file was produced from images generously made available by the library of congress) arbor day leaves by n.h. egleston of the forestry division of the department of agriculture washington; author of "hand-book of tree-planting," etc., etc. american book company new york cincinnati chicago arbor day leaves will be supplied to superintendents, teachers, and school officers for their schools at the following rates: single copy, postage paid to any address 10 cents 25 copies, postage or express paid to any address $2.00 100 copies, postage or express paid to any address 5.00 address american book company 806 and 808 broadway, new york. 137 walnut street, cincinnati. 258 and 260 wabash avenue, chicago. * * * * * our complete descriptive list =a great catalogue.= over 2,000 volumes are described in the 21 sections of our descriptive catalogue. these are published separately. the subjects are: 1. reading 2. supplementary reading 3. arithmetics 4. higher mathematics 5. penmanship, etc. 6. geography 7. history 8. spelling 9. english language 10. drawing 11. music 12. book-keeping 13. ancient language 14. modern language 15. science 16. botany 17. philosophy, psychology, etc. 18. civics and economics 19. pedagogy, records, etc. 20. elocution 21. maps and charts on application, we will mail those which interest you. american book company new york cincinnati chicago arbor day leaves a complete programme for arbor day observance, including readings, recitations, music, and general information n.h. egleston of the forestry division of the department of agriculture, washington. author of "hand-book of tree-planting," etc. [illustration] copyright, 1893, by american book company new york cincinnati chicago boston * * * * * contents. page introduction 2 origin of arbor day 2 readings for arbor day 3 about trees--(j. sterling morton) 3 leaves, and what they do 5 bryant, the poet of trees 8 forest hymn--(bryant) 8 james russell lowell 9 the oak--(james russell lowell) 9 what one tree is worth 11 enduring character of the forests--(susan fenimore cooper) 11 the popular poplar tree--(blanch willis howard) 12 forestry and the need of it--(hon. adolph lené) 12 tree weather proverbs 13 flowers 13 arbor day celebrations 14 growing observance of arbor day 14 states and territories observing arbor day 15 encouraging words 15 the best use of arbor day 16 trees in their leafless state 18 programme for arbor day 19 i. exercises in the school room 19 ii. the march 24 iii. exercises at the tree planting 25 introduction. in preparing the second number of our manual for arbor day, we have endeavored to keep in mind the fact that arbor day was originally designed not as a mere festival or holiday, a pleasant occasion for children or adults, but to encourage the planting of trees for a serious purpose--the lasting benefit of the country in all its interests. as the poet whittier has so well said, "the wealth, beauty, fertility, and healthfulness of the country largely depend upon the conservation of our forests and the planting of trees." arbor day is not a floral festival, except as the trees may offer their bright blossoms for the occasion. in making our selections from authors, therefore, we have restricted ourselves to what they have said about trees, and have endeavored also to choose only such selections as are of high literary character, and so, not only admissible for occasional use but worthy to be learned and carried in memory for life; trees of thought which may be planted in the young minds in connection with arbor day, to grow with their growth and be perpetual sources of enjoyment. origin of arbor day. to j. sterling morton, ex-governor of nebraska, and secretary of agriculture under president cleveland, belongs the honor of originating this tree-planting festival, and he is popularly known throughout our whole country as the "father of arbor day." so well has the day been observed in nebraska since 1872 that there are now over 700,000 acres of trees in that state planted by human hands. the successful establishment of the day in nebraska commended it at once to the people of other states, and it was soon adopted by kansas, iowa, and minnesota, and was not long in making its way into michigan and ohio. in the latter state it took on a new character, which has caused it to spread rapidly throughout the country. the teachers and pupils of the schools were invited to unite in its observance, and instead of trees being planted merely as screens from the winds, they were also planted for ornamental purposes and as memorials of important historical events and of celebrated persons, authors, statesmen, and others. thus the tree-planting has gained a literary aspect and an interest for all classes, for young as well as old. in preparation for it the pupils of the schools have been led to the study of trees, their characteristics and uses. they have learned the history of celebrated trees and of persons who have been connected with them. they have become familiar with the lives of eminent persons and the best writings of distinguished authors, and thus have received most valuable instruction, while, at the same time, their finer tastes have been cultivated. since the observance of the day has been modified, as it was on its introduction into ohio, it has spread rapidly through the country and at present forty-four states and territories celebrate arbor day. its every way healthful and desirable features have so generally commended it also that it has gained a foothold abroad and has begun to be observed in england, scotland, france, and even in far-off south africa. it has become preëminently a school day and a school festival. in many cases school teachers and superintendents have introduced its observance. but it has soon so commended itself to all that, in most cases, it has been established by law and made a legal holiday. readings for arbor day. about trees. from the originator of arbor day. a tree is the perfection in strength, beauty, and usefulness of vegetable life. it stands majestic through the sun and storm of centuries. resting in summer beneath its cooling shade, or sheltering besides its massive trunk from the chilling blast of winter, we are prone to forget the little seed whence it came. trees are no respecters of persons. they grow as luxuriantly beside the cabin of the pioneer as against the palace of the millionaire. trees are not proud. what is this tree? this great trunk, these stalwart limbs, these beautiful branches, these gracefully bending boughs, these gorgeous flowers, this flashing foliage and ripening fruit, purpling in the autumnal haze are only living materials organized in the laboratory of nature's mysteries out of rain, sunlight, dews, and earth. on this spot, in this tree, a metamorphosis has so deftly taken place that it has failed to excite even the wonder of the majority of men. [illustration] here, sixty years ago, a school boy planted an acorn. spring came, then the germ of this oak began to attract the moisture of the soil. the shell of the acorn was then broken open by the internal growth of the embryo oak. it sent downward a rootlet to get soil and water, and upward it shot a stem to which the first pair of leaves was attached. these leaves are thick and fleshy. they constitute the greater bulk of the acorn. they are the first care-takers of the young oak. once out of the earth and in the sunlight they expand, assume a finer texture, and begin their usefulness as nursing leaves, "folia nutrientia." they contain a store of starch elaborated in the parent oak which bore the acorn. in tree infancy the nursing leaves take oxygen from the air, and through its influence the starch in the nursing leaves is transmuted into a tree baby-food, called dextrine, which is conveyed by the water absorbed during germination to the young rootlet and to the gemmule and also to the first aerial leaf. so fed, this leaf expands, and remains on the stem all summer. the nursing leaves die when the aerial leaves have taken their food away, and then the first stage of oak hood has begun. it has subterranean and superterranean organs, the former finding plant-food in the earth, and the latter gathering it in the air, the sunlight, and the storm. the rootlets in the dark depths of soil, the foliage in the sunlit air, begin now their common joint labor of constructing a majestic oak. phosphates and all the delicacies of plant-food are brought in from the secret stores of the earth by the former, while foliage and twig and trunk are busy in catching sunbeams, air, and thunderstorms, to imprison in the annual increment of solid wood. there is no light coming from your wood, corncob, or coal fire which some vegetable prometheus did not, in its days of growth, steal from the sun and secrete in the mysteries of a vegetable organism. combustion lets loose the captive rays and beams which growing plants imprisoned years, centuries, even eons ago, long before human life began its earthly career. the interdependence of animal and tree life is perennial. the intermission of a single season of a vegetable life and growth on the earth would exterminate our own and all the animal races. the trees, the forests are essential to man's health and life. when the last tree shall have been destroyed there will be no man left to mourn the improvidence and thoughtlessness of the forest-destroying race to which he belonged. in all civilizations man has cut down and consumed, but seldom restored or replanted, the forests. in biblical times palestine was lovely in the foliage of the palm, and the purpling grapes hung upon her hillsides and gleamed in her fertile valleys like gems in the diadems of her princes. but man, thoughtless of the future, careless of posterity, destroyed and replaced not; so, where the olive and the pomegranate and the vine once held up their luscious fruit for the sun to kiss, all is now infertility, desolation, desert, and solitude. the orient is dead to civilization, dead to commerce, dead to intellectual development. the orient died of treelessness. from the grave of the eastern nations comes the tree monition to the western. the occident like the orient would expire with the destruction of all its forests and woodlands. twenty-five thousand acres of woodland are consumed by the railroads, the manufactories, and the homes of the united states every twenty-four hours. how many are planted? to avert treelessness, to improve the climatic conditions, for the sanitation and embellishment of home environments, for the love of the beautiful and useful combined in the music and majesty of a tree, as fancy and truth unite in an epic poem, arbor day was created. it has grown with the vigor and beneficence of a grand truth or a great tree. it faces the future. it is the only anniversary in which humanity looks futureward instead of pastward, in which there is a consensus of thought for those who are to come after us, instead of reflections concerning those who have gone before us. it is a practical anniversary. it is a beautiful anniversary. to the common schools of the country i confide its perpetuation and usefulness with the same abiding faith that i would commit the acorn to the earth, the tree to the soil, or transmit the light on the shore to far off ships on the waves beyond, knowing certainly that loveliness, comfort, and great contentment shall come to humanity everywhere because of its thoughtful and practical observance by all the civilized peoples of the earth. j. sterling morton. [illustration] leaves, and what they do. the leaves of the trees afford an almost endless study and a constant delight. frail, fragile things, easily crumpled and torn, they are wonderful in their delicate structure, and more wonderful if possible on account of the work which they perform. they are among the most beautiful things offered to our sight. some one has well said that the beauty of the world depends as much upon leaves as upon flowers. we think of the bright colors of flowers and are apt to forget or fail to notice the coloring of leaves. but what a picture of color, beyond anything that flowers can give us, is spread before our sight for weeks every autumn, when the leaves ripen and take on hues like those of the most gorgeous sunset skies, and the wide landscape is all aglow with them. a wise observer has called attention also to the fact that the various kinds of trees have in the early springtime also, only in a more subdued tone, the same colors which they put on in the autumn. if we notice the leaves carefully, we shall see that there is a great variety of color in them all through the year. while the prevailing color, or the body color so to speak, is green, and the general tone of the trees seen in masses is green--the most pleasant of all colors to be abidingly before the sight--this is prevented from becoming dull or somber because it comprises almost innumerable tints and shades of the self-same color, while other distinct colors are mingled with it to such an extent as to enliven the whole foliage mass. spots of yellow, of red, of white, and of intermediate colors are dashed upon the green leaves or become the characteristic hues of entire trees, and so there is brought about an endless variety and beauty of color. then there is the beauty of form, size, position, and arrangement. of the one hundred and fifty thousand or more known species of trees, the leaves of each have a characteristic shape. the leaves of no two species are precisely alike in form. more than this is also true. no two leaves upon the same tree are in this respect alike. while there is a close resemblance among the leaves of a given tree, so that one familiar with trees would not be in doubt of their belonging to the same tree, though he should see them only when detached, yet there is more or less variation, some subtle difference in the notching or curving of the leaf-edge perhaps, so that each leaf has a form of its own. these differences of shape in the leaves are a constant source of beauty. what a variety of size also have the leaves, from those of the birches and willows to those of the sycamores, the catalpas and the paulownias. on the same tree also the leaves vary in size, those nearest the ground and nearest the trunk being usually larger than those more remote. how different as to beauty would the trees be if their leaves were all of the same size; how much less pleasing to the sight. then what a wide difference is there in the position of the leaves on the trees and their relative adjustment to each other? sometimes they grow singly, sometimes in pairs, sometimes in whirls or clusters. some droop, others spread horizontally, while others still are more or less erect. the leaves of some trees cling close to the branches, others are connected with the branches by stems of various length and so are capable of greater or less movement. the leaves of poplars and aspens have a peculiarly flattened stem, by reason of which the slightest breath of wind puts them in motion. these are some of the most obvious characteristics of the leaves, and by which they are made the source of so much of the beauty of the world in which we live. it will be a source of much pleasure to anyone who will begin now, in the season of swelling buds and opening leaves, to watch the leaves as they unfold and notice their various forms and colors and compare them one with another. there is no better way of gaining valuable knowledge of trees than this, for the trees are known by their leaves. but let us turn now from their outward appearance and consider what is done by them, for the leaves are among the great workers of the world, or, if we may not speak of them as workers, a most important work is done in or by means of them, a work upon which our own life depends and that of all the living tribes around us. every leaf is a laboratory, in which, by the help of that great magician, the sun, most wonderful changes and transformations are wrought. by the aid of the sun the crude sap which is taken up from the ground is converted by the leaves into a substance which goes to build up every part of the tree and causes it to grow larger from year to year; so that instead of the tree making the leaves, as we commonly think, the leaves really make the tree. leaves, like other parts of the plant or tree, are composed of cells and also of woody material. the ribs and veins of the leaves are the woody part. by their stiffness they keep the leaves spread out so that the sun can act upon them fully, and they prevent them also from being broken and destroyed by the winds as they otherwise would be. they serve also as ducts or conduits by which the crude sap is conveyed to the leaves, and by which when it has there been made into plant food, it is carried into all parts of the tree for its nourishment. protected and upheld by these expanded woody ribs, the body of the leaf consists of a mass of pulpy cells arranged somewhat loosely, so that there are spaces between them through which air can freely pass. over this mass of cells there is a skin, or epidermis as it is called, the green surface of the leaf. in this there are multitudes of minute openings, or breathing pores, through which air is admitted, and through which also water or watery vapor passes out into the surrounding atmosphere. in the leaf of the white lily there are as many as 60,000 of these openings in every square inch of surface and in the apple leaf not fewer than 24,000. these breathing pores, called stomates, are mostly on the under side of the leaf, except in the case of leaves which float upon the water. there is a beautiful contrivance also in connection with these pores, by which they are closed when the air around is dry and the evaporation of the water from the leaves would be so rapid as to be harmful to the tree, and are opened when the surrounding atmosphere is moist. the green color of the leaves is owing to the presence in the cells of minute green grains or granules, called chlorophyll, which means leaf-green, and these granules are indispensable to the carrying on of the important work which takes place in the leaves. they are more numerous and also packed more closely together near the upper surface of the leaf than they are near the lower. it is because of this that the upper surface is of a deeper green than the lower. such, then, is the laboratory of the leaf, the place where certain inorganic, lifeless substances such as water, lime, sulphur, potash, and phosphorus are transformed and converted into living and organic vegetable matter, and from which this is sent forth to build up every part of the tree from deepest root to topmost sprig. it is in the leaves also that all the food of man and all other animals is prepared, for if any do not feed upon vegetable substances directly but upon flesh, that flesh nevertheless has been made only as vegetable food has been eaten to form it. it is, as the bible says, "the tree of the field is man's life." but let us consider a little further the work of the leaves. the tree is made up almost wholly of oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon. it is easy to see where the oxygen and hydrogen are obtained, for they are the two elements which compose water, and that, we have seen, the roots are absorbing from the ground all the while and sending through the body of the tree into the leaves. but where does the carbon come from? a little examination will show. the atmosphere is composed of several gases, mainly of oxygen and nitrogen. besides these, however, it contains a small portion of carbonic acid, that is, carbon chemically united with oxygen. the carbonic acid is of no use to us directly, and in any but very minute quantities is harmful; but the carbon in it, if it can be separated from the oxygen, is just what the tree and every plant wants. and now the work of separating the carbon from the oxygen is precisely that which is done in the wonderful laboratory of the leaf. under the magic touch of the sun, the carbonic acid of the atmosphere which has entered the leaf through the breathing pores or stomates and is circulating through the air-passages and cells, is decomposed, that is, taken to pieces; the oxygen is poured out into the air along with the watery vapor of the crude sap, while the carbon is combined with the elements of water and other substances which we have mentioned, to form the elaborated sap or plant-material which is now ready to be carried from the leaves to all parts of the plant or tree, to nourish it and continue its growth. such is the important and wonderful work of the leaf, the tender, delicate leaf, which we crumple so easily in our fingers. it builds up, atom by atom, the tree and the great forests which beautify the world and provide for us a thousand comforts and conveniences. our houses and the furniture in them, our boats and ships, the cars in which we fly so swiftly, the many beautiful and useful things which are manufactured from wood of various kinds, all these, by the help of the sun, are furnished us by the tiny leaves of the trees. bryant, the poet of trees. "it is pleasant," as mr. george w. curtis has said, "to remember, on arbor day, that bryant, our oldest american poet and the father of our american literature, is especially the poet of trees. he grew up among the solitary hills of western massachusetts, where the woods were his nursery and the trees his earliest comrades. the solemnity of the forest breathes through all his verse, and he had always, even in the city, a grave, rustic air, as of a man who heard the babbling brooks and to whom the trees told their secrets." his "forest hymn" is familiar to many, but it cannot be too familiar. it would be well if teachers would encourage their pupils to commit the whole, or portions of it, at least, to memory. let it be made a reading lesson, but, in making it such, let pains be taken to point out its felicities of expression, its beautiful moral tone and lofty sentiment, and its wise counsels for life and conduct. nothing could be more appropriate, especially for the indoor portion of the arbor day exercises, than to have this poem, or portions of it, read by some pupil in full sympathy with its spirit, or by some class in concert. forest hymn. the groves were god's first temples, ere man learned to hew the shaft and lay the architrave and spread the roof above them, ere he framed the lofty vault to gather and roll back the sound of anthems; in the darkling wood, amidst the cool and silence, he knelt down and offered to the mightiest solemn thanks and supplications. for his simple heart might not resist the sacred influences which from the stilly twilight of the place and from the gray old trunks that high in heaven mingled their mossy boughs, and from the sound of the invisible breath that swayed at once all their green tops, stole over him and bowed his spirit with the thought of boundless power and inaccessible majesty. ah, why should we, in the world's riper years, neglect god's ancient sanctuaries and adore only among the crowd and under roofs that our frail hands have raised? let me, at least, here, in the shadow of this ancient wood, offer one hymn, thrice happy if it find acceptance in his ear. --bryant. james russell lowell. we can hardly see or think of trees without being reminded of mr. lowell, whose death during the last year was so great a loss. he was eminently a lover of trees, and they were the inspiration of some of his best prose and poetry. this love of trees led him to call his pleasant place of residence, in cambridge, "elmwood." in making up our selections for reading or recitation on arbor day, the writings of no one have been turned to more often, probably, than those of mr. lowell, and it will be very proper if we make this year's observance distinguished by the abundance of our extracts from his various works. we may well also plant memorial trees in honor of him. no one is more worthy of such honor, and we can hardly do any better thing than to plant trees which shall bear his name and remind us hereafter of his noble words and noble life. and no memorial of him would be more appropriate or more accordant with his own feelings than a growing tree. this is abundantly shown by the following letter, written only a few years ago, when it was proposed in one of our schools, to plant on arbor day, a tree in his memory. "i can think of no more pleasant way of being remembered than by the planting of a tree. like whatever things are perennially good, it will be growing while we are sleeping, and will survive us to make others happier. birds will rest in it and fly thence with messages of good cheer. i should be glad to think that any word or deed of mine could be such a perennial presence of beauty, or show so benign a destiny." [illustration] the oak. what gnarled stretch, what depth of shade, is his? there needs no crown to mark the forest's king; how in his leaves outshines full summer's bliss! sun, storm, rain, dew, to him their tribute bring, which he, with such benignant royalty accepts, as overpayeth what is lent; all nature seems his vassal proud to be, and cunning only for his ornament. how towers he, too, amid the billowed snows, an unquelled exile from the summer's throne, whose plain, uncintured front more kingly shows, now that the obscuring courtier leaves are flown. his boughs make music of the winter air, jewelled with sleet, like some cathedral front where clinging snow-flakes with quaint art repair the dents and furrows of time's envious brunt. how doth his patient strength the rude march wind persuade to seem glad breaths of summer breeze, and win the soil that fain would be unkind, to swell his revenues with proud increase! he is the gem; and all the landscape wide (so doth his grandeur isolate the sense) seems but the setting, worthless all beside, an empty socket, were he fallen thence. so, from oft converse with life's wintry gales, should man learn how to clasp with tougher roots the inspiring earth;--how otherwise avails the leaf-creating sap that sunward shoots? so every year that falls with noiseless flake should fill old scars up on the stormward side, and make hoar age revered for age's sake, not for traditions of youth's leafy pride. so, from the pinched soil of a churlish fate, true hearts compel the sap of sturdier growth, so between earth and heaven stand simply great, that these shall seem but their attendants both; for nature's forces, with obedient zeal wait on the rooted faith and oaken will, as quickly the pretender's cheat they feel, and turn mad pucks to flout and mock him still. lord! all thy works are lessons,--each contains some emblem of man's all-containing soul; shall he make fruitless all thy glorious pains, delving within thy grace an eyeless mole? make me the least of thy dodona-grove, cause me some message of thy truth to bring, speak but a word through me, nor let thy love among my boughs disdain to perch and sing. --james russell lowell. what one tree is worth. it will help us, perhaps, to appreciate properly, the value and manifold uses of trees if we consider the uses to which a single one of the many species is put. a chinese gives us the following account of the bamboo. "the bamboo plant is cultivated almost everywhere; it is remarkable for its shade and beauty. there are about sixty varieties, different in size according to its genus; ranging from that of a switch to a big pole measuring from four to five inches in diameter. it is reared from shoots and suckers, and, after the root once clings to the ground, it thrives and spreads without further care or labor. of these sixty varieties, each thrives best in a certain locality, and throughout the whole empire of china the bamboo groves not only embellish the gardens of the poor, but the vast parks of the princes and wealthy. the use to which this stately grass is put is truly wonderful. the tender shoots are cultivated for food like the asparagus; the roots are carved into fantastic images of men, birds, and monkeys. the tapering culms are used for all purposes that poles can be applied to, in carrying, supporting, propelling, and measuring; by the porter, the carpenter, and the boatman; for the joists of houses and the ribs of sails; the shafts of spears and the wattles of hurdles, the tubes of aqueducts and the handles and ribs of umbrellas and fans. the leaves are sewed upon cords to make rain-cloaks for farmers and boatmen, for sails to boats as well as junks, swept into heaps to form manure, and matted into thatches to cover houses. the bamboo wood is cut into splints and slivers of various sizes to make into baskets and trays of every form and fancy, twisted into cables, plaited into awnings, and woven into mats for the bed and floor, for the sceneries of the theatre, for the roofs of boats, and the casing of goods. the shavings are picked into oakum to be stuffed into mattresses. the bamboo furnishes the bed for sleeping and the couch for reclining, the chair for sitting, the chop-sticks for eating, the pipe for smoking, the flute for entertaining; a curtain to hang before the door, and a broom to sweep around it. the ferrule to govern the scholar, the book he studies and the paper he writes upon, all originated from this wonderful grass. the tapering barrels of the organ and the dreadful instrument of the lictor--one to strike harmony, and the other to strike dread; the rule to measure lengths, the cup to gauge quantities, and the bucket to draw water; the bellows to blow the fire and the box to retain the match; the bird-cage and crab-net, the fish-pole, and the water-wheel and eaveduct, wheelbarrow, and hand-cart, and a host of other things, are the utilities to which this magnificent grass is converted." enduring character of the forests. of all the works of the creation which know the changes of life and death, the trees of the forest have the longest existence. of all the objects which crown the gray earth, the woods preserved unchanged, throughout the greatest reach of time, their native character. the works of man are ever varying their aspect; his towns and his fields alike reflect the unstable opinions, the fickle wills and fancies of each passing generation; but the forests on his borders remain to-day the same as they were ages of years since. old as the everlasting hills, during thousands of seasons they have put forth and laid down their verdure in calm obedience to the decree which first bade them cover the ruins of the deluge. susan fenimore cooper. the popular poplar tree. when the great wind sets things whirling and rattles the window panes, and blows the dust in giants and dragons tossing their manes; when the willows have waves like water, and children are shouting with glee; when the pines are alive and the larches,- then hurrah for you and me, in the tip o' the top o' the top o' the tip of the popular poplar tree! don't talk about jack and the beanstalk- he did not climb half so high! and alice in all her travels was never so near the sky! only the swallow, a-skimming the storm-cloud over the lea, knows how it feels to be flying- when the gusts come strong and free- in the tip o' the top o' the top o' the tip of the popular poplar tree! --blanch willis howard. forestry and the need of it. "experience as well as common sense teaches us that the selecting of the species and the mere planting of the same is not a guarantee of successful forestry." in this country we have heretofore not made any distinction between forests and woodlands, while in europe, and more especially in those countries in which forestry has reached a high state of development, the distinction is clearly defined. prof. rossmässler, in speaking of the difference between forest and woodland (forst und wald), says: "every forest is also a woodland, but not every woodland, be it ever so large, is a forest. it is the regular cultivation and economical management which turns a woodland into a forest." this difference between forests and woodland is also indicated by the terms _forester_ and _woodman_; the former term being applied to the man who advocates the perpetuation of woodland in accordance with the teachings and principles of forestry, and the latter to the man whose profession is that of felling trees. in this meaning of the term, we, in this country, have really no forests, but woodlands only. to turn these woodlands into forests, and to plant forests, where for climatic and other considerations they are needed, is the aim and object of the advocates of forestry. the forester, it will be seen, has a distinct mission, which is to perpetuate the forests so indispensable to civilized life, and to produce at a minimum expense, from a given piece of ground, the greatest amount of forest products. as our forests decrease in extent and deteriorate in quality, and as, with the increase of our population, the demands upon forest products of all kinds become greater, the necessity of a rational system of forestry, and the need of educated foresters becomes more apparent every day. we should, moreover, constantly bear in mind that, while there are trees, as the catalpa, the ash and the hickory, which will attain merchantable size in forty or fifty years from the seed, there are others such as the pine and the tulip-poplar, which require for reaching the necessary dimensions a period of from sixty to eighty years; and still others, such as the oaks and the black walnut, for the full development of which about a hundred and fifty years are required. can we, in view of this, still be in doubt as to whether or not the time has come when we should earnestly consider the question? hon. adolph lené, secretary of ohio state forestry bureau. tree weather proverbs. if the oak is out before the ash, t'will be a summer of wet and splash; but if the ash is out before the oak, t'will be a summer of fire and smoke. when the hawthorne bloom too early shows, we shall have still many snows. when the oak puts on his goslings gray, 'tis time to sow barley, night or day. when elm leaves are big as a shilling, plant kidney beans if you are willing; when elm leaves are as big as a penny, you _must_ plant kidney beans if you wish to have any. flowers. spake full well, in language quaint and olden, one who dwelleth by the castled rhine, when he called the flowers, so blue and golden, stars, that in earth's firmament do shine. stars they are, wherein we read our history, as astrologers and seers of eld; yet not wrapped about with awful mystery, like the burning stars which they beheld. wondrous truths, and manifold as wondrous, god hath written in those stars above; but not less in the bright flowerets under us stands the revelation of his love. bright and glorious is that revelation, writ all over this great world of ours- making evident our own creation, in these stars of earth, these golden flowers. --longfellow. flowers seem intended for the solace of ordinary humanity; children love them; tender, contented, ordinary people love them. they are the cottager's treasure; and in the crowded town mark, as with a little fragment of rainbow, the windows of the workers in whose heart rests the covenant of peace. ruskin. arbor day celebrations. [illustration] growing observance of arbor day. it adds to the pleasure attending the observance of arbor day when we think how many are uniting with us in its celebration. it is but a few years since the day was first known and its observance was limited to a single one of our states. now the day is known and observed from maine to oregon and from minnesota to the gulf of mexico. not only is this true, but this our tree-festival so commends itself to all that its observance has spread more rapidly and more widely than any other public observance in the world's history. it is already established in portions of england, france, and italy, in far-away south africa and australia, and we shall probably hear before long of its adoption in china and japan. and so, as we come together to have pleasant talks about the trees and to march out with songs and banners to plant them in school grounds, in parks, by the road-side or elsewhere, it will be pleasant to remember that so many others are engaged in similar services. it should make the day a happier one for us to think that so many will enjoy it as we do, as it should always increase our happiness to know that others are sharing with us anything that is good. as it will, doubtless, be interesting to all engaging in the celebration of the day, we give on the next page a list of the states in which arbor day is observed. states and territories observing arbor day. year of first states. observance time of observance. alabama 1887 22nd february. arizona 1890-91 first friday after first of february. california 1886 colorado 1885 third friday in april. connecticut 1887 in spring, at appointment of governor. florida 1886 january 8. georgia 1887 first friday in december. idaho 1887 last monday in april. illinois 1888 date fixed by governor and supt. of public instruction. indiana 1884 " " superintendent of public instruction. iowa 1887 " " " " kansas 1875 option of governor, usually in april. kentucky 1886 " " louisiana 1888-9 " parish boards. maine 1887 " governor. maryland 1889 " " in april. massachusetts 1886 last saturday in april. michigan 1885 option of governor. minnesota 1876 " " mississippi 1892 " board of education. missouri 1886 first friday after first tuesday of april. montana 1887 third tuesday of april. nebraska 1872 22nd of april. nevada 1887 option of governor. new hampshire 1886 " " new jersey 1884 " " in april. new mexico 1890 second friday in march. new york 1889 first friday after may 1. north carolina 1893 north dakota 1884 sixth of may, by proclamation of governor. ohio 1882 in april " " oregon 1882 second friday in april. pennsylvania 1887 option of governor. rhode island 1887 " " south carolina uncertain variable. south dakota 1884 option of governor. tennessee 1875 november, at designation of county superintendents. texas 1800 22nd of february. vermont 1885 option of governor. virginia 1892 west virginia 1883 fall and spring, at designation of supt. of schools. wisconsin 1889 option of governor. wyoming 1888 " " washington 1892 only the following five states or territories fail to observe arbor day--arkansas, delaware, oklahoma, indian territory, and utah. encouraging words. the governors of our states and the superintendents of our schools have generally entered heartily into the observance of arbor day and spoken earnest words of encouragement in its behalf. the following are specimens of what they have said. =new hampshire.