm= (inspiration). (2) the knowledge transmitted into:- (_a_) the soul of a master from a prophet. (_b_) the soul of a disciple from a master. [10] a revelation received from god through an angel (mostly gabriel).--_trs._ as a master sees god in the soul of a prophet, so a disciple sees god in the soul of a master. "so long as the tablet of thy heart bears the impression of letters, thou dost not know any of the secret meanings. when the letters completely vanish from the tablet of thy heart, then comes the knowledge of the secret meanings." knowledge is the key to all virtues, as ignorance is the key to all vices. knowledge ushers in liberation, ignorance brings in destruction. the celestial ranks and abnormal sacred powers spring from knowledge; chastisements in the various grades of hell result from ignorance. so the faithful should shun ignorance and the ignorant in the same way as vice and infidelity. "a wise man is my friend, and a fool is my foe." as ignorance and the ignorant are to be avoided, so is it obligatory to seek knowledge and the company of the wise--not worldly knowledge, but the moral; not the worldly wise but the morally wise. "if you acquire knowledge thoughtlessly, you will use it as a means of gaining worldly position. true knowledge is that which leads to the divine sanctuary, not that which leads to wealth, rank and passional gratifications." the company of a sage for a day is more conducive to progress than purification and asceticism.--_letter 55._ [the following note may be added from "_the series of 28 letters_."--_trs._] real knowledge comes from the soul, and a true knower is he in whom lies the original and final knowledge. the purer the soul, the deeper and more subtile its comprehensions.--_loc. cit., letter 6_. the steps of a disciple. the first step is religion (=sharîat=). when the disciple has _fully_ paid the demand of religion, and aspires to go beyond, the path (=tarîqat=) appears before him. it is the way to the heart. when he has fully observed the conditions of the path, and aspires to soar higher, the veils of the heart are rent, and truth (=haqîqat=) shines therein. it is the way to the soul, and the goal of the seeker. broadly speaking, there are four stages: =nâsût=, =malakût=, =jabarût= and =lâhût=, each leading to the next. =nâsût= is the animal nature, and functions through the five senses--_e. g._, eating, contacting, seeing, hearing and the like. when the disciple controls the senses to the limit of bare necessity, and transcends the animal nature by purification and asceticism, he reaches =malakût=--the region of the angels. the duties of this stage are prayers to god. when he is not proud of these, he transcends this stage and reaches =jabarût=--the region of the soul. no one knows the soul but with the divine help; and truth, which is its mansion, baffles description and allusion. the duties of this stage are love, earnestness, joy, seeking, extasy and insensibility. when the pilgrim transcends these by forgetting self altogether, he reaches =lâhût=, the unconditioned state. here words fail. religion is for the desire-nature; the path, for the heart; truth for the soul. religion leads the desire-nature from =nâsût= to =malakût=, and transmutes it into heart. the path leads the heart from =malakût= to =jabarût=, and transmutes it into soul. truth leads the soul from =jabarût= to the divine sanctuary. the real work is to transmute the desire-nature into heart, the heart into soul, and to unify the three into one. "the lover, the beloved and love are essentially one." this is absolute monotheism.... "the motive of the faithful is superior to their acts." acts by themselves are of no value: the importance lies in the heart. it is said that the traveller on the divine path has three states: (1) action.[11] (2) knowledge. (3) love. these three states are not experienced unless god wills it so. but one should work and wait. he will do verily what he has willed. he looks neither to the destruction nor to the salvation of any one. [11] _lit._, walking or moving. one who wishes to arrive at the truth _must_ serve a teacher. no one can transcend the bondage and darkness of desires unless he, with the help of the divine grace, comes under the protection of a perfect and experienced teacher. as the teacher _knows_, he will teach the disciple according to his capacity, and will prescribe remedies suited to his ailments, so that "there is no god except =allâh=" be firmly established in his nature, and the ingress of the evil spirits be cut off from his heart. all the world seeks to tread the divine path. but each knows according to his _inner_ purity, each seeks and aspires according to his knowledge, and each treads the path according to his seeking and aspiration.--_letters 56 & 57._ [the following extracts from "_a series of 28 letters_" may throw further light on the subject. the =sûfî mulk= (or =nâsût=,) =malakût=, =jabarût= and =lâhût= severally correspond to, if they are not identical with, the physical, astro-mental, causal and spiritual planes of modern theosophical literature.--_trs._] it is not permitted to give out the knowledge gained through [supersensuous] vision. this much only can be recorded:-the objects of the senses constitute this world (=mulk=); those cognised by intellect constitute the plane of =malakût=; the potentialities of all beings constitute the plane of =jabarût=; ... in other words, this world is visible, the =malakût= is supersensuous, the =jabarût= is super-supersensuous.... the subtlety of this world cannot bear comparison with that of =malakût=, the subtlety of =malakût= with that of =jabarût=, nor the subtlety of =jabarût= with that of the holy essence divine. there is not an atom of this world but is permeated by =malakût=; not an atom of =malakût= but is permeated by =jabarût=; not an atom of this world, =malakût= and =jabarût= but is permeated by god, and conscious of him. being the most subtile, he must permeate all--for the greater the subtlety, the greater the quality of permeation. now you may understand the meaning of the verse: "god is with thee wherever thou art, and in thy very being, though thou mayest not see him; nearer is he to thee than the nerve of thy neck." hence is it said that this world, =malakût=, =jabarût= and god himself are all with thee, and that the true man is the focus and mirror of all the mysteries of the divine essence. it is not permitted to go further lest exotericism may censure. "utter not secrets before the mob if thou art a true devotee hast thou not seen that =mansûr=, intoxicated with devotion, uttered a secret and was put to death?"--_loc. cit., letter 2_. islâm. =islâm= is other than the lower nature. so long as the lower impulses do not yield to purity, the heart has no affinity with islâm. the investigators of truth give to the bundle of the impulses the name of 'the desire-nature'. the outer body with its limbs and joints is not dangerous, but is simply a horse to carry the directions of the law. god says: 'he sent us a horse from his mighty palace. let us ride on it and come to the path'. so long as it carries his directions we should not vex it. if it attempts to transgress the law, let us punish it with the whip of asceticism, so that it may come back to the path. this is the discipline of the body. but if a man pricks his limb with a pin, saying that he thereby subdues the desire-nature, he is a sinner. many ignorant fellows labour under a delusion and foolishly take self-torture as an important discipline. by no means transgress the limit of the law and common-sense. the body is a valuable horse, and fit to carry the divine charges. it is the desire-nature, and not the body, which deserves rooting out and chastisement. the world is arrayed into two parties, the party of god and the party of satan. look well and see to which _you_ belong.... a knower has said, "no one comes to worship god, unless promised the bribe of heaven and threatened with the torture of hell." this indicates an indifference to monotheism. it is said: on an =îd= day[12] =shiblî= the saint was seen mourning and clad in black. he was told: "this is the =îd= day. why are you so clad?" he replied: "i see all men rejoicing and clad in new suits, but _not one_ of them is aware of god. i mourn this day over their heedlessness." o brother, thou hast become inured to heedlessness, hast barred the gate of divine knowledge and art content with the gratification of desires. rest assured, so long as thou dost not put off thy desires, thou canst not put on the robe of faith; so long as thou dost not look upon the desire-nature as thy foe, faith cannot come to thee as thy friend; so long as thou dost not cease thy connection with satan, thou canst not see the beauty of "there is no god save =allâh="; so long as thou dost not turn from the world, thou canst not approach the path of purity. [12] the muhammadan festival day at the end of the ramzân fast.--_trs._ since the lord is thy origin, thou hast not come; since the lord is thy goal, thou wilt not go. "there is no god save =allâh=." nothing can be separated from the infinite, and attached to non-god. since the origin is from him, the end is verily in him. separation and union, coming and going, are thus unreal. this is a long story. discreet silence is here absolutely necessary.--_letter 58._ the noble qualities noble qualities were in the beginning of creation given to adam, who left them as a legacy to other prophets. mohammad, the head of the prophets, received them in his turn. similarly, evil qualities were allotted to satan who handed them down to his followers--the proud and the disobedient.... since the noble qualities are the precious legacy of adam to mohammad, no garment or decoration is better for the faithful than that of the noble qualities. they are based upon harmony with the divine will and the prophet's life. one should curb one's temper, lest it should embitter the life of others. one should ever be cheerful, and of controlled tongue. one should always salute others. one should be charitable, and abstain from slander, abusive words and untruthfulness. one should adapt one's words and deeds (_e. g._ eating and sleeping) to the scriptural injunctions. one should ever be magnanimous and free from the taints of miserliness, hatred, greed and suspicion. one should do one's best to practise at all times the virtues possessed by the prophet, and flee from vices. the prophet has said: "seek him who flees from thee; forgive him who injures thee; give to him who does not give to thee." the prophet always concealed the defects of the faithful, and bore injuries and reproaches to propagate religion. he was never angry for himself. he did not tolerate flattery, neglect, or silence in the service of truth. he helped the friends when they were disabled. he worked for a servant in the family, when the latter was ill. he accepted the invitations and presents of others. he never found fault with any unprohibited food. he used any garment allowed by the law--sometimes a blanket, sometimes a silk wrapper, sometimes a worn out cotton garment. he rode sometimes on a horse, sometimes on a camel, sometimes on an ass. sometimes he walked on foot, without shoes, wrapper, turban or cap. he slept on a mat without bedding.... he had no miraculous power: his virtues were sufficient guarantee of his godliness. many an unbeliever, just as he saw him, would exclaim, "this is not the face of a hypocrite," and swear allegiance to =islâm= without asking for miracle or argument.... the noble qualities are based on knowledge and insight. he who is fettered by self-conceit cannot be expected to purify his nature. hence the pilgrim should use insight to acquire the virtues of the prophet. he should guard the virtues he has been endowed with, and acquire those he is lacking in by self-exertion (_i. e._ asceticism, service, and the company of the saints). most of the virtues can be acquired, and we have been ordered [by the scriptures] to strive therefor to the limit of our powers. man is a mirror who, when trained, perfected, and cleansed of impurities shows within him all the divine attributes of construction and disintegration. then he realises his divinity and the purpose of his life. a sage refers to this very fact in these lines: "it is thou who art the divine scripture; it is thou who art the mirror of the royal beauty. beyond thee there is naught in the universe: seek thy object within thyself, for thou art that."--_letter 59._ contemplation. the prophet has restricted the use of contemplation to the works of god, not to his nature and attributes. thinking on god may soon end in unbelief. in order that thought may work, its object must be limited, and the divine nature and attributes are unlimited. hence a student should contemplate on the objects of creation, noticing their [relative] permanence and impermanence, and realising the position and changes of each in its phenomenal aspect. he will thus be led to the knowledge of the creator. hence the seeker should [while not neglecting outward activities, holy recitations and other duties] contemplate from time to time on creation--seeing the wisdom of the creator therein--, on his desires, on the heart and the body; he should enquire into his stages from the beginning of creation to its end, and study his own character. his contemplation should be in conformity with religion, based upon knowledge and experience, and irrespective of considerations of gain and loss, so that he may develop insight. right contemplation achieves in a short time the results of long practice and worship. the prophet has said, "contemplation for an hour is better than [formal] worship for sixty years." as the range of the _outer_ vision differs with different men, so is it the case with _insight_, or the _inner_ vision. some see as far as heaven, some as far as the divine throne. a few have the _perfect_ insight which pierces through all creation to the creator. the end of contemplation is the advancement of knowledge and the acquisition of wisdom. when the heart develops knowledge and wisdom, there is a change in its condition. with that change, there comes a change in conduct as well, and the man _turns_. with the _turning_, he begins to tread the path. treading attracts him to god. _then_ a current of divine attraction may carry him to a stage inaccessible to men and genii by exertion and asceticism.... if thou longest and dost not succeed, be not dejected; for, as the great lord has said, "asking is for men, acceptance for god."--_letter 60._ renunciation. the _first_ duty incumbent upon a seeker is the practice of =tajrîd= and =tafrîd=. the one is to quit present possessions; the other, to cease to care for the morrow. the _second_ duty is seclusion, outer and inner. outer seclusion consists in flying from the world and turning thy face to the wall, in order that thou mayest give up thy life on the divine threshold; inner seclusion consists in cleansing the heart of all thoughts connected with the non-god, whether the non-god be earth or heaven. the _third_ duty is at-onement in speech and thought, which consists in ceasing to speak and think of the non-god. the _fourth_ duty is the practice of moderation in speech, food and sleep, since this triad supports the desire-nature. too much speaking is a bar to holy recitations; too much sleep interferes with meditation; too much food brings on inertia and checks the performance of duties. purity of body as well as of mind is necessary at all times--purity of body _alone_ is not sufficient--in order that the divine attraction may uplift thee to a stage unattainable by _all_ the efforts and ascetic practices of _all_ genii and men put together. very easy to speak of this, but very hard the practice--since this practice does not lie with the bodily organs or elements, but with the heart and the soul which are beyond our control. the gate to the path is knowledge and wisdom. he who avoids this gate has to plod on his way through an endless forest infested by demons, and ends by losing his life and faith.... eternal life is the life in spirit without a body. it is attained by love, not by obedience. servants wait for an order and seek remedies for their ailments; lovers are impelled by love and invite ailments without asking for a remedy. the beloved ever cries, "stay at a distance lest thou shouldst perish." the lover answers, "i am prepared from the very beginning to give up my life. death is better than a life without thee." the life of the body has no value on the path. whoso cares for the one has no business with the other. love says to thee: "give up a life which must turn into dust, and i shall instal thee on the throne of glorious at-onement. now the choice is thine." although there is no heart _without_ love, yet the priceless treasure of divine love does not fall to the lot of greedy and mean fellows, who are content with prayers and fasts, and have but given up their earthly claims for higher honours. be cheerful and hopeful, for the door of compassion is open. god has created doubt interfering with conviction, the lower nature veiling the face of truth, duality warring with monotheism, the alloy claiming the place of the genuine coin, a thousand foes arrayed against each friend, a temple of idols facing every mosque, a suffering balancing each blessing. "he does all this; but man, awe-stricken, cannot breathe a sigh: for his face is like a mirror, and a mirror is clouded by breathing."--_letter 61._ on the same. =tajrîd= and =tafrîd= are indispensable for a disciple. the one is the renunciation of the world and of outer concerns; the other is the renunciation of self. no impurity in his heart, no burden on his back, no market in his bosom;--not reckoned with any class of people, not concerned with any particular object, his aspirations soaring above earth, heaven and the divine throne,--such a disciple rests in his beloved. the beloved away, all the worlds cannot please; their absence leaves no void when he is there. as said by a noble soul, "no grief in the company of god; no joy in the company of the non-god." one away from god is at the very centre of sorrow and suffering, albeit he may hold the key of all the treasures of the earth. one attached to god, however poor, is king of heaven and earth. =khwâjâ sirrî saqtî= was wont to pray: "o god! punish me, if such be thy will, any way save by veiling thyself." this is the only real hell.... as observed by some one, "with thee, the heart is a mosque; without thee, 'tis but a shrine of idols. with thee, the heart is a heaven; the heart without thee is a hell." in short, when the disciple realises the greatness of god, feels the pangs of his seeking, knows that "who gains him gains all, who loses him loses all," and finds that he can dispense with all save him,--he then overcomes his old habits and unfolds the vision, "i am from god and for god." life and death, acceptance and rejection, praise and blame, are thenceforth equal in his eyes. heaven and earth find no place in his heart. he bows to none for food, clothes or money. his goal being the divine sanctuary, he longs for naught save god.--_letter 62._ the clearing of the path. the path should be cleared of all impurities inherent in the lower self.... the great ones have declared: "he that takes a step in obedience to his desire-nature loves it better than god. he cannot be a believer: how can he be a saint?" nothing but constant _turning_ (=taubâh=) can guard the path against the onslaughts of the desire-nature. as the ordinary soul should turn from sensuality, cruelty and avarice, so should the developed soul turn from purity, worship and meditation. the sages have said: "thou must acquire all virtues, such as truth, purity and worship. when acquired, thou must scatter them in the air of supreme indifference. were all prophets, saints and angels to sing the hymn of his unity, their final chorus would end thus: 'we turn to god from all we have said.[13]'" [13] or "we retract with repentance what we have said."--_trs._ art thou endowed with the purity of all the saints, plume thyself not over it; art thou distressed with a thousand shocks, seek not refuge in flight. he that does not burn himself here in the fire of =taubâh= certainly deserves the doom of hell-fire. so burn thou to-day in the fire of =taubâh= whatever thou knowest of thyself, be it merit or defect. if to-day thou dost not cast aside the thorns from thy path, they will hereafter turn into arrows and pierce thy heart.--_letter 63._ self-control. the self-controlled is one who has freed himself from the bondage of self. the seven hells and the eight heavens are too narrow to hold him--only the vast expanse of god is wide enough to receive him. if the joy of heaven and the torture of hell ceased to be, there would be no loss to the spiritual aspect of god. "what a vastness! if the worlds were not, it would not be less by a hair's breadth. the kingdom of its glory is truly without beginning or end." freedom from self leads to freedom from all. so long as thou art bound to any of the lower qualities, thou art its slave.... the path is a jealous master and will not put up with any partner. so long as thou art a friend to self, thou art a stranger to god. be then estranged from self that thou mayest unite with him. the dead wall of self cannot be pulled down save with the help of a perfect teacher. self-control will not allow thee to look down upon any creature, _e. g._ to tread upon even the lowliest ant in thy way. wert thou able to raise the veil of ignorance from thine eyes, then wouldst thou see each and every being seeking and adoring god. the prophet prayed, "show me things as they are." his senior disciple ever prayed: "o god, show me truth and untruth, and help me to follow the one and avoid the other." so it is said: "when god seeks the welfare of a man, he shows his defects to him," that he may change from a temple of idols into a mosque. * * * * * rest assured that thou hast nothing but good to expect, once self has been stripped off from thee. so long as thy self lies before thee, thou canst but swell in self-respect. a satan in very truth is he that respects self, whether in the guise of angel or of man, whether on earth, in heaven or in hell. self-respect consists in not transcending self. "endless as the veils are, none is thicker than self-conceit. know its destruction as thy foremost duty."--_letter 64._ truth. =khwâjâ zunnoon= of egypt says: "truth is the sword of god on earth. it may not be laid on anything without cutting it." truth consists in looking to the actor, and not to his instruments. true faith consists in ceasing to desire anything save truth.... once upon a time =zunnoon=, while returning from jerusalem, saw a figure loom in the distance, and desired to question it. on drawing near, it was found to be an old woman clad in wool, with a stick in her hand. =zunnoon= said, "whence comest thou?" the dame replied, "from god." =zunnoon= again enquired, "whither dost thou go?" the old woman rejoined, "to god." =zunnoon= then offered her a gold coin. she refused the gift, saying, "what an illusion has overcome thee? i work for god and do not receive anything save what comes from him. as i worship him and him alone, i cannot receive what is not himself and comes from other than himself." having spoken thus, she vanished. such is to be the ideal of the aspirant. working for god alone is the test of true devotion. some think they work for him, but they work for themselves. they have conquered the desires of this world, but they seek for fruits in a higher world. a few work irrespective of all consideration of internal suffering or celestial joy, in pure love to carry out the divine will. "the earth is a place of suffering, heaven is a place of joy. we shall not receive the fruits of either, even to the measure of a barleycorn." it has been said. the virtuous often prove more selfish in their virtue than the sinners in their sin. the gratification of the latter is but transitory, the joy of the former is permanent. god does not gain by the self-denial of men, nor does he lose by their sensual gratifications.... it is an old adage, that the mere description of a savoury dish only intensifies the misery of hunger. take an onward step if you can: lose your head and give up your life. as god is essentially one, a true believer must be a monotheist. look for the proof of this in the holy _logion_, one half of which, "there is no god," separates [the believer from the non-god], while the other half, "save =allâh=," unites [him with god]. one unites with god in proportion to one's renunciation of the non-god. he who claims to have faith should look at his own heart. if his heart flies from the non-god, his claim is genuine. if it longs for anything save god, and shrinks from the means of divine union, let him weep over his faith. either he has already lost it, or is about to do so. a certain great one has said: "all men claim to love, but if the claim is carefully scrutinised, 'loving' turns out to mean 'being loved.'" true love consists in the complete renunciation of all desires. if one looks for the gratification of a desire, one plays the part of the beloved, not of the lover.--_letter 65._ the descent from adam. the pilgrim justifies his descent from adam when he enters the heart. now he has finished the turning, and begins his pilgrimage. by the virtue of his complete turning, anything coming in contact with him undergoes a change. this is the power of transmutation. this explains the phenomena of transmutation wrought by many derveshes (_e. g._ the change of wine into an innocuous beverage). such a pilgrim may lawfully lay his hand on the imperial treasury, and use the wealth of kings. (religious injunctions vary with circumstances. it is reported in the traditions that a young man came to the prophet and asked if he could lawfully take a certain oil in the fast month of ramzân. he said, "no." next followed an old man who put the same question. he said, "yes." the companions of the prophet were confused, and asked, "how is it, o messenger of god, that you allowed in the one case what you prohibited in the other." he replied: "the one was a young man, and i was afraid of the fire of his youth; the other was an old man, and i did not apprehend any danger for him.") but those who take to the _outer_ conduct without having reached the _inner_ stage, court their own ruin. such a stage must have the sanction of divine authority. a time comes to the master of the heart, when all his limbs become [as sacred as] the heart. no part of his body, _e. g._, a nail or a hair, should be cast aside, as it partakes of the sanctity of the heart. the broken hairs of the prophet were divided by his companions as a precious gift amongst themselves.... hence arose the practice of sharing among disciples the pieces of the teacher's worn-out mantle. the practice is a mere sham if the teacher is not a master. he who has completed the turning and reached the heart, is a master. only such a one is entitled to the honour of a leader,--not one who is below this stage. _question_:--how to distinguish the real master from a mere pretender? _answer_:--the _true_ seeker has an _inner_ eye enabling him to recognise a real master. he would not be attracted to a pretender. dost thou not behold that if different kinds of animals flock together, and different kinds of food be placed before them, each will fall to on his own appropriate food and turn away from what is meant for others?... the true seeker also is known as _such_, as his inner eye opens to the vision of the master, and he receives the nourishment suited to his aspiration. the master begins to work on him. he is [as one] dead, and the master gives him a wash[14], purifying him of all undesirable elements. this purification completes the turning. then he begins his journey on the divine path--which is called the pilgrimage. [14] this refers to the practice of washing the dead body before burial or cremation.--_trs._ this is not devotion as ordinarily understood (_i. e._ prayer, fast, almsgiving, etc.). allegiance to a master is in itself devotion; progress on the path is its fruit. a brief prayer, a day's fast, or a simple charity, performed or given in obedience to a master's direction, are more beneficial than long protracted prayers, or splendid gifts, performed or given in response to the call of the desire-nature. as a qualification for the path, seek to get rid of old habits. but it is not possible to get rid of old habits and purify the dross without the service of a master, since he alone can, by his knowledge, gradually drive out the host of the evil elements, and help one towards the realisation of "there is no god save =allâh=." continue thy seeking till _the_ seeking unveils itself, and destroys thy self in thee. henceforth the disciple has nothing to do: the seeking will itself lead him on. so long as thou seekest any but the beloved, no seeker art thou. how then canst thou be wholly his? by wholly turning to him. he can afford to have thousands of friends, for he can reach all alike. the sun is with all--east and west, hindu and turk--for his range is unlimited. but _thou_ art limited in capacity, and canst not feel the warmth of his rays unless thou wholly expose thyself to him. all the worlds are benefited by him, yet he does not lose in the least. * * * * * here one should guard against a possible misunderstanding. to love a thing as a _means_ does not interfere with the love for the _end_ or the _final_ object. our foes even ought to be loved as connected with the lord. this is not a division of love, but its perfection. love is a peculiar state: friendship with foes is possible only here. =abul abbâs=--peace be on him--said to a party marching to war against the unbelievers, "would i might lick the dust of the feet of the unbelievers whom ye would kill for his sake." the care of a scholar for pen and paper cannot be said to divert his attention from learning. the _real_ object of love ought to be only one (_i. e._ god), but loving others as subservient to the final object (_i. e._ divine love) is by no means harmful. if a man loves god, he must love the prophets and the masters--nay, if he ponders well, he must love _all_ as connected with him. all the universe is his work and is certainly himself. "duality does not approach thy sanctuary: the whole world is thyself and thy energy. the universe is the shadow of thy presence; all is the result of thy mighty workmanship." but if it be the divine will to put an end to a certain work of his, using thee as instrument, thou as a devotee must destroy it, and none should accuse thee of lack of respect for his work. this is a very high stage. if =mohammad= and his blessed companions killed the unbelievers, they did so in obedience to the divine will. the lover has not to seek his own pleasure.