=--governor currier, in his arbor day proclamation: "i especially desire that our children may be taught to observe and reverence the divine energies which are unfolding themselves in every leaf and flower that sheds a perfume in spring or ripens into a robe of beauty in autumn, so that the aspirations of childhood, led by beautiful surroundings, may form higher and broader conceptions of life and humanity; for the teachings of nature lead up from the material and finite to the infinite and eternal." =illinois.=--governor fifer: "let the children in our schools, the young men and women in our colleges, seminaries, and universities, with their instructors, co-operate in the proper observance of the day by planting shrubs, vines, and trees that will beautify the home, adorn the public grounds, add wealth to the state, and thereby increase the comfort and happiness of our people." =missouri.=--from the superintendent of public schools, in his annual report: "let this love for planting trees, shrubs, vines, and flowers be encouraged and stimulated in the school-room and not only will the school-yards profit thereby, but the now barren farm-yards and pastures will remain the recipients of your instruction." =california.=--from superintendent of public instruction: "our schools cannot protect the forests, but they can raise up a generation which will not leave their hillsides and mountains treeless; a generation which will frown upon and rebuke the wanton destruction of our forest trees. there is no spot on earth that may not be made more beautiful by the help of trees and flowers." =nebraska.=--from the state superintendent of public instruction: "on this day, above all others, the pupils of our public schools should be educated to care for the material prosperity of the country and to foster the growth of trees. let the child understand that he is especially interested in the tree he plants: that it is his; that upon him devolves the responsibility of protecting and cultivating it in coming years." =new york.=--hon. a.s. draper, ex-superintendent of public instruction: "the primary purpose of the legislature in establishing arbor day was to develop and stimulate in the children of the commonwealth a love and reverence for nature, as revealed in trees and shrubs and flowers." the best use of arbor day. arbor day, to be most useful as well as most pleasant, should not stand by itself, alone, but be connected with much study and talk of trees and kindred subjects beforehand and afterward. it should rather be the focal or culminating point of the year's observation of trees and other natural objects with which they are closely connected. the wise teacher will seek to cultivate the observing faculties of the pupils by calling their attention to the interesting things with which the natural world abounds. it is not necessary to this that there should be formal classes in botany or any natural science, though we think no school should be without its botanical class or classes, nor should anyone be eligible to the place of a teacher in our public schools who is not competent to give efficient instruction in botany at least. but much may be done in this direction informally, by brief, familiar talks in the intervals between the regular recitations of the school-room, or during the walks to and from school. a tree by the road-side will furnish an object lesson for pleasant and profitable discourse for many days and at all seasons. a few flowers, which teacher or pupil may bring to the school-room, will easily be made the means of interesting the oldest and the youngest and of imparting the most profitable instruction. how easy also to plant a few seeds in a vase in the school-room window and to encourage the pupils to watch their sprouting and subsequent growth. then it should not be difficult to have a portion of the school grounds set apart, where the pupils might, with the teacher's guidance, plant flower and tree seeds and thus be able to observe the ways and characteristics of plants in all periods of their growth. they could thus provide themselves with trees for planting on future arbor days, and at the time of planting there would be increased enjoyment from the fact that they had grown the trees for that very purpose. why might not every school-house ground be made also an arboretum, where the pupils might have under their eyes, continually, specimens of all the trees that grow in the town or in the state where the school is situated? it would require but a little incitement from the teacher to make the pupils enthusiastic with the desire to find out the different species indigenous to the region and to gather them, by sowing seeds or planting the young trees, around their place of study. and if the school premises are now too small in extent to admit of such a use, let the pupils make an earnest plea for additional ground. as a general fact our school-grounds have been shamefully limited in extent and neglected as to their use and keeping. the school-house, in itself and in its surroundings, ought to be one of the most beautiful and attractive objects to be seen in any community. the approach from the street should be like that to any dwelling house, over well kept walks bordered by green turf, with trees and shrubs and flowers offering their adornment. everything should speak of neatness and order. the playground should be ample, but it should be in another direction and by itself. europeans are in advance of us in school management. the austrian public school law reads: "in every school a gymnastic ground, a garden for the teacher, according to the circumstances of the community, and a place for the purposes of agricultural experiment are to be created." there are now nearly 8,000 school gardens in austria, not including hungary. in france, also, gardening is taught in the primary and elementary schools. there are nearly 30,000 of these schools, each of which has a garden attached to it, and the minister of public instruction has resolved to increase the number of school gardens and that no one shall be appointed master of an elementary school unless he can prove himself capable of giving practical instruction in the culture of mother earth. in sweden, in 1871, there were 22,000 children in the common schools receiving instruction in horticulture and tree-planting. each of more than 2,000 schools had for cultivation from one to twelve acres of ground. why should we be behind the old world in caring for the schools? by the munificence of one of her citizens, new york has twice offered premiums for the best-kept school-grounds. why may we not have arbor day premiums in all of our states and in every town for the most tasteful arrangement of school-house and grounds? these places of education should be the pride of every community instead of being, as they so often are, a reproach and shame. trees in their leafless state. as the season for arbor day and tree-planting comes on, just before the buds begin to swell and are getting ready to cover the trees with a fresh mantle of leaves, it is well--as it is also when the leaves have fallen from the trees in autumn--to give attention to the bare trees and notice the characteristic forms of the various species, the manner in which their branches are developed and arranged among themselves, for a knowledge of these things will often enable one to distinguish the different kinds of trees more readily and certainly than by any other means. the foliage often serves as an obscuring veil, concealing, in part at least, the individuality and the peculiarities of the trees. but if one is familiar with their forms of growth, their skeleton anatomy, so to speak, he will recognize common trees at once with only a partial view of them. some trees, as the oak, throw their limbs out from the trunk horizontally. as dr. holmes says: "the others shirk the work of resisting gravity, the oak defies it. it chooses the horizontal direction for its limbs so that their whole weight may tell, and then stretches them out fifty or sixty feet so that the strain may be mighty enough to be worth resisting." some trees have limbs which droop toward the ground, while those of most, perhaps, have an upward tendency, and others still have an upward direction at first and later in their growth a downward inclination, as in the case of the elm, the birch, and the willows. some, like the oak, have comparatively few but large and strong branches, while others have many and slender limbs, like many of the birches and poplars. the teacher should call attention to these and other characteristics of tree-structure, drawing the various forms of trees on the blackboard and encouraging the pupils to do the same, allowing them also to correct each other's drawings. this will greatly increase their knowledge of trees and their interest in them as well as in arbor day and its appropriate observance. [illustration] programme for arbor day. we give in this part of our manual a programme for arbor day observance. it is presented not so much in the expectation that it will be exactly copied as that it may serve as suggestion of what may be done. we have added various selections from poets and prose writers which may help those who are preparing for the proper observance of arbor day. but these are only a few specimens from the great stores of our literature. a little care and painstaking beforehand will furnish an ample supply of the desired material, for our literature abounds in such. not the least of the benefits of the observance of arbor day is the opportunity it gives for making the young familiar with the best thoughts of the best writers and thus giving them a literary culture in the pleasantest manner. thus while preparing to plant trees we may be planting in the young mind and heart growths more precious and lasting than they. * * * * * i.-exercises in the school-room. =1. reading.= (by the teacher, or by classes.) "and god said, let the earth bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed, and the fruit tree yielding fruit after his kind, whose seed is in itself, upon the earth: and it was so. and the earth brought forth grass, and herb yielding seed after his kind, and the tree yielding fruit, whose seed was in itself after his kind." "and out of the ground made the lord god to grow every tree that is pleasant to the sight, and good for food; the tree of life also in the midst of the garden, and the tree of knowledge of good and evil." "blessed is the man that trusteth in the lord, and whose hope the lord is. for he shall be as a tree planted by the waters, and that spreadeth out her roots by the river, and shall not see when heat cometh, but her leaf shall be green; and shall not be careful in the year of drought, neither shall cease from yielding fruit." "i will plant in the wilderness the cedar, the shittah tree, and the myrtle, and the oil tree; i will set in the desert the fir tree, and the pine, and the box tree together: that they may see, and know, and consider, and understand together, that the hand of the lord hath done this, and the holy one of israel hath created it." "he that trusteth in his riches shall fall: but the righteous shall flourish as a branch." "wisdom is a tree of life to them that lay hold upon her, and happy is everyone that retaineth her." "and he shewed me a pure river of water of life, clear as crystal, proceeding out of the throne of god and of the lamb. in the midst of the street of it, and on either side of the river, was there the tree of life, which bare twelve manner of fruits, and yielded her fruit every month: and the leaves of the tree were for the healing of the nations." =2. invocation song.= tribute to nature. [tune--"america."] [illustration: music notation] of nature broad and free, of grass and flower and tree, sing we to-day. god hath pronounced it good so we, his creatures would offer to field and wood, our heartfelt lay. to all that meets the eye, in earth, or air, or sky, tribute we bring. barren this world would be, bereft of shrub and tree: now, gracious lord, to thee, praises we sing. may we thy hand behold, as bud and leaf unfold, see but thy thought; nor heedlessly destroy, nor pass unnoticed by; but be our constant joy: all thou hast wrought. as each small bud and flower speaks of the maker's power, tells of his love; so we, thy children dear, would live from year to year, show forth thy goodness here, and then above. --mary a. heermans. =3. reading arbor day law, or proclamation of governor.= [as the laws regarding arbor day vary in different states, it will be necessary for each teacher or superintendent to procure and read the one applicable to his state.] =4. reading letters in reference to arbor day.= [these may consist of circular letters from superintendents, etc., and other incidental letters. it is suggested that notes of invitation to the exercises be sent to the parents of the children and to influential people. these will in many cases elicit replies bearing on the subject. in case such letters cannot be secured, at this point the "encouraging words" printed on page 15 of this pamphlet may be read with profit.] =5. recitation.= all things beautiful. all things bright and beautiful, all creatures great and small, all things wise and wonderful,- the lord god made them all. each little flower that opens, each little bird that sings, he made their glowing colors, he made their tiny wings. the purple-headed mountain, the river, running by, the morning, and the sunset that lighteth up the sky. the tall trees in the greenwood, the pleasant summer sun, the ripe fruits in the garden,- he made them, every one. he gave us eyes to see them, and lips that we might tell how great is god almighty, who hath made all things well. --c.f. alexander. =6. reading. bryant's forest hymn.= (see page 8.) =7. recitations.= (by different pupils.) the purpose of arbor day. _first pupil._ to avert treelessness; to improve the climatic conditions; for the sanitation and embellishment of home environments; for the love of the beautiful and useful combined in the music and majesty of a tree, as fancy and truth unite in an epic poem, arbor day was created. it has grown with the vigor and beneficence of a grand truth or a great tree. --j. sterling morton. be noble. _second pupil._ be noble! and the nobleness that lies in other men sleeping, but never dead, will rise in majesty to meet thine own; then wilt thou see it gleam in many eyes, then will pure light around thy path be shed, and thou wilt nevermore be sad and lone. --lowell. leaves. _third pupil._ the leaves of the herbage at our feet take all kinds of strange shapes as if to invite us to examine them. star-shaped, heart-shaped, spear-shaped, arrow-shaped, fretted, fringed, cleft, furrowed, serrated, sinuated, in whorls, in tufts, in spires, in wreaths, endlessly expressive, deceptive, fantastic, never the same from footstalk to blossom, they seem perpetually to tempt our watchfulness and take delight in outstripping our wonder. --ruskin. influence of nature. _fourth pupil._ therefore am i still a lover of the meadows and the woods and mountains, and of all that we behold from this green earth; of all the mighty world of eye and ear, both what they half create and what perceive; well pleased to recognize in nature, and the language of the sense, the anchor of my purest thoughts, the nurse, the guide, the guardian of my heart, and soul, of all my moral being. --wordsworth. _fifth pupil._ i regard the forest as an heritage, given to us by nature, not for spoil or to devastate, but to be wisely used, reverently honored, and carefully maintained. i regard the forest as a gift entrusted to us only for transient care during a short space of time, to be surrendered to posterity again as unimpaired property, with increased riches and augmented blessings, to pass as a sacred patrimony from generation to generation. --baron ferdinand von mueller. nature's comfort. _sixth pupil._ if thou art worn and hard beset with sorrows that thou wouldst forget, if thou wouldst read a lesson that will keep thy heart from fainting and thy soul from sleep, go to the woods and hills! no tears dim the sweet look that nature wears. --longfellow. _seventh pupil._ it may be said that the measure of attention given to trees indicates the condition of agriculture and civilization of a country. --mahé. _eighth pupil._ i said i will not walk with men to-day, but i will go among the blessed trees,- among the forest trees i'll take my way, and they shall say to me what words they please. and when i came among the trees of god, with all their million voices sweet and blest, they gave me welcome. so i slowly trod their arched and lofty aisles, with heart at rest. _ninth pupil._ forests can flourish independent of agriculture; but agriculture cannot prosper without forests. _tenth pupil._ the man who builds does a work which begins to decay as soon as he has done, but the work of the man who plants trees grows better and better, year after year, for generations. _eleventh pupil._ of all man's works of art a cathedral is greatest. a vast and majestic tree is greater than that. --h.w. beecher. _twelfth pupil._ in an agricultural country the preservation or destruction of forests must determine the decision of hamlet's alternative: "to be or not to be." an animal flayed or a tree stripped of its bark does not perish more surely than a land deprived of the trees. --felix l. oswald. _thirteenth pupil._ by their fruit ye shall know them. do men gather grapes of thorns, or figs of thistles? even so every good tree bringeth forth good fruit; but the corrupt tree bringeth forth evil fruit. a good tree cannot bring forth evil fruit, neither can a corrupt tree bring forth good fruit. therefore by their fruits ye shall know them. =8. declamation.= a forest song. a song for the beautiful trees! a song for the forest grand, the garden of god's own land, the pride of his centuries. hurrah! for the kingly oak, for the maple, the sylvan queen, for the lords of the emerald cloak, for the ladies in living green. so long as the rivers flow, so long as the mountains rise, may the forest sing to the skies, and shelter the earth below. hurrah! for the beautiful trees, hurrah! for the forest grand, the pride of his centuries, the garden of god's own land. --w.h. venable. =9. address.= (by teacher or some one invited for the occasion.) =10. declamation.= a june day. now is the high-tide of the year, and whatever of life hath ebbed away comes flooding back with a rippling cheer, into every bare inlet and creek and bay; now the heart is so full that a drop overfills it, we are happy now because god wills it; no matter how barren the past may have been, 'tis enough for us now that the leaves are green; we sit in the warm shade and feel right well how the sap creeps up and the blossoms swell; we may shut our eyes but we cannot help knowing that skies are clear and grass is growing; the breeze comes whispering in our ear, that dandelions are blossoming near, that maize has sprouted, that streams are flowing, that the river is bluer than the sky, that the robin is plastering his house hard by; and if the breeze kept the good news back, for other couriers we should not lack; we would guess it all by yon heifer's lowing,- and hark! how clear bold chanticleer, warmed with the new wine of the year, tells all in his lusty crowing! joy comes, grief goes, we know not how: everything is happy now, everything is upward striving; 'tis as easy now for the heart to be true as for grass to be green or skies to be blue,- 'tis the natural way of living. --lowell: _sir launfal._ =11. voting for the tree or flower which shall be the emblem of the school for the year.= suggestions.--if this programme should prove too long, parts of it may readily be omitted. if the day be a fine one, it might be well to transfer the address and, perhaps, the readings to the third part of the programme at the tree. in order to facilitate the voting of the tree or flower and have it occupy but little time, it would be well to have a blackboard facing the pupils during the exercises with a few drawings of trees and flowers, each with a characteristic attribute printed beneath it. the voting may then be expeditiously performed by pointing to the drawings. in some states there is a provision for the children to vote on arbor day for a favorite flower, which shall be considered the state flower. in others a state tree may be selected by vote of the children. in such cases this is the time for the selection. =12. recitation.= the american flag. when freedom from her mountain height unfurled her standard to the air, she tore the azure robe of night and set the stars of glory there; she mingled with its gorgeous dyes the milky baldric of the skies, and striped its pure celestial white with streakings of the morning light; then from his mansion in the sun she called her eagle bearer down, and gave into his mighty hand the symbol of her chosen land. --j.r. drake. [to be recited and followed immediately by the song "star spangled banner."] =13. song.= star spangled banner. francis key. [illustration: music notation] 1. oh, say can you see, by the dawn's early light, what so proudly we hail'd at the twilight's last gleaming? whose broad stripes and bright stars thro' the perilous fight o'er the ramparts we watched were so gallantly streaming, and the rocket's red glare, the bombs bursting in air gave proof thro' the night that our flag was still there; oh, say does the star-spangled banner still wave o'er the land of the free, and the home of the brave? 2. on the shore dimly seen thro' the mists of the deep, where the foe's haughty host in dread silence reposes, what is that, which the breeze o'er the lowering steep, as it fitfully blows, half conceals, half discloses! now it catches the gleam of the morning's first beam, in full glory reflected now shines on the stream; 'tis the star-spangled banner, oh, long may it wave o'er the land of the free, and the home of the brave! 3. oh, thus be it ever when freemen shall stand between their loved homes and the war's desolation. blest with victory and peace, may the heav'n-rescued land praise the pow'r that has made and preserved us a nation. then conquer we must, when our cause it is just, and this be our motto--"in god is our trust," and the star-spangled banner in triumph shall wave o'er the land of the free, and the home of the brave! ii.--the march. _suggestions._--see that the children keep step to the air of the song. arrange them according to size, the smallest first, that the column may present a picturesque appearance. marching song. [illustration: music notation] 1. there's springtime in the air when the happy robin sings, and earth grows bright and fair, covered with the robe she brings. _cho._ march, oh, march, 'tis arbor day, joy for all and cares away; march, oh, march, from duties free to the planting of the tree. 2. there's springtime in the air when the buds begin to swell, and woodlands, brown and bare, all the summer joys foretell.--_cho._ 3. there's springtime in the air when the heart so fondly pays this tribute, sweet and rare, which to mother earth we raise.--_cho._ iii.--exercises at the tree-planting. =1. planting of trees.= (one or more). =2. song.= planting the tree. [illustration: music notation] gather we here to plant the fair tree; gladsome the hour, joyous and free, greeting to thee, fairest of may! breathe sweet the buds on our loved arbor day. gather we now, the sapling around, singing our song--let it resound: _refrain._ happy the day! happy the hour! joyous we, all of us, feel their glad power. shovel and spade, trowel and hoe, carefully dig up the quick-yielding ground; make we a bed, softly lay low each little root with the earth spread around; snug as a nest, the soil round them pressed, this is the home that the rootlings love best. _refrain._ moisten and soften the ground, ye spring rains; swell ye the buds, and fill ye the veins, bless the dear tree, bountiful sun; warm thou the blood in the stem till it run; hasten the growth, let leaves have birth, make it most beautiful thing of the earth. _refrain._ --[dr. e.p. waterbury] =3. recitations.= note.--one or more of the recitations may be given with the planting of each tree, the number depending upon the number of trees planted. _first pupil._ plant in the spring-time the beautiful trees, so that in future each soft summer breeze, whispering through tree-tops may call to our mind, days of our childhood then left far behind. days when we learned to be faithful and true; days when we yearned our life's future to view; days when the good seemed so easy to do; days when life's cares were so light and so few. _second pupil._ plant trees for beauty, for pleasure and for health; plant trees for shelter, for fruitage and for wealth. _third pupil._ nobility. true worth is in _being_, not _seeming_, in doing each day that goes by some little good--not in the dreaming of great things to do by and by. --alice cary. _fourth pupil._ planting of trees. oh, happy trees which we plant to-day, what great good fortunes wait you! for you will grow in sun and snow till fruit and flowers freight you. your winter covering of snow, will dazzle with its splendor; your summer's garb, with richest glow, will feast of beauty render. in your cool shade will tired feet pause, weary, when 'tis summer, and rest like this will be most sweet to every tired new-comer. _fifth pupil._ the coming of spring. when wake the violets, winter dies; when sprout the elm buds, spring is near; when lilacs blossom, summer cries, bud, little rose! spring is here. --lowell. _sixth pupil._ when we plant a tree, we are doing what we can to make our planet a more wholesome and happier dwelling-place for those who come after us, if not for ourselves. --o.w. holmes. _seventh pupil._ "it is no exaggerated praise to call a tree the grandest and most beautiful of all the productions of the earth." --gilpin, _forest scenery_. _eighth pupil._ "kind hearts are the gardens, kind thoughts are the roots, kind words are the blossoms, kind deeds are the fruits." _ninth pupil._ what do we plant when we plant the tree? we plant the ship which will cross the sea. we plant the mast to carry the sails; we plant the planks to withstand the gales- the keel, the keelson, and beam and knee; we plant the ship when we plant the tree. _tenth pupil._ what do we plant when we plant the tree? we plant the houses for you and me. we plant the rafters, the shingles, the floors, we plant the studding, the lath, the doors, the beams and siding, all parts that be; we plant the house when we plant the tree. _eleventh pupil._ what do we plant when we plant the tree? a thousand things that we daily see; we plant the spire that out-towers the crag, we plant the staff for our country's flag, we plant the shade, from the hot sun free; we plant all these when we plant the tree. --henry abbey. =4. tree planting song.= planting of the tree. [illustration: music notation] 1. long this little stem has grown in a quiet spot, unknown: now we plant it here, to be ever honored as our tree. 2. may the kind earth give it food, and warm sunlight o'er it brood, shower make bright, and storm make hard, and no harm its growth retard. 3. may it give to men delight, rich in shade, and fair to sight; and while untold years roll by, speak of us to memory. 4. little tree, our own! we pray, be our teacher every day; on us strength and grace impress, that we, too, the world may bless. j.d. burrell. =5. patriotic recitation.= union and liberty. _first voice._ flag of the heroes who left us their glory, borne through our battle-fields' thunder and flame, blazoned in song and illumined in story, wave o'er us all who inherit their fame! _second voice._ light of our firmament, guide of our nation, pride of her children, and honored afar, let the wide beams of thy full constellation scatter each cloud that would darken a star! _third voice._ empire unsceptred! what foe shall assail thee, bearing the standard of liberty's van? think not the god of thy fathers shall fail thee, striving with men for the birthright of man! _fourth voice._ yet, if by madness and treachery blighted, dawns the dark hour when the sword thou must draw, then, with the arms of thy millions united, smite the bold traitors to freedom and law! _all._ up with our banner bright, sprinkled with starry light, spread its fair emblems from mountain to shore; while through the sounding sky, loud rings the nation's cry,- union and liberty!--one evermore! --oliver wendell holmes. =6. address or reading of some selection from another part of this pamphlet.= =7. marching from the field.= (to following tune.) woodman, spare that tree. george p. morris. henry russell. [illustration: music notation] 1. woodman, spare that tree! touch not a single bough; in youth it shelter'd me, and i'll protect it now; 'twas my forefather's hand, that placed it near his cot, there, woodman, let it stand, thy axe shall harm it not! 2. that old, familiar tree, its glory and renown are spread o'er land and sea, and would'st thou hew it down? woodman, forbear thy stroke! cut not its earth-bound ties; oh! spare that aged oak, now tow'ring to the skies. 3. when but an idle boy, i sought its friendly shade; in all their gushing joy, here, too, my sisters played; my mother kiss'd me here; my father press'd my hand, forgive this foolish tear, but let that old oak stand! 4. my heart-strings 'round thee cling, close as thy bark, old friend! here shall the wild-bird sing, and still thy branches bend. old tree, the storm thou'lt brave, and, woodman, leave the spot; while i've a hand to save, thy axe shall harm it not! =8. breaking ranks and dismissal.= [illustration] popular books for young readers. monteith's popular science reader. by james monteith. 12mo, cloth, 360 pages 75 cents presents a number of easy and interesting lessons on natural science and natural history, interspersed with appropriate selections from standard authors. the geographical reader and primer. 12mo, cloth, red edges, 298 pages 60 cents a series of journeys round the world, based on guyot's introduction, with primary lessons. richly illustrated with over 130 engravings. johonnot's geographical reader. by james johonnot. 12mo, cloth, 418 pages $1.00 a collection of geographical descriptions and narrations from the best writers in english literature, carefully classified and arranged. johonnot's historical readers. seven books. grandfather's stories 27 cents stories of heroic deeds 30 cents stories of our country 40 cents stories of other lands 40 cents stories of the olden time 54 cents ten great events in history 54 cents an attractive series of books, carefully graded and fully illustrated. shepherd's historical reader. by henry e. shepherd, a.m. 12mo, cloth, 345 pages $1.00 a collection of extracts representing the purest historical literature that has been produced in the different stages of literary development, from the time of clarendon to the era of macaulay and prescott. johonnot's natural history readers. six books. book of cats and dogs 17 cents friends in feathers and fur 30 cents neighbors with wings and fins 40 cents some curious flyers, creepers, and swimmers 40 cents neighbors with claws and hoofs 54 cents glimpses of the animate world $1.00 on the same plan as johonnot's historical readers. these books are admirable for supplementary reading classes. lockwood's animal memoirs. by samuel lockwood, ph.d. two books. 12mo. illustrated. part i. mammals. 317 pages. 60 cents part ii. birds. 397 pages. 60 cents for use either as text-books of science in popular form, or as supplementary readers. mcguffey's natural history readers. two books. 12mo. illustrated. mcguffey's familiar animals and their wild kindred. 208 pages, 50 cts. mcguffey's living creatures of water, land, and air. 208 pages, 50 cts. treat's home studies in nature. by mrs. mary treat. 12mo, cloth, 244 pages 90 cents part i.--observations on birds. part ii.--habits of insects. part iii.--plants that consume animals. part iv.--flowering plants. _copies of the above books will be sent, postage prepaid, to any address on receipt of price. full descriptive circulars of supplementary readers for all grades mailed free on application._ american book company, new york, cincinnati, chicago, boston. arithmetic. _practical series, freshly written, attractive, carefully graded, standard works. they state principles and definitions clearly and simply, and provide plenty of practice._ milne's new arithmetics: elements of arithmetic 30 cents standard arithmetic 65 cents these books constitute an entirely new two-book series, embodying what is considered the best in modern methods of teaching arithmetic. it is a philosophical, original, progressive, and thoroughly modern course. the standard arithmetic provides a thorough and systematic training of pupils to rapidity and accuracy, while at the same time it aims to help their analytical powers and reasoning faculties. business processes are introduced in such a way as to render them of the greatest practical value. other features are a new order and arrangement of subjects; 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so arranged as to economize the time of both pupil and teacher. _any of the above books will be mailed, postpaid, on receipt of price. full list of publications will be sent an application._ american book company, new york, cincinnati, chicago, boston. school geographies. the great demand for the american book company's numerous geographies enables them to keep an efficient corps always engaged in securing accurate data of every change and discovery affecting this science, and these are promptly incorporated in the company's books. the company will continue to pursue the course indicated above in reference to its geographies, notwithstanding the heavy expense, confident that progressive teachers everywhere will appreciate these efforts to keep in the market the most accurate, reliable, and in every way the best school geographies published. the leading common-school geographies are the following: appletons' standard geographies. appletons' elementary geography $0 55 appletons' higher geography 1 25 barnes's new geographies. barnes's elementary geography 55 barnes's complete geography 1 25 eclectic geographies. eclectic elementary geography 55 eclectic complete geography 1 20 harper's geographies. harper's introductory geography 48 harper's school geography 1 08 swinton's geographies. swinton's introductory geography 55 swinton's grammar-school geography 1 25 physical geography. appletons' physical geography. large 4to $1 60 prepared by a corps of scientific experts, with richly illustrated engravings, diagrams, and maps in color. eclectic physical geography. 12mo. $1 00 by russell hinman. a new work in a new and convenient form. all irrelevant matter is omitted, and the pages devoted exclusively to physical geography clearly treated in the light of recent investigations. the numerous charts, cuts, and diagrams are drawn with accuracy, fully illustrating the text. guyot's physical geography. large 4to $1 60 by arnold guyot. revised, with new plates and newly engraved maps. monteith's new physical geography. 4to $1 00 a new and comprehensive work, embracing the results of recent research in this field, including physiography, hydrography, meteorology, terrestrial magnetism, and vulcanology. _any of these books will be sent, prepaid, to any address on receipt of price. special terms for introduction. correspondence invited._ american book company, new york, cincinnati, chicago, boston. american history for schools. barnes's series: barnes's primary history of the united states. by t.f. donnelly. for intermediate classes. fully illustrated. 60 cents barnes's brief history of the united states. revised to the present administration. richly embellished with maps and illustrations. $1.00 eclectic series: eclectic primary history of the united states. by edward s. ellis. a book for younger classes, or those who have not the time to devote to a more complete history. 50 cents new eclectic history of the united states. by m.e. thalheimer. a revised, enlarged, and improved edition of the "eclectic history of the united states." fully illustrated with engravings, colored plates, etc., $1.00 eggleston's series: eggleston's first book in american history. by edward eggleston. with special reference to the lives and deeds of great americans. beautifully illustrated. a history for beginners on a new plan. 60 cents eggleston's history of the united states and its people. by edward eggleston. for the use of schools. fully illustrated with engravings, maps, and colored plates. $1.05 we also publish niles's united states history; swinton's series, two books; and quackenbos's series, two books. * * * * * general history. appletons' school history of the world $1.22 a clear, fresh, carefully condensed work, fully illustrated. barnes's brief general history of the world 1.60 new edition, carefully revised, and entirely reset. one of the most popular and interesting histories of the world that has been published. fisher's outlines of universal history 2.40 swinton's outlines of the world's history 1.44 the same, in two parts, each .75 ancient, mediæval, and modern, with special reference to the history of mankind. thalheimer's general history 1.20 extreme brevity has here been combined with a lively and simple narrative, specially adapted for younger pupils. our list also includes histories of england, france, greece, rome, etc., besides ancient, mediæval, and modern histories and manuals of mythology. send for section 7, which fully describes these and other works on the same subject. special terms for introduction. correspondence invited. american book company, new york, cincinnati, chicago, boston. recent publications. alexander's brief history of the hawaiian people. _illustrated_ $1 50 apgar's trees of the northern united states. _illustrated_ 1 00 appleton's school physics 1 20 appletons' how to teach writing. a manual of penmanship 50 armstrong and norton's laboratory manual of chemistry 50 bailey's american mental arithmetic 35 barnes's general history of the world. a new edition printed from new plates 1 60 cathcart's literary reader. a new manual of english literature 1 15 dreyspring's french reader on the cumulative method 75 ellwood's table book and test problems in mathematics 1 00 english classics for schools. uniform binding in boards. macaulay's second essay on the earl of chatham 20 sir roger de coverley papers, from _the spectator_ 20 irving's sketch-book--ten selections 20 scott's (sir walter) ivanhoe 50 scott's (sir walter) marmion 40 shakespeare's julius cæsar 20 shakespeare's twelfth night 20 harper and miller's vergil's aeneid 1 25 hoffman's sloyd system of wood working 1 00 milne's standard arithmetic 65 milne's high school algebra 1 00 morris's physical education in the public schools 1 00 peterman's elements of civil government 60 rickoff's supplementary first reader 25 robinson's new arithmetics: new primary arithmetic 18 new rudiments of arithmetic 30 new practical arithmetic 65 the schoolmaster in literature. with an introduction by edw. eggleston 1 40 webster's new school dictionaries: new primary dictionary 48 new common school dictionary 72 new high school dictionary 98 white's new course in art instruction: books 1, 2, and 3, per dozen 1 00 books 4 to 9, per dozen 1 80 books sent postpaid on receipt of price. specially favorable terms for introduction. american book company, new york, cincinnati, chicago, boston. +-------------------------------------------------------------------+ | | | transcriber's notes: | | | |* words printed in italics in the original document are represented| | here between underscores, as in _text_; bold text is similarly | | represented between =, as in =text=. small caps in the original | | have been converted to all capitals. | |* some of the tables have been laid out differently than in the | | original book, with every effort made to keep the original data | | and meaning unchanged. | |* all inconsistencies in spelling, lay-out, hyphenation, etc. in | | the original document have been preserved in this text, except | | when mentioned below. | |* changes made to the original text: | | * page 5: 'and the used of' changed to 'and the use of'; | | * page 13: 'distance, is it, of course' changed to 'distance, | | it is, of course'; | | * page 13: 'four year depreciation' changed to 'four-year | | depreciation'; | | * page 16: 'twisting the the rubber' changed to 'twisting of | | the rubber'; | | * page 26: 'page --' changed to 'page 25'; | | * page 39: 'plank' changed to 'planks'; | | * page 39: 'is handy' changed to 'is a handy'; | | * page 46, table: 'a.m.' moved down one row, similar to 'p.m.' | | further down in the table; | | * table of contents: page number '4' changed to '5' (2 changes); | | * table of contents: 'loading and hauling' changed to 'loading | | and unloading' as in text; | | * table of contents: 'fires' changed to 'tires' as in text. | |* footnotes have been moved to directly below the paragraph or | | table to which they refer. | |* other issues: | | * page 33 contained a reference to an illustration on page 40, | | but this page has no illustration. the reference has been | | changed to 'page 38', which is probably the illustration the | | author intended. | | * both 'meicklejohn and brown' and 'meickeljohn and brown' occur | | in the text, as do 'hillard' and hilliard'. | | | +-------------------------------------------------------------------+ the engineering experiment station of the university of washington was established in december, 1917, in order to coördinate investigations in progress and to facilitate the development of engineering and industrial research in the university. its purpose is to aid in the industrial development of the state and nation by scientific research and by furnishing information for the solution of engineering problems. the scope of the work is twofold:- (a) to investigate and to publish information concerning engineering problems of a more or less general nature that would be helpful in municipal, rural and industrial affairs. (b) to undertake extended research and to publish reports on engineering and scientific problems. the control of the station is vested in a station staff consisting of the president of the university, the dean of the college of engineering as ex-officio director, and seven members of the faculty. the staff determines the character of the investigations to be undertaken and supervises the work. for administrative purposes the work of the station is organized into seven divisions- 1. forest products 2. mining and metallurgy 3. chemical engineering and industrial chemistry 4. civil engineering 5. electrical engineering 6. mechanical engineering 7. physics standards and tests the results of the investigations are published in the form of bulletins. requests for copies of the bulletins and inquiries for information on engineering and industrial problems should be addressed to the director, engineering experiment station, university of washington, seattle. bulletin university of washington engineering experiment station engineering experiment station series bulletin no. 12 motor truck logging methods by frederick malcolm knapp student in the college of forestry, university of washington. [illustration] seattle, washington published quarterly by the university april, 1921 entered as second class matter, at seattle, under the act of july 16, 1894. contents page introduction 5 history of truck logging 5 first use of motor truck in logging--development of logging trailer--possibilities in the use of motor trucks. transportation of logs--railroads versus motor trucks 7 comparative advantages and uses of motor trucks and railroads- relative cost of road construction--advantage of flexibility of motor trucks. costs 8 operating costs of a typical 5-ton truck--actual cash outlay- total expense--variable charges--recapitulation of work performed. rolling stock equipment 10 rigid versus flexible truck bodies--chain drive versus worm drive--weight of trucks--speed--depreciation. insurance 14 fire and theft insurance--collision insurance--liability insurance--property damage insurance. truck equipment 14 bunks--tires--relative advantages of different types of tires --laws governing operation of motor vehicles--legal limit of weight of load--chain drives--tops. trailers 17 draw-bar pull of motor trucks--effect of grades on draw-bar pull--advantage of trailer--description of trailer--brakes on trailer--air brakes on trailers. life and depreciation 20 cost data 20 operating expenses for 3½ and 5-ton trucks--fixed charges- total expenses. road construction 24 sub-grade--cross-plank roads--fore and aft pole roads--cement roads--guard rails--cost of road construction. bridges 36 turning devices and turnouts 37 construction of turn-tables--turning of trucks. telephones 39 inclines 39 snubbing methods--practicability of inclines. yarding 41 loading and hauling 41 methods of loading trucks--loading with boom--rigging of boom--unloading. time studies 45 conclusion 46 future use of the motor truck--motor trucks and forestry. bibliography 48 introduction in this paper an attempt has been made to bring together some useful facts concerning the application of the motor truck to the logging industry. the term "motor truck" as here used is applied to the ordinary truck type of motor vehicle with trailer adapted to carrying logs, and does not include the "tractor" and the "caterpillar tractor." these latter types present special problems of their own. in the following pages the discussion of motor truck logging is premised upon conditions as they exist in the forests of the pacific northwest. history of truck logging motor trucks in the logging industry are a comparatively recent development. as nearly as can be determined, the first use of a truck in a logging operation was made in this region by palms and shields near covington, washington, in the spring of 1913. since that time various types of road construction suitable for heavy trucks have been devised and the use of the motor truck for logging has steadily increased until at the present time there are about six hundred trucks operating in the woods in the northwest. the first real progress in the use of the motor truck for logging purposes came with the development of the trailer. although the motor truck has been brought to its present high state of perfection in eastern factories the problem of adapting it to the hauling of massive logs was solved in seattle, washington, with the perfecting of a trailer which could carry unprecedented loads and stand up under the speed attained by a motor truck. in the early attempts to design a trailer, it was found that too great tractive effort on the part of the truck was required if the trailer was patterned after older types with simply increased dimensions in all of its parts. through successive improvements the modern form of heavy duty trailer was finally evolved. it has solved a serious problem by permitting the hauling of heavier weights with the aid of the trailer than is possible with the use of the truck alone. with the help of the trailer and an adjustable reach, the motor truck has successfully entered the logging field. in the pacific northwest tracts of timber of sufficient area well situated for economical logging by old established methods are no longer plentiful. almost every logging chance which exists today presents its own peculiar conditions and individual problems. an operator must therefore analyze the situation thoroughly before arriving at a decision as to the most economical logging methods that will apply in any particular case. even in different sections of the same operation it is often necessary to use different methods. since proper cost accounting systems are not usually kept by logging companies, particularly the smaller concerns, these companies often do not know that they are losing money upon one part of an operation because the success of the whole absorbs this loss. [illustration: pioneer logging with a motor truck in 1913.] the use of a motor truck has proved to be practicable in many instances, and bids fair to become of increasing importance. it will therefore be advantageous for every operator to inquire into its possible applications. it should be emphasized, however, that the motor truck is not economically adapted to all conditions. there have been many failures. each projected application of the motor truck in the logging field must be thoroughly analyzed and if a doubt as to its successful performance exists, expert advice should be sought. transportation of logs--railroads versus motor trucks the principal methods of transporting logs are by rail, by motor truck and by animal power. the last of these methods is, for obvious reasons, impracticable in the northwest, and so needs no further comment. while it is impossible to give specific details in a general discussion of this kind to show where the motor truck may be more economically suited to the conditions at hand than the railroad, a comparison of the fundamental principles involved should enable any operator familiar with logging to determine whether or not to use the truck for his particular chance. in general the choice between railroad and motor truck logging depends, fundamentally, upon two things: (1) comparative cost, and (2) adaptability. sufficient motive power and rolling stock can be obtained much more cheaply for motor truck logging than for a railroad. there are, of course, many situations where the locomotive and car costs, as well as those of constructing a logging railroad, are obviously prohibitive, and the question revolves entirely upon the adaptability of the motor truck to existing conditions. there is no question at all that the logging railroad is not adapted to small, isolated and scattering tracts, and to certain portions of larger operations. there are almost innumerable tracts situated close to public highways, or where temporary roads can be built, which may be very serviceable during the summer months, giving ample time to clean up the timber before wet weather sets in. in such instances, road construction and maintenance costs are of very minor importance. in the larger operations and in the use of the motor truck as an auxiliary to railroad logging, there are many opportunities for the reduction of logging costs. however, it is impossible to discuss these problems specifically in a paper of this kind. they will need to be worked out on the ground with each case as a distinct problem. the fundamental problems covered in this paper will serve as a basis for the more detailed problems that must be solved on the ground. wherever the item of road construction is important, it may be stated in general that the time required and the cost of building roads for motor trucks are very much less than for a logging railroad. this is due to the lesser importance of grades, curves, ballasting, bridges and other construction work, all of which is much cheaper and takes less time. in case a pole road is built the material found adjacent to the right of way can be utilized for what it costs to fell it. from the standpoint of adaptability the motor truck is very flexible. it can operate on grades and curves that are impossible with the railroad. the whole logging equipment, including the donkey engine, can be loaded on the truck and trailer and easily moved from one setting to another. by replacing the log bunk with a platform the truck can take out all the smaller marketable material, such as shingle bolts, poles and cordwood. the modern truck can also be provided with the necessary equipment for use in snaking out the logs in stands of small timber and when used with a winch and an "a" shaped boom, will load itself. if the truck becomes mired in a mud hole, the winch may be used to pull it out. finally, the item of fire risk is practically negligible. costs in order to arrive at definite figures as a basis for a comparison between railroad and motor truck transportation costs, the following case is cited as an example representing average good conditions:[1] a 5-ton truck with trailer was used, operating on a seven and one-half mile haul over ordinary unpaved roads. an average of four trips a day were made and the actual running expense for hauling was $.90½ per thousand feet. adding to this the overhead expenses of interest, depreciation, etc., the total cost of hauling was $1.44 per thousand feet. the statement of this cost is as follows: actual cash outlay in hauling 128,420 board feet of logs gasoline, 284 gallons @ $.19 $53.96 oil, 3 gallons @ $.60 1.80 oil, 20½ gallons @ $.45 9.23 incidentals--one electric light globe .35 hardware 4.03 blacksmith 3.00 driver, 11 days @ $4.00 44.00 ------- total $116.37 128,420 feet @ $116.37, or $.90½ per thousand feet. [1] west coast lumberman. nov. 1, 1916, page 266. labor, gas and oil have since advanced in cost. total expense of hauling 128,420 board feet of logs investment: chassis $4,900.00 trailer 700.00 --------- total investment $5,600.00 variable charges gasoline, 284 gallons @ $.19 $53.96 oil, 3 gallons @ $.60 1.80 oil, 20½ gallons @ $.45 9.23 tires, $.07½ per mile on 615 miles 46.12 incidentals 7.43 ------ total variable charges $118.54 depreciation (based on 15% per annum on $5,600, less $560, the cost of the tires, or $5,040.00) $1.349 interest on amortized value at 7% .63 storage, $5.00 a month .20 driver @ $4.00 a day 4.00 ------- total fixed charges $6.179 total variable charges $118.54 total fixed charges at $6.179 a day for 11 days 67.97 ------ total cost $186.51 128,420 board feet of logs @ $186.51, or $1.44 per 1000 feet. following is a recapitulation of the work performed by a 5-ton logging truck, jan. 20 to jan. 31, 1916, inclusive. the logs were hauled from o'neill's camp on the bothell-everett road 7½ miles and dumped into lake washington at bothell. date trips mileage no. ft. hauled gas used oil used 1/20/16 4 60 10,768 30 2.25 1/21/16 4 60 11,888 24 2.25 1/22/16 4 60 11,707 30 2.25 1/23/16 did not haul. roads in bad condition. 1/24/16 4 60 8,894 34 2.25 1/25/16 2 30 5,200 16 [2]1.00 1/26/16 4 60 16,174 29 2.25 1/27/16 4 60 11,276 25 2.25 1/28/16 4 60 15,514 26 2.25 1/29/16 4 60 15,511 31 2.25 1/30/16 3 45 9,152 20 [3]2.25 1/31/16 4 60 12,336 19 2.25 - -- ------ -- ---- total 41 615 128,420 284 23.50 [2] freight truck in the ditch. four hours lost getting the road cleared. [3] two hours lost at the landing due to a spring slipping out of place, which made it necessary to unload and load again. many loggers who have used both the steam railroad and the motor truck claim that the latter is preferable in some cases and often is the only method by means of which logs can be gotten to the mill at a reasonable cost. where the stand is scattered and of poor quality, the building of a railroad is not practical. in such a case the motor truck may offer the only solution. the motor truck makes the best showing when hauling from one "side." with a two or three side operation the railroad is by far the more practical. it must be remembered, however, that the railroad and the motor truck are not competitors in the logging industry--they are allies. rolling stock equipment in general two plans are followed in building a motor truck. the first is to build a rigid truck so that it will resist all shocks and distortions that come from rough and uneven roads. the second plan is to build a flexible body so that the chassis will "give" rather than resist when subjected to hard strains. although the rigidly-built truck may be entirely satisfactory for most forms of trucking, it is practically impossible to build one on the rigid principle that will stand up under the heavy strains to which a logging truck is subjected unless it is to be operated over good paved roads. when only ordinary unpaved public roads are available, flexibility is one of the most important characteristics to look for when selecting a truck. where the operator is hauling over his own pole or plank road this consideration does not play so important a part, as the road bed then is more likely to be free from holes and irregularities. all makes of trucks are more or less alike in general construction, differing only in minor details, so that the personal whims of the buyer will largely determine the kind he will select. it is advantageous to have as long a distance as possible between the driver's seat and the bunk over the rear axle, in order to allow more of the load to be carried by the truck, and less by the trailer, giving better traction to the drive wheels, but necessitating extra strong rear springs and axles. the type of power transmission best suited to the use of the logging truck is a question that has received a great deal of attention. there are three general methods of transmitting the power: (1) by chain; (2) by worm drive, and (3) by internal gear drive. each has its advantages. it is claimed by many that the chain drive saves many hours of "shut-down time" due to the fact that if anything breaks in the transmission, it will be a link in the chain as this is the weakest point. it is then only a matter of a few minutes to insert another link. with the worm driven vehicle, a break in the transmission requires an expensive shut-down before the matter can be repaired. the worm drive, on the other hand, very seldom breaks if proper care is used. the chain drive also allows the replacement of the sprocket with one of a larger or smaller diameter thereby giving a higher or lower gear ratio, which cannot be done with the worm gear. this seems to be of some advantage to an operator when changing his setting from one with a short haul and steep grades where a low gear ratio is required, to one where the haul is long and fairly level, and where speed in transit is an advantage. on the other hand, in starting on slippery grades or wherever the traction is poor, the worm drive will give better traction than a chain drive because there is difficulty in taking up the slack that is always present in the chain before letting in the clutch fully. the slightest jerk given to the wheels when the slack is taken up is likely to cause them to spin, thereby losing all the tractive power of the drive wheels. in the worm gear there is no slack to take up and the power can be applied more gradually, thus reducing the chances of spinning the wheels and losing the traction. the question of the weight of the truck used for logging purposes is not as important now as it will be in the future. laws are being passed in nearly every state limiting the maximum weight to be carried on each wheel by trucks using state or county roads so that the total weight of the truck without load will be important. when operating over state or county roads the load is limited to from 2400 to 3000 feet, b. m., of douglas fir, depending upon the locality. in such cases, it is an advantage to have a lighter truck, say one of 3½ tons capacity. by adding additional leaves to the rear springs of a truck of this capacity it may be made to carry a larger load than it would be possible to put on a 5-ton truck and still comply with the law. the pulling power of the 3½-ton truck and the 5-ton truck is practically the same so that the difference in dead weight between the two may be carried in a profitable manner by adding four or five hundred feet b. m. of logs. another advantage of the lighter weight truck is _speed_. the 3½-ton truck is geared to make from 14 to 16 miles an hour, while the 5-ton truck is usually limited to from 10 to 12 miles an hour. whenever the legal weight limit does not enter into the problem, as in operating over a pole or plank road for the entire distance, it is, of course, advantageous to carry the largest loads possible. in such cases a 5-ton truck with an 8½-ton trailer is the most profitable investment. this allows a much larger load to be carried in proportion to the overhead charges. the disadvantage of the 5-ton truck is that it is very heavy and unless the roads are good, it will easily sink into the ground and cause trouble. a common fault of the 5-ton truck today is the overweight of the front end, which is too heavy for the width of tire on the front wheels. this can be very easily overcome by the use of wider tires. life and depreciation the life of a truck is directly proportional to the care that it receives, hence, a good driver is a most important consideration. if the right man can be secured his wages should be a secondary consideration. the charge to be made for the depreciation of a truck is an uncertain question. some loggers figure on the basis of four and a half years, others on as much as seven years. the depreciation charge on a truck used in the logging industry should depend largely upon the type of road over which it is operated. loggers in general over-rate the life of their equipment because they do not fully realize the severity of the work. over a fore and aft plank road or a cement road, where the jar and vibration are reduced to a minimum, the wear and tear on the equipment is very much less than where the truck is operated over a cross-plank road or an unpaved public road. the matter of depreciation, then, will depend largely upon the type of road over which the truck is to operate. in general a four-year depreciation charge less 25% sale value at the end of that time should be used as a basis for figuring costs unless the hauling conditions are very favorable. only under very rare circumstances should more than four years be allowed. it should be remembered that the depreciation on a truck is very heavy during the first year, and the sale value at the end of a year is only half the original price. many truck operators now hauling over good roads who are depreciating on the basis of five years say that a four-year depreciation would be more nearly correct. another factor in favor of a four-year depreciation charge is that methods of logging are changing constantly and that trucks in that time may be improved upon to such an extent that the use of the old equipment would be unprofitable and inefficient. [illustration: swivel bunk on truck equipped for motor truck logging. the base on which the bunk rests is made of two heavy timbers about 18 inches by 24 inches in section and 4 feet long, bolted together and clamped to the frame of the truck by means of heavy n-bolts, (d). the bunk is fastened by a king-pin (e) to the base and is free to rotate upon a steel center plate and two side-bearing plates (f).] insurance the insurance rates on trucks depend upon the use to which they are put. the insurance usually carried by loggers covers fire and theft, although some companies also carry liability and either collision or property damage insurance. the equipment can be insured for only ninety per cent of its value. fire and theft insurance is based upon the list price of the truck and body when new and the usual premium for the logging truck is one dollar for every hundred dollars of insured value. theft rates on the trailer are based on a flat charge of twenty-five cents per hundred dollars of insurance taken, regardless of age, list price, etcetera. collision insurance is based upon the list price of the equipment and covers full value at the time of loss of the damage to the truck by colliding with anything movable or immovable. the liability rate for logging trucks is $33.75 and is based upon occupation alone. this covers the public as well as the employee and is limited to $5,000 for one person and $10,000 for two persons or more. the property damage rate for logging trucks is $13.50, and covers the damage done to the property of others. it is arrived at in the same way as liability insurance. the usual limit for property damage is $1,000. truck equipment _bunks._ all trucks for use in log hauling are equipped with a patent bunk over the rear axle on which the logs rest (see illustration on page 13). this is essentially a steel i-beam (a) which grips the logs so that they will not slip. at each end of the bunk are v-shaped iron chock-blocks (b) held by chains which run under the i-beam and are fastened by an iron gooseneck hook (c) so that the load is kept from spreading. these blocks may be adjusted to any width of load. the whole bunk is mounted on a swivel so that it will turn with the logs when rounding a sharp turn in the road. when dumping the logs at the landing, each block is loosened from the opposite side so that the danger of the logs rolling off on the men is greatly lessened. _tires._ solid rubber tires are generally conceded to be the best suited for the heavy duty required in logging. the use of steel tires is rapidly declining. the jar on the equipment is in itself enough to condemn their use. rubber tires double the mileage of a day's work, more than double the life of the equipment, allow the weight of the equipment to be cut in half, and work well on dirt, cement, or any other type of road. the saving on the life of a pole or plank road by the use of rubber tires is also an item of considerable importance. there are three general types of solid rubber tires in use on the logging truck: the so-called giant tires, the duals, and the non-skid or caterpillar tires. it is a question as to which of the three is the best. traction for the drive wheels and also for the trailer wheels, if the latter are equipped with brakes, is the problem to be solved. the duals are satisfactory with light loads and easy grades, on cement, brick, or other perfect surface road, but when the haul is heavy and the braking difficult on account of heavy grades, the larger single-tread giant tires are more efficient. during dry weather it is safe to work with the single-tread tires on grades as high as nine or ten per cent, but in wet weather a seven per cent grade should be the maximum unless some extra means are taken to secure traction, and even then the wheels will skid if particles of soil get on the surface of a plank road, unless chains are used or the wheel is wrapped with a light cable.[4] for very heavy-duty trucking, where resiliency and long service are prime considerations, the giant type is rapidly superseding the old dual type as the former contains more rubber and gives more mileage with the least truck vibration. [4] west coast lumberman. october, 1919. page 25. the non-skid or caterpillar tire may well be used on heavy grades or where the traction is very poor, the general opinion being that it gives a firmer grip on the road and makes it safer to handle the truck in wet weather. there is no standard width of tread for truck wheels. the widths usually used on the drive wheels of the logging truck and the wheels of the trailer are twelve and fourteen inches, respectively. the use of tires of smaller width on either trailer or truck cannot be recommended. the wider the tires on the trailer, the better it is both for the life of the equipment and for ease in handling the load. when the surface of the giant tires becomes worn down so that the grooves become very shallow, it is desirable to have the tires re-grooved. they will last a great deal longer if this is done and will also give better traction on the road. the groove makes the tire lobes act separately on the uneven places in the road so that only one lobe is subjected to the strain of the irregularities instead of the whole tire. this is also true with reference to the strains that are set up internally due to the twisting of the rubber. laws governing the operation of motor vehicles the laws governing the operation of motor vehicles upon the public highways of the state of washington are contained and summarized in senate bill no. 220, session of 1921 of the legislature of the state of washington. they include the following provisions governing the operation of motor trucks and trailers: (a) chapter 153 of the laws of 1913 and chapter 142 of the laws of 1915 are repealed. (b) motor truck vehicles weighing less than 1,500 pounds must pay an annual license fee of ten dollars ($10.00); trucks weighing more than 1,500 pounds and not to exceed 6,500 pounds, ten dollars ($10.00) plus forty cents per hundredweight for all in excess of 1,500 pounds and in addition thereto fifty cents per hundredweight at the rated carrying capacity. motor trucks weighing more than 6,500 pounds must pay a license fee of ten dollars ($10.00) plus fifty cents per hundredweight for all in excess of 1,500 pounds and in addition thereto fifty cents per hundredweight at the rated carrying capacity. trailers =used as trucks= shall be classified and rated as, and shall pay the same fees as hereinbefore provided for motor trucks of like weight and capacity. (c) no vehicle of four wheels or less whose gross weight with load is over 24,000 pounds is permitted to operate over or along a public highway. any vehicle having a greater weight than 22,400 pounds on one axle, or any vehicle having a combined weight of 800 pounds per inch-width of tire concentrated upon the surface of the highway (said width of tire in the case of solid rubber tires to be measured between the flanges of the rim) is also barred by the provisions of this law, with the following exception: provided, that in special cases vehicles whose weight including loads whose weight exceeds those herein prescribed, may operate under special written permits, which must be first obtained and under such terms and conditions as to time, route, equipment, speed and otherwise as shall be determined by the director of licenses if it is desired to use a state highway; the county commissioners, if it is desired to use a county road; the city or town council, if it is desired to use a city or town street; from each of which officer or officers such permit shall be obtained in the respective cases. provided, that no motor truck or trailer shall be driven over or on a public highway with a load exceeding the licensed capacity. _chain drive._ trucks equipped with a chain drive should be supplied with an extra set of chains so that they may be changed and cleaned every week. to clean the chains, they should be soaked in kerosene which removes the dirt, grease and gum that has accumulated. by doing this the life of the chains will be quadrupled. the small amount of time that it takes will pay. _top._ the truck should come equipped with a top over the driver's seat that is easily detachable. in bad weather the driver should be protected from the elements, but the top should be removed in good weather as it is in constant danger of being broken during loading. many operators leave the top off entirely and the driver must dress for the weather. a good demountable top will add to the comfort of the men and often helps to keep a good man at his job. trailers the development of the trailer has made motor truck logging practical. every truck has greater tractive power than it can utilize in the propulsion of the ordinary load. its limitations are due to a short-bulk carrying capacity and not to any lack of pulling power. the ordinary truck has a draw-bar pull of 2600 pounds. the draw-bar pull per ton of load varies from the minimum of 50 pounds on a level pavement to 250 pounds on a level dirt road, depending upon the character of surface.[5] twenty pounds of additional pull are required for each degree of gradient. for example, a fore and aft plank road offers a resistance of about 60 pounds pull to a ton of load. if this were located on a seven per cent grade, it would require a 60 pound pull to overcome the load resistance plus seven times twenty or 140 pounds additional pull for the grade, a total of 200 pounds to pull one ton. dividing 2600, the draw-bar pull of the truck, by 200, the resistance offered by road and grade, gives 13 tons as the load that can be pulled by the truck over this surface and grade. as this must include the weight of the trailer, which when equipped for logging is about three tons, it leaves a total of 10 tons that the truck can pull. this is equivalent to about 3000 feet b. m. of douglas fir logs, the average load that is hauled. while such an adverse grade as cited in this illustration is avoided if possible with a loaded truck, the illustration will serve to show the pulling capacity of the truck. the hauling of loads of this size would be impossible without the use of the trailer. the normal load, then, may be increased two, three, or even four times, by the use of the trailer, over the maximum load that can be carried by the truck alone. [5] operating cost of motor truck computed. timberman. feb., 1918. page 60. objection to the trailer that it tends to shorten the life of the truck is hardly worth consideration. according to a careful analysis it has been estimated that the use of the trailer does not shorten the life of the truck by more than one year, which is of little consequence when the saving due to the size of the load that can be carried is taken into consideration. _description of the trailer_: the frame of the trailer is constructed of heavy steel channel bars which support the twin bunks used for logging, and for the substructure to carry the body when used for other service. the steel frame is supported by semi-elliptic springs held by shackles similar to those of the truck. the springs rest securely upon the axle, are clamped to it by u-bolts, and are relieved from side stresses by radius rods which connect the axle to the frame. the trailer is coupled to the truck by a reach which is passed through guides secured to the hounds of the trailer. the latter may slide upon the reach and is held in the desired position with reference to the truck by means of clamps. the hounds are located fore and aft of the axle and are connected to it by steel plates. the square reach is more favored generally by loggers than the round type for the reason that it can be more easily adjusted, particularly the round reach that is cut in the woods, which is irregular and has to be clamped very tightly in order to make it stay in place. holes bored through the square reach makes the adjustment easy. combination steel and wood reaches, the sides being of channel iron and the center of wood, are favored by some operators. the twin bunks of the trailer carry the load in balance upon the axle independent of the reach, thereby relieving the reach of all vertical stress. (see illustration below). the rear bunk is just an ordinary wooden affair designed only to help support the weight of the logs. the front bunk is of the same construction as the one on the truck (described above) and serves to hold the load in place. [illustration: type of trailer adapted for heavy pacific coast logging.] the trailer is guided through the reach directly to the axles, thus relieving the springs and frame from side stresses. the springs and their suspension from the frame permit a limited movement of the frame and the load independent of the wheels and axles and vice versa. this enables the wheels to pass over an obstruction or drop into a hole without subjecting the trailer to shocks that would otherwise ensue. other types of trailers are used to a limited extent. the trailer described above was evolved by local engineers and is in almost universal use in motor truck logging operations. _brakes._ all trailers should be equipped with brakes when negotiating heavy grades. a device connecting the trailer brakes to the truck permits a ready control from the driver's seat on the truck. the brake outfit is easily attached to the truck and consists of a ratchet and lever which winds a one-quarter inch cable on a small drum. the cable winds around a second drum which is attached to the frame of the truck about six feet back of the driver's seat. a third drum in the center of the chassis attached to the shaft of the second drum winds a cable which goes to an equalizing bar just in front of the trailer brake. as the ratchet and drum are tightened, the motion is transmitted through the second and third drums to the equalizing bar. two arms extend from this bar to roads which when pulled forward, move a bar attached to the road in such a way that the brake band in the inside of the brake shoe is extended against the shoe, applying the brakes evenly to each wheel no matter how uneven the road-bed or how sharp the curve. a spring attached to the reach clamp pulls back the equalizing bar when the brakes are released. a heavy spring on the drum in the center of the shaft on the truck allows for curves so that an even pressure is always maintained. the use of a trailer equipped with brakes will do away with the numerous devices for snubbing a load of logs down a grade not steeper than twelve per cent. grades up to this degree of steepness are safe to operate over in dry weather without added braking power if the trailer is properly equipped. a simple and it is claimed an effective air brake for motor trucks and trailers is now being marketed by an air-brake concern of san francisco but it has not yet been tried out in the logging industry. "braking action is secured by means of a diaphragm and pressure plate. the diaphragm is directly connected to the brake-band lever. no air compressor is used in this system. a small air receiver or storage tank takes the spent gases from one of the cylinders by utilizing the outlet afforded by a priming cock. the brakes are applied by a control system mounted on the steering column. by means of a quickly adjusted hose connection, air can be applied to the wheels of the trailer using the control which governs the braking of the truck. the air pressure in the storage tank is automatically maintained by means of an accumulator valve which closes when the tank pressure reaches 150 to 175 pounds. if the tank should be empty at the top of a long grade, sufficient pressure is generated by the compression of the engine to operate the brakes. opening the throttle to full emergency position will apply maximum braking effect without sliding the wheels."