--_letter 66._ confidence. the =sûfî= trusts in god. =khwâjâ yahiâ= observes: "he who does not trust god cannot receive divine illumination." _explanation_: god deals with a man according to his expectations. one who suspects him cannot receive any light. again, it is a friend who is trusted, and it is a foe who is suspected. suspicion invites hostility; confidence, love. there is a distinction, however, between mere groundless hope and reasonable expectation. one who endeavours to obey the divine commands may reasonably expect the divine grace; but it is a vain hope for one guilty of commissions and omissions to expect exemption from hell and enjoyment of heaven.... so it is wise to check the accounts of the desire-nature, and prepare for death; and it is foolish to follow the desire-nature and hope for the remission of sins.--_letter 67._ pursuit and renunciation. =sûfîs= differ as to whether they should follow or renounce worldly pursuits. complete renunciation is only permitted at a very high stage, _i. e._ that of absolute unity and perfect trust in god. working for a livelihood began with adam. he cultivated lands and taught cultivation to his children. the prophet =shoaib= was a merchant and possessed cattle. =moses= served as his shepherd. if work interfered with the principle of trust in god, the prophets would not have worked for a livelihood. =mohammad= warned his friends against the abuse of the principle of trust, and ever kept in store a year's provision for his children. work is a duty for him who has to support another; but he should work so as not to be cut off from god. each should look to his circumstances and inner attitude, in order to decide whether he should resort to work or cease from work. if ceasing separates him from god, work should be resorted to; if ceasing leads him to god, work should be left aside. work is as lawful as prayer and fast. the more you pray, the more you fast, the better; but to look for your salvation therefrom is dualism. you should adore for the glorification of god and the strengthening of your love, but you should rely on his grace for your salvation. similarly, work is better than renunciation; but it is not the work, but rather the divine grace, which is to be looked up to as providence. a dervesh should avoid begging as far as possible, as it is dangerous in many respects. he, however, may beg (a) to gratify his hunger.... (b) to pull down his personality, ... (c) knowing the world as the divine steward. it is more in keeping with the ceremonious glorification of the lord to ask of his steward than of himself.--_letter 69._ the company of the saints. holy company is an important discipline for the pupil. it is very effective in conquering nature and habit. hence is it laid down by the holy saints as binding upon a disciple. the rationale of it is this. the desire-nature consists of certain ingrained tendencies, and is affected by the tendencies of one's associates. the prophet says: "men follow the religion of their friends, so they should always be careful of their company." ... it is said that a man, while going round =kâbâ=, prayed: "lord, make my brothers virtuous." others asked him, "why dost thou pray for thy brothers at this sacred spot, and not for thyself?" he replied: "i have brothers who, when i return to them, will elevate me by their virtues if they are virtuous, and degrade me by their vices if they are vicious. as my righteousness rests on theirs, i pray for them, that they may help me in reaching the goal." =malik= (peace on him!) says: "do not associate with a brother or a friend, unless you would thereby advance the cause of religion. to associate with any other object is absolutely forbidden." _explanation_: if you associate with a superior, he will benefit you by his presence; if you associate with an inferior, you should benefit him by teaching him religion and morality, and yourself too by learning something useful he may know. company is to be sought for the sake of the lord, not for selfish gratification. nothing is more dangerous for a beginner than loneliness. a story runs thus. there was a disciple of master =junnaid= who fancied he had made great progress and could not be harmed by isolation. so he took to seclusion. nightly, a procession appeared before him with a horse for him to ride, and he was requested to ride up to heaven,--a delightful place with sweet dishes, running brooks and fair company--where he enjoyed himself till morn, and slept. on awakening, he would find himself at the door of his hermitage. he turned proud and boastful. on hearing the report, the master came to him, asked him and was told what had happened, and advised him to repeat three times when he went to the pleasure-haunt: "there is nothing to be relied upon save god, and there is no power except his." he refused to act up to the advice for a few nights more. at last he wished to test the efficiency of the master's lesson and repeated the sentence as advised. the whole procession fell into confusion and scattered, and he found himself in a cemetery with the bones of the dead around him. then he came to realise his guilt, repented, and returned to the company of his fellow-disciples. * * * * * the rule of society is to behave with each according to his position in life. _with reference to elders_, to serve them; not to speak before them save when necessary, and then only with their permission, and after they have finished if they are speaking; not to sit on an elevated seat in their presence. _with reference to equals_, to live in harmony, and to share one's wealth with them (not as a loan, but as a free gift). _with reference to the young_, to treat them with love and kindness. _general_: elders to be treated as one's own parents, equals as one's own brothers, the younger ones as one's own children. none to be asked for anything, but each to be helped. life to be rendered agreeable to all. not to oppose others except at the call of religious duty. to associate with those strong in religion, integrity and moderation. not to mix with those opposed in religion and temperament. to avoid the company of a youth. (the desire in the young for the company of their elders aids the development of their intelligence and knowledge. the desire in elders for the company of youths leads to sin and folly).... =sûfîs=, when conversing with one another, never say, "this is mine," "that is thine;" "i wish it were so," "i wish it were not so." it is the verdict of the masters of knowledge that god does not approve of the use of words denoting i-ness. if thou wouldst know the unknown, taste the nectar of grace and transcend the seven heavens, then close the five senses, and pass from the perishable to the imperishable. they asked master =shiblî=, "who is a knower, and how is he to be distinguished?" he said, "he is deaf, dumb and blind." they replied, "these are the marks of an unbeliever." he rejoined: "the unbeliever is deaf to the voice of truth, dumb for the utterance of truth, and blind to the vision of truth; whereas the knower is deaf, dumb and blind to all save truth."--_letter 70._ service. service is an essential duty for the disciple. its gains are superior to those of worship. it kills the desire-nature; it breeds humility and good manners; it destroys pride, impurity and inertia, quickens the soul and illumines the inner and the outer man. they asked a great one, "how many ways are there to god?" he said: "there are as many ways as there are atoms in the universe. but the best and the shortest is service. i have reached the goal by treading this path, and recommend it to my disciples." ... _rules of service_: to put aside one's own desires, to render oneself agreeable to others, ... and to regard one's powers and possessions as intended for the use of others.... as the wealthy are to serve with their wealth and the learned with their knowledge--so the disciple is to use _all_ his activities for the service of others.... all great ones began with service, which gradually lifted them to the rank of masters.--_letter 71._ [the following notes gleaned from other works of the author are added as bearing on the subject.--_trs._] the outer conduct of an occultist should be in accordance with the mental capacity of the people surrounding him. he should speak what concerns them only, and not of his own relations with god. master =yahiâ= observes: "when with others, i say 'my lord'; when alone, i say 'my beloved'; when united, i say 'i'." obey the law, whatever your stage or position. such is the approved mode of conduct, as recommended by the masters of wisdom.--_the series of 28 letters,--letter 21._ a certain great one was told that the chief of a certain town spent the whole night in prayers. he replied that the poor fellow had missed the way and undertaken the work of others. on being questioned again, he added that that man's path of duty lay in feeding the hungry, clothing the naked, comforting the distressed, and fulfilling the wants of the needy; and that keeping up all night in prayer was the duty of a recluse. each man ought to work according to his position in life.--_fawâed-i-ruknî._ the transmutation of evil qualities. the purification of character by the transmutation of evil qualities into virtues is to be ever striven for as an essential duty. if neglected, it must breed dangers and difficulties. man has all the qualities found in the animals. his resurrection will be determined by his predominant quality, not by his outer body on earth--_i. e._, he will turn into the form of the corresponding animal. for instance, the predominance of anger, lust, pride or flattery in earthly life, produces severally the forms of the dog, the hog, the lion and the fox, on the day of resurrection. similarly of other qualities.... many men will be seen in bestial form on the day of resurrection, and many beasts in human form. the dog of the cave-recluses[15] will rise in the form of man, owing to his human qualities. mount =ahud= will have a rock drawn out of it, and will stand in the rank of the pure ones in human form.... those endowed with the inner eye know that all beings, even the mineral, pray. "every particle of dust in the air is full of the light of divine love. all atoms in the universe are centres--active or potential--of divine love." [15] the reference is to the seven sages who, with a dog, retired to a cave to avoid the persecution of a tyrant, awoke after a sleep of 300 years, and slept again to awake on the day of resurrection.--_trs._ such a difficult task lies in front, and none take to it save the wise. so thou shouldst not be heedless, but slowly and steadily discipline thyself so as to overcome a part of thy animal nature--it is indeed a mighty achievement to overcome it in its entirety. he who wishes to know the nature of his resurrection should see what is the predominating quality in his life: his resurrection will be determined by this quality. it is not difficult to know thus much. similarly, if a man wishes to know whether god is pleased or displeased with him, he should look at his life. a life wholly devoted to righteousness must please god: righteousness is the indication of his pleasure. a life wholly given to vice must displease god: vice is the indication of his displeasure. a life partly righteous and partly vicious is to be valued according to the predominating element in it. if the earthly life is not turned to account, there shall be no progress on the other side. if a man who has not transmuted [on earth] the evil qualities in his nature, is taken to heaven at his death, and all celestial boons are bestowed upon him, those qualities will not change. he will have only the houris, the palaces, the roast cocks and the stream of running water, but will be too weak to realise the real object--the goal of the _inner_ man, and the ideal of all the disciples and of the master. how insignificant are all other gains where that is lost! how immaterial is any loss, where that is gained! frequent ablutions and baths remove sloth and drowsiness. the divine vision on resurrection day depends on the divine grace, not on merit. no eye deserves his vision, no ear his voice, no intellect his knowledge, no feet his path.... self-reproach is necessary for a seeker.--_letter 72._ avarice. to work for show, and desire the rank of a saint, is not the mark of piety. thy deeds are all tainted with desire. purity consists in the spirit of service, not in avarice. the one is not compatible with the other. but we want bribes to serve the lord. o brother, cast off avarice. god does not owe anything to any one, and his gifts on earth or after death are gratuitous. do all your works for his service, not in the hope of gaining heaven or shunning hell.... he who aspires to work in his service should be careful of the purity of his motives, which is a function of the heart. an act without pure motive cannot soar from the region of sham to the sphere of service.... a prayer worth the name is one performed with the fervour of the heart, and not with the lips only. the motto of monotheism, "there is no god save =allâh=," if repeated as a talk at moments of sale and purchase, can not be regarded as a declaration of divine unity.... god says: "my shrine is not a place of sale and purchase. thou goest to market with the object of gaining something thou hast not. but if thou comest to my shrine, come with the distinct understanding that thou losest all and returnest a pauper." =khwâjâ ahmad= had a vision of god, who told him: "=ahmad=, all men ask me for something, save =bâyazîd=[16] who asks for myself alone."--_letter 73._ [16] a great muhammadan saint. the evil of the world. the world and all things therein are to be avoided, save as needed for the lord's sake. the world may be classed under three groups:-(1) the first group is purely worldly, and cannot serve his cause. it consists of: (_a_) vices. their commission in the mind or with the body does not serve his cause. (_b_) too much of lawful enjoyments. this is the root of all failures and sins. (2) the second group is purely divine, but may be turned to selfish use by an impure motive, _e. g._, meditation, prayer and asceticism, if practised with the object of gaining the respect of the people. (3) the third group is apparently worldly but really divine, _e. g._, eating for the sake of the divine service; marriage with the object of begetting a child who shall repeat "there is no god save =allâh="; making a small fortune with the object of peacefully serving god. in short, the world is that which gratifies the cravings of desire in the present, and is of no use after death; that which may help on the other side of death is not worldly.... he who appropriates the world to the limit of _bare_ necessity (food, garment and a dwelling-house) breaks his bonds; whereas he who seeks luxurious living exposes himself to endless troubles.... the great ones have remarked that the lowest stage of purity shows itself as an inner craving for well-being after death and a diminution of worldly desires, ending in a gradual estrangement from this world, and the realisation of other worlds.... the work is harder than you imagine. all worldly pleasures are sorrows and sufferings.