[6] [6] air brakes for trucks. timberman. march, 1920. page 48g. this system has not been tried out under the conditions as found in the woods but if it can be made to work satisfactorily it will be a big improvement over the old system as the driver will then have instantaneous control over the load at all times. life and depreciation the life of the trailer is about the same as that of the truck, and in depreciation, a period of four years is usually allowed. the maintenance and upkeep of the trailer is very low. it rarely gives out and with the ordinary usage requires only a few minor repairs every two or three years. cost data the items of expense are here segregated in such a manner that they may be used as a basis for figuring the cost of hauling logs under average conditions. these costs are for the truck and trailer as a unit. if a road has to be built, the overhead charge of the road per thousand feet of timber hauled over it together with the cost of upkeep must be added to the figures given below in order to know the total cost of transportation per thousand feet. 3000 foot capacity, outfit complete the following figures are for a 3½-ton logging truck with a 5-ton trailer. the figures are based upon a 275 working day year. cost of equipment (as a basis) $6700.00 less resale value at expiration of 4 years at 25% of the original cost $1675.00 less cost of tires, 2--36" × 6" $140.50 4--40" × 12" 776.00 916.50 ------- ------- total $916.50 $2591.50 2591.50 ------- basis for computing $4108.50 running expenses per mile per mile tires, based on a cost of $916.50 and a life of 8000 miles $ .1145 gasoline, four miles to a gallon @ $ .28 per gal. .07 oil and grease .02 general repairs .03 ------- total running expenses per mile $ .2345 fixed charges per 275 working day year depreciation, based on 25% per year on $4108.50 $1027.12 interest on money invested at 6% (figured on truck less cost of tires) 347.01 driver at $7.00 a day 1925.00 license 27.00 insurance, fire, theft and liability based on $1 a hundred on 90% of the value of the new truck for fire and theft, and a flat rate of $33.75 for liability 90.75 ------ total fixed charges for 275 day year $3416.88 total fixed charges per day 12.418 total expenses 30 40 50 60 70 miles miles miles miles miles uniform variable charges $7.035 $9.38 $11.725 $14.07 $16.415 fixed charges 12.418 12.418 12.418 12.418 12.418 total charges (per day) 19.453 21.798 24.143 26.488 28.833 total cost per mile, loaded one way only .648 .545 .482 .441 .412 total cost per 1000 ft. per mile with 3000 ft. to the load .216 .181 .160 .147 .137 4000 foot capacity, outfit complete the following figures are for the 5-ton logging truck equipped with an 8½-ton trailer, based on a 275 working day year: cost of equipment (as a basis) $7600.00 less resale value at expiration of four years at 25% of original cost $1900.00 less cost of tires: 2--36-in. × 6-in $140.50 4--40-in. × 14-in 923.00 ------- total $1063.50 1063.50 ------- $2963.50 2963.50 ------- basis for computation $4636.50 running expenses per mile per mile tires, based on cost of $1063.50 and a life of 8000 miles $.129 gasoline, 3½ miles to the gallon @ $.28 per gal. .08 oil and grease .02 general repairs .035 ----- total running expenses per mile $.264 fixed charges per 275 day year depreciation, based upon 25% per year on $4636.50 $ 1157.13 interest on money invested at 6% (figured on equipment less cost of tires) 392.19 driver at $7.00 a day 1925.00 license 27.00 insurance, fire, theft and liability, based on $1 a hundred on 90% of the value of the new truck for fire and theft, and a flat rate of $33.75 for liability 101.75 ------ total fixed charges for 275 day year $3603.07 total fixed charges per day 12.92 total expenses 30 40 50 60 uniform variable charges per miles miles miles miles mile $.247 $ 7.92 $10.56 $13.20 $15.84 fixed charges per day 12.92 12.92 12.92 12.92 total charges per day 20.84 23.48 26.12 28.76 total cost per mile loaded one way only .694 .587 .522 .479 total cost per 1000 feet per mile with a 4000 foot load .173 .146 .130 .119 the above costs will be found to be approximately correct for average operations. they will vary somewhat with the road conditions, loads, grades, and the efficiency of the driver. these variations, however, will be slight. they will not amount to more than one cent per thousand feet per mile of haul. the investment pays the owner six per cent and provides renewals for all time. the interest charge is based on the total cost of the equipment less the cost of the tires. the tire cost is deducted in figuring the interest charges because this item is covered under running expenses. the resale value of the truck at the end of four years is not deducted from the interest charge, because this sum is tied up for that length of time. renewal for the equipment is taken care of by the creation of a sinking fund based on an average life of four years. theoretically, on a 5-ton truck, $1157.13 is put aside each year for four years at the expiration of which time the aggregate of these savings together with the resale value of $1900, automatically provides for the purchase of new equipment.[7] [7] timberman. feb., 1918. page 60. a fifty-mile haul may be used as an illustration for figuring the total running expense of the 5-ton truck. this means that the truck makes trips enough to total fifty miles for the day's run. the cost per mile, including gasoline, oil and repairs is 26.4 cents. it will, therefore, cost $13.20 for the fifty miles. to this amount must be added $12.92, daily overhead charge, making a total of $26.12 for fifty miles traveled or 52.2 cents a mile. with an average load of four thousand feet the cost will be 13.0 cents per mile per thousand feet. a glance at the table will show that the greater the mileage and the larger the load, the less will be the overhead expense and consequently the cost per mile per thousand feet. to these items must be added the cost and maintenance of the road if one has to be built. road construction the question of the kind of road for hauling logs with the motor truck is a very important one. it is impossible to move a fifteen-ton load day in and day out unless there are good roads, and no motor truck operation of reasonably large proportions can be successfully maintained without a road that is well constructed and which will not give way during any kind of weather, under the loads that are carried. one cannot successfully and continuously operate on dirt or even gravel roads as they are good only when dry. good roads are as important to the motor truck operator as the railroad is to the transportation of logs by rail. the big handicap in motor truck logging in the past has been poor roads. the same man who will survey, grade, carefully lay and ballast the steel for a logging railroad will many times put a truck and trailer on a poor dirt road and expect the truck to haul economically and satisfactorily. a motor truck will haul over some mighty poor apologies for roads but it does not pay. a good road is an excellent investment. it makes larger loads and more trips a day possible, will save on tires and repairs, and will require less gasoline to the mile; the efficiency and output will be increased and the time and operating costs will be decreased. [illustration: sub-grade for motor truck logging road.] there have been some very successful operators who have secured a small body of timber at a low price on a public road who made the motor truck pay without building a road. this method of logging in a small way will continue to be carried on by small operators who will haul only during three seasons of the year or even less. however, the big future for the motor truck for logging is in the larger tracts of timber where it would not pay to put in a railroad but where a good type of motor truck road can be built cheaply and loads as large as the truck can handle be carried with no road restrictions as to the weight. in general four types of roads are used by loggers: (1) the cross-plank road, (2) the fore and aft pole road, (3) the fore and aft plank road, and (4) the cement road. the puncheon road is a modification of the fore and aft plank road and will be taken up with the latter. the methods and cost of construction, the advantages and the disadvantages of these various types of roads follow in detail. _sub-grade_: the sub-grade is put in the same way for each type of road. the average width of the truck is seven feet and six inches, calling for a road about eight and a half feet wide, so that the sub-grade should be twelve feet in width. an illustration of the amount of grading necessary is shown on page 25. too much care cannot be taken in the matter of ditches for draining. in a rainy climate, the water should be carried away from the hill side of the grade every fifty feet. _cross-plank road_: the cross-plank road is constructed by laying cull ties on hewn poles lengthwise of the road. three rows, four feet apart are used and second grade ten foot plank, six inches thick and of random widths, are securely nailed to the ties. great care must be taken to have the ties laid fairly smooth if the road is to be even. plank less than six inches in thickness should not be used as the thinner ones very soon crack and go to piece under the excessive jar and vibration. this is a very expensive road to build as it wastes material. six thousand feet of lumber is necessary for every hundred foot station, at a cost of $222 a station for the material alone, without considering the cost of laying it. the maintenance cost also is very heavy because the nails pull out as a result of the vibration caused by the truck. this type of road is used only over short stretches, such as swampy ground in connection with the dirt road, and on steep grades and sharp turns in connection with the pole or plank road. the esary logging company at camano island, washington, put in a cross-plank road for a short distance on a sharp curve and a steep grade, to see how it would affect the traction. it was found that cross planking was not necessary on curves where the grade is ten per cent or less when coming down with a load, providing trailer brakes are used. in the future the company will not use this type of road unless grades above this maximum are encountered. it is impossible to lay a cross-plank road smoothly because the stringers settle and make the road bumpy. the resulting jar on the equipment and the fact that these stretches have to be taken at a much reduced speed, furnish ample reason to condemn its use. the only real use for a cross-plank road is to secure better traction on grades exceeding ten or twelve per cent, and then it should be laid with a space of about one inch between the planks. even in such cases it would be better to use some other method for securing traction, such as sanding the track or winding the drive wheels with a light cable. the waste of material and the excessive vibration limit the use of this type of road. _fore and aft pole road._ in the fore and aft pole road, poles from twelve to fourteen inches in diameter are hewn on one or more faces and laid longitudinally with the road, with one or more logs for each wheel track. this type of road is commonly used by motor truck loggers and is one that lends itself readily to their use. it is the most practical road that can be built unless there is a small saw-mill handy to saw planks for the fore and aft plank road. the smaller material growing along the right of way is used at an expense of only what it costs to fell it, hew it and put the poles in place. hemlock poles may be used to advantage. some operators use the single large pole placed on cross-ties eight or ten feet apart and use lighter eight-inch poles placed on the outside for a guard rail to keep the truck from leaving the track. the main pole is laid in a ditch about eight inches deep, leaving it half buried. this helps to keep the poles from spreading and increases their firmness and strength. the pole is notched into the cross-ties, which are made of logs not less than eight inches in diameter, and is securely nailed or bolted to prevent it from rolling. the outside guard rail is laid on the surface of the ground close to the main track and is securely braced from the outside by means of posts sunk into the ground or it may be spiked to the main pole or to the ties. when running with the trailer on this narrow type of road, the guard rail is very necessary. after the poles have been laid, the sub-grade should be ditched in the center deep enough to carry away the water that falls in the middle of the road. the success of the road depends to a large extent upon good drainage. the meicklejohn and brown logging company near monroe, washington, operate over a pole road with three poles for each wheel. the poles are from ten to twelve inches in diameter at the small end and are hewn to a six inch face, giving an eighteen inch bearing surface for each wheel. (see illustration on page 29.) the minimum sized pole that should be used for roads of this character is one eight inches in diameter at the small end. the road is constructed the same way as the single pole road and the poles are laid on cross ties twelve inches in diameter placed from eight to ten feet apart. where the road is off the ground as when crossing over a small depression, these sleepers must not be over five feet apart. the guard rails at this operation are held in place by means of a wooden brace nailed from each end of the rail to a near-by stump. the ends of the poles used for the track are adzed so that they match evenly. by breaking the joints and hewing them the road presents a level surface with no bumps. in planning the curves, it is necessary to make the tracks somewhat wider than on straight stretches in order to keep the trailer from running off. the track should be three feet wide on sharp curves and provided with a stout guard rail if there is any danger of the truck leaving the track. the curves are banked on the opposite side from that used on railroad curves. that is, the inner rail is raised about three inches. this is to throw the load to the outside away from the inner guard rail, making it easier to make the turn without the rear wheels binding. in this way a 35 degree curve may be negotiated with forty or fifty foot logs. as the curves have to be passed at a much reduced speed, there is little danger of the logs rolling off due to the raised inner rail. the grading for a road of this construction is usually light. the grades should, if possible, be kept below five per cent. a truck will operate better on a ten per cent grade in dry weather than on a five per cent one in wet weather. on a road of this type, grades up to ten per cent can be operated over unless there is snow. when the grades are above this and the weather is wet, traction still may be secured by sanding the road or by tacking an old half inch steel cable to the road in the form of a figure "s". if this is sanded in addition, the truck may safely be taken up a steeper grade than it would be safe to bring it down without sanding. the pole road could be greatly improved by hewing the faces of the poles where they come together side by side so that an even fit is made. the details of this improved form of construction are shown in figure 1, page 30. [illustration: the most common type of motor truck logging road--a fore-and-aft pole road.] [illustration: figure 1. cross section of pole road. scale--1 inch equals 2 feet.] at the present time this is not done and there are one or more ruts in the surface of the road due to the rounding off of the poles where they are placed side by side. the front wheels of the truck are constantly dropping into these ruts, tending to spread the track apart and making it harder for the driver to steer. the tires also suffer from uneven wear. with this deep groove in the track, a certain amount of the traction of the rear wheels is also lost. hence a much better road would be one with the inner faces of the poles hewn so that a tight fit is secured. this road can be built of two large poles or three smaller ones to give a flat track two and a half feet wide for each wheel. laid nearly flush with the ground the guard rail can be eliminated with this width of track, except on sharp curves and other locations where there would be danger if the truck left the track. on such a road the traction will also be increased, better time can be made, the truck will be easier to steer and hence safer to operate, and there will be less wear on the tires. such a road can be very easily and cheaply built by bringing in a portable sawmill and slabbing the material on two sides to the desired face. the life of a good pole road is from three to four years if kept in good repair. the maintenance cost is very light if the road is properly constructed in the first place, consisting chiefly in removing a pole here and there that shows signs of too much wear, and in bracing guard rails where they weaken. the use of two or three hewn poles laid lengthwise for each wheel without cross-ties does not pay as the poles soon get out of place even when trenched, and the loss of traction due to the irregularities and of time and money in the upkeep of such a road more than justifies putting in a good road in the first place. the cost of a fore and aft pole road varies with the accessibility of the material and the cost of the labor. in the past they have been built for as low as $2000 a mile, but with the present prices costs will range from $5000 to $7000 a mile. one company within the year contracted the grading and construction of the road for $70 a hundred foot station, not including the cost of clearing and chunking out the right of way. the total cost was about $125 a station or $6600 a mile. some of the advantages of the pole road are that it is tough and strong and does not crack, split or break easily so that if it is properly put in it lasts and requires but little maintenance. the material for its construction is found along the right of way and being small in diameter is less expensive than other road materials. _fore and aft plank roads._ this type of road is constructed by placing cross-ties from eight to ten feet apart, center to center, upon which are placed lengthwise for each wheel, two or three sawed timbers not less than six inches in thickness and from twelve to fifteen inches in width. a good road of this type will deliver 150 million feet of logs at a conservative estimate. the grading is usually light and in many places entirely unnecessary. second-grade six by eight ties with the eight inch face placed down, or hewn poles are laid about eight feet apart. where the road bed is soft, the ties are placed closer and in some places as near as two and a half feet apart. over very swampy ground, the road known as the fore and aft puncheon road is used. it consists simply of cedar puncheon placed crosswise of the road with the usual planking nailed securely to it. the plank used should never be less than six inches in thickness in the main road as it has been proved that four inch plank very soon give way under the heavy loads. on the spur lines it is practicable to use four inch plank because the road is used only a short time. the total width of the road is eight feet and the plank are laid on top of the ground, but if they are sunk nearly to the level of the ground the road is made considerably more firm and enduring, and of course is safer. the ends are adzed smooth to present an even surface, drift-bolted to the ties, and all joints broken. the plank in the track are kept together by means of a three by four inch timber driven tightly between the tracks on top of the cross-ties at each joint, and a block nailed to the outside of the tie at each joint with a wedge-shaped piece of wood driven between it and the plank. (see illustration on page 33.) this wedge is driven in from time to time as occasion may demand. if, in addition to this construction, dirt or gravel is filled in the center to the level of the track, the road is made very solid. [illustration: fore-and-aft plank road with wedges on cross ties to facilitate the re-aligning of the planks.] with a good road of this type and a bearing surface of thirty inches, the trouble and expense of a guard rail may be eliminated. when a light truck is used for a small body of timber such a wide and heavily constructed road is not practical. in this case, a four inch plank with a fifteen inch surface and an eight inch pole for a guard rail would be used. here again the track must be made wider on the sharp curves, often as wide as three and a half feet. usually, the inner rail is made wider than the outer one. on very sharp curves the track may have to be planked solid to keep the trailer from running off. by sawing out chips from one-half to one inch wide two-thirds of the way through the plank, and about six feet apart on the inner side, a long plank may be bent around quite a sharp curve. the ties, of course, should be placed so as to allow the cut sections of the plank to rest squarely on them. this does away with the short pieces and so strengthens the track. the company logging at camano island, washington, operates over a road of this type, an illustration of which is shown on page 38. the difficulties encountered in the construction of this particular road were very considerable as a cut through very hard shale, in some places as much as seven feet, was necessary. the maintenance on this road is heavier than is usual. two men are employed to work on it continually. the work consists of blocking up the loose ties and plank, making any necessary repairs and keeping sand and gravel on the steep grades. the cost of this work is good insurance as it keeps the road in the best of condition at all times and saves on other operating expenses. [illustration: detailed view of fore-and-aft plank road, showing method of wedging.] _cost._ the first cost of a road of this type is high but it more than pays in the long run if a large body of timber is to be hauled over it. the timber used in its construction amounts to about 160 thousand feet per mile. second grade material can be used at a cost of approximately $5,500 a mile for the plank. the total cost per mile varies from $6,000 to $8,000. the plank road at camano island cost $20,000 for two and three-quarter miles, which includes the cost of the plank, the grading and labor of putting the plank in place. this is at the rate of about $7,275 a mile, or approximately $138 a hundred foot station. the overhead charge for the road at this operation is $.75 a thousand feet of timber hauled over it. plank roads of lighter construction have been built for $4,000 a mile. the length of life is about the same as that of a pole road, three to four years. the fore and aft plank road is one of the best roads that can be put in where the timber is of sufficient quantity to justify the expense. the big advantage is the speed that can be made and the saving in the equipment. such a road is very free from bumps and the jar and vibration on the truck is no greater than on a city pavement. the depreciation on a truck depends to a great extent upon the road operated over. with the above type, depreciation on the truck will not be less than five years. in addition, tire mileage will be double that obtained over a pole road, and the gasoline and repair expense will be very materially cut. owing to the very small vibration, a load of logs can be brought to the landing as fast as it is safe to let the truck glide on a down grade. speeds as high as 20 miles an hour can easily be taken without excessive vibration. the traction is greater on this type of road than it is on the pole road, due to the greater bearing surface. traction on grades up to 12% is easily secured by sanding the plank. _concrete roads._ concrete has been suggested as an ideal road material. however, up to the present time, loggers have not been very enthusiastic about this type of road on account of the cost of construction, which is somewhat more expensive than the other types of roads, and on account of the permanence of the finished road which is beyond that needed. to the writer's knowledge, there is no company operating in the northwest over a concrete road of their own building. in the future such roads may be used to a limited extent on the main haul by companies which have operations extending over at least a five year period. the spur roads will probably always be of some other material. in building such roads two tracks of concrete, one for each wheel are provided. the sub-grade should be well ditched in the center with cross ditches every fifty feet, as is done with the pole road. it has been suggested that the ditches holding the track be six inches deep and twenty-six inches wide. they are filled to the top with concrete and built with a lip four inches high and four inches wide along the outside on top of the main surface to serve as a guard rail. no forms are necessary except for the guard lip. a word of caution here may not be amiss. concrete roads of this nature must be regarded as only experimental, for no specific data are available for determining the proper section of concrete to be used for carrying heavy loads on so narrow a bearing surface. it is evident that the carrying capacity of such strips of concrete would be greatly affected by the character of the sub-base. it will therefore be impossible to specify a standard that can be used under all conditions. the use of the concrete guard rail is one of the disadvantages of this road. the edges of the rail cannot be made rounding except by special forms and the rubbing of the tires against this rough surface would greatly reduce the tire mileage. in addition, the rail is so exposed to weather and hard wear that it cannot be relied upon to serve effectively for any great length of time. the placing of forms is also a considerable item of expense in building such a road. a method which would eliminate such an expense and at the same time provide a more practical rail would be an advantage. [illustration: figure 2. cross section of concrete road. scale--1 inch equals 2 feet.] it has already been said that guard rails are unnecessary with a thirty inch track except on sharp curves and otherwise dangerous places. however, where rails are necessary the wooden rail fastened by bolts embedded in the concrete as illustrated above, is quite effective and readily installed. this consists of a four by six inch plank placed on edge and drift-bolted to the concrete every three to five feet by a three-quarter inch bolt. these bolts are placed in the concrete when it is poured and should be embedded six inches. this will provide a rail less expensive to build than a concrete rail and one which will last longer and save on tires. replacements are easily made by removing the nuts and placing a new plank in place of the old. with a guard rail of this type, there is left a twenty-six inch track for the wheels to run in. experiments by w. d. pence (journ. west. soc. eng. vol. vi, 1901, page 549) on 1:2:4 concrete give an average value of 0.0000055 inches per degree fahrenheit for the coefficient of expansion. the richer the concrete, the greater the change in dimension. due to the expansion, in laying the concrete the track must be broken every twenty-five or thirty feet by placing a half-inch board in the ditch when the concrete is being filled in. later this board is removed and the joint filled with asphalt so that the concrete may expand without danger of cracking the road. _cost._ the best mix to use in building this road is what is known as the 1:2½:5. for one cubic yard of concrete, the following amounts of materials will be used for the above mix: 1.21 barrels of cement, 0.46 cubic yards of sand, and 0.92 cubic yards of stone. at the present prices, the cost for the materials for this road is about twenty cents a cubic foot or about $4,400 a mile. the total cost of the road including the necessary grading, ditching and labor, will be from $7,000 to $9,000 per mile. one of the big advantages of the concrete road is the large gain in traction secured when operating on steep grades. a motor truck will haul up a twelve per cent and down a fifteen per cent grade in wet weather on concrete due to the roughened surface on which the tires do not easily slip. this, of course, would be dangerous to attempt on the other types of roads. another advantage is the small item of upkeep necessary. a road well laid in the first place should need no repair except to replace worn guard rails as they show signs of weakening. the concrete road, however, will not be generally used except on the mainline by the larger concerns, or for short distances on steep grades where greater traction is desired. bridges in most cases the construction of bridges is unnecessary on account of the steep grades the trucks can take and because they can negotiate sharp curves, which make it easier to avoid expensive bridge work. where they are absolutely necessary a serviceable bridge is made of cribwork. the esary logging company of camano island, washington, operates over a crib bridge 175 feet long and 15 feet high. the sub-structure of this bridge is made of logs laid alternately crosswise in tiers. six by twelve inch plank are laid diagonally on the cribbing and four by twelve inch plank are placed on crosswise to the road on top. this makes a bumpy surface. a better one could be made with cross-ties placed on the cribbing with fore and aft planking on top. a guard rail is placed on all bridges. short bridges up to eighty or ninety feet in length are constructed by the use of two large logs hewn flat on the upper surface. the logs should be at least thirty-six inches in diameter and perfectly sound. they are placed at the proper gauge and the regular road on cross-ties constructed on top. on such short stretches this type of bridge has been operated over without supports. it is not used, however, for long stretches. the long bridges are, of course, constructed of bents or piling but are very seldom used in connection with motor truck transportation on account of the expensive construction and because they are usually unnecessary. turning devices and turnouts when the truck and trailer reach the place where they are to be loaded, some method must be used to turn them around. various means are used to accomplish this. one is the motor truck turn-table. the turn-table should be slightly longer than the length of the truck and trailer combined. it is constructed of heavy plank and timbers so that each track is about 16 inches wide and tapers in thickness from about 14 inches at the center to 4 inches at the ends. the two tracks are held together at the center and each end by heavy timbers. a heavy timber is sunk to the level of the road and at the center two circular saws are laid. a king bolt through the center brace of the turn-table and through the two saws into the sunken timber provides a pivot upon which the table turns. when properly balanced and with a little oil between the surfaces of the saws, the turn-table can be operated by hand with very little effort. it is usually placed at the end of the road. a turn-table can be loaded on the truck and trailer when it is desired to move it, so that as the road is extended into the timber, a means of turning the truck can be obtained close to the point where the logs are to be loaded. this device can be built at a cost of from $75 to $125 and is very serviceable. the main objection to its use is that the setting has to be just right to make it work satisfactorily and it is sometimes difficult to get a spot that is level enough. it is always a difficult problem and a different one for each set-up. the use of the "back around" is more common with truck loggers at present because it is easier to build. the back-around is simply a pocket or short spur along the road above the landing ground which is planked solid. the truck and trailer are backed into this far enough so that the truck can pull ahead in the opposite direction. this method of turning the truck requires only a little extra clearing and grading and is less expensive and more easily constructed than a turn-table. [illustration: turn out on fore-and-aft plank road.] when two or more truck units are to be used on a single track, a careful calculation must be made to determine the best passing places. the location of these points may determine the success of the operation. they should be placed so that the truck returning empty can reach the turnout before the loaded one comes along in order that the loaded one may not be held up. at the same time, the turnout should not be so far away from the loading ground that the loading crew will be idle for any length of time while waiting for an empty truck. it is better to have an extra turnout, even if seldom used, than conditions that would hinder efficient operation or might even result in a collision which would tie up the logging for several days. a few loggers build a turnout of the same material as the main road for a short distance to the side. an illustration of this type of turnout is shown above. most of them, however, simply clear off a right of way and put in a gravel bottom for the road as the waiting truck at this point is empty and will not ordinarily sink into the ground and get stalled. a few heavy planks laid fore and aft in the form of a track are sometimes used. the construction of passing places is very simple--the only important thing to be taken into consideration is the proper point at which the trucks should pass in order to keep the operation going at maximum efficiency. telephones in connection with the passing places, the installation of a telephone line is an important but often neglected item. with two or more transportation units, a telephone line is a handy if not well nigh indispensable accessory. it is a great advantage to have such a system with stations at each end of the road and also at the passing places, as unavoidable delays will frequently allow a waiting truck to move on to another passing place, thus saving time. to avoid accidents, the driver at the passing place should call the loader at the spar tree to see if the road is clear before coming any farther. very often something breaks on the yarding or loading donkey. with the telephone, perhaps a half day of shutdown may be saved by calling the main camp for the repair parts and having them brought up by the next truck. the saving due to avoided accidents and the saving of time more than pays for the initial expense of installation. the telephone line should not be neglected at the larger operations. inclines in rough country the use of the incline has been a great help and has proved to be entirely practical and quite economical. grades as high as sixty or even seventy per cent can be safely taken with an incline if the proper measures are taken to prevent accidents. a typical incline is successfully operated by the meickeljohn, brown logging company near monroe, washington. it is fifteen hundred feet long and the steepest grade is twenty-eight per cent. an 11-in. × 14-in. roader donkey located at the top of the incline snubs the loads down and hauls up the empty trucks. a one and one-eighth inch wire cable is thrown around the logs and made fast by means of a clevis. this holds the truck and prevents the logs from slipping forward and injuring the driver. on all inclines, the line should be choked around the logs rather than simply attached to the truck to prevent them from slipping ahead. the snubbing device consists of an ordinary donkey engine fitted with a hand brake of extra large size and special air valves so that air is sucked into the cylinders and let out of the exhaust when the engine is being pulled backwards by the weight of the load. the load is controlled by the amount of air let out of the valves. the braking action is very positive and the load can be stopped in a few revolutions of the crank shaft. the average time to lower the load down the incline is three and a half minutes. at the bottom of the incline, the cable is released and the truck goes on its way. the cable is attached to the waiting truck by means of a ring fastened to the frame and the donkey pulls the empty truck to the top. the time taken to raise the trucks is three minutes. on grades too steep to operate a truck safely with the ordinary brakes and yet not steep enough to warrant the expense of the donkey snubber, the difficulty is overcome by means of a friction snubber. this consists simply of a cable which is hooked to the truck and extends through a system of three or four pulleys and thence on down the track. the friction of this line dragging on the ground and passing through the pulleys is enough to hold the load so that the truck engine must exert power to pull the load down the grade. the line is made long enough so that as the load reaches the bottom of the grade, the free end of the cable has been pulled up to the system of pulleys and is ready to be attached to the next load. this system is efficient for small grades, is inexpensive to install, and requires no further attention. by the use of the incline with the donkey engine snubber, very heavy grades can be taken. the construction of the incline is the same as the rest of the road and is only slightly more expensive to build because of the inconvenience of laying it on such a steep slope. the use of the incline will not slow up the operation to any great extent as from fifty to seventy thousand feet of logs (which is about the average yarding and loading capacity of one motor-truck side), can be taken over it in a day. this method of hauling down steep grades is used in several operations and has been found to be entirely successful. yarding a variety of methods are used by motor truck loggers to get the logs to the landing to be loaded. the larger operations invariably use the high-lead method of yarding as the logs come in quicker and with fewer hang-ups. in a few places the old ground method of yarding with a bull block is still used. the horse team and skid road is used in a small timber where poles and piling are being marketed. the latter is a slow method but will keep one truck busy and is still used in some places where small stands are located along the highway or in other readily accessible places. loading and unloading the loading of a motor truck is very much the same proposition as the loading of a flat-car. the principal difficulties that trucks have had to contend with have been poor roads and inefficient methods of loading. in loading, the main trouble has been in regulating the yarding so that a supply of logs is always on hand. the use of the gin pole and crotch line operated by the straw drum of the yarding donkey ties up the yarding until the truck is loaded. this is being overcome by using a separate engine with the high lead for yarding and doing the logging independently of the yarding as is done in the case of railroad logging. in this way the yarder can keep ahead of the loading engine and there will be no delay at the landing. most of the larger companies load with the duplex loader and use tongs. this is a safer way to load than with the crotch line as the logs can be more easily controlled. the danger of dropping a log through the truck or of knocking off the top of the truck or the driver's seat is greatly lessened. in pole and piling timber where a skid road and horses are used, loading is done by hand or with a team. a landing is built of cribwork and the logs are simply rolled on the truck with peavies or cant hooks, or a parbuckle system with skids and horses is used. this works fairly well for small operations in small timber. [illustration: loading a motor truck and trailer through the use of a boom.] the latest development in loading is the boom. an illustration of this method is shown above. the boom itself is a fifty to sixty foot pole about eighteen inches in diameter at the base and is attached to the spar tree by means of a metal strap with two lugs which are fitted into holes bored in the spar to keep the strap from slipping. the base of the boom is fitted with a metal joint which moves freely on an upright pin set in the metal strap. (see a, above.) the whole rig is set high enough on the tree so that it may be swung in a semi-circle and clear the loaded truck by several feet. a light line (b) from the haulback drum of the donkey passes through a block attached low on the spar tree and thence to another block on a stump to the right of the landing. from here it passes through a third block at the end of the boom and back to the stump again. this secures the needed pulling power from the haulback drum. the lifting line from the mainline drum passes through a block half way up the tree and thence through a free swinging block (c) and back to the tree again. on the second block is a ring to which two one inch lines (d) are attached. these lines pass through the boom stick on rollers (e) about fifteen feet apart. on the ends of these lines hooks are attached. these two lines should be so arranged that the hooks remain parallel to the ground. two three-quarters inch cables (f) with an eye splice in each end are attached to the hooks. these lines, or chokers, are then wrapped around the log and it is lifted clear of the ground by means of the block hold in the main line. the haulback line (b) from the donkey is slacked and the boom travels over to the truck by means of a line (g) attached from the boom to a dummy log running on a special guy line. a log two feet in diameter and sixteen feet long is wrapped at each end with a cable and fastened to a pulley. the two pulleys and attached dummy log travel up and down the guy line as the boom moves. a line is attached to the boom and runs through a pulley attached to the dummy log and extends back to the boom again. this pulls the boom over above the truck as the dummy log travels down the guy line. the logs are held parallel to the ground above the truck and the truck is run under the boom to the location designated by the head loader. with this system the logs will not drop suddenly on the trucks as the log will fall off while being carried over to the truck if there is any danger of its falling at all. after the log is placed, the boom is pulled back to the landing by the haulback line. this system has worked with success in a number of motor truck operations and is a safer method than loading with tongs because the logs cannot accidentally drop and injure the truck. however, the loading situation should be studied carefully. the most efficient loading device for the particular needs of the operation may be installed as any loss of time in loading seriously affects the output of the operation. most of the truck loggers unload their logs into water; either into a lake, a river that can be driven, or into tide-water. a few, however, unload directly into the log pond at the mill or at the log yard in case the mill has no log pond. the road is usually planked solid at the unloading ground. a great help in unloading is a dock from six to twelve inches higher on one side than on the other so the logs will roll off the truck easily. the brow-skid should be close to the log bunks and just a little lower than these when the truck is tilted. when unloading into shallow water, such as a small river, six or eight skids a foot and a half in diameter are placed so that they slope from the brow-skid to the water at an angle of forty-five degrees. an illustration of this method of unloading is shown below. the skids are so placed that the unloading ground will not be undermined. [illustration: unloading truck and trailer through the use of an incline, showing brow-skids and roll-way.] when the truck comes to a stop on the incline, the chock blocks are released from the opposite side and the logs roll off of their own accord. in some instances a gill-poke has been used in connection with the unloading incline, the logs being sheared off as the truck moves ahead. usually the logs roll off readily without the use of the gill-poke and if a load does stick it can be loosened with a cant-hook, so that the gill-poke really is unnecessary. unloading on public wharves or roads where no permanent incline can be used is accomplished by placing a portable wedge-shaped timber in front of the outside truck and trailer wheels and driving upon it. [illustration: parbuckling a load of logs from the truck and trailer.] in the most efficient way of unloading the usual brow-skid is placed a few inches below the log bunk and the logs are parbuckled from the truck and trailer, an illustration of which is shown above. the trucks are run on an incline so that one side is raised about four inches. a crotch-line consisting of two half-inch cables is attached to the brow-skid and passed under the logs to a ring fastened to an inch cable. the larger cable passes thru a block located on a gin pole. a light yarding or a land clearing donkey furnishes the power to parbuckle the logs into the water. by this method the logs are lifted from the truck as they are rolled into the water with little danger of the top log dropping on the log bunk as is often the case when other methods are used, resulting in expensive repairs for broken springs or bearings. time studies time is a very important item in loading and unloading. usually the most time is consumed in loading, for which reason any improvement that will reduce the time taken to load will greatly increase the efficiency of the operation. with the proper unloading devices, the truck may be unloaded in the time required to knock down the chock blocks. the following table is a record kept for one day of the actual time taken by a truck at each step in the hauling of logs at one operation. however, it is possible to give only arbitrary figures to fit the particular operation of which they are taken. no average figures can be given that fit all conditions. donkey engine dump at mill time time unload time arrive loading leave down arrive ing leave up scale a.m. 7:15 10 min. 7:25 20 min. 7:45 25 min. 8:10 20 min. 2592 8:30 5 min. 8:35 27 min. 8:57 13 min. 9:10 20 min. 2092 9:30 12 min. 9:42 21 min. 10:03 7 min. 10:10 20 min. 1908 10:30 12 min. 10:42 33 min. 11:15 30 min. 11:45 20 min. 3074 p.m. 12:05 10 min. 12:15 35 min. 12:50 17 min. 1:07 20 min. 2542 1:27 15 min. 1:42 18 min. 2:00 27 min. 2:27 20 min. 1828 2:47 8 min. 2:55 21 min. 3:16 8 min. 3:24 20 min. 1689 3:44 11 min. 3:55 23 min. 4:18 9 min. 4:27 20 min. 2407 4:47 14 min. 5:01 26 min. 5:27 12 min. 5:39 20 min. 2558 ---- total 20690 length of haul 5.9 miles round trip. amount of gasoline, 15 gallons. the above figures were taken several years ago when the facilities for unloading were slower than the present day methods, which accounts for the excessive length of time taken to unload.[8] [8] the writer is indebted to mr. george gunn, jr., for these figures. the unloading of a truck is a time when a little care taken will save considerable expense for repairs. such a method as the parbuckling system should be used by companies with sufficient stumpage to warrant the expense of the extra donkey, to prevent the top logs from dropping to the log bunks, thereby saving the cost of repairing broken springs and bearings. conclusion at present, the possibilities for the use of the motor truck for logging are just beginning to be realized. what effect their use will have upon the future methods of logging remains to be seen. it is certain, however, that the advent of motor truck transportation will have a marked effect upon the science of forestry and will bring about a closer utilization of our timber resources. the motor truck and the portable band mill seem likely to furnish a combination which will do away with the old wasteful circular mill because it supplies the cheapness and efficiency of railroad transportation and is applicable to small and scattered tracts and to stands of low-grade lumber. the fact that the portable band mill may be moved for a cut of a million feet assures adaptability. this is not only an industrial advance but also a silvicultural advance in that it affords the possibility of cuttings at frequent intervals without greatly adding to the cost. a closer utilization of our present stands of timber may be practiced by the use of the motor truck. in the northwest, only the larger material is taken from the forest, leaving a large amount of good timber on the ground in the form of poles and piling and chunks too short to be made into saw lumber but from which high grade ties can be made. the truck, in connection with a band mill, will furnish a means of utilizing this present waste at a profit to the operator. the motor truck will be a valuable aid in the working out of a sound national forest policy for the proper use of our timber resources so that the timber will be utilized to the greatest possible extent and at the same time methods taken to provide for the perpetuation of the forest for future generations. this suggests a way of opening the timber for the market on some of our national forests. most of the government owned forests are situated in more or less rugged country back from the regular routes of travel. the timber on a great many of these forests is over-mature and should be cut but at this time it is inaccessible. the problem confronting the country is how to make it accessible. the plan for opening these forests is to build permanent concrete or asphalt roads from the nearest commercial centers thru these tracts taking into consideration the aesthetic value of the location as well as the possibilities of logging the timber from them. the timber, then, is to be taken out, under some silvicultural system and under government supervision, by motor truck operators who build their own roads from the nearest concrete road to the timber to be cut. under this system of management, the state and federal government pays a part of the expense of building the permanent road and the operator pays a small sum for the use of the road by being taxed additional stumpage. the system of management has many advantages. in the first place, the mature timber will be logged, the older decadent material coming out first, in small bodies and at the same time care being taken to reproduce a new stand. the total area is divided so that as the timber is logged in rotation a continuous cutting will be assured. due to the use of the trucks and on account of the timber being cut in rotation, the fire danger will be greatly lessened. in case a fire gets beyond control, the roads thru the forest make an excellent way to bring in men and supplies to fight the fire. in this way, a fire is readily accessible in a few hours where formerly it took perhaps several days to organize the fire fighting party and reach the scene of action. the concrete roads themselves make good fire lines. by means of the good roads, the forest is opened to campers and tourists each of whom pays a small sum as they enter the forest to help pay for the cost of building the roads and to provide funds for more extensive highways. in this way the forest is opened for the timber, the best methods of utilization and forest regeneration are practiced, fire hazard is reduced, and the area is opened as a recreational ground so that the greatest possible value is obtained from the tract. a great many other uses of the motor truck for logging and scientific forest utilization are being recognized, as example, for transporting pulpwood, veneer stock, cordwood, rosin and turpentine, and other forest products. suffice it to say that this method of transportation has found a place in the industry and is here to stay. its value has been recognized beyond doubt and in the future will play an important part in the further development of this country. bibliography 1916. motor truck logging. the power wagon. sept. 15. page 34. (periodical). 1916. the law of the public highway in washington. west coast lumberman. sept. 15. page 23. (periodical). 1916. motor truck logging now making great strides on the pacific coast. west coast lumberman. nov. 1. page 260. (periodical). 1917. motor truck logging in the pacific northwest. west coast lumberman. mar. 15. page 70. (periodical). 1917. motor trucks in high favor among lumbermen. lumber world review. mar. 25. page 23. (periodical). 1917. motor truck logging on camano island. west coast lumberman. july 1. page 28. (periodical). 1917. motor truck logging. the commercial vehicle. sept. 1. page 12. (periodical). 1918. pole roads. a. r. hillard. west coast lumberman. feb. 1. page 34. (periodical). 1918. operating cost of motor trucks computed. h. s. finch. timberman. feb. 1. page 60. (periodical). 1918. winch for motor trucks. american lumberman. mar. 2. page 58. (periodical). 1918. motor truck roads. american lumberman. mar. 16. page 38. (periodical). 1918. the motor truck in the logging industry. h. h. warwood. timberman. april 1. page 74. (periodical). 1918. road construction for motor trucks. jay c. smith. timberman. april 1. page 38. (periodical). 1918. adjustable reach logging trailer. american lumberman. may 18. page 63. (periodical). 1918. demonstrating duplex trucks. american lumberman. june 1. page 63. (periodical). 1918. modern motor truck solves difficult logging problems. west coast lumberman. july 1. page 18d. (periodical). 1918. motor trucks in winter logging. a. r. hilliard. west coast lumberman. sept. 1. page 25. (periodical). 1919. the effect of changed conditions upon forestry. w. w. ashe. journal of forestry. oct. 1. page 657. (periodical). 1919. puget sound logger tells congress how to log with motor trucks. west coast lumberman. october. page 25. (periodical). 1920. air brakes for trucks. timberman. mar. 1. page 48g. (periodical). the writer has drawn freely from the material found in the above periodicals and trade journals, but wishes to acknowledge the greater bulk of information in writing this paper received from the various truck salesmen and truck operators who were interviewed personally. without their assistance, the gathering of this information would have been impossible. publications of the engineering experiment station university of washington =bulletin no. 1=--creosoted wood stave pipe and its effect upon water for domestic and irrigational uses. 1917. (bureau of industrial research.) 20 pp. price, 25 cents. =bulletin no. 2=--an investigation of the iron ore resources of the north-west. by william harrison whittier. 1917. (bureau of industrial research.) 128 pp. price, 60 cents. =bulletin no. 3=--an industrial survey of seattle. by curtis c. aller. 1918. (bureau of industrial research.) 64 pp. price, 50 cents. =bulletin no. 4=--a summary of mining and metalliferous mineral resources in the state of washington with bibliography. by arthur homer fischer. 1919. 124 pp. price, 75 cents. =bulletin no. 5=--electrometallurgical and electrochemical industry in the state of washington. by charles denham grier. 1919. 43 pp. price, 50 cents. =bulletin no. 6=--ornamental concrete lamp posts. by carl edward magnusson. 1919. 24 pp. price, 40 cents. =bulletin no. 7=--multiplex radio telegraphy and telephony. 1920. by f. m. ryan, j. r. tolmie, r. o. bach. price, 50 cents. =bulletin no. 8=--voltage wave analysis with indicating instruments. by leslie forrest curtis. 1920. 28 pp. price, 50 cents. =bulletin no. 9=--the coking industry of the pacific northwest. by joseph daniels. 1920. 36 pp. price, 60 cents. =bulletin no. 10=--an investigation of compressed spruce pulleys. by george samuel wilson. 1920. 72 pp. price, 80 cents. =bulletin no. 11=--the theory of linear-sinoidal oscillations. by henry godfrey cordes. 1920. 24 pp. price, 40 cents. =bulletin no. 12=--motor truck logging methods. by frederick malcolm knapp. 1921. 52 pp. price, 50 cents. requests for bulletins should be addressed to the director, engineering experiment station, university of washington, seattle. file was produced from images produced by core historical literature in agriculture (chla), cornell university) the training of a forester [illustration: a forest ranger looking for fire from a national forest lookout station _page 32_] the training of a forester by gifford pinchot with eight illustrations [illustration] philadelphia & london j. b. lippincott company 1914 copyright, 1914, by j. b. lippincott company published february, 1914 printed by j. b. lippincott company at the washington square press philadelphia, u. s. a. to overton w. price friend and fellow worker to whom is due, more than to any other man, the high efficiency of the united states forest service preface at one time or another, the largest question before every young man is, "what shall i do with my life?" among the possible openings, which best suits his ambition, his tastes, and his capacities? along what line shall he undertake to make a successful career? the search for a life work and the choice of one is surely as important business as can occupy a boy verging into manhood. it is to help in the decision of those who are considering forestry as a profession that this little book has been written. to the young man who is attracted to forestry and begins to consider it as a possible profession, certain questions present themselves. what is forestry? if he takes it up, what will his work be, and where? does it in fact offer the satisfying type of outdoor life which it appears to offer? what chance does it present for a successful career, for a career of genuine usefulness, and what is the chance to make a living? is he fitted for it in character, mind, and body? if so, what training does he need? these questions deserve an answer. to the men whom it really suits, forestry offers a career more attractive, it may be said in all fairness, than any other career whatsoever. i doubt if any other profession can show a membership so uniformly and enthusiastically in love with the work. the men who have taken it up, practised it, and left it for other work are few. but to the man not fully adapted for it, forestry must be punishment, pure and simple. those who have begun the study of forestry, and then have learned that it was not for them, have doubtless been more in number than those who have followed it through. i urge no man to make forestry his profession, but rather to keep away from it if he can. in forestry a man is either altogether at home or very much out of place. unless he has a compelling love for the forester's life and the forester's work, let him keep out of it. g. p. contents page what is a forest? 13 the forester's knowledge 18 the forest and the nation 19 the forester's point of view 23 the establishment of forestry 27 the work of a forester 30 the forest service 30 the forest supervisor 46 the trained forester 50 personal equipment 63 state forest work 84 the forest service in washington 89 private forestry 106 forest schools 114 the opportunity 116 training 123 illustrations page a forest ranger looking for fire from a national forest lookout station _frontispiece_ stringing a forest telephone line 32 forest rangers scaling timber 43 western yellow pine seed collected by the forest service for planting up denuded lands 47 a forest examiner running a compass line 59 brush piling in a national forest timber sale 95 forest rangers getting instruction in methods of work from a district forest officer 105 forest service men making fresh measurements in the missouri swamps 136 the training of a forester what is a forest? first, what is forestry? forestry is the knowledge of the forest. in particular, it is the art of handling the forest so that it will render whatever service is required of it without being impoverished or destroyed. for example, a forest may be handled so as to produce saw logs, telegraph poles, barrel hoops, firewood, tan bark, or turpentine. the main purpose of its treatment may be to prevent the washing of soil, to regulate the flow of streams, to support cattle or sheep, or it may be handled so as to supply a wide range and combination of uses. forestry is the art of producing from the forest whatever it can yield for the service of man. before we can understand forestry, certain facts about the forest itself must be kept in mind. a forest is not a mere collection of individual trees, just as a city is not a mere collection of unrelated men and women, or a nation like ours merely a certain number of independent racial groups. a forest, like a city, is a complex community with a life of its own. it has a soil and an atmosphere of its own, chemically and physically different from any other, with plants and shrubs as well as trees which are peculiar to it. it has a resident population of insects and higher animals entirely distinct from that outside. most important of all, from the forester's point of view, the members of the forest live in an exact and intricate system of competition and mutual assistance, of help or harm, which extends to all the inhabitants of this complicated city of trees. the trees in a forest are all helped by mutually protecting each other against high winds, and by producing a richer and moister soil than would be possible if the trees stood singly and apart. they compete among themselves by their roots for moisture in the soil, and for light and space by the growth of their crowns in height and breadth. perhaps the strongest weapon which trees have against each other is growth in height. in certain species intolerant of shade, the tree which is overtopped has lost the race for good. the number of young trees which destroy each other in this fierce struggle for existence is prodigious, so that often a few score per acre are all that survive to middle or old age out of many tens of thousands of seedlings which entered the race of life on approximately even terms. not only has a forest a character of its own, which arises from the fact that it is a community of trees, but each species of tree has peculiar characteristics and habits also. just as in new york city, for example, the french, the germans, the italians, the hungarians, and the chinese each have quarters of their own, and in those quarters live in accordance with habits which distinguish each race from all the others, so the different species of pines and hemlocks, oaks and maples prefer and are found in certain definite types of locality, and live in accordance with definite racial habits which are as general and unfailing as the racial characteristics which distinguish, for example, the italians from the germans, or the swedes from the chinese. the most important of these characteristics of race or species are those which are concerned with the relation of each to light, heat, and moisture. thus, a river birch will die if it has only as much water as will suffice to keep a post oak in the best condition, and the warm climate in which the balsam fir would perish is just suited to the requirements of a long leaf pine or a magnolia. the tolerance of a tree for shade may vary greatly at different times of its life, but a white pine always requires more light than a hemlock, and a beech throughout its life will flourish with less sunshine or reflected light than, for example, an oak or a tulip tree. trees are limited in their distribution also by their adaptability, in which they vary greatly. thus a bald cypress will grow both in wetter and in dryer land than an oak; a red cedar will flourish from florida to the canadian line, while other species, like the eastern larch, the western mountain hemlock, or the big trees of california, are confined in their native localities within extremely narrow limits. the forester's knowledge the trained forester must know the forest as a doctor knows the human machine. first of all, he must be able to distinguish the different trees of which the forest is composed, for that is like learning to read. he must know the way they are made and the way they grow; but far more important than all else, he must base his knowledge upon that part of forestry which is called silvics, the knowledge of the relation of trees to light, heat, and moisture, to the soil, and to each other. the well-trained forester must also know the forest shrubs and at least the more important smaller forest plants, something of the insect and animal life of his domain, and the birds and fish. he must have a good working knowledge of rocks, soils, and streams, and of the methods of making roads, trails, and bridges. he should be an expert in woodcraft, able to travel the forest safely and surely by day or by night. it is essential that he should have a knowledge of the theory and the practice of lumbering, and he should know something about lumber markets and the value of lumber, about surveying and map making, and many other matters which are considered more at length in the chapter on training. there are as yet in america comparatively few men who have acquired even fairly well the more important knowledge which should be included in the training of a forester. the forest and the nation the position of the forest in the housekeeping of any nation is unlike that of any other great natural resource, for the forest not only furnishes wood, without which civilization as we know it would be impossible, but serves also to protect or make valuable many of the other things without which we could not get on. thus the forest cover protects the soil from the effects of wind, and holds it in place. for lack of it hundreds of thousands of square miles have been converted by the winds from moderately fertile, productive land to arid drifting sands. narrow strips of forest planted as windbreaks make agriculture possible in certain regions by preventing destruction of crops by moisture-stealing dry winds which so afflict the central portions of our country. without the forests the great bulk of our mining for coal, metals, and the precious minerals would be either impossible or vastly more expensive than it is at present, because the galleries of mines are propped with wood, and so protected against caving in. so far, no satisfactory substitute for the wooden railroad tie has been devised; and our whole system of land transportation is directly dependent for its existence upon the forest, which supplies more than one hundred and twenty million new railroad ties every year in the united states alone. the forest regulates and protects the flow of streams. its effect is to reduce the height of floods and to moderate extremes of low water. the official measurements of the united states geological survey have finally settled this long-disputed question. by protecting mountain slopes against excessive soil wash, it protects also the lowlands upon which this wash would otherwise be deposited and the rivers whose channels it would clog. it is well within the truth to say that the utility of any system of rivers for transportation, for irrigation, for waterpower, and for domestic supply depends in great part upon the protection which forests offer to the headwaters of the streams, and that without such protection none of these uses can be expected long to endure. of the two basic materials of our civilization, iron and wood, the forest supplies one. the dominant place of the forest in our national economy is well illustrated by the fact that no article whatsoever, whether of use or ornament, whether it be for food, shelter, clothing, convenience, protection, or decoration, can be produced and delivered to the user, as industry is now organized, without the help of the forest in supplying wood. an examination of the history of any article, including the production of the raw material, and its manufacture, transportation, and distribution, will at once make this point clear. the forest is a national necessity. without the material, the protection, and the assistance it supplies, no nation can long succeed. many regions of the old world, such as palestine, greece, northern africa, and central india, offer in themselves the most impressive object lessons of the effect upon national prosperity and national character of the neglect of the forest and its consequent destruction. the forester's point of view the central idea of the forester, in handling the forest, is to promote and perpetuate its greatest use to men. his purpose is to make it serve the greatest good of the greatest number for the longest time. before the members of any other profession dealing with natural resources, the foresters acquired the long look ahead. this was only natural, because in forestry it is seldom that a man lives to harvest the crop which he helped to sow. the forester must look forward, because the natural resource with which he deals matures so slowly, and because, if steps are to be taken to insure for succeeding generations a supply of the things the forest yields, they must be taken long in advance. the idea of using the forest first for the greatest good of the present generation, and then for the greatest good of succeeding generations through the long future of the nation and the race--that is the forester's point of view. the use of foresight to insure the existence of the forest in the future, and, so far as practicable, the continued or increasing abundance of its service to men, naturally suggested the use of foresight in the same way as to other natural resources as well. thus it was the forester's point of view, applied not only to the forest but to the lands, the minerals, and the streams, which produced the conservation policy. the idea of applying foresight and common-sense to the other natural resources as well as to the forest was natural and inevitable. it works out, equally as a matter of course, into the conception of a planned and orderly development of all that the earth contains for the uses of men. this leads in turn to the application of the same principle to other questions and resources. it was foreseen from the beginning by those who were responsible for inaugurating the conservation movement that its natural development would in time work out into a planned and orderly scheme for national efficiency, based on the elimination of waste, and directed toward the best use of all we have for the greatest good of the greatest number for the longest time. it is easy to see that this principle (the forester's principle, first brought to public attention by foresters) is the key to national success. forestry, then, is seen to be peculiarly essential to the national prosperity, both now and hereafter. national degradation and decay have uniformly followed the excessive destruction of forests by other nations, and will inevitably become our portion if we continue to destroy our forests three times faster than they are produced, as we are doing now. the principles of forestry, therefore, must occupy a commanding place in determining the future prosperity or failure of our nation, and this commanding position in the field of ideas is naturally and properly reflected in the dignity and high standing which the profession of forestry, young as it is, has already acquired in the united states. this position it must be the first care of every member of the profession to maintain and increase. in the long run, no profession rises higher than the degree of public consideration which marks its members. the profession of forestry is in many ways a peculiarly responsible profession, but in nothing more so than in its vital connection with the whole future welfare of our country and in the obligation which lies upon its members to see that its reputation and standing, which are the measures of its capacity for usefulness, are kept strong and clear. the establishment of forestry in the united states, forestry is passing out of the pioneer phase of agitation and the education of public opinion, and into the permanent phase of the practice of the profession. the first steps in forestry in this country, as in any other where the development and destruction of natural resources has been rapid, were necessarily directed mainly to informing the public mind upon the importance of forestry, and to building up national and state laws and organizations for the protection of timberlands set aside for the public benefit. the right to be heard with respect by the men who were already in control of the larger part of our total forest wealth had to be won, and has been won. what is more, in the teeth of the bitterest opposition of private special interests, the right of the public to first consideration in the protection and development of the forest and of all the resources it contains had to be asserted and established. that has now been done. in the united states these steps in the movement for the wise use of the forest have been taken mainly in the last dozen or fifteen years, during which the federal forest organization has grown from an insignificant division of less than a dozen men to the present united states forest service, of more than three thousand members. during this period, also, forestry, both as a profession and as a public necessity, has won enduring public recognition, and at the same time more public timberland has been set aside for the public use and to remain in the public hands than during all the rest of our history put together. to-day the national forests are reasonably safe in the protection of public opinion, not against all attack, it is true, but against any successful attempt to dismember and turn them over to the special interests who already control the bulk and the best of our forests. the public has accepted forestry as necessary to the public welfare, both in the present and in the future; state forest organizations are springing up; forestry has won the right to be heard in the business offices as well as in the conventions of the private owners of forest land; and the time for the practice of the profession has fully come. the work of a forester what does a forester do? i will try to answer this question, first, with reference to the united states forest service, and later as to the numerous other fields of activity which are opening or have already opened to the trained forester in the united states. the forest service the united states forest service is responsible both for the general progress of forestry, so far as the united states government is concerned, and for the protection and use of the national forests. these national forests now cover