--_letter 74._ renunciation of the world. service of the lord is impossible without renunciation of the world. when thy body works for the world and thy heart longs for it, how canst thou serve him? the heart is one; it cannot attend to two things at the same time. the world and the lord are wide apart as east and west. the more you approach the one, the farther you recede from the other.... renunciation is twofold:-(1) human renunciation, _i. e._ the renunciation which can be achieved by a man. it consists of three stages: (_a_) ceasing to seek for the worldly objects one has not. (_b_) casting off the worldly objects one has. (_c_) ceasing to entertain worldly desires in the mind. (2) superhuman renunciation, which consists in complete indifference to the world. it can be accomplished, with the help of the divine grace, by one who has achieved success in all the three stages of human renunciation. the second is the true renunciation with many sages. the expulsion of worldly desires from the mind is a most difficult task. you will find many cases of _apparent_ renunciation, with an _inner_ longing for the world. but when you cease to seek for what you have not, and cast off what you have, the divine grace will enable you to drive out worldly desires from your mind. relinquishment of the world will not give _real_ renunciation, so long as the heart still craves for the world. the prophets were master-ascetics. one of them was solomon, who possessed the sovereignty of all the worlds, and was certainly an ascetic. _conclusion_: the separation of the heart from worldly cravings, in spite of the possession of worldly objects, is superior to the separation of the body from worldly objects, in spite of the worldly cravings that remain in the heart. renunciation is the basis of all virtue and progress, and, as such, is the first condition of discipleship. =ahmad hambal= (peace on him!) says that renunciation is threefold:- (_a_) abstinence from what is forbidden by the scriptures. this is the lower renunciation. (_b_) abstinence from over-indulgence in lawful pleasures. this is the higher renunciation. (_c_) renunciation of that which separates man from god. this is the highest renunciation.--_letter 75._ the final doom. there are two classes of travellers, the noble and the wicked. each class has its peculiar speed, path, and doom. noble souls are divided into ordinary noble ones, and the more advanced. the former attain heaven and the heavenly ranks by following the ascetic practices prescribed by religion. the more advanced approach purity by following the path of devotion. the wicked, too, are divided into ordinary wicked ones, and the more degraded. the former include some of the believers, leading a sinful life, disobeying the divine injunctions, and addicted to sensual pleasures. they tread the path of transgression and go to hell. the latter are the unbelievers, solely attending to sensual pleasures and earthly gains, and wholly disbelieving in religion and the disembodied life. they risk the permanent for the sake of the transient, and finally lose this world as well as the next. the former suffer in hell temporarily, but finally escape it by virtue of their faith, albeit imperfect. the latter eternally suffer in hell owing to total absence of faith. there are different gradations in hell, as there are grades of unbelief or hypocrisy. there are thinkers and blind followers amongst unbelievers as well as amongst believers. as the faith of a thoughtful believer is superior to that of an ordinary believer, so the sufferings of a thoughtful unbeliever are intenser than those of an ordinary unbeliever. ordinary unbelief is inherited from ancestors and surroundings, and is punished in the first infernal region. intellectual unbelief does not rest upon tradition, but upon researches carried on for long years, self-denial and discipline of the lower nature, all intended for and ending in scepticism and atheism.--_letter 68._ the soul (=rûh=). people differ in their opinions on the soul--some call it a body, some an essence, some an accident; some regard it as eternal, others as created. orthodox =islâm= declares its existence, but is silent on its nature and quality. god says: "if questioned on the soul, say, 'it is from the will of god.'," =abû bakr qahatî=, however, holds that the soul is beyond the category of created objects. [the author does not subscribe to this view, and enters on a controversy to show its heresy.--_trs._]--_letter 79._ [the following notes from _the series of 28 letters_, may be added as bearing on the subject.--_trs._] in search of peace, and fervently longing for spiritual fragrance, a pilgrim came to the soul and said: "thou art a reflection of the glorious sun, unfading; all the attributes of the absolute one lie verily in thee. transcending reason and understanding, thou eludest description and predication. there is no creature above thee, there is no beloved beyond thee." these lines from master =farîd attâr=, and the hints underlying them, ought to be carefully pondered over--so that one may realise that there is no existence outside the self, and that whatever one seeks is to be sought within the self. if an authority be needed, one may read from the =qurân=: "he is within thee, though _thou_ mayest not see." again, this couplet is worth perusal: "adam first ran towards all the atoms of the universe, but he did not find god so long as he found not the way within himself."--_loc. cit., letter 24_. the connection of the soul with the body compares well with that of god with his universe: for the soul is neither within the body nor without it, neither united with it nor separated from it. soul and body belong to two different planes of existence; yet for all that there is not an atom in the body but is pervaded by the soul.... the soul retains its innate purity, linked though it be to the body for myriads of years.--_ibid, letter 3._ the heart. there is a treasure buried in the heart of the knower. it is love. a single jewel out of it is worth a thousand heavens. the guardian of heaven is an angel named =rizwân=, whereas the guardian of the treasure of love is god himself. know that thy merit is measured by what thou seekest.... if thou worshippest to obtain heaven or avoid hell, thou worshippest thy own desires. if thou seekest or fearest an object, thou art the worshipper of that object. thy real value depends on what is in thy heart. if thy heart is attached to god, thou art a divine man.... =junnaid=, when ill, prayed for his recovery. a voice answered him, "dost _thou_ come in between myself and thee?" thou walkest every morning to office and comest back at dusk. where is the difference between thee and the fire-worshipper and the jew? thy prayers are for increase of wealth, and thy pilgrimages for popular approbation. all thy acts are similarly tainted with name and form. the real end of life is yet veiled from thee.--_letter 80._ =nafs=, the desire-nature. some say the desire-nature is a substance, placed in the body, similar to the soul. others say it is a quality of the body, similar to life. but all take it as the source of evil qualities and acts. these evils are grouped into: (a) sins, (b) qualities, _e. g._ pride, envy, anger. the former pertain more to the _outer_ man, the latter more to the _inner_ man. the former are purified by ascetic practices, the latter by =taubâh= (or turning).... it is said that the desire-nature and the soul are both mysterious entities in the body, corresponding to demons and angels, hell and heaven in the macrocosm;--the one being the centre of evil, the other the centre of good. there is no help against the desire-nature save in ascetic practices. man is the epitome of the whole universe, and is composed of the soul, the desire-nature and the body. he bears the characteristics of all the worlds. the earth, water, fire and air of this world appear in his body as the four humours: blood, phlegm, melancholy and bile. other worlds are not less vividly marked in him. the soul leads him to heaven, being its image; the desire-nature leads him to hell, being its image. =bû alî= saw his desire-nature in the form of a hog. he wished to kill it, but it said to him, "do not trouble thyself: i belong to the army of god, _thou_ canst not annihilate me." =mohammad nûrî= speaks of his desire-nature coming out of his throat in the form of a miniature fox. "i knew it was the desire-nature, so i put it under my feet and began to trample upon it. it grew the larger and the stronger. i said, 'pain and torture destroy all things, but they simply aid your growth!' it said, 'this is due to the fact of my constitution being the other way: what is pain for others is pleasure for me.'" =abul abbâs= saw it in the form of a yellowish dog. when he attempted to turn it out, it came underneath the skirts of his garment, and disappeared. =abul qâsim= saw it in the form of a serpent. another dervesh saw it in the form of a mouse, and asked who it was. it said, "i am the death of the heedless and the salvation of the divine friends. if i were not, they would turn proud of their purity and noble deeds." these stories go to show that the desire-nature is a corporeal being--not a quality--albeit it is endowed with qualities. it should be subdued by ascetic practices, but it cannot be completely destroyed in its essential nature. there need not be any fear from its existence, when it has been subdued by the disciple.... this dreary forest cannot be crossed save with the help of the divine grace and under the protection of a master of compassion.--_letter 81._ desire. 'desire' is a term covering all the qualities of =nafs=. it prevents union, tortures the disciple, and stands against the seeker. it is to be opposed and not to be gratified. "he who follows it is ruined; he who opposes it attains his object." desires are twofold: (_a_) those connected with the senses and sex; (_b_) ambition of power and fame. the victims of the former resort to brothels without seriously affecting the well-being of others. the victims of the latter resort to holy places, and become the pests of the world. they isolate themselves from society and mislead others. he who seeks the allegiance of his desires is far away from god, be he above the sky; he who renounces his desires is in close touch with god, be he in a heathen temple. master =ibrâhîm= says: "i went to see a jewish monk in turkey, who had confined himself in a temple for seventy years. he opened a window and said he had not shut himself up there to secure the position of an ascetic, but to break the dog within him and restrain it from harming the world at large. i praised god for showing the right path to his misguided devotee. he went on, '=ibrâhîm=, how long will you seek men?--seek the self, and watch it when found. the desire-nature constantly puts on many a semblance of divinity, and invites man to his ruin.'".... it is said of master =abû alî= that he wished to cut off his genital organ, as the root of lust, when his eyes fell on it while bathing. a voice whispered to his soul, "by my honour, no organ is better or worse than another in my eyes. if you lop it off, i can put in each hair of your body the whole lust of your genital organ." it is no use destroying the organ: it is a vehicle for carrying the divine command. but a man can transmute its quality, god helping.--_letter 82._ discipline of the desire-nature. the desire-nature is the worst foe. it is very difficult to be armed against it, since, firstly, it is an _internal_ foe, and it is almost impossible to guard the house against a thief co-tenant; and, secondly, it is a _lovely_ foe, and a man is blind to the defects of his beloved, whose shortcomings take on the appearance of merits. such being the case, the desire-nature may ere long hurl a man unawares to the lowest depth of degradation. if you ponder well, you will find it at the root of all the troubles that beset man in the past or may beset him in the future. this being the foe, one should intelligently strive to overcome it. it is improper to overcome it _all at once_, as it is a vehicle and instrument of the soul; nor is it proper to let it go wholly unbridled, in view of the probable dangers. so the disciple needs a middle course, and it is this: you should strengthen it to the extent of enabling it to perform its duties; you should weaken it to the measure of preventing the chance of its leading you astray. anything besides this rule is objectionable. it is reported in sacred tradition that on seeing =abdullâh masûd=, who had by ascetic practices weakened his body, his feet having become incapable of motion, his eyes having sunk in their sockets, =mohammad= said, "o =abdullâh=, be warned! thy desire-nature has claims on thee." so the conclusion is that the desire-nature should be disciplined by knowledge, so that it may neither overcome (nor disobey) thee, nor be itself destroyed. the middle course consists in restraining the desire-nature by temperance. there are three ways of thus subduing it: (_a_) withholding gratification; ... (_b_) imposing religious observances; (_c_) invoking the divine help for mastery over it. if you follow this threefold method, the desire-nature will be amenable to discipline.--_letter 83._ discipline of the desire-nature. (_continued._) the discipline of the desire-nature is recommended by all creeds and nations, and is known by sages as a means of developing the supersensuous faculties.... but thy business lies with the discipline only, it is god's to grant supersensuous faculties. thy labours cannot bear fruit without his grace. avoid as much as possible the thought of personality and its activities, and never follow the promptings of the desire-nature. it is thy existence that veils thee. had there been the veil of a single activity, it could be uplifted by another opposite activity. but _the whole_ of thyself being a veil, thou canst not be fit for the divine vision, unless and until _thou_ vanish completely. it should not be forgotten in this connection that the discipline of the desire-nature means the transmutation of its qualities, not the destruction of its essential nature--for _that_ is impossible. but its existence need not be regarded as dangerous after it has been subdued by the inner ruler. fasting is recommended by all nations and creeds. it helps the receptivity of the heart, the purity of the intellect, and the health of the body. regulation of food is an important work. it is food that imparts strength and weakness, purity and foulness to all the organs of the body. it must be pure in quality and moderate in quantity.