an area of one hundred and eighty-seven million acres, or as much land as is included in all the new england states, with new york, pennsylvania, new jersey, delaware, maryland, virginia and west virginia. the head of the service, whose official title is "forester," is charged with the great task of protecting this vast area against fire, theft, and other depredations, and of making all its resources, the wood, water, and grass, the minerals, and the soil, available and useful to the people of the united states under regulations which will secure development and prevent destruction or waste. the united states forest service consists, first, of a protective force of forest guards and forest rangers, who spend practically the whole of their time in the forest; second, of an executive staff of forest supervisors and their assistants, who have immediate charge of the handling of the national forests; and third, of an administrative staff divided between headquarters in washington and the six local administrative offices in the west, where the national forests mainly lie. the work of a forest ranger is, first of all, to protect the district committed to his charge against fire. that comes before all else. for that purpose, the ranger patrols his district during the seasons when fires are dangerous, or watches for signs of fire from certain high points, called fire-lookouts, or both. he keeps the trails and fire lines clear and the telephone in working order, and sees to it that the fire fighting tools, such as spades, axes, and rakes, are in good condition and ready for service. if he is wise, he establishes such relations with the people who live in his neighborhood that they become his volunteer assistants in watching for forest fires, in taking precautions against them, and in notifying him of them when they do take place. [illustration: stringing a forest telephone line] fighting a forest fire in some respects is like fighting a fire in a city. in both, the first and most necessary thing is to get men and apparatus to the site of the fire at the first practicable moment. for this purpose, fire-engines and men are always ready in the city, while in the forest the telephones, trails, and bridges must be kept in condition, and the forest officers must be ready to move instantly day or night. it is far better to prevent a forest fire from starting than to have to put it out after it has started; but in spite of all the care that can be exercised with the means at hand, many fires start. each year the forest service men extinguish not less than three thousand fires, nearly all of them while they are still small. at times, however, when the woods are very dry and the wind blows hard, in spite of all that can be done, a fire will grow large enough to be dangerous not only to the forest but to human life. thus in the summer of 1910, the driest ever known in certain parts of the west, high winds drove the forest fires clear beyond the control of the fire fighters, many of whom were compelled to fight for their own lives. the worst of these fires were in montana and idaho, where the whole power of the forest service was used against them. the forest rangers, under the orders of their supervisors, immediately organized or took charge of small companies of fire fighters, and began the work of getting them under control. but so fierce was the wind and so terrible the heat of the fires and the speed with which they moved, that in many places it became a question of saving the lives of the fire fighters rather than of putting out the fires. as a matter of fact, nearly a hundred of the men temporarily employed to help the government fire fighters lost their lives, and many more would have died but for the courage, resource, and knowledge of the woods of the forest rangers. take, for example, the case of ranger edward c. pulaski, of the coeur d'alene national forest, stationed at wallace, idaho. pulaski had charge of forty italians and poles. he had been at work with them for many hours, when the flames grew to be so threatening that it became a question of whether he could save his men. the fire was travelling faster than the men could make their way through the dense forest, and the only hope was to find some place into which the fire could not come. accordingly pulaski guided his party at a run through the blinding smoke to an abandoned mine he knew of in the neighborhood. when they reached it, he sent the men into the workings ahead of him, hung a wet blanket across the mouth of the tunnel, and himself stood there on guard. the fierce heat, the stifling air, and their deadly fear drove some of the foreigners temporarily insane, and a number of them tried to break out. with drawn revolver pulaski held them back. one man did get by him and was burned to death. many fainted in the tunnel. the ranger himself, more exposed than any of his men, was terribly burned. he stood at his post, however, for five hours, until the fire had passed, and brought his party through without losing a single man except that one who got out of the tunnel, although his own injuries were so severe that he was in the hospital for two months as a result of them. the record of the forest service in these terrible fires is one of which every forester may well be proud. the ranger must protect his district, not only against fire but against the theft of timber and the incessant efforts of land grabbers to steal government lands. to prevent the theft of timber is usually not difficult, but it is far harder to prevent fake homesteaders, fraudulent mining men, and other dishonest claimants from seizing upon land to which they have no right, and so preventing honest men from using these claims to make a living. in the past, this problem has presented the most serious difficulties, and still occasionally does so. there is no louder shouter for "justice" than a balked habitual land thief with political influence behind him. to illustrate the kind of attack upon the forest service to which fraudulent land claims have constantly given rise, i may cite the statements made during one of the annual attempts in the senate to break down the service. one of the senators asserted that in his state the forest service was overbearing and tyrannical, and that in a particular case it had driven out of his home a citizen known to the senator, and had left him and his family to wander houseless upon the hillside, and that for no good reason whatsoever. this statement, if it had been true, would at once have destroyed the standing of the service in the minds of many of its friends, and would have led to immediate defeat in the fight then going on. fortunately, the records of the service were so complete, and the knowledge of field conditions on the part of the men in washington was so thorough, that the mere mention of the general locality of the supposed outrage by the senator made it easy to identify the individual case. the man in question, instead of being an honest settler with a wife and family, was the keeper of a disreputable saloon and dance hall, a well-known law-breaker whom the local authorities had tried time and again to dispossess and drive away. but by means of his fraudulent claim the man had always defeated the local officers. when, however, the officers of the forest service took the case in hand, the situation changed and things moved quickly. the disreputable saloon was promptly removed from the fraudulent land claim by means of which the keeper of it had held on, and this thoroughly undesirable citizen either went out of business or removed his abominable trade to some locality outside the national forest. the actual facts were fully brought out in the debate next day, remained uncontradicted, and saved the fight for the forest service. the whole incident may be found at length in the congressional record. the forest ranger is charged with overseeing and regulating the free use of timber by settlers and others who live in or near the national forests. last year (1912) the forest service gave away without charge more than $196,000 worth of saw timber, house logs, fencing, fuel, and other material to men and women who needed it for their own use. usually it is the ranger's work to issue the permits for this free use, and to designate the timber that may be cut. for this purpose, he must be well acquainted with the kinds and the uses of the trees in his district, and it is most important that he should know something of how their reproduction can best be secured, in order that the free use may be permitted without injury to the future welfare of the forest. a ranger oversees the use of his district for the grazing of cattle, sheep, and other domestic animals. he must acquaint himself with the brands and marks of the various owners, and should be well posted in the essentials of the business of raising cattle, sheep, and horses. the allotment of grazing areas is one of the most difficult problems to adjust, because the demand is almost always for much more range than is available and the division of what range there is among the local owners of stock often presents serious difficulties, in which the ranger's local knowledge and advice is constantly sought by his superior officer. there is a wise law, passed at the request of the forest service, under which land in the national forests which is shown to be agricultural may be entered under the homestead law, and used for the making of homes. this law is peculiarly hard to carry out because the ceaseless efforts of land grabbers to misuse it demand great vigilance on the part of the forest officers. in many cases it is the ranger who makes the report upon which the decision as to the agricultural or non-agricultural character of the land is based, although in other cases the examinations to determine whether the land is really agricultural in character are made by examiners especially trained for this duty. serious controversies into which politics enter are often caused by the efforts of speculators and others, under pretext of this law, to get possession of lands chiefly valuable for their timber. the building and maintenance of trails, telephone lines, roads, bridges, and fences in his district is under the charge of the ranger, and in many cases rangers and forest guards are appointed by the state as wardens to see to it that the game and fish laws are properly enforced. next to the protection of his district from fire, the most important duty of the ranger has to do with the sale of timber and the marking of the individual trees which are to be cut. the reproduction of the forest depends directly on what trees are kept for seed, or on how the existing young growth is protected and preserved in felling and swamping the trees which have been marked for cutting, and in skidding the logs. the disposal of the slash must be looked after, for it has much to do with forest reproduction, and with promoting safety from fire. then, the scaling of the logs determines the amount of the payment the government receives for its timber, and there are often regulations governing the transportation of the scaled logs whose enforcement is of great consequence to the future forest. [illustration: forest rangers scaling timber] nearly all of these duties the ranger may perform in certain cases without supervision, if his judgment and training are sufficient, but the marking especially is often done under the eye or in accordance with the directions of the technical forester, whose duty it is to see that the future of the forest is protected by enforcing the conditions of sale. these are but a part of the duties of the ranger, for he is concerned with all the uses which his district may serve. the streams, for example, may be important for city water supply, irrigation, or for waterpower, and their use for these purposes must be under his eye. hotels and saw-mills on sites leased from the government may dot his district here and there. the land within national forests may be put to a thousand other uses, from a bee ranch on the cleveland forest in southern california to a whaling station on the tongass forest in alaska, all of which means work for him. the result of all this is that the ranger comes in contact with city dwellers, irrigators, cattlemen, sheepmen, and horsemen, ranchers, storekeepers, hotel men, hunters, miners, and lumbermen, and above all with the settlers who live in or near his district. with all these it is his duty to keep on good terms, for well he knows that one man at certain times can set more fires than a regiment can extinguish, and that the best protection for his district comes from the friendly interest of the men who live in it or near it. a forest guard is in effect an assistant to the ranger, and may be called upon to carry out most of the duties which fall upon a ranger. the foregoing short statement will make it clear that preliminary experience as a ranger may be of the utmost value to the man who proposes later on to perform in the government service the duties of a trained forester. it is becoming more and more common, and fortunately so, for graduates of forest schools to begin their work in the united states forest service as rangers or forest guards. the man who has done well a ranger's work, like the graduate of an engineering school who, after graduation, has entered a machine shop as a hand, has acquired a body of practical information and experience which will be invaluable to him in the later practice of his profession, and which is far beyond the reach of any man who has not been trained in the actual execution of this work on the ground and in actual daily contact with the multifarious uses and users of the forest. the forest supervisor [illustration: western yellow pine seed collected by the forest service for planting up denuded lands] the supervisor is the general manager of a national forest. the responsibility for the protection, care, and use of it falls upon him, under the direction of the district forester. the supervisor is responsible for making the use of his forest as valuable and as convenient as possible for the people in and around the area of which he has charge. he deals with the organizations of forest users, such as local stock associations, and issues permits for grazing live stock in the forest. permits for cutting small amounts of timber are granted by him, and he advertises in the papers the sale of larger amounts and receives bids from prospective purchasers; keeps the accounts of his forest; and makes regular reports on a variety of important subjects, such as the personnel of his forest force, the permanent improvements made or to be made, the permits issued for regular and special uses of the forest and for free use of timber and forage, the number and kinds of predatory animals killed, the amount of forest planting accomplished, and the expense and losses from forest fires. he has general oversight of the roads, trails, and other improvements on his forest; and prepares plans for the extension of them. in particular, he directs, controls, and inspects the work of the ranger and guards, and in general, he attends to the thousand and one matters which go to adjusting the use of the forest to the needs of the men who use it, and on which depends whether the forest is well or badly thought of among the people whose coã¶peration or opposition have so much to do with making its management successful or otherwise. the supervisor spends about half his time in the office and half in the field, inspecting the work of his men and consulting with them, meeting local residents or associations of local residents who have propositions to submit for improving the service of the forest to them, or for correcting mistakes, or who wish to lay before the supervisor some one of the numberless matters in which the forest affects their welfare. the usefulness of the supervisor depends as much upon his good judgment, his ability to meet men and do business with them, and his knowledge of local needs and local affairs, as it does upon his knowledge of the forest itself. as in the case of every superior officer, his attitude toward his work, his energy, his good sense, and his good will are or should be reflected in the men under him, so that his position is one of the greatest importance in determining the success or failure of each national forest, and hence of the forest service as a whole. more and more of the trained foresters in the service are seeking and securing appointments as forest supervisors because of the interest and satisfaction they find in the work. such men handle both the professional and business sides of forest management. many of their duties, therefore, are described in the succeeding chapter. the position of supervisor is in many respects the most desirable a trained forester can occupy in the forest service, and the most responsible of the field positions. the trained forester to each forest where timber cutting has become important there are assigned one or more forest assistants or forest examiners. these are professionally trained foresters. they are subordinate upon each forest to the supervisor as manager, but it is their work which has most to do with deciding whether the forest service in general is to be successful or is to fail in the great task of preserving the forest by wise use. the forest assistant secures his position with the service by passing an examination devised to test his technical knowledge and his ability. after he has served two years as forest assistant the quality and quantity of his work will have determined his fitness to continue in the employ of the government. if he is unfit he may be dropped, for there are many young and ambitious men ready to step into his place. if he makes good he is promoted to the grade of forest examiner and is put definitely in charge of certain lines of professional work; always, of course, under the direction of the supervisor, of whom he becomes the adviser on all problems involving technical forestry. the most important tasks of the trained forester on a national forest are the preparation of working plans for the use of the forest by methods which will protect and perpetuate it as well, and the carrying out of the plans when made. this is forestry in the technical sense of the word. it involves a thorough study of the kinds of timber, their amount and location, their rate of growth, their value, the ease or difficulty of their reproduction, and the methods by which the timber can be cut at a profit and at the same time the reproduction of the forest can be safely secured. a working plan usually includes a considerable number of maps, which often have to be drawn in the first place from actual surveys on the ground by the forest examiner. these maps contain the information secured by working-plan studies, and are of the first necessity for the wise and skilful handling of the forest. they often constitute, also, most important documents in the history of its condition and use. on many of the national forests the need for immediate use of the timber is so urgent and so just that there is no time to prepare elaborate working plans. timber sales must be made, and made at once; but they must be made, nevertheless, in a way that will fully protect the future welfare of the forest. whether working plans can be prepared or not, a most important duty of the technical forester is to work out the conditions under which a given body of timber can be cut with safety to the forest, especially with safety to its reproduction and future growth. the principal study for a timber sale will usually include an examination of the general features and condition of the forest, and the determination of the diameter down to which it is advisable to cut the standing trees, a diameter which must be fixed at such a size as will protect the forest and make the lumbering pay. it will include also an investigation, more or less thorough and complete, as the conditions warrant, of the silvical habits of one or more of the species of trees in that forest. the areas which form natural units for the logging and transportation of the timber must be worked out and laid off, and careful estimates, or measurements, of the amount of standing timber and of its value on the stump must be made, as well as of the cost of moving it to the mill or to the railroad. the forest examiner must also consider, in many cases, the building of logging roads or railroads, timber slides, etc., and must make a careful study of the material into which the trees to be cut can best be worked up, and of the value of such material in the market. most of all, however, he must study, think over, and decide what he will recommend as to the conditions which are to govern the logging conditions by which the protection of the forest is to be insured. these conditions, fixed by his superiors upon the report of the forest examiner, determine whether an individual timber sale is forestry or forest destruction. this is the central question in the administration of the national forests from the national point of view. the principal objects of the conditions laid down for a timber sale are always the reproduction of the forest and its safety against fire. natural reproduction from self-sown seed is almost invariably the result desired; and so the question of the seed trees to be left, and how they are to be located or spaced, is fundamental, unless there is ample young growth already on the ground. in the latter case this young growth must not be smashed or bent by throwing the older trees on top of it, or against it, and the young saplings bent down by the felled tops must be promptly released. in order to avoid danger to the young growth already present or to be secured, as well as to protect the older trees from fires, the slash produced in lumbering, the tops lopped from the trees up to and beyond the highest point to which the lumbermen are required to take the logs, must be satisfactorily disposed of--either by scattering it thinly over the ground, by piling and burning, or often by piling alone. these and many other conditions of sale must be studied out in a form adapted to each particular case, and must be discussed with the men who propose to buy, who often have wise and practical suggestions to make. similar questions on a less important scale present themselves and must be answered in the matter of small timber sales, and of timber given without charge under free-use permits to settlers and others. when the terms of a contract of sale have been worked out and accepted and the timber has been sold, then the forest assistant has charge of the extremely interesting task of marking the trees that are to be cut, in accordance with these terms. usually this is done by marking all the trees which are to be felled, but sometimes by marking only the trees which are to remain. the marking is usually done by blazing each tree and stamping the letters "u. s." upon the blaze with a government marking axe or hatchet. it must be done in such a way that the loggers will have no excuse either for cutting an unmarked tree or leaving a marked tree uncut, or _vice versa_, as the case may be. the marking may be carried out by the rangers and forest guards under supervision of the forest assistant, or in difficult situations he may mark or direct the marking of each tree himself. marking is fascinating work. later, while the logging is under way, the forest examiner will often inspect it to see that the terms of the sale are complied with, that the trees cut are thrown in places where they will not unduly damage either young growth or the larger trees which are to remain, and that the other conditions laid down for the logging in the contract of sale are observed. the scaling of the logs to determine the amount of payment to the government will many times be under his supervision, although in the larger sales this work, as well as the routine inspection of the logging, is usually carried out by a special body of expert lumbermen, who often bring to it a much wider knowledge of the woods than the men in actual charge of the lumbering. in nearly every national forest there are areas upon which the trees have been destroyed by fire. many of these are so large or so remote from seed-bearing trees that natural reproduction will not suffice to replace the forest. in such localities planting is needed, and for that purpose the forest examiner must establish and conduct a forest nursery. the decision on the kind of trees to plant and on the methods of raising and planting them, the collection of the seed, the care and transplanting of the young trees until they are set out on the site of the future forest, forms a task of absorbing interest. such work often requires a high degree of technical skill. it is likely to occupy a larger and larger share of the time and attention of the trained men of the forest service. [illustration: a forest examiner running a compass line] the forest assistant's or examiner's knowledge of surveying makes it natural for him to take an important part in the laying out of new roads and trails in the forest, or in correcting the lines of old ones, and there is little work more immediately useful. the forest can be safeguarded effectively just in proportion to the ease with which all parts of it can be reached. forest protection may be less technically interesting than other parts of the forester's work, but nothing that he does is more important or pays larger dividends in future results. in addition to his studies of the habits and reproduction of the different trees for working plans or timber sales, or simply to increase his knowledge of the forest, the forest examiner is often called upon to lay out sample plots for ascertaining the exact relation of each species to light, heat, and moisture, or for studying its rate of growth. he may find it necessary to determine the effect of the grazing of cattle or sheep on young growth of various species and of various ages, or to ascertain their relative resistance to fire. in general, what time he can spare from more pressing duties is very fully occupied with adding to his silvical knowledge by observation, with studies of injurious insects or fungi, of the reasons for the increase or decrease of valuable or worthless species of trees in the forest, the innumerable secondary effects of forest fires, the causes of the local distribution of trees, or with some other of the thousand questions which give a never-failing interest to work in the woods. the protection of a valuable kind of tree often depends upon the ability to find a use for, and therefore to remove, a less-valuable species which is crowding it out, for as yet the american forester can do very little cutting or thinning that does not pay. just so, the protection of a given tract against fire may depend upon the ability to use, and therefore to remove, a part or the whole of the dead and down timber which now makes it a fire trap. for such reasons as these, the uses of wood and the markets for its disposal form exceedingly important branches of study for the forest examiner, who will usually find that his duties require him to be thoroughly familiar with them. it is more and more common to find each forest officer--ranger, forest examiner, or supervisor--combining in himself the qualities and the knowledge required to fill any or all of the other positions. the professionally trained man who develops marked executive ability is likely to become a supervisor, just as a ranger, with the necessary training and experience, who may wish to devote himself to silvical investigations may be transferred to that work. the point is that each man has individual opportunity to establish and occupy the place for which he is best fitted. the success of the technical forester, like that of the ranger, and indeed of nearly every government forest officer, in whatever position or line of work, will very frequently depend on his good judgment and practical sense, the chief ingredient of which will always be his knowledge of local needs and conditions, and his sympathetic understanding of the local point of view. this does not mean that the local point of view is always to control. on the contrary, the forest officer must often decide against it in the interest of the welfare of the larger public. but the desires and demands of the users of the forest should always be given the fullest hearing and the most careful consideration. to this rule there is no exception whatsoever. personal equipment forestry differs from most professions in this, that it requires as much vigor of body as it does vigor of mind. the sort of man to which it appeals, and which it seeks, is the man with high powers of observation, who does not shrink from responsibility, and whose mental vigor is balanced by physical strength and hardiness. the man who takes up forestry should be little interested in his own personal comfort, and should have and conserve endurance enough to stand severe physical work accompanied by mental labor equally exhausting. foresters are still few in numbers, and the point of view which they represent, while it is making immense strides in public acceptance, is still far from general application. therefore, foresters are still missionaries in a very real sense, and since they are so few, it is of the utmost importance that they should stand closely together. differences of opinion there must always be in all professions, but there is no other profession in which it is more important to keep these differences from working out into animosities or separations of any kind. we are fortunate above all in this, that american foresters are united as probably the members of no other profession. this _esprit de corps_ has given them their greatest power of achievement, and any man who proposes to enter the profession should do so with this fact clearly in mind. the high standard which the profession of forestry, new in the united states, has already reached, its great power for usefulness to the nation, now and hereafter, and the large responsibilities which fall so quickly on the men who are trained to accept it--all these things give to the profession a position and dignity which it should be the first care of every man who enters it to maintain or increase. to stand well at graduation is or ought to be far less the object of a forester's training than to stand well ten or twenty years after graduation. it is of the first importance that the training should be thorough and complete. a friend of mine, john muir, says that the best advice he can give young men is: "take time to get rich." his idea of getting rich is to fill his mind and spirit full with observations of the nature he so deeply loves and so well understands; so that in his mind it is not money which makes riches, but life in the open and the seeing eye. next to those basic traits of personal character, without which no man is worth his salt, the forester's most important quality is the power of observation, the power to note and understand, or seek to understand, what he sees in the forest. it is just as essential a part of the forester's equipment to be able to see what is wrong with a piece of forest, and what is required for its improvement, as it is necessary for a physician to be able to diagnose a disease and to prescribe the remedy. silvics, which may be said to be the knowledge of how trees behave in health and disease toward each other, and toward light, heat, moisture, and the soil, is the foundation of forestry and the forester's first task is to bring himself to a high point of efficiency in observing and interpreting these facts of the forest, and to keep himself there. it should be as hard work to walk through the forest, and see what is there to be seen, as to wrestle with the most difficult problem of mathematics. no man can be a good forester without that quality of observation and understanding which the french call "the forester's eye." it is not the only quality required for success in forestry, but it is unquestionably the first. perhaps the second among the qualities necessary for the forester is common sense, which most often simply means a sympathetic understanding of the circumstances among which a man finds himself. the american forester must know the united states and understand its people. nothing which affects the welfare of his country should be indifferent to him. forestry is a form of practical statesmanship which touches the national life at so many points that no forester can safely allow himself to remain ignorant of the needs and purposes of his fellow citizens, or to be out of touch with the current questions of the day. the best citizen makes the best forester, and no man can make a good forester unless he is a good citizen also. the forester can not succeed unless he understands the problems and point of view of his country, and that is the reason why foresters from other lands were not brought into the united states in the early stages of the forest movement. at that time practically no american foresters had yet been trained, and the great need of the situation was for men to do the immediately pressing work. foresters from germany, france, switzerland, and other countries could have been obtained in abundant numbers and at reasonable salaries. they were not invited to come because, however well trained in technical forestry, they could not have understood the habits of thought of our people. therefore, in too many cases, they would have failed to establish the kind of practical understanding which a forester must have with the men who use, or work in, his forest, if he is to succeed. it was wiser to wait until americans could be trained, for the practising forester must handle men as well as trees. one of the most difficult things to do in any profession which involves drudgery (and i take it that no profession which does not involve drudgery is worth the attention of a man) is to look beyond the daily routine to the things which that routine is intended to assist in accomplishing. this is peculiarly true of forestry, in which, perhaps more than in any other profession, the long-distance, far-sighted attitude of mind is essential to success. the trees a forester plants he himself will seldom live to harvest. much of his thought about his forest must be in terms of centuries. the great object for which he is striving of necessity can not be fully accomplished during his lifetime. he must, therefore, accustom himself to look ahead, and to reap his personal satisfaction from the planned and orderly development of a scheme the perfect fruit of which he can never hope to see. this is one of the strongest reasons why the forester, whether in public or private employment, must always look upon himself as a public servant. it is of the first importance that he should accustom himself to think of the results of his work as affecting, not primarily himself, but others, always including the general public. it is essential for a forester to form the habit of looking far ahead, out of which grows a sound perspective and persistence in body and mind. one of the greatest football players of our time makes the distinction between a player who is "quick" and a player who is "soon." in his description, the "quick" player is the man who waits until the last moment and then moves with nervous and desperate haste in the little time he has left. the man who is "soon," however, almost invariably arrives ahead of the man who is "quick," because he has thought out in advance exactly where he is going and how to get there, and when the moment comes he does not delay his start, makes no false motions, and thereby makes and keeps himself efficient. forestry is preã«minently a profession for the "soon" man, for it is the steady preparation long in advance, the well-thoughtout plan well stuck to, which in forestry brings success. in my experience, men differ comparatively little in mere ability, in the quality of the mental machine, through which the spirit works. nine times out of ten, it is not ability which brings success, but persistence and enthusiasm, which are usually, but not always, the same as vision and will. we all have ability enough to do the things which lie before us, but the man with the will to keep everlastingly at it, and the vision to realize the meaning and value of the results for which he is striving, is the man who wins in nearly every case. this is true in all human affairs, but it is peculiarly true of the forester and his task, the end of which lies so far ahead. in a class below me at phillips-exeter academy was a boy who had just entered the school. his great ambition was to play football, and he came to the practise day after day. his abilities, however, were apparently not on the same plane with his ambitions, and his work was so ridiculously poor that he became the laughing stock of the whole school. that, however, troubled him not at all. what held his mind was football. undiscouraged and undismayed, he kept on playing football until in his last year he became captain of the exeter football team. every man of experience has known many similar cases. it is clear, i think, that the master qualities in achievement are neither luck nor mere ability, but rather enthusiasm and persistence, or vision and will. in a peculiar sense the forester depends upon public opinion and public support for the means of carrying on his work, and for its final success. but the attention which the public gives or can give to any particular subject varies, and of necessity must vary, from time to time. under these circumstances, it is inevitable that the forester must meet discouragements, checks, and delays, as well as periods of smooth sailing. he should expect them, and should be prepared to discount them when they come. when they do come, i know of no better way of reducing their bad effects than for a man to make allowance for his own state of mind. he who can stand off and look at himself impartially, realizing that he will not feel to-morrow as he feels to-day, has a powerful weapon against the temporary discouragements which are necessarily met in any work that is really worth while. progress is always in spirals, and there is always a good time coming. there is nothing so fatal to good work as that flabby spirit under which some weak men try to hide their inefficiency--the spirit of "what's the use?" it has been the experience of every forester, as he goes about the country, to be told that a certain mountain is impassable, that a certain trail can not be travelled, that a certain stream can not be crossed, and to find that mountain, trail, and stream can all be passed with little serious difficulty by a man who is willing to try. most things said to be impossible are so only in the mind of the man whose timidity or inertness keeps him from making the attempt. the whole story of the establishment and growth of the united states forest service is a story of the doing of things which the men who did them were warned in advance would be impossible. usually the thing which "can't be done" is well worth trying. perhaps i ought to add that i am not urging the young forester to disregard local public opinion without the best of reasons, or to rush his horse blindly into the ford of a swollen stream. good sense is the first condition of success. i am merely saying that in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, when a thing ought to be done it can be done, if the effort is made with that idea in mind. all this is but one way of saying that the forester should be his own severest taskmaster. the forester must keep himself up to his own work. in no other profession, to my knowledge, is a man thrown so completely on his own responsibility. the forester often leads an isolated life for weeks or months at a time, seeing the men under whom he works only at distant intervals. because he is so much his own master, the responsibility which rests upon him is peculiarly his own, and must be met out of the resources within himself. the training of a forester should lead him to be practical in the right sense of that word, which emphatically is not the sense of abandoning standards of work or conduct in order to get immediate results. the "practical" men with whom the forester must do his work--lumbermen, cattlemen, sheepmen, settlers, forest users of all kinds--are often by very much his superiors in usable knowledge of the details of their work. their opinions are entitled to the most complete hearing and respect. there is no other class of men from whose advice the forester can so greatly profit if he chooses to do so. he is superior to them, if at all, only in his technical knowledge, and in the broader point of view he has derived from his professional training. it is of the first importance that the young forester should know these men, should learn to like and respect them, and that he should get all the help he can from their knowledge and practical experience. the willingness to use the information and assistance which such men were ready to give has more than once meant the difference between failure and success. the young forester, like other young men, is likely to be impatient. i do not blame him for it. rightly directed, his impatience may become one of his best assets. but it will do no harm to remember, also, that the human race has reached its present degree of civilization and advancement only step by step, and that it seems likely to proceed in very much the same way hereafter. as a general rule, results slowly and painfully accomplished are lasting. the results to be achieved in forestry must be lasting if they are to be valuable. in general, the men with whom the forester deals can adopt, and in many cases, ought to adopt, a new point of view but slowly. to fall in love at first sight with theories or policies is as rare as the same experience is between persons. as a rule, an intellectual conviction, however well founded, must be followed by a period of incubation and growth before it can blossom into a definite principle of action, before the man who holds it is ready to work or fight in order to carry it out. there is a rate in the adoption of new ideas beyond which only the most unusual circumstances will induce men's minds to move. forestry has gone ahead in the united states faster than it ever did in any other land. if it proceeds a little less rapidly, now that so much of the field has been won, there will be no reason for discouragement in that. as a subordinate officer necessarily the young forester will begin as a subordinate. how soon he will come to give orders of his own will depend on how well he executes the orders of his superior. in particular, it will depend on whether he requires to be coddled in doing his work, or whether he is willing and able to stand on his own feet. the man for whom every employer of men is searching, everywhere and always, is the man who will accept the responsibility for the work he has to do--who will not lean at every point upon his superior for additional instructions, advice, or encouragement. there is no more valuable subordinate than the man to whom you can give a piece of work and then forget about it, in the confident expectation that the next time it is brought to your attention it will come in the form of a report that the thing has been done. when this master quality is joined to executive power, loyalty, and common sense, the result is a man whom you can trust. on the other hand, there is no greater nuisance to a man heavily burdened with the direction of affairs than the weak-backed assistant who is continually trying to get his chief to do his work for him, on the feeble plea that he thought the chief would like to decide this or that himself. the man to whom an executive is most grateful, the man whom he will work hardest and value most, is the man who accepts responsibility willingly, and is not continually under his feet. as a superior officer the principles of effective administrative work have never, so far as i know, been adequately classified and defined. when they come to be stated one of the most important will be found to be the exact assignment of responsibility, so that whatever goes wrong the administrative head will know clearly and at once upon whom the responsibility falls. this is one of the reasons why, as a rule, boards and commissions are far less effective in getting things done than single men with clear-cut authority and equally clear-cut responsibility. another principle, so well known that it has almost become a proverb, is to delegate everything you can, to do nothing that you can get someone else to do for you. but the wisdom of letting a good man alone is less commonly understood. it is sometimes as important for the superior officer not to worry his subordinate with useless orders as it is for the subordinate not to harass his superior with useless questions. let a good man alone. give him his head. nothing will hold him so rigidly to his work as the feeling that he is trusted. lead your men in their work, and above all make of your organization not a monarchy, limited or unlimited, but a democracy, in which the responsibility of each man for a particular piece of work shall not only be defined but recognized, in which the credit for each man's work, so far as possible, shall be attached to his own name, in which the opinions and advice of your subordinates are often sought before decisions are made; in a word, a democracy in which each man feels a personal responsibility for the success of the whole enterprise. the young forester may be years removed from the chance to apply these principles in practice, but since no superior officer can put them into fruitful effect without the coã¶peration of his subordinates, it is well that they should be known at both ends of the line. a public servant i repeat that whether a forester is engaged in private work or in public work, whether he is employed by a lumberman, an association of lumbermen, a fishing and shooting club, the owner of a great estate, or whether he is an officer of a state or of the nation, by virtue of his profession he is a public servant. because he deals with the forest, he has his hand upon the future welfare of his country. his point of view is that which must control its future welfare. he represents the planned and orderly development of its resources. he is the representative also of the forest school from which he graduates, and of his profession. upon the standards which he helps to establish and maintain, the welfare of these, too, directly depends. state forest work the work of the states in forestry is still in the pioneer stage, and the work of a state forester must still bear largely on the creation of a right public sentiment in forest matters. in state forestry the need for agitation has by no means passed. it is often the duty of the state forester to prepare or endeavor to secure the passage of good state forest laws, or to interpose against the enactment of bad laws. in particular, much of his time is likely to be given to legislation upon the subjects of forest fires and forest taxation. upon the latter there is as yet no sound and effective public opinion in many parts of the united states, and legislatures and people still do not understand how powerful bad methods of forest taxation have been and still are in forcing the destructive cutting of timber by making it impossible to wait for the better methods of lumbering which accompany a better market. i have known the taxes on standing timber to equal six per cent. a year on the reasonable value of the stumpage. thirteen states have state forests with a total area altogether of 3,400,000 acres. of these new york has the largest area. its state forests cover 1,645,000 acres, partly in the adirondacks and partly in the catskills; pennsylvania comes next with nine hundred and eighty-four thousand acres; and wisconsin third, with about four hundred thousand acres. twenty-nine states make appropriations for forest work. excluding special appropriations for courses in forestry at universities, colleges, and schools, the total amount spent for this purpose is about $1,340,000. pennsylvania has the largest appropriation,--three hundred and twenty-eight thousand dollars, in addition to which a special appropriation of two hundred and seventy-five thousand dollars has been devoted to checking the chestnut blight. minnesota comes second with two hundred and thirty-three thousand dollars; new york third with about one hundred and sixty-five thousand dollars, and wisconsin next with ninety-five thousand dollars. thirty-three states have state forest officers, of whom fifteen are state foresters by title, while the majority of the remainder perform duties of a very similar nature. eleven states are receiving assistance from the federal government under the weeks law, which authorizes coã¶peration for fire protection, provided the state will furnish a sum equal to that allotted to it from the national fund, with a limit of ten thousand dollars to a single state. for purposes of reforestation, ten states maintain forest nurseries. during the year 1912 they produced in round numbers twenty million young trees, of which fourteen million were distributed to the citizens of these ten states. in some states the waterpower question falls within the sphere of the state forester, as well as other similar conservation matters, while it has usually been made his duty to assist private timberland owners in the handling of their holdings, whether these be the larger holdings of lumber companies or the farmers' woodlots. in many states the state forester is made responsible for the enforcement of the state forest fire laws, and for the control and management of a body of state fire wardens, who may or may not be permanently employed in that work. the enforcement of laws which exempt timberlands or lands planted to timber from taxation, or limit the taxation upon them, are also usually under his supervision. the work of forestry in the various states being on the whole much less advanced than it is in the nation, the state forester must still occupy himself largely with those preliminary phases of the work of forestry through which the national forest service has already passed. much progress, however, is being made, and we may fairly count not only that state forest organizations will ultimately exist in every state, but that the state foresters will exert a steadily increasing influence on forest perpetuation in the united states. the forest service in washington a description of what a forester has to do which did not include the work of the government foresters at the national capital would necessarily be incomplete. the following outline may, therefore, help to round out the picture. the washington headquarters of the forest service are directly in charge of the forester and his immediate assistants. the forester has general supervision of the whole service. it is he who, with the approval of the secretary of agriculture, determines the general policy which is to govern the service in the very various and numerous matters with which it has to deal. he keeps his hand upon the whole machinery of the service, holds it up to its work, and in general is responsible for supplying it with the right spirit and point of view, without which any kind of efficiency is impossible. the forester prepares the estimates, or annual budget, for the expenditures of the service, and appears before committees of congress to explain the need for money, and otherwise to set forth or defend the work upon which the service is engaged. his immediate subordinates spend a large part of their time in the field inspecting the work of the service and keeping its tone high. their reports to the forester keep him thoroughly advised as to the situation on all the national forests, so that he may wisely meet each question as it comes up, and adjust the regulations and routine business methods of the service to the constantly changing needs of the people with whom it deals. being responsible for the personnel of the forest service, the forester recommends to the secretary of agriculture, by whom the actual papers are issued, all appointments to it, as well as promotions, reductions, and dismissals. under his immediate eye also is the very important and necessary work of making public the information collected by the service for the use of the people. since 1900, 370 publications of the service have been issued, with a total circulation of 11,198,000 copies. the publications of the united states forest service include by far the most and the best information upon the forests of this country which has until now been assembled and printed. hence, the prospective student of forestry can do nothing better than to write to the forester, washington, d. c. (which is the correct address), for the annotated catalogue of these publications which is sent free to all applicants, and then to secure and study such of the bulletins and circulars as best meet his individual needs. if he looks forward to entering the united states forest service, he should not fail to get also the use book, the volume of directions and regulations in accordance with which the national forests are protected, developed, and made available and useful to the people of the regions in which they lie. the dendrological work of the service, which has to do with forest distribution, the identification of tree species and other forest botanical work, is also under the immediate supervision of the forester, and the chief lumberman reports directly to him. in addition to the work which falls immediately under the eye of the forester, and which used to, but does not now, include the legal work necessary to support and promote the operations of the service, there are seven principal parts, or branches, in the work of the washington headquarters. the first of these is the branch of accounts, whose work i need not describe further than to say that the service has always owed a very large part of its safety against the bitter attacks of its enemies to the accuracy, completeness, and general high quality of its accounting system. the second branch, that of operation, has charge of the business administration both of the national forests and of the other work of the forest service. here the business methods which are necessary to keep the organization at a high state of efficiency are formulated, put in practice, and constantly revised, for it is only by such revision that they can be kept, as they are kept, at a level with the very best practice of the best modern business. there are very few government bureaus of which this can be said. the branch of operation is responsible for the adoption and enforcement of labor-saving devices in correspondence, in handling requisitions, and in the filing and care of papers generally, and for the supply of stationery, tools, and instruments, and the renting of quarters,--in a word, for the whole of the more or less routine transaction of business which is essential to keep so large an organization at the highest point of efficiency. [illustration: brush piling in a national forest timber sale] the office work needed in the mapping of the national forests, with all their resources, boundaries, and interior holdings, is in charge of the branch of operation. so is the immense amount of drafting which is necessary in the other work of the service, and the photographic laboratory in which maps are reproduced and where permanent photographic records of the condition of the forest are made. the third branch, that of silviculture, is the most important of all. it has oversight of the practice of forestry on all the national forests, and of all scientific forest studies in the national forests and outside. it is here that the conditions in the contracts under which the larger timber sales are made are finally examined and approved, and here are found the inspectors whose duty it is not only to see that the work is well done, but to labor constantly for improvements in methods as well as in results. here centres the preparation of forest working plans, and the knowledge of lumber and the lumber markets. the branch of silviculture has charge also of national coã¶peration for the advancement of forestry with the several states, and in particular for fire protection under the weeks law. this form of coã¶peration has made the knowledge and equipment of the forest service available for the study of state forest resources and forest problems, and much of the progress in forestry made by the states is directly due to it. under the branch of silviculture, the office of forest investigations brings together all that is known of the nature and growth of trees in this country, and to some extent in other countries also, conducts independent studies of the greatest value in developing better methods of securing the reproduction of important forest trees, and computes the enormous number of forest measurements dealing with the stand and the rate of growth of trees and forests that are turned in by the parties engaged in forest investigation in the field. under the office of forest investigations, studies in forest distribution and in the structure of wood are carried on, and it includes the library of the forest service, by far the most complete and effective forest library in the united states. the fourth branch, that of grazing, supervises the use of the national forests for pasture. over the greater part of the west, this was the first use to which the forests were put, and an idea of its magnitude may be gathered from the fact that every year the national forests supply feed for about a million and a half cattle and horses, and more than fourteen million sheep. it is no easy task to permit all this live stock to utilize the forage which the national forests produce, and yet do little or no harm to the young growth on which the future of the forest depends. to exclude the grazing animals altogether is impossible and undesirable, for to do so would ruin the leading industry in many portions of the west. consequently, many of the most difficult and perplexing questions in the practical administration of the national forests have occurred in the work of the branch of grazing, and have there been solved, and many of the most bitter attacks upon it have there been met. the fifth branch, that of lands, has to do with the questions which arise from the use of the land in the national forests for farming or ranching, mining, and a very wide variety of other purposes, and with the exceedingly numerous and intricate questions which arise because there are about 21,100,000 acres of land within the boundaries of the national forests whose title has already passed from the government. the boundaries of the national forests also are constantly being examined to determine whether they include all the land, and only the land, to be contained within them, and whether they should be extended or reduced. the first permits for the use of waterpower sites on government land were issued by the forest service, and the policy which is just being adopted by the interior department and other government organizations in their handling of waterpower questions was there first developed. these permits are prepared in the branch of lands. the first steps toward deterring men who attempt in defiance of the law to get possession of lands claimed to be agricultural or mineral within the national forests are taken here, but the final decision on these points rests with the department of the interior. the examination of lands to determine whether they are agricultural in character, and therefore should be opened to settlement, is directed from this branch. the uses to which national forest lands are put are almost unbelievably various. barns, borrow pits, botanical gardens, cemeteries and churches, dairies and dipping vats, fox ranches and fish hatcheries, hotels, pastures, pipe lines, power sites, residences, sanitaria and school-houses, stores and tunnels, these and many others make up, with grazing and timber sales, the uses of the national forests, for which already more than half a million permits have been issued. this work also falls to the branch of lands. the sixth branch, that of forest products, is concerned with the whole question of the uses of wood and other materials produced by the forest. its principal work is conducted through the forest products laboratory, in coã¶peration with the university of wisconsin at madison. here timber is tested to ascertain its strength, the products of wood distillation are investigated, wood pulp and paper studies of large reach are carried on, the methods of wood preservation and the results of applying them are in constant course of being examined, and the diseases of trees and of wood are studied in coã¶peration with the bureau of plant industry of the united states department of agriculture. the consumption of wood, and the production of lumber and forest products, are also the subject of continuous investigation, and various necessary special studies are undertaken from time to time. at the moment, an effort is under way to find new uses and new markets for wood killed by the chestnut blight in the northeastern united states. the seventh branch has to do with the study, selection, and acquisition of lands under the weeks law, in accordance with which eight million dollars was appropriated for the purchase of forest lands valuable for stream protection, with particular reference to the southern appalachians and the white mountains of new england. the examination of the amount of merchantable timber on lands under consideration for purchase, the study of the character of the land and the forest, and the survey of the land keep a numerous body of young men very fully occupied. their task is to see that none but the right land is recommended for acquisition by the government, that the nature and value of the lands selected shall be most thoroughly known, and that the constant effort to make the government pay unreasonable prices or purchase under unfavorable conditions shall as constantly be defeated. the same branch takes charge of the lands as soon as they have been acquired. the foregoing description of the work which is done in washington by the forest service may help to make clear the great variety of tasks to which a forester may be required to set his hand, and emphasizes the need of a broad training not strictly confined to purely technical lines. it would be defective as a description, however, and would fail to show the spirit in which the work is done, if no mention were made of the service meeting, at which the responsible heads of each branch and of the work of the forester's office meet once a week to discuss every problem which confronts the service and every phase of its work. this meeting is the centre where all parts of the work of the service come together and arrange their mutual coã¶peration, and it is also the spring from which the essential democracy of the organization takes its rise. the service meeting is the best thing in the forest service, and that is saying a great deal. it must not be imagined that the maintenance of forest service headquarters in washington indicates that the actual business of handling the national forests is carried on at long range. in order to avoid any such possibility the six district offices were organized in 1908. these are situated at missoula, denver, albuquerque, portland, ogden, and san francisco. each of the district offices is in charge of a district forester, who directs the practical carrying out of the policies finally determined upon in washington, after consultation with the men in the field. the execution of all the work, the larger features of which the washington office decides and directs (and the details of which it inspects), is the task of the district forester. the district forester's office is necessarily organized much on the same general lines as the washington headquarters. thus, the subjects of accounts, operation, silviculture, grazing, lands, and forest products are all represented in the district offices. in addition, a legal officer is necessarily attached to each district office, and each district forester has in his district one or more forest experiment stations, employed mainly in studying questions of growth and reproduction; and three forest insect field stations, maintained in coã¶peration with the bureau of entomology, are divided among the six districts. [illustration: forest rangers getting instruction in methods of work from a district forest officer] while the work of the washington office is mainly that of guiding the work of the national forests along broad general lines, through instructions to the district foresters, the office of each district forester deals directly with the forest supervisors, and so with the handling of the national forests. a multitude of questions which the supervisors can not answer are decided in the district office instead, as was formerly the case, of being forwarded to washington for disposal there, with the consequent aggravating and needless delay. the establishment of the district offices has made the handling of the national forests far less complicated and far more prompt, and has brought it far closer than ever before to the actual users,--that is, has made it far more quickly and accurately responsive to their needs. private forestry as yet, the practice of forestry by private owners, except for fire protection, has made but little progress in the united states, although without doubt it will be widely extended during the next ten or fifteen years. the concentration of timberland ownership in the united states has put a few men in control of vast areas of forest. many of them are anxious to prevent forest destruction, so far as that may be practicable without interfering with their profits, and for that purpose foresters are beginning to be employed. until now the principal tasks of foresters employed by lumbermen have been the measurement of the amount of lumber in the standing crop of trees, and the protection of forest lands from fire. here and there the practice of a certain amount of forestry has been added, but this part of the work of the private forester employed by lumbermen has not been important. it is likely, however, to increase with some rapidity before long. in the meantime, the private forester must usually be willing to accept a good many limitations on the technical side of his work. it is essential for the forester thus employed to have or promptly to acquire a knowledge of practical lumbering, that is, of logging, milling, and markets, and for the forest student who expects to enter this work to give special attention to these subjects. already about 170 graduates of forest schools are in private employ, a considerable proportion of which number are employed by large lumbermen. the time is undoubtedly coming, and i hope it may come soon, when forest destruction will be legally recognized as hostile to the public welfare, and when lumbermen will be compelled by law to handle their forests so as to insure the reproduction of them under reasonable conditions and within a reasonable time. the idea is neither tyrannical nor new. in democratic switzerland, private owners of timberland are restrained by law from destroying the forests upon which the welfare of that mountain region so largely depends, and if they disobey, their forest lands are replanted by the government at the owners' expense. another opening for foresters in the employ of lumbermen is through the forest fire protective associations. of these, two stand out most conspicuously at the present time, one the northwestern conservation and forestry association, the other the oregon forest fire association. each has as its executive officer a trained forester whose knowledge of the woods not only makes him exceedingly useful to his employers, but also, when combined with the forester's point of view, enables him to be of great value in protecting the general interest in the forest. the object and methods of one of the associations is described by its secretary as follows: "a field hitherto narrow but continually broadening, and offering much opportunity for those with peculiar qualifications, is the management of the coã¶perative forest work carried on by timber owners in many localities, often jointly with state and government. this movement originated in the pacific northwest, where it still has the highest development, but is extending to the lake states, new england, and canada. "as a rule the primary object of these coã¶perative associations is fire prevention and their local managers must have demonstrated ability to organize effective patrol systems, build telephone lines, apply every ingenuity to supplying and equipping their forces, and, above all, to handle men in emergencies. but in most cases the association of forest owners to this end has led also to progress in many other matters inseparable from improvement, such as study of reforestation possibilities, forest legislation, educating lumberman and public in forest preservation, and the extension of coã¶peration in all these as well as in fire prevention from private to state and federal agencies. "the development of such activities is already employing several highly paid men who can command the confidence, not only of forest owners, but also of the public and of public officials. advisers in legislative as well as technical forestry matters and particularly proficient in all that pertains to forest protection, their usefulness lies as much outside their own association as within them, and to be successful they must be skilful organizers and campaigners. it is these men who have developed to its highest extent the adaptation to forestry propaganda of modern publicity and advertising methods. "as a rule, however, these may be described as graduate positions, filled by men of experience and acquaintance with the several agencies involved, rather than by newly fledged foresters. a practical knowledge of protection problems is essential." forestry associations offer a different, but often a most fascinating field, of work for the trained forester. there are at present 39 such associations. the work which they offer has much in common with the duties of a state forester. fish and game associations are beginning to employ foresters, realizing that the wise handling of the forests may well go hand in hand with the care of the game and fish which the forest shelters and protects. eventually nearly all such associations which control any considerable body of land in timbered regions may be expected to utilize the services of trained foresters of their own. in addition to the work for lumbermen and for associations of various kinds, land owners in considerable variety have begun to employ foresters. among these are coal and coke companies, iron companies, wood pulp and paper companies which are beginning to look after their supply of timber; powder, arms, and ammunition companies, hydraulic and water companies; a great corporation engaged in the manufacture of matches; and a number of railroads, including the delaware and hudson, the illinois central, and the pennsylvania. in addition to the need for cross ties, railroads are among the largest consumers of lumber. the foresters who work for them are largely occupied with growing the wood supplies which the railroads need, and nursery practice often occupies a very large share of their attention. forest schools since the first one was founded in 1898, the number of forest schools in the united states has increased so rapidly as to create a demand for forest instructors which it has been exceedingly difficult to fill. indeed, the increase in secondary forest schools, or schools not of the first grade, has doubtless been more rapid than the welfare of the profession or the sound practice of forestry required, and the brisk demand for teachers has led some men to take up the task of instruction who were not well fitted for it. there are in this country to-day 23 forest schools which prepare men for the practice of forestry as a profession, and 51 schools which devote themselves to general instruction in forestry or to courses for forest rangers and forest guards. the approximate number of teachers in all forest schools is at present 110, and this number will doubtless be still further increased by the addition of new forest schools or the expansion of old ones, while a certain number of places will be made vacant by the retirement of men who find themselves better fitted for other lines of work. the teaching staff at three of the principal forest schools of the country is as follows: at school a, 5 men give their whole time to forest instruction, and 14 give courses in the forest school. schools b and c have each 4 men who give their whole time to the work; and 4 and 20 respectively who give lectures or individual courses. in addition to the work for lumbermen, associations, railroads, and others just mentioned, an increasing number of foresters are required to care for the forests on large landed estates in different parts of the country. work of this kind is at present restricted almost entirely to the east, and especially to new england, where several firms of consulting foresters give to it the larger portion of their time. some of the men thus employed are as fully occupied with the tasks of the professional forester as any of the men in the government service, while others give a part of their attention to the general management of the property, or to the protection and propagation of game and fish. the opportunity government service there is no more useful profession than forestry. the opportunity to make himself count in affairs of public importance comes earlier and more certainly to the forester than to the member of any other profession. the first and most valuable, therefore, of the incentives which lead the forester to his choice is the chance to make himself of use to his country and to his generation. but if this is the first matter to be considered in deciding upon a profession, it is by no means the last, and the practical considerations of a fair return for good work, bread and butter for a man and his family, the certainty or uncertainty of employment,--such questions as these must have their full share of attention. there are in the united states forest service 1059 forest guards, 1247 forest rangers, 233 supervisors, and deputy supervisors, and 115 forest assistants and 177 forest examiners who, as already explained, are the technical men in charge of practical forestry on the national forests. the six district offices together include in their membership about 50 professional foresters, and about 65 more are attached to the headquarters at washington, so that allowing for duplications there are about 335 trained foresters in the united states forest service. the number of new appointments to the forest service in the different permanent grades varies from year to year but may be said to be approximately as follows: rangers, 240 new appointments; forest assistants, 35; other technical positions, 10. all appointments as supervisor are by promotion from the lists of forest rangers or forest examiners. the yearly pay of the forest guard, who, like the ranger, must be a citizen of the state in which his work lies, is from $420 to $900. forest rangers, who enter the service through civil service examination, receive from $1100 to $1500 per annum. forest supervisors, practically all of whom are men of long experience in forest work, receive from $1600 to $2700 per annum. forest assistants enter the forest service through civil service examination at a salary of $1200 per annum, and are promoted to a maximum salary of $2500 per annum, as forest examiners. professional foresters at work in the district offices are recruited mainly from among the forest assistants and examiners. they receive from $1100 to $3200 yearly. the technical men in charge at washington get from $1100 to $5000 per annum, which last is the pay of the forester, at the head of the service. state service the pay of the state foresters, or other trained foresters in charge of state work, ranges from $1800 to $4000, and that of