--_letter 84._ alienation from the desire-nature. alienation from the personality is the first step to acquaintance with god. the one is a necessary condition for the other. all aspirants find fault with, and impose tasks on, the desire-nature, so that this wall of separation be pulled down, and a way be found to the divine sanctuary. so long as thou lookest down upon a single soul as inferior to thee, thou art self-conceited, and blind to the divine presence. "if thou hast knowledge, put that knowledge into practice; solve thy difficulties by knowledge and practice (combined)." ... the knowledge of all the sages culminates in the realisation that they do not know. there has been a single master of woe in each cycle, protecting others under his charge. on the path of asceticism, a considerable amount of prolonged exercises is a necessary preliminary to initial success, which, too, is doubtful. on the other hand, he who is trained on the path of woe has for his first stage the purity of devotion.... be of good cheer, in spite of thy lack of devotion and the heavy weight of thy sins. "never despair of the divine grace"--it affords protection to all sinners. poor as thou art at present, do not be dejected: "the lord has created a beautiful form for thee," and "made man after his image."--_letter 85._ self-toleration. he who is on good terms with the self is dead, though apparently living; he whose life is in god is really living, though apparently dead. death is not of the body alone: the _inner_ man may die in the same way as the _outer_. men are perishing in the sea of desires. their saviours are the prophets who help them to cross the sea of desires and merge in the divine unity.... the ungodly live in the form only and are dead in the _spirit_, since true life consists in human nature responding to the divine life. on the other hand, "those who have sacrificed themselves on the path of god are not to be considered as dead, but as living with their lord." ... "the divine treasury is too full of prayers already. put in a grain of humble devotion if you can."--_letter 86._ hidden differences of stages. men differ, in the gradations of their progress, as heaven from hell, though they are so similar in their outer forms. all men--whether in the past, the present or the future--are the centres of mysteries. each body treasures a divine secret; each heart feels impelled to the path; each soul radiates a glory unfathomable by human and angelic intelligences.... the best and holiest men had an obscure life. * * * * * once upon a time =zunnoon= sent a disciple of his, to enquire about =bâyazîd=. when the disciple reached the latter's house at bustâm, he found him seated on the floor of his cottage. but he did not know that he was =bâyazîd=. =bâyazîd= asked the disciple what he wanted. he said he wanted to see =bâyazîd=. =bâyazîd= replied: "which =bâyazîd= do you want, and whence? now i am =bâyazîd=, yet i have been in search of =bâyazîd= for several years, and to no effect." the disciple took him for a madcap, and, returning, reported the matter to =zunnoon=. =zunnoon= with tears in his eyes exclaimed: "our brother =bâyazîd= has gone forth into god with the true devotees." ... there was one =helâl=, a slave to =mogîra=. on his death the prophet with his companions went to the house of =mogîra=. the latter was not even aware of the death of =helâl=, for none took care of him, alive or dead, as he was the lowliest in the household. =mogîra= came to receive the party and kissed the blessed feet of the prophet. the prophet asked =mogîra= what had happened in the household. he said that all was well. the prophet went on: "=mogîra=, the worthiest of your household has departed, and you do not know of it." =mogîra=, astonished, remarked "i never supposed =helâl= to have been so advanced." ... the prophet was then (at his request) taken to the place where the dead body was. he found it in a stable at the feet of the beasts, clasped the head and said with tears in his eyes: "=helâl=, thy body lies on this earth, but thy soul is with the lord." all the saints and chiefs then wished in earnest devotion to have been the dust of =helâl's= feet. the prophet continued: "there are seven men in each cycle who support the world by their blessings and lead the faithful to victory by their magnanimity. =helâl= was the head of these."--_letter 87._ heedlessness. heedlessness is blamed by all creeds and sects. it is heedlessness that lies at the root of all failures. it has been said. when a man heedlessly approaches the path, the devil warns him, saying: "i was the teacher of the celestial hosts, but i lost that post. now i guard the gate of the path. you may enter with the pass of devotion only--else will you have to share my fate, being unfit for the path." ... everlasting purity is the character of the angel; lifelong transgression is the character of the devil; turning with sorrow from sin to purity is the character of man. lifelong purity is impossible for man. he is born imperfect, void of reason, with desires (the agents of the devil) in full sway. reason (the curb of desires and the light of the angelic essence) develops later--_i. e._, after the capture of the heart by desires. hence the necessity of turning and self-discipline, _pari-passu_ with the development of reason, for the recovery of the heart from desires and the devil.--_letter 88._ sorrow. no reading is so useful as that of the diary of sorrows.... the goal is unattainable save through the destruction of the desire-nature. either be ready to kill it out and tread the path, or withdraw yourself from the rank of the seekers--so that others may pass on (unimpeded by your presence). _a story._--david, when about to pray, saw an ant, and wished to remove it from the place. the ant appealed to david against his cruelty. david said: "god, how am i to deal with thy creatures?" god replied, "behave with self-restraint, lest thou shouldst harm any; do not look to the outer body of a creature, but to the spirit underlying. an ant, if permitted, may rend asunder the dark veil, radiate the light of divine unity from its bosom, and put to shame many a monotheist." _another story._--once upon a time, moses prayed so warmly that the stimulating effect was felt by him till the succeeding day. he wondered whether any one could be so blessed as he was the night before. the angel gabriel presently came with this message from god: "there is one, in this forest, who can cure the ills of my devotees." moses hastened to the spot, and found a frog croaking in a pool. the frog said: "moses, i have long been waiting to uproot pride from your heart. the divine influence you felt last night passed through me. i received it first and then passed it on to you. be warned against the repetition of the boast!"--_letter 89._ conduct. an act not permitted by the =qurân= is fruitless; a desire not sanctioned by the prophet is vain. to wish for any help on the path save that from the path is forbidden. the =qurân= permits nothing save sincere conduct, and sincerity springs from the heart that has tasted pain.... the masters of the path are spiritual beings. their word is life; the purity of their sorrow vitalises the world; their character is spotless.... so long as thou dost not unlearn all thy previous notions, habits and defects, thou canst not unfold the eye of wisdom in the heart, and feel the relish of the science of truth.... he who is destitute of divine wisdom to-day (_i. e._, on earth) will not have the divine wisdom to-morrow (_i. e._, after death). acts not based on knowledge are futile; ascetic practices not countenanced by religion are misleading and devilish. it is knowledge that unfastens the gate of good luck. it is knowledge that can comprehend the greatness of =islâm=, the mysteries thereof, the glorious character of the prophets, the sublimity of their mission, the different stages of the advanced souls, the secret of the human constitution, the evil in the wicked, the respect due to faith and the faithful, the injunctions and prohibitions of religions. tread zealously the path of knowledge till you get rid of ignorance. knowledge is the shortest way to god; and ignorance is the densest veil between thee and him. as knowledge is productive of good, so is ignorance productive of evil. it is ignorance which brings in faithlessness, neglect of religious duties, affinity to the devil, alienation from the prophets and the pure souls, and other innumerable evils. seek no connexion with the self, lest thou shouldst be affected with pride.... "thou canst not reach me, so long as 'thy-ness' inheres in thee: thou shalt reach me only when thou quittest thy self." o brother, subdue thy desires with asceticism tempered by knowledge; cut off the head of the desire-nature with the sword of self-discipline, as advised by the scriptures ... and (then) put on the robe of =islâm=. if thou art really in earnest, tread upon thy life--so dear to thee--and do not fear death; what follows is life, through and through. "if thou dependest upon (bodily) life, thou wilt lag behind. thou art life in the world of life alone. grasp well the subtile fact--thou _art_ that which thou seekest." the foremost duty of the seeker lies in seeing the beloved as the only life, and in eliminating the evil of his own separated existence.--_letter 90._ seclusion. a man not wanted by the world for its intellectual or theological education, may isolate himself from others, and avoid company save on necessary occasions, such as those of the friday and the =îd= prayers, a pilgrimage to =meccâ=, and other useful meetings. the man who wishes to avoid company altogether, had better live far away from human habitation (in a mountain or on a desert island). else [let him not isolate himself altogether] unless he knows for certain that his gains from attendance at the friday prayer or other social gatherings are really outweighed by the losses he incurs from coming into contact with human society.... but there may be a different sort of man, a master of knowledge, needed by others for their religious enlightenment, the exposition of truths, the setting aside of heretical arguments, and for stirring them to live out the teachings of religion. it is hardly lawful for such a man to absolutely avoid human society. it is narrated of a sage named =abû bakar= that, as he wandered about the hills with the object of leading a life of prayer and worship in seclusion, he heard a voice saying, "=abû bakar=, why dost thou desert the creatures of the lord when thou hast attained the position of a divine light?" so he returned to the society of men. such a man, though living corporeally in the world and doing his duties to it, has to work for his own salvation as well. =omar= (peace on him!) said of himself, "should i sleep at night i would ruin myself, should i sleep during the day, i would ruin my subjects." it is exceedingly hard to be corporeally in the world and to be at the same time mentally away from it. =imâm gazâlî= opines that a learned man may be excused for isolating himself and burying his knowledge in days of trouble and degeneration, when a man may send for a religious teacher, but declines to learn anything of him--when no man appreciates the importance of religious duties.... an extremely weak man should not resort to seclusion.... the real object of seclusion is mental isolation, not bodily separation.--_letter 95._ death. there are three classes of men: (1) the man of desires. (2) the beginner who is just turning back. (3) the advanced knower of god. the _first_ does not recollect death; or if he ever does so, he does it in a spirit of sorrow for the loss of worldly objects, and begins to murmur at it. recollection of death throws him the further from god. the _second_ is given to the practice of recollecting death, so that he may live fear-stricken, and accomplish his turning the more successfully.... the _third_ never forgets death, as it is the guarantee of his union with the beloved. but the highest stage of development is shewn in the soul that completely surrenders itself to the lord, and foregoes all choice of life or death.... the frequent recollection of death is recommended, as it is calculated to disturb physical enjoyment, and thereby lead to salvation.... death is welcome to the faithful, as it sets him free from the prison of earth-life and its tortures.... as remarked by an esteemed friend, earth-life is a state of slumber, the after-death life is a state of waking, and death is an intermediate state.... death (to an ordinary mortal) is more painful than a cut with the sword or the axe, or the extraction of flesh from his body.... a calm look, and the repetition of the holy formula, these are becoming on the part of the dying man.--_letter 97._ hell. every man is liable to suffer in hell, and it is difficult to be certain of exemption therefrom. according to the prophet, there are 70,000 apartments in hell, each apartment containing 70,000 doors, each door having 70,000 serpents and 70,000 scorpions; and the unbelievers and the evil-minded cannot help passing through each of them.... such is the description of hell, and of its subdivisions which correspond to the number of earthly desires. the factor seven in the subdivisions corresponds to the seven organs used in the commission of sins. if you wish to know your destiny, you should look at your character, since your natural inclinations presage your destiny. if they tend to good, you are not intended for hell; if they tend to evil, you are destined therefor. as the =qurân= says, "the virtuous are to be blessed in heaven, the vicious are to suffer in hell." here is a secret. when death takes away the earthly veil (the body), the desire-nature is yet more or less tainted with earthly impurities. in some cases the mirror of the soul may be too darkened to admit of any cleansing. such a soul is eternally barred from the divine presence. in other cases, (_i. e._ unrighteous believers), the rust is capable of being cleansed, and so the desire-nature is exposed to hell-fire to the extent of the purification needed. the time varies from a brief moment to 7,000 years. no man quits this earth without some impurity, however slight, in him.--_letter 99._ heaven. heaven contains apartments made of various gems, the outside of which is visible from the inside, and the inside from the outside. they abound with pleasures and comforts not tasted or conceived by men (on earth).... heaven is a vast palace made of a single pearl. it contains seven apartments of red ruby. each apartment contains seven rooms of green emerald. each room is provided with a gorgeous seat, 70 trays and 70 maid-servants. each seat has 70 beddings of different colours, and a houri as the bed-maker. each tray is furnished with 70 dishes. heaven is intended for those who salute and feed others, fast and pray.... when the dwellers of heaven wish to communicate with their brothers, their seats move the one towards the other. thus they meet and talk of their past relationship on earth. there is procreation in heaven if so desired: conception, birth, and maturity all taking place instantaneously. the dwellers of heaven are beautiful as =joseph=, and well-behaved as =mohammad=. the duration of the lowest heavenly life is 500 years. such is the heaven of the ordinary soul. now as to the destiny of the prophets, the purest devotees, and the saints. theirs is the vision of the divine face, in the supreme relish of which the grosser enjoyments of heaven are forgotten. orthodox =islâm= does not regard the divine vision as the fruit of human works, but as the result of divine grace. it holds a similar doctrine as to the faith in the lord of human beings upon earth.--_letter 100._ [the following brief note is added from the _series of 28 letters_.--_trs._] =imâm qasherî=, explaining the secrets of the =qurân=, says: "what the faithful will manifestly enjoy after death in heaven, is inwardly experienced by the saints on earth."--_loc. cit., 28_. the end. transcriber's notes. unusual and archaic spellings have been maintained. obvious printing and spelling errors have been fixed. in the original text, persian and arabic transliterations, some proper names and locations were printed in gesperrt (g e s p e r r t). such words have been rendered surrounded by == (=gesperrt=). the abbreviation "trs." used throughout the text stands for "translator," not "transcriber." details of the changes: toc page 1: title "introduction" removed. toc page 1: on discipleship (continued) originally: discipleship (continued) toc page 1: the outer and inner ailments originally: the outer and the inner ailments toc page 3: the desire-nature (=nafs=) 110 originally: the desire-nature (=nafs=) 130 toc page 3: discipline of the desire-nature (continued) originally: the same (continued) page 2: there must be a difference between originally: there must be difference between page 2 footnote 3: weak souls.--_trs._ originally: weak souls.--_trans._ page 6: =zunnoon= of egypt observes that the =taubâh= originally: =zoonoon= of egypt observes that the =taubâh= page 6: on the other hand, =khwâjâ junnaid= originally: on the other hand, =khwâja junnaid= page 8: can neither be seen nor grasped. originally: can neither be seen not grasped. page 9 footnote 6: the sacred shrine at =meccâ=. originally: the sacred shrine at =mecca=. page 9: and lose the fruit of one's labour. originally: and lose the fruit of one's labor. page 16: discipleship and the subtleties of seeking, originally: discipleship and the subleties of seeking, page 17: a disciple should be a worshipper of the teacher, [so that he may become a worshipper of god]. one who obeys the messenger verily obeys god. originally: a disciple should be a worshipper of the teacher, [so that he may become a worshipper of god. one who obeys the messenger verily obeys god page 19: the friend of god--(the =walî=). originally: the friend of god--(the =walee=). page 19: the =walî= (or the friend of god) is originally: the =walee= (or the friend of god) is page 20: here is a subtile mystery, originally: here is a subtle mystery, page 21: there are 4,000 =walîs= originally: there are 4,000 =walees= page 21: there are 356 =walîs= ever originally: there are 356 =walees= ever page 22: they (the =walîs=) are too strong originally: they (the =walees=) are too strong page 25: invisible and visible, spiritual and physical, originally: invisible and visible, spirtual and physical, page 32: virtues and vices: why should we restrain originally: virtues and vices: why should should we restrain page 36: disciples such as =abû bakar=, =omar=, originally: disciples such as =abubakar=, =omar=, page 41: sacred recitations, repentance and apology. originally: sacred recitations, repentence and apology. page 58: may gradually develop strength, originally: may gradually develope strength, page 59: do not look to the _houris_ originally: do not look to the _hooris_ page 63: are concerned with _outer_ conduct, originally: are concerned will _outer_ conduct, page 77: the heart develops knowledge and wisdom, originally: the heart developes knowledge and wisdom, page 78: checks the performance of duties. originally: checks the preformance of duties. page 87: transmutation wrought by many derveshes originally: transmutation wrought by many darveshes page 90: =abul abbâs=--peace be on him--said originally: =abul abbas=--peace be on him--said page 92: renounce worldly pursuits. originally: renounce wordly pursuits. page 98: master =yahiâ= observes: originally: master =yehiâ= observes: page 101: only the houris, the palaces, originally: only the houries, the palaces, page 102: after death are gratuitous. originally: after death are gratuitious. page 104: diminution of worldly desires originally: diminution of worldy desires page 108: =abû bakr qahatî=, however, holds originally: =abu bakr qahatî=, however, holds page 109: one may read from the =qurân=: originally: one may read from the =qorân=: page 114: discipline of the desire-nature. originally: the discipline of the desire-nature. page 121: angelic essence) develops later- originally: angelic essence) developes later- page 124: grasp well the subtile fact originally: grasp well the subtle fact theosophical manuals. no. 5 the astral plane its scenery, inhabitants and phenomena c. w. leadbeater london: theosophical publishing society 7 duke street, adelphi, w.c. benares: theosophical publishing society, madras: _the theosophist_ office, adyar. 1895 * * * * * preface. _few words are needed in sending this little book out into the world. it is the fifth of a series of manuals designed to meet the public demand for a simple exposition of theosophical teachings. some have complained that our literature is at once too abstruse, too technical, and too expensive for the ordinary reader, and it is our hope that the present series may succeed in supplying what is a very real want. theosophy is not only for the learned; it is for all. perhaps among those who in these little books catch their first glimpse of its teachings, there may be a few who will be led by them to penetrate more deeply into its philosophy, its science and its religion, facing its abstruser problems with the student's zeal and the neophyte's ardour. but these manuals are not written for the eager student, whom no initial difficulties can daunt; they are written for the busy men and women of the work-a-day world, and seek to make plain some of the great truths that render life easier to bear and death easier to face. written by servants of the masters who are the elder brothers of our race, they can have no other object than to serve our fellow-men._ * * * * * contents. introduction. scenery.--the seven subdivisions--degrees of materiality--characteristics of astral vision--the aura--the etheric double--power of magnifying minute objects--the "summerland"--records of the astral light. inhabitants.--i. human. (1) _living_:--the adept or chela in mâyâvirûpa--the psychically developed person--the ordinary person in astral body--the black magician. (2) _dead_:--the nirmânakâya--the chela awaiting reincarnation--the ordinary person after death--the shade--the shell--the vitalized shell--the suicide--the victim of sudden death--the vampire--the werewolf--the black magician after death. ii. non-human:--the elemental essence--the kâmarûpas of animals--various classes of nature-spirits, commonly called fairies--kâmadevas--rûpadevas--arûpadevas--the devarâjahs. iii. artificial:--elementals formed unconsciously--guardian angels--elementals formed consciously--human artificials--the true origin of spiritualism. phenomena.--churchyard ghosts.--apparitions of the dying--haunted localities--family ghosts--bell-ringing, stone-throwing, etc.--fairies--communicating entities--astral resources--clairvoyance--prevision--second-sight--astral forces--etheric currents--etheric pressure--latent energy--sympathetic vibration--mantras--disintegration--materialization--why darkness is required at a _séance_--spirit photographs--reduplication--precipitation of letters and pictures--slate-writing--levitation--spirit lights--handling fire--transmutation--repercussion. conclusion. * * * * * the astral plane. introduction reference to the astral plane, or kâmaloka as it is called in sanskrit, has frequently been made by theosophical writers, and a good deal of information on the subject of this realm of nature is to be found scattered here and there in our books; but there is not, so far as i am aware, any single volume to which one can turn for a complete summary of the facts at present known to us about this interesting region. the object of this manual is to collect and make some attempt to arrange this scattered information, and also to supplement it slightly in cases where new facts have come to our knowledge. it must be understood that any such additions are only the result of the investigations of a few explorers, and must not, therefore, be taken as in any way authoritative, but are given simply for what they are worth. on the other hand every precaution in our power has been taken to ensure accuracy, no fact, old or new, being admitted to this manual unless it has been confirmed by the testimony of at least two independent trained investigators among ourselves, and has also been passed as correct by older students whose knowledge on these points is necessarily much greater than ours. it is hoped, therefore, that this account of the astral plane, though it cannot be considered as quite complete, may yet be found reliable as far as it goes. the first point which it is necessary to make clear in describing this astral plane is its absolute _reality_. of course in using that word i am not speaking from that metaphysical standpoint from which all but the one unmanifested is unreal because impermanent; i am using the word in its plain, every-day sense, and i mean by it that the objects and inhabitants of the astral plane are real in exactly the same way as our own bodies, our furniture, our houses or monuments are real--as real as charing cross, to quote an expressive remark from one of the earliest theosophical works. they will no more endure for ever than will objects on the physical plane, but they are nevertheless realities from our point of view while they last--realities which we cannot afford to ignore merely because the majority of mankind is as yet unconscious, or but vaguely conscious, of their existence. there appears to be considerable misunderstanding even among theosophical students upon this question of the reality of the various planes of the universe. this may perhaps be partly due to the fact that the word "plane" has occasionally been very loosely used in our literature--writers speaking vaguely of the mental plane, the moral plane, and so on; and this vagueness has led many people to suppose that the information on the subject which is to be found in theosophical books is inexact and speculative--a mere hypothesis incapable of definite proof. no one can get a clear conception of the teachings of the wisdom-religion until he has at any rate an intellectual grasp of the fact that in our solar system there exist perfectly definite planes, each with its own matter of different degrees of density, and that some of these planes can be visited and observed by persons who have qualified themselves for the work, exactly as a foreign country might be visited and observed; and that, by comparison of the observations of those who are constantly working on these planes, evidence can be obtained of their existence and nature at least as satisfactory as that which most of us have for the existence of greenland or spitzbergen. the names usually given to these planes, taking them in order of materiality, rising from the denser to the finer, are the physical, the astral, the devachanic, the sushuptic, and the nirvânic. higher than this last are two others, but they are so far above our present power of conception that for the moment they may be left out of consideration. now it should be understood that the matter of each of these planes differs from that of the one below it in the same way as, though to a much greater degree than, vapour differs from solid matter; in fact, the states of matter which we call solid, liquid, and gaseous are merely the three lowest subdivisions of the matter belonging to this one physical plane. the astral region which i am to attempt to describe is the second of these great planes of nature--the next above (or within) that physical world with which we are all familiar. it has often been called the realm of illusion--not that it is itself any more illusory than the physical world, but because of the extreme unreliability of the impressions brought back from it by the untrained seer. this is to be accounted for mainly by two remarkable characteristics of the astral world--first, that many of its inhabitants have a marvellous power of changing their forms with protean rapidity, and also of casting practically unlimited glamour over those with whom they choose to sport; and secondly, that sight on that plane is a faculty very different from and much more extended than physical vision. an object is seen, as it were, from all sides at once, the inside of a solid being as plainly open to the view as the outside; it is therefore obvious that an inexperienced visitor to this new world may well find considerable difficulty in understanding what he really does see, and still more in translating his vision into the very inadequate language of ordinary speech. a good example of the sort of mistake that is likely to occur is the frequent reversal of any number which the seer has to read from the astral light, so that he would be liable to render, say, 139 as 931, and so on. in the case of a student of occultism trained by a capable master such a mistake would be impossible except through great hurry or carelessness, since such a pupil has to go through a long and varied course of instruction in this art of seeing correctly, the master, or perhaps some more advanced pupil, bringing before him again and again all possible forms of illusion, and asking him "what do you see?" any errors in his answers are then corrected and their reasons explained, until by degrees the neophyte acquires a certainty and confidence in dealing with the phenomena of the astral plane which far exceeds anything possible in physical life. but he has to learn not only to see correctly but to translate the memory of what he has seen accurately from one plane to the other; and to assist him in this he is trained to carry his consciousness without break from the physical plane to the astral or devachanic and back again, for until that can be done there is always a possibility that his recollections may be partially lost or distorted during the blank interval which separates his periods of consciousness on the various planes. when the power of bringing over the consciousness is perfectly acquired the pupil will have the advantage of the use of all the astral faculties, not only while out of his body during sleep or trance, but also while fully awake in ordinary physical life. it has been the custom of some theosophists to speak with scorn of the astral plane, and treat it as entirely unworthy of attention; but that seems to me a somewhat mistaken view. most assuredly that at which we have to aim is the purely spiritual plane, and it would be most disastrous for any student to neglect that higher development and rest satisfied with the attainment of astral consciousness. there are some whose karma is such as to enable them to develop the purely spiritual faculties first of all--to over-leap the astral plane for the time, as it were; and when afterwards they make its acquaintance they have, if their spiritual development has been perfect, the immense advantage of dipping into it from above, with the aid of a spiritual insight which cannot be deceived and a spiritual strength which nothing can resist. it is, however, a mistake to suppose, as some writers have done, that this is the only, or even the ordinary method adopted by the masters of wisdom with their pupils. where it is possible it saves much trouble, but for most of us such progress by leaps and bounds has been forbidden by our own faults or follies in the past: all that we can hope for is to win our way slowly step by step, and since this astral plane lies next to our world of denser matter, it is usually in connection with it that our earliest superphysical experiences take place. it is therefore by no means without interest to those of us who are but beginners in these studies, and a clear comprehension of its mysteries may often be of the greatest importance to us, not only by enabling us to understand many of the phenomena of the _séance_-room, of haunted houses, etc., which would otherwise be inexplicable, but also to guard ourselves and others from possible dangers. the first introduction to this remarkable region comes to people in various ways. some only once in their whole lives under some unusual influence become sensitive enough to recognize the presence of one of its inhabitants, and perhaps, because the experience does not repeat itself, come in time to believe that on that occasion they must have been the victims of hallucination: others find themselves with increasing frequency seeing and hearing something to which those around them are blind and deaf; others again--and perhaps this is the commonest experience of all--begin to recollect with greater and greater clearness that which they have seen or heard on that other plane during sleep. among those who make a study of these subjects, some try to develop the astral sight by crystal-gazing or other methods, while those who have the inestimable advantage of the direct guidance of a qualified teacher will probably be placed upon that plane for the first time under his special protection, which will be continued until, by the application of various tests, he has satisfied himself that the pupil is proof against any danger or terror that he is likely to encounter. but, however it may occur, the first actual realization that we are all the while in the midst of a great world full of active life, of which most of us are nevertheless entirely unconscious, cannot but be to some extent a memorable epoch in a man's existence. so abundant and so manifold is this life of the astral plane that at first it is absolutely bewildering to the neophyte; and even for the more practised investigator it is no easy task to attempt to classify and to catalogue it. if the explorer of some unknown tropical forest were asked not only to give a full account of the country through which he had passed, with accurate details of its vegetable and mineral productions, but also to state the genus and species of every one of the myriad insects, birds, beasts, and reptiles which he had seen, he might well shrink appalled at the magnitude of the undertaking: yet even this affords no parallel to the embarrassments of the psychic investigator, for in his case matters are further complicated, first by the difficulty of correctly translating from that plane to this the recollection of what he has seen, and secondly by the utter inadequacy of ordinary language to express much of what he has to report. however, just as the explorer on the physical plane would probably commence his account of a country by some sort of general description of its scenery and characteristics, so it will be well to begin this slight sketch of the astral plane by endeavouring to give some idea of the scenery which forms the background of its marvellous and ever-changing activities. yet here at the outset an almost insuperable difficulty confronts us in the extreme complexity of the matter. all who see fully on that plane agree that to attempt to call up before those whose eyes are as yet unopened a vivid picture of this astral scenery is like speaking to a blind man of the exquisite variety of tints in a sunset sky--however detailed and elaborate the description may be, there is no certainty that the idea presented before the hearer's mind will be an adequate representation of the truth. scenery. first of all, then, it must be understood that the astral plane has seven subdivisions, each of which has its corresponding degree of materiality and its corresponding condition of matter. now numbering these from the highest and least material downwards, we find that they naturally fall into three classes, divisions 1, 2 and 3 forming one such class, and 4, 5 and 6 another, while the seventh and lowest of all stands alone. the difference between the matter of one of these classes and the next would be commensurable with that between a solid and a liquid, while the difference between the matter of the subdivisions of a class would rather resemble that between two kinds of solid, such as, say, steel and sand. putting aside for the moment the seventh, we may say that divisions 4, 5 and 6 of the astral plane have for their background the physical world we live in and all its familiar accessories. life on the sixth division is simply our ordinary life on this earth, minus the physical body and its necessities; while as it ascends through the fifth and fourth divisions it becomes less and less material, and is more and more withdrawn from our lower world and its interests. the scenery of these lower divisions, then, is that of the earth as we know it: but it is also very much more; for when looked at from this different standpoint, with the assistance of the astral senses, even purely physical objects present a very different appearance. as has already been mentioned, they are seen by one whose eyes are fully opened, not as usual from one point of view, but from all sides at once--an idea in itself sufficiently confusing; and when we add to this that every particle in the interior of a solid body is as fully and clearly visible as those on the outside, it will be comprehended that under such conditions even the most familiar objects may at first be totally unrecognizable. yet a moment's consideration will show that such vision approximates much more closely to true perception than does physical sight. looked at on the astral plane, for example, the sides of a glass cube would all appear equal, as they really are, while on the physical plane we see the further side in perspective--that is, it appears smaller than the nearer side, which is, of course, a mere illusion. it is this characteristic of astral vision which has led to its sometimes being spoken of as sight in the fourth dimension--a very suggestive and expressive phrase. but in addition to these possible sources of error matters are further complicated by the fact that astral sight cognizes forms of matter which, while still purely physical, are nevertheless invisible under ordinary conditions. such, for example, are the particles composing the atmosphere, all the various emanations which are always being given out by everything that has life, and also four grades of a still finer order of physical matter which, for want of more distinctive names, must all he described as etheric. the latter form a kind of system by themselves, freely interpenetrating all other physical matter; and the investigation of their vibrations and the manner in which various higher forces affect them would in itself constitute a vast field of deeply interesting study for any man of science who possessed the requisite sight for its examination. even when our imagination has fully grasped all that is comprehended in what has already been said, we do not yet understand half the complexity of the problem; for besides all these new forms of physical matter we have to deal with the still more numerous and perplexing subdivisions of astral matter. we must note first that every material object, every particle even, has its astral counterpart; and this counterpart is itself not a simple body, but is usually extremely complex, being composed of various kinds of astral matter. in addition to this each living creature is surrounded with an atmosphere of its own, usually called its aura, and in the case of human beings this aura forms of itself a very fascinating branch of study. it is seen as an oval mass of luminous mist of highly complex structure, and from its shape has sometimes been called the auric egg. theosophical readers will hear with pleasure that even at the early stage of his development at which the pupil begins to acquire this astral sight, he is able to assure himself by direct observation of the accuracy of the teaching given through our great founder, madame blavatsky, on the subject of some at least of the seven principles of man. in regarding his fellow-man he no longer sees only his outer appearance; exactly co-extensive with that physical body he clearly distinguishes the etheric double, which in theosophical literature has usually been called the linga sharîra; while the jîva, as it is absorbed and specialized into prâna, as it circulates in rosy light throughout the body, as it eventually radiates from the healthy person in its altered form, is also perfectly obvious. most brilliant and most easily seen of all, perhaps, though belonging to quite a different order of matter--the astral--is the kâmic aura, which expresses by its vivid and ever-changing flashes of colour the different desires which sweep across the man's mind from moment to moment. this is the true astral body. behind that, and consisting of a finer grade of matter--that of the rûpa levels of devachan--lies the devachanic body or aura of the lower manas, whose colours, changing only by slow degrees as the man lives his life, show the disposition and character of the personality; while still higher and infinitely more beautiful, where at all clearly developed, is the living light of the kârana sharîra, the aura or vehicle of the higher manas, which shows the stage of development of the real ego in its passage from birth to birth. but to see these the pupil must have developed something more than mere astral vision. it will save the student much trouble if he learns at once to regard these auras not as mere emanations, but as the actual manifestation of the ego on their respective planes--if he understands that it is the auric egg which is the real man, not the physical body which on this plane crystallizes in the middle of it. so long as the reincarnating ego remains upon the plane which is his true home in the arûpa levels of devachan, the body which he inhabits is the kârana sharîra, but when he descends into the rûpa levels he must, in order to be able to function upon them, clothe himself in their matter; and the matter that he thus attracts to himself furnishes his devachanic or mind-body. similarly, descending into the astral plane he forms his astral or kâmic body out of its matter, though of course still retaining all the other bodies, and on his still further descent to this lowest plane of all the physical body is formed in the midst of the auric egg, which thus contains the entire man. fuller accounts of these auras will be found in _transaction_ no. 18 of the london lodge, and in a recent article of mine in _the theosophist_, but enough has been said here to show that as they all occupy the same space (which by the way they share also with the physical health-aura), the finer interpenetrating the grosser, it needs careful study and much practice to enable the neophyte to distinguish clearly at a glance the one from the other. nevertheless the human aura, or more usually some one part of it only, is not infrequently one of the first purely astral objects seen by the untrained, though in such a case its indications are naturally very likely to be misunderstood. though the kâmic aura from the brilliancy of its flashes of colour may often be more conspicuous, the nerve-ether and the etheric double are really of a much denser order of matter, being strictly speaking within the limits of the physical plane, though invisible to ordinary sight. it has been the custom in theosophical literature to describe the linga sharîra as the astral counterpart of the human body, the word "astral" having been usually applied to everything beyond the cognition of our physical senses. as closer investigation enables us to be more precise in the use of our terms, however, we find ourselves compelled to admit much of this invisible matter as purely physical, and therefore to define the linga sharîra no longer as the astral, but as the etheric double. this seems an appropriate name for it, since it consists of various grades of that matter which scientists call "ether," though this proves on examination to be not a separate substance, as has been generally supposed, but a condition of finer subdivision than the gaseous, to which any kind of physical matter may be reduced by the application of the appropriate forces. the name "etheric double" will therefore for the future be used in theosophic writings instead of "linga sharîra": and this change will not only give us the advantage of an english name which is clearly indicative of the character of the body to which it is applied, but will also relieve us from the frequent misunderstandings which have arisen from the fact that an entirely different signification is attached in all the oriental books to the name we have hitherto been using. it must not however be supposed that in making this alteration in nomenclature we are in any way putting forward a new conception; we are simply altering, for the sake of greater accuracy, the labels previously attached to certain facts in nature. if we examine with psychic faculty the body of a newly-born child, we shall find it permeated not only by astral matter of every degree of density, but also by the several grades of etheric matter; and if we take the trouble to trace these inner bodies backwards to their origin, we find that it is of the latter that the etheric double--the mould upon which the physical body is built up--is formed by the agents of the lords of karma; while the astral matter has been gathered together by the descending ego--not of course consciously, but automatically--as he passes through the astral plane. (see _manual_ no. iv., p. 44.) into the composition of the etheric double must enter something of all the different grades of etheric matter; but the proportions may vary greatly, and are determined by several factors, such as the race, sub-race, and type of a man, as well as by his individual karma. when it is remembered that these four subdivisions of matter are made up of numerous combinations, which, in their turn, form aggregations that enter into the composition of the "atom" of the so-called "element" of the chemist, it will be seen that this second principle of man is highly complex, and the number of its possible variations practically infinite, so that, however complicated and unusual a man's karma may be, the lipika are able to give a mould in accordance with which a body exactly suiting it can be formed. one other point deserves mention in connection with the appearance of physical matter when looked at from the astral plane, and that is that the astral vision possesses the power of magnifying at will the minutest physical particle to any desired size, as though by a microscope, though its magnifying power is enormously greater than that of any microscope ever made or ever likely to be made. the hypothetical molecule and atom postulated by science are therefore visible realities to the occult student, though the latter recognizes them as much more complex in their nature than the scientific man has yet discovered them to be. here again is a vast field of study of absorbing interest to which a whole volume might readily be devoted; and a scientific investigator who should acquire this astral sight in perfection, would not only find his experiments with ordinary and known phenomena immensely facilitated, but would also see stretching before him entirely new vistas of knowledge needing more than a lifetime for their thorough examination. for example, one curious and very beautiful novelty brought to his notice by the development of this vision would be the existence of other and entirely different colours beyond the limits of the ordinarily visible spectrum, the ultra-red and ultra-violet rays which science has discovered by other means being plainly perceptible to astral sight. we must not, however, allow ourselves to follow these fascinating bye-paths, but must resume our endeavour to give a general idea of the appearance of the astral plane. it will by this time be obvious that though, as above stated, the ordinary objects of the physical world form the background to life on certain levels of the astral plane, yet so much more is seen of their real appearance and characteristics that the general effect differs widely from that with which we are familiar. for the sake of illustration take a rock as an example of the simpler class of objects. when regarded with trained sight it is no mere inert mass of stone. first of all, the whole of the physical matter of the rock is seen instead of a very small part of it; secondly, the vibrations of its physical particles are perceptible; thirdly, it is seen to possess an astral counterpart composed of various grades of astral matter, whose particles are also in constant motion; fourthly, the jîva or universal life is seen to be circulating through it and radiating from it; fifthly, an aura will be seen surrounding it, though this is, of course, much less extended and varied than in the case of the higher kingdoms; sixthly, its appropriate elemental essence is seen permeating it, ever active but ever fluctuating. in the case of the vegetable, animal and human kingdoms, the complications are naturally much more numerous. it may be objected by some readers that no such complexities as these are described by most of the psychics who occasionally get glimpses of the astral world, nor are they reported at _séances_ by the entities that manifest there; but this is readily accounted for. few untrained persons on that plane, whether living or dead, see things as they really are until after very long experience; even those who do see fully are often too dazed and confused to understand or remember: and among the very small minority who both see and remember there are hardly any who can translate the recollection into language on our lower plane. many untrained psychics never examine their visions scientifically at all: they simply obtain an impression which may be quite correct, but may also be half false, or even wholly misleading. all the more probable does the latter hypothesis become when we take into consideration the frequent tricks played by sportive denizens of the other world, against which the untrained person is usually absolutely defenceless. it must also be remembered that the regular inhabitant of the astral plane, whether he be human or elemental, is under ordinary circumstances conscious only of the objects of that plane, physical matter being to him as entirely invisible as is astral matter to the majority of mankind. since, as before remarked, every physical object has its astral counterpart, which _would_ be visible to him, it may be thought that the distinction is a trivial one, yet it is an essential part of the symmetrical conception of the subject. if, however, an astral entity constantly works through a medium, these finer astral senses may gradually be so coarsened as to become insensible to the higher grades of matter on their own plane, and to include in their purview the physical world as we see it instead; but only the trained visitor from this life, who is fully conscious on both planes, can depend upon seeing both clearly and simultaneously. be it understood, then, that the complexity exists, and that only when it is fully perceived and scientifically unravelled is there perfect security against deception or mistake. for the seventh or lowest subdivision of the astral plane also this physical world of ours may be said to be the background, though what is seen is only a distorted and partial view of it, since all that is light and good and beautiful seems invisible. it was thus described four thousand years ago in the egyptian papyrus of the scribe ani: "what manner of place is this unto which i have come? it hath no water, it hath no air; it is deep, unfathomable; it is black as the blackest night, and men wander helplessly about therein; in it a man may not live in quietness of heart." for the unfortunate entity on that level it is indeed true that "all the earth is full of darkness and cruel habitations," but it is darkness which radiates from within himself and causes his existence to be passed in a perpetual night of evil and horror--a very real hell, though, like all other hells, entirely of man's own creation. most students find the investigation of this section an extremely unpleasant task, for there appears to be a sense of density and gross materiality about it which is indescribably loathsome to the liberated astral body, causing it the sense of pushing its way through some black, viscous fluid, while the inhabitants and influences encountered there are also usually exceedingly undesirable. the first, second, and third subdivisions seem much further removed from this physical world, and correspondingly less material. entities inhabiting these levels lose sight of the earth and its belongings; they are usually deeply self-absorbed, and to a large extent create their own surroundings, though these are not purely subjective, as in devachan, but on the contrary sufficiently objective to be perceptible to other entities and also to clairvoyant vision. this region is beyond doubt the "summerland" of which we hear so much at spiritualistic _séances_, and the entities who descend from and describe it are probably often speaking the truth as far as their knowledge extends. it is on these planes that "spirits" call into temporary existence their houses, schools, and cities, for these objects are often real enough for the time, though to a clearer sight they may sometimes be pitiably unlike what their delighted creators suppose them to be. nevertheless, many of the imaginations that take form there are of real though temporary beauty, and a visitor who knew of nothing higher might wander contentedly enough there among forests and mountains, lovely lakes and pleasant flower-gardens, or might even construct such surroundings to suit his own fancies. it may be said in passing that communication is limited on the astral plane by the knowledge of the entity, just as it is here. while a person able to function freely on that plane can communicate with any of the human entities there present more readily and rapidly than on earth, by means of mental impressions, the inhabitants themselves do not usually seem able to exercise this power, but appear to be restricted by limitations similar to those that prevail on earth, though perhaps less rigid. the result of this is that they are found associating, there as here in groups drawn together by common sympathies, beliefs, and language. an account of the scenery of the astral plane would be incomplete without mention of what are commonly called the records of the astral light, the photographic representation of all that has ever happened. these records are really and permanently impressed upon that higher medium called the âkâsha, and are only reflected in a more or less spasmodic manner in the astral light, so that one whose power of vision does not rise above this plane will be likely to obtain only occasional and disconnected pictures of the past instead of a coherent narrative. but nevertheless pictures of all kinds of past events are constantly being reproduced on the astral plane, and form an important part of the surroundings of the investigator there. inhabitants. having sketched in, however slightly, the background of our picture, we must now attempt to fill in the figures--to describe the inhabitants of the astral plane. the immense variety of these entities makes it exceedingly difficult to arrange and tabulate them. perhaps the most convenient method will be to divide them into three great classes, the human, the non-human, and the artificial. i. human. the human denizens of kâmaloka fall naturally into two groups, the living and the dead, or, to speak more accurately, those who have still a physical body, and those who have not. 1. living. the entities which manifest on the astral plane during physical life may be subdivided into four classes: 1. _the adept or chela in the mâyâvirûpa._ this body is the artificial vehicle used on the four lower or rûpa divisions of the devachanic plane by those capable of functioning there during earth-life, and is formed out of the substance of the mind-body. the pupil is at first unable to construct this for himself, and has therefore to be content with his ordinary astral body composed of the less refined matter of the kâmic aura; but at a certain stage of his progress the master himself forms his mâyâvirûpa for him for the first time, and afterwards instructs and assists him until he can make it for himself easily and expeditiously. when this facility is attained this vehicle is habitually used in place of the grosser astral body, since it permits of instant passage from the astral to the devachanic plane and back again at will, and allows of the use at all times of the higher powers belonging to its own plane. it must be noted, however, that a person travelling in the mâyâvirûpa is not perceptible to merely astral vision unless he chooses to make himself so by gathering around him particles of astral matter and so creating for himself a temporary body suitable to that plane, though such a temporary creation would resemble the ordinary astral body only as a materialization resembles the physical body; in each case it is a manifestation of a higher entity on a lower plane in order to make himself visible to those whose senses cannot yet transcend that plane. but whether he be in the mâyâvirûpa or the astral body, the pupil who is introduced to the astral plane under the guidance of a competent teacher has always the fullest possible consciousness there, and is in fact himself, exactly as his friends know him on earth, minus only the four lower principles in the former case and the three lower in the latter, and plus the additional powers and faculties of this higher condition, which enable him to carry on far more easily and far more efficiently on that plane during sleep the theosophical work which occupies so much of his thought in his waking hours. whether he will remember fully and accurately on the physical plane what he has done or learnt on the other depends largely, as before stated, upon whether he is able to carry his consciousness without intermission from the one state to the other. 2. _the psychically-developed person who is not under the guidance of a master._ such a person may or may not be spiritually developed, for the two forms of advancement do not necessarily go together, and when a man is born with psychic powers it is simply the result of efforts made during a previous incarnation, which may have been of the noblest and most unselfish character, or on the other hand may have been ignorant and ill-directed or even entirely unworthy. such an one will usually be perfectly conscious when out of the body, but for want of proper training is liable to be greatly deceived as to what he sees. he will often be able to range through the different subdivisions of the astral plane almost as fully as persons belonging to the last class; but sometimes he is especially attracted to some one division and rarely travels beyond its influences. his recollection of what he has seen may vary according to the degree of his development through all the stages from perfect clearness to utter distortion or blank oblivion. he will appear always in the astral body, since by the hypothesis he does not know how to form the mâyâvirûpa. 3. _the ordinary person_--that is, the person without any psychic development--floating about in his astral body in a more or less unconscious condition. in deep slumber the higher principles in their astral vehicle almost invariably withdraw from the body, and hover in its immediate neighbourhood, practically almost as much asleep as the latter. in some cases, however, this astral vehicle is less lethargic, and floats dreamily about on the various astral currents, occasionally recognizing other people in a similar condition, and meeting with experiences of all sorts, pleasant and unpleasant, the memory of which, hopelessly confused and often travestied into a grotesque caricature of what really happened, will cause the man to think next morning what a remarkable dream he has had. these extruded astral bodies are almost shapeless and very indefinite in outline in the case of the more backward races and individuals, but as the man develops in intellect and spirituality his floating astral becomes better defined and more closely resembles his physical encasement. since the psychical faculties of mankind are in course of evolution, and ind