their technical assistants from $1000 to $2500. out of the total number, only 2 are directly in charge of their own work, responsible only to the governor and the legislature, while 19 act as subordinates for state forest commissions or commissioners, who in the majority of cases are political appointees. in striking contrast with the united states forest service, politics has so far been a dangerous, if not a dominating, influence in the forest work of most of the states which have undertaken it. like the national forests, the state forests already in existence will create an increasing demand for the service of technical foresters. indeed, as similar forests are acquired by most of the states which are now without them, as undoubtedly they will be, the extent of the opportunity for professionally trained foresters in state work is certain to grow. private work at present, the demand for foresters in private work is far less pressing and the opening is far less attractive than it will be in the not distant future. the number of men that will be required for this work will depend on the development of legislation as well as upon the desire of the private owners, lumbermen and others, to protect and improve their property. the time is coming, and coming before long, when all private owners of forests in the mountains, or on steep slopes elsewhere, will be required by law to provide for their protection and reproduction. when that time arrives, the demand for foresters in private work will increase to very large dimensions, and will probably do so far more rapidly than foresters can be trained to supply it. the pay of foresters in private work, whether in the employ of lumbermen, railroads, shooting and fishing clubs, the proprietors of large private estates, or other forest owners, has so far been somewhat better than that for similar services in government employ. this money difference in favor of private employment is, in my judgment, likely to continue, and eventually the pay of consulting foresters of established reputation employed in passing upon the value of forests offered as security for investments, or in estimating the standing timber for purchasers or sellers, or in other professional work of large business importance, will certainly reach very satisfactory figures. teaching approximately 110 foresters are engaged in teaching in the united states to-day. their pay varies from about $1000 to about $3000, and is likely to increase rather more rapidly than that of other professional teachers, since less of them are available. it is not likely, however, that the number of openings in teaching forestry will be large within the next ten years. training the length of time which his training is to take and the particular courses of instruction which he shall pursue are to the young man contemplating the study of forestry matters of the first importance. the first thing to insist on in that connection is that the training must be thorough. it is natural that a young man should be eager to begin his life work and therefore somewhat impatient of the long grind of a thorough schooling. but however natural, it is not the part of wisdom to cut short the time of preparation. when the serious work of the trained forester begins later on, there will be little or no time to fill the gaps left at school, and the earnest desire of the young forester will be that he had spent more time in his preparation rather than less. in this matter i speak as one who has gathered a conviction from personal experience, and believes he knows. it would be useless to attempt to strike an average of the work prescribed and the courses given at the various forest schools. i shall describe, therefore, not an average system of instruction but one which, in the judgment of men entitled to an opinion, and in my own judgment, is sound, practical, and effective. forest schools may roughly be divided between those which do not prepare men for professional work in forestry, and those which do. the latter may be divided again into undergraduate schools and graduate schools. most of the former offer a four-year undergraduate course, and their students receive their degrees at the same time as other members of the university who entered at the same time with them. the graduate schools require a college degree, or its equivalent in certain subjects, before they will receive a student. the men who have completed their courses have usually, therefore, pursued more extensive and more advanced studies in forestry, are better trained, and are themselves older and more ready to accept the responsibilities which forestry brings upon them. for these reasons, the graduate school training is by far the more desirable, in my opinion. the subjects required for entrance to a graduate forest school should include at least one full year in college botany, covering the general morphology, histology, and physiology of plants, one course each in geology, physics, inorganic chemistry, zoã¶logy, and economics, with mathematics through trigonometry, and a reading knowledge of french or german. some acquaintance with mechanical drawing is also desirable but not absolutely necessary. other courses which are extremely desirable, if not altogether essential, are mineralogy, meteorology, mechanics, physical geography, organic chemistry, and possibly calculus, which may be of use in timber physics. one or two forest schools begin their course of training for the first year in july instead of in october, in order to give their students some acquaintance with the woods from the forester's standpoint before the more formal courses begin. the result of this plan is to give increased vividness and reality to all the courses which follow the work in the woods, to make clear the application of what is taught, and so to add greatly to the efficiency of the teaching. in addition to this preliminary touch with the woods, any wise plan of teaching will include many forest excursions and much practical field work as vitally important parts of the instruction. this outdoor work should occur throughout the whole course, winter and summer, and in addition, the last term of the senior year may well be spent wholly in the woods, where the students can be trained in the management of logging operations and milling, and can get their final practice work in surveying and map-making, in preparing forest working plans, estimating timber, laying out roads and trails, making plans for lumber operations, and other similar practical work. several of the best forest schools have adopted this plan. the regular courses of a graduate forest school usually cover a period of two years. they should fit a student for nearly every phase of professional work in forestry, and should give him a sound preparation not merely for practical work in the woods, but also for the broader work of forest organization in the government service in the united states and in the philippines, and in the service of the states; for handling large tracts of private forest lands; for expert work in the employ of lumbermen and other forest owners; for public speaking and writing; for teaching; and for scientific research. every well equipped forest school will have a working library of books, pamphlets, and lumber journals published here and abroad, an herbarium at least of native trees and shrubs and of the more important forest herbs, together with a collection of forest tree fruits and seeds, and specimens of domestic and foreign timbers. exhibits showing the uses of woods and the various forms of tools used in lumbering, as well as the apparatus for laboratory work and surveying, and forest instruments for work in the field, are often of great value to the student. what should a young man learn at a forest school? doubtless there will be some variation of opinion as to the exact course of study which will best fit him for the work of a forester in the united states. the following list expresses the best judgment on the subject i have been able to form: dendrology: the first step in forestry is to become acquainted with the various kinds of trees. the coming forester must learn to identify the woody plants of the united states, both in summer and in winter. he must understand their shapes and outward structures, and where they are found, and he must begin his knowledge of the individual habits of growth and life which distinguish the trees which are important in forestry. forest physiography: trees grow in the soil. it is important to know something of the origin of soils and their properties and values, and of the principal soil types, with special reference to their effect upon plant distribution and welfare. the origin, nature, value, and conservation of humus, that most essential ingredient of the forest floor; the field methods of mapping soil types; the rock types most important in their relation to soils, how they are made up, how they make soil, and where they occur--something should be learned of all this. finally, under this head, the student ought to get a usable knowledge of the physiographic regions of the united states, their boundaries, geologic structure, topography, drainage, and soils,--all this naturally with special reference to the relation between these basic facts and the forest. silviculture: silviculture is the art of caring for forests, and therefore the backbone of forestry. it is based upon silvics, which is the knowledge of the habits or behavior of trees in their relations to light, heat, and moisture, to the air and soil, and to each other. it is the facts embraced in silvics which explain the composition, character, and form of the forest; the success or failure of tree species in competition with each other; the distribution of trees and of forests; the development of each tree in height, diameter, and volume; its form and length of life; the methods of its reproduction; and the effect of all these upon the nature and the evolution of the city of trees, and upon forest types and their life histories. this is knowledge the forester can not do without. silvics is the foundation of his professional capacity, and as a student he can better afford to scamp any part of his training rather than this. a man may be a poor forester who knows silvics, but no man can be a good forester who does not. the practice of silviculture has to do with the treatment of woodlands. the forest student must learn the different methods of reproducing forests by different methods of cutting them down, and the application of these methods in different american forest regions. there are also many methods of cutting for the improvement of the character and growth of forests, as well as for utilizing material that otherwise would go to waste, before the final reproduction cuttings can be made. the ways in which forests need protection are equally numerous, and of these by far the most important in our country have to do with methods of preventing or extinguishing forest fires. well managed forests are handled under working plans based on the silvical character and silvicultural needs of the forest, as well as upon the purpose set by the owner as the object of management, which is often closely related to questions of forest finance. the student should ground himself thoroughly in the making of silvicultural working plans, and the more practice in making them he can get, the better. so, too, with the marking of trees in reproduction and improvement cuttings under as many different kinds of forest conditions as may be possible. the artificial reproduction of forests is likely to occupy far more of the forester's attention in the future than it has in the past. hence the collection of tree seeds, their fertility and vitality as affecting their handling, the best methods of seeding and planting, and the lessons of past failures and successes, with the whole subject of nursery work and the care of young plantations, must by no means be overlooked. much incidental information on the subject of forest protection will come to the student in the course of his studies, but special attention should be given to learning which of the species of forest insects are most injurious to forest vegetation, how their attacks are made, how they may be discovered, and the best ways by which such attacks can be mitigated or controlled. so also the diseases of timber trees will repay hard study. the principal fungi which causes such diseases should be known, how they attack the trees, and what are the remedies, as well as (although this is far less important) the way to treat tree wounds and the correct methods of pruning. forest economics: forest economics is a large subject. it deals with the productive value of forests to their owners, and with the larger question of their place in the economy of the nation. it considers their use as conservers of the soil and the streams; their effect on climate, locally, as in the case of windbreakers, and on a larger scale; and their contribution to the public welfare as recreation grounds and game refuges. it includes a knowledge of wastes from which the forests suffer, and the consequent loss to industry and to the public, and in this it does not omit the effects of forest fires. statistics of forest consumption; the relation of the forest to railroads, mines, and other wood-using industries; its effect upon agriculture, stock raising, and manufacturing industries; and its effect upon the use of the streams for navigation, power, irrigation, and domestic water supply; all these are important. the student should consider also the forest resources of the united states, their present condition, and the needs they must be fitted to supply. forest engineering: forest engineering is steadily becoming more and more necessary to the forester. he must have a working knowledge of the use of surveying instruments; the making of topographic surveys; the office work required of an engineer; the making of topographic maps; the location of trails, roads, and railroads; and the construction of bridges, telephone lines, cabins, and fences, together with logging railroads, slides, dams, and flumes. forest mensuration: [illustration: forest service men making fresh measurements in the missouri swamps] forest mensuration, the art of measuring the contents and growth of trees and forest stands, is of fundamental importance. the principles and methods of timber estimating, the actual measurement of standing timber, log rules, the making of stem analyses to show the increase of a tree in diameter, height, and volume, the construction of tables of current and mean annual growth per acre and per tree, and the methods of using the information thus formulated,--all these are necessarily of keen interest to the man who later on will have to apply his knowledge in the practical management of woods. forest management: forest management is concerned with the principles involved in planning the handling of forests. questions of the valuation of forests form a most essential part of it,--such questions as the cost of growing timber crops, the value of land for that purpose, the value of young timber, the valuation of damage to the forest, and the legal status of the damage and the remedy. business principles are as necessary in the management of forests as in the management of mills or farms. these business principles work out in different forms of forest policy adapted to the needs of different kinds of owners, such as lumbermen and the government. what the young forester has learned about growth and yield, about timber estimates and forest statistics, and many other matters, all finds its application in forest management. he must also consider the methods and principles for regulating the cut of timber, or for securing sustained annual yields. all this forms the basis for the preparation of working plans for the utilization of forests under american economic and silvicultural conditions, not only without injury, but with benefit, to their continued productiveness. the subjects of forest surveying and working plans are intimately related. maps are indispensable in the practical work of making a forest working plan. topographic mapping, timber estimating, forest description, and the location of logging roads, trails, and fire lines, together with silvics and a knowledge of growth and yield--these and many other subjects enter into the making of a practical working plan to harvest a forest crop and secure a second growth of timber. the student should get all the practice he can in marking timber for cutting under such a plan. the young forester must make himself familiar with the administration of the national forests. he must know how the business of the forest is handled, how it is protected against fire, how the timber is sold, how claims and entries are dealt with under the public land laws, how land in the national forests is used to make homes, how trespass is controlled, how the livestock industry on the national forests is fostered and regulated, and how the extremely valuable watersheds they contain are safeguarded and improved. the practice of forestry: the practice of forestry is necessarily different in different kinds of forests and under different economic conditions. all that the forester knows must here be applied, and applied in workable fashion, not only to the forest, but to the men who use the forest. this is peculiarly true of the practice of forestry in national and state forests everywhere. forest products: under this general subject, the forest student must acquaint himself, through the microscope, with the minute anatomy of the woody stem of coniferous and broadleaf trees, and the occurrence, form, structure, and variability of the elements which make it up. he should become familiar with the methods of classifying the economic woods of the united states, both under the microscope and with the unassisted eye, and for this purpose should know something of their color, gloss, grain, density, odor, and resonance both as aids to identification and as to their importance in giving value to the wood; the defects of timber; its moisture content, density, shrinking, checking, warping; and the effect of all these upon its uses. the chemical composition of wood and of minor forest products, such as tannins and dye stuffs, is important; the properties governing the fuel value and the other values of wood must be studied, as well as the methods of using these properties in the making of charcoal and wood pulp, in wood distillation, the turpentine industry, in tanning and dyeing, and in other industries. a field of great importance is the relation between the physical structure and the mechanical properties of wood. a student should inform himself concerning the standard methods of testing the properties of structural timber, by bending, compression, shearing, torsion, impact, and the hardness and tension tests, with their relation to heat and moisture, and the methods of seasoning, the use of preservatives, and the effect of the rate of application of the load. woods vary as to their durability. it is important, therefore, to know about the causes of decay, the decay-resisting power of various woods, the relation of moisture content to durability, why the seasoning of wood is effective, the theory and the commercial methods of wood preservation, and its relation to the timber supply. lumbering: lumbering the forester should know more than a little about, as how to organize lumber operations, the equipment and management of logging and milling in various forest regions, the manufacture, seasoning, and grading of the rough and finished lumber, cost keeping in a lumber business, methods of sale, market requirements at home and abroad, prices, the relation of the lumber tariff to forestry, lumber associations, timber bonds, and insurance. the practical construction of logging equipment, such as aerial tramways, log slides, dams, and flumes, is of peculiar importance, and so are the conditions and changes of the lumber market. experience on the land of some operating lumber company is of great value. it should include a study of logging methods, log scaling, waste in logging, the equipment and handling of the mill, the sawing and care of rough and finished lumber, its grading, and so far as possible an acquaintance with wood working plants of various kinds, and with the operations of turpentine orcharding. studies along these lines may with advantage be almost indefinitely extended to include, for example the utilization of steam machinery for logging, the improvement of streams for driving logs, and other similar questions. forest law: the forester must have at least a slight acquaintance with forest law, both state and national. it is important to know something of the general principles of classifying the public lands, of state laws for fire protection, the development of forest policies in the various states as legally expressed, and the important laws which govern the creation and management of state forest reserves. forest taxation, state and local, which has, when excessive, so much to do with hastening forest destruction, is one of the most important questions which can engage the attention of the forester. under the subject of federal forest law, it is not sufficient for the student to acquaint himself with those laws alone which govern the forests. he must also have some knowledge of the creation of a forest policy out of the public land policy of the united states, some acquaintance with the public land laws. a good working knowledge of the laws and regulations governing the national forests is indispensable, and the student should at least know where to find the more important court decisions by which they are interpreted. forest history: the history of forestry in europe has a certain importance in throwing light on our own forest history and its probable development, and this is especially true of the history of the administration of government forest lands and of education in forestry. the history of forestry in the united states, however, is far more important. the forester must know the story of the growth and change of national forest organizations, the forest officers and their duties, the cost, size, and effectiveness of the government forest service at different times, the civil service regulations under which it is recruited, and other similar matters. it is important likewise for him to become thoroughly saturated with an intimate knowledge of the development of forestry in public opinion in the united states, its extension to the other natural resources through the conservation policy, and the relation of the forester's point of view thus expressed to the present welfare and future success of the nation. it is not always possible for the forest student to become a woodsman before entering his profession, but it is most desirable. a forester must be able to travel the forest alone by day and by night, he should be a good fisherman and a good hunter (which is far more important than to be a good shot), and deeply interested in both fish and game. the better horseman he is the better forester he will be, and especially if he can pack and handle pack horses in the woods. so that whether the young forester begins with a practical knowledge of woodcraft or not, he must not fail to acquire or improve it, for without it he will endanger the whole success of his career. some knowledge of first aid to the injured is likely to be of great and sudden value to a man so much of whose life must be spent in the woods, at a distance from medical aid. the time spent in getting information on this subject will be anything but wasted. english: the ability to write and to speak good, plain, understandable english is a prime requisite in the forester's training. it is a part of education frequently neglected, especially by those in engineering or scientific pursuits; yet its importance for the forester is very large. as already pointed out, the forester is on the firing line of the conservation movement; he is pioneering in a new profession. for this reason he will often need to explain his stand and convert others to his beliefs. in addition, he must make available to others the results he secures from the study of new facts. a usable command of his own language will stand him in good stead, whether he needs to talk face to face with another man, or from a platform to a concourse of people, or to put into readable printed form the results of his observations or his thinking. when the young forester has completed the courses of his school training in america, the question may be raised whether he should supplement his training by study abroad. i am strongly of opinion that he should do so if he can. study abroad is not indispensable for the american forester, but it can do him nothing but good to see in practical operation the methods of forestry which have resulted from the long experience of other lands, and especially to become familiar with the effect of sound forestry on the forest. +-----------------------------------------------+ | transcriber's note: | | | | inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the | | original document have been preserved. | | | | typographical errors corrected in the text: | | | | page 135 windbrakes changed to windbreaks | +-----------------------------------------------+ transcriber note: text emphasis denoted as _italics_. u. s. department of agriculture. --------- farmers' bulletin no. 67. --------- forestry for farmers. by b. e. fernow, _chief of the division of forestry._ --------- [reprinted from the yearbooks of the u. s. department of agriculture for 1894 and 1895.] [illustration] washington: government printing office. 1898. --------- letter of transmittal. u. s. department of agriculture, division of forestry, _washington, d. c., december 4, 1897._ sir: i have the honor to recommend that the two articles contributed by me to the yearbooks for 1894 and for 1895 on forestry for farmers be reprinted as a farmers' bulletin. the articles contain information in popular form regarding the growth of trees, the planting of a forest, treatment of the wood lot, the cultivation of the wood crop, influence of trees, etc. a wider distribution of this information, for which there is still considerable demand, would, i believe, result in acquainting farmers with a subject the importance of which has not always been duly recognized. very respectfully, b. e. fernow, _chief_. approved: james wilson, _secretary_. -------------- contents. --------- page. how trees grow 3 food materials and conditions of growth 3 soil conditions 4 light conditions 6 physiology of tree growth 9 "sap up and sap down" 10 progress of development 11 growth in length and ramification 11 growth in thickness 14 form development 17 rate of growth 19 reproduction 21 how to plant a forest 22 what trees to plant 23 methods of planting 26 how to treat the wood lot 28 improvement cuttings 29 methods of reproducing the wood crop 31 size of openings 34 wind mantle 34 coppice 35 plan of management 37 how to cultivate the wood crop 37 effect of light on wood production 38 number of trees per acre 38 weeding and cleaning the crop 40 methods of thinning 40 what trees to remove 41 the relation of forests to farms 42 the forest waters the farm 44 the forest tempers the farm 45 the forest protects the farm 45 the forest supplies the farm with useful material 46 forestry for farmers. the following five chapters have been written with the view of aiding farmers who own small timber tracts or wood lots, or who wish to plant some part of their land to forest. this country varies so greatly in soil, climate, and flora that it is only possible, within the limits assigned for the present discussion, to outline general principles everywhere applicable. nevertheless, wherever suggestions have approximated the laying down of rules of practice, the writer has had mainly in mind the conditions prevalent in our northeastern states. moreover, for the reason already referred to, limitation of space, it has not been possible to give more than a comprehensive view, without much detail. the succeeding chapters should be read connectedly, as they are more or less interdependent. the first treats of the behavior of a forest plant; the second, of the principles which should guide the planter in setting a crop; the third, of the manner in which a natural forest crop should be produced; the fourth points out how the crop should be managed afterwards in order to secure the best results in quantity and quality of material; while the fifth chapter is devoted to a consideration of the relation of forests to farms. 1. how trees grow. trees, like most other plants, originate from seed, build up a body of cell tissues, form foliage, flower, and fruit, and take up food material from the soil and air, which they convert into cellulose and other compounds, from which all their parts are formed. they rely, like other plants, upon moisture, heat, and light as the means of performing the functions of growth. yet there are some peculiarities in their behavior, their life and growth, which require special attention on the part of a tree grower or forest planter, and these we shall briefly discuss. food materials and conditions of growth. trees derive their food and solid substance in part from the air and in part from the soil. the solid part of their bodies is made up of cellulose, which consists largely of carbon (44 per cent of its weight), with hydrogen and oxygen added in almost the same proportions as in water. the carbon is derived from the carbonic acid of the air, which enters into the leaves and, under the influence of light, air, and water, is there decomposed; the oxygen is exhaled; the carbon is retained and combined with elements derived from the water, forming compounds, such as starch, sugar, etc., which are used as food materials, passing down the tree through its outer layers to the very tips of the roots, making new wood all along the branches, trunk, and roots. this process of food preparation, called "assimilation," can be carried on only in the green parts, and in these only when exposed to light and air; hence foliage, air, and light at the top are essential prerequisites for tree growth, and hence, other conditions being favorable, the more foliage and the better developed it is, and the more light this foliage has at its disposal for its work, the more vigorously will the tree grow. in general, therefore, pruning, since it reduces the amount of foliage, reduces also, for the time, the amount of wood formed; and just so shading, reducing the activity of foliage, reduces the growth of wood. soil conditions. from the soil trees take mainly water, which enters through the roots and is carried through the younger part of the tree to the leaves, to be used in part on its passage for food and wood formation and in part to be given up to the air by transpiration. in a vigorously growing tree the solid wood substance itself will contain half its weight in the form of water chemically combined, and the tree, in addition, will contain from 40 to 65 per cent and more of its dry weight in water mechanically or "hygroscopically" held. this last, when the tree is cut, very largely evaporates; yet well-seasoned wood still contains 10 to 12 per cent of such water. the weight of a green tree, a pine, for instance, is made up, in round numbers, of about 30 per cent of carbon and 70 per cent or water, either chemically or hygroscopically held, while a birch contains a still larger percentage of water. the largest part of the water which passes through the tree is transpired--i. e., given off to the air in vapor. the amounts thus transpired during the season vary greatly with the species of tree, its age, the amount of foliage at work, the amount of light at its disposal, the climatic conditions (rain, temperature, winds, relative humidity), and the season. these amounts are, however, very large when compared with the quantity retained; so that while an acre of forest may store in its trees, say, 1,000 pounds of carbon, 15 to 20 pounds of mineral substances, and 5,000 pounds of water in a year, it will have transpired--taken up from, the soil and returned to the air--from 500,000 to 1,500,000 pounds of water (one-quarter to one-half as much as agricultural crops). mineral substances are taken up only in very small quantities, and these are mostly the commoner sorts, such as lime, potash, magnesia, and nitrogen. these are carried in solution to the leaves, where they are used (as perhaps also on their passage through the tree), with a part of the water, in food preparation. the main part of the mineral substances taken up remains, however, as the water transpires, in the leaves and young twigs, and is returned to the soil when the leaves are shed or when the tree is cut and the brush left to decompose and make humus. hence the improvement of the fertility of the soil by wood crops is explained, the minerals being returned in more soluble form to the soil; as also the fact that wood crops do not exhaust the soil of its minerals, provided the leaves and litter are allowed to remain on the ground. for this reason there is no necessity of alternating wood crops, as far as their mineral needs are concerned; the same kind of trees can be grown on the same soil continuously, provided the soil is not allowed to deteriorate from other causes. as the foliage can perform its work of food assimilation only when sufficient water is at its disposal, the amount of growth is also dependent not only on the presence of sufficient sources of supply, but also on the opportunity had by the roots to utilize the supply, and this opportunity is dependent upon the condition of the soil. if the soil is compact, so that the rain water can not penetrate readily, and runs off superficially, or if it is of coarse grain and so deep that the water rapidly sinks out of reach of the roots and can not be drawn up by capillary action, the water supply is of no avail to the plants; but if the soil is porous and moderately deep (depth being the distance from the surface to the impenetrable subsoil, rock, or ground water) the water not only can penetrate but also can readily be reached and taken up by the roots. the moisture of the soil being the most important element in it for tree growth, the greatest attention must be given to its conservation and most advantageous distribution through the soil. no trees grow to the best advantage in very dry or very wet soil, although some can live and almost thrive in such unfavorable situations. a moderately but evenly moist soil, porous and deep enough or fissured enough to be well drained, and yet of such a structure that the water supplies from the depths can readily be drawn up and become available to the roots--that is the soil on which all trees grow most thriftily. the agriculturist procures this condition of the soil as far as possible by plowing, drainage, and irrigation, and he tries by cultivating to keep the soil from compacting again, as it does under the influence of the beating rain and of the drying out of the upper layers by sun and wind. the forest grower can not rely upon such methods, because they are either too expensive or entirely impracticable. he may, indeed, plow for his first planting, and cultivate the young trees, but in a few years this last operation will become impossible and the effects of the first operation will be lost. he must, therefore, attain his object in another manner, namely, by shading and mulching the soil. the shading is done at first by planting very closely, so that the ground may be protected as soon as possible from sun and wind, and by maintaining the shade well throughout the period of growth. this shade is maintained, if necessary, by more planting, and in case the main crop in later life thins out inordinately in the crowns or tops, or by the accidental death of trees, it may even become desirable to introduce an underbrush. the mulching is done by allowing the fallen leaves and twigs to remain and decay, and form a cover of rich mold or humus. this protective cover permits the rain and snow waters to penetrate without at the same time compacting the soil, keeping it granular and in best condition for conducting water, and at the same time preventing evaporation at the surface. the soil moisture, therefore, is best maintained by proper soil cover, which, however, is needful only in naturally dry soils. wet soils, although supporting tree growth, do not, if constantly wet, produce satisfactory wood crops, the growth being very slow. hence they must be drained and their water level sunk below the depth of the root system. irrigation is generally too expensive to be applied to wood crops, except perhaps in the arid regions, where the benefit of the shelter belt may warrant the expense. attention to favorable moisture conditions in the soil requires the selection of such kinds of trees as shade well for a long time, to plant closely, to protect the woody undergrowth (but not weeds), and to leave the litter on the ground as a mulch. different species, to be sure, adapt themselves to different degrees of soil moisture, and the crop should therefore be selected with reference to its adaptation to available moisture supplies. while, as stated, all trees thrive best with a moderate and even supply of moisture, some can get along with very little, like the conifers, especially pines; others can exist even with an excessive supply, as the bald cypress, honey locust, some oaks, etc. the climate, however, must also be considered in this connection, for a tree species, although succeeding well enough on a dry soil in an atmosphere which does not require much transpiration, may not do so in a drier climate on the same soil. in the selection of different kinds of trees for different soils, the water conditions of the soil should, therefore, determine the choice. light conditions. to insure the largest amount of growth, full enjoyment of sunlight is needed. but as light is almost always accompanied by heat and relative dryness of air, which demands water from the plant, and may increase transpiration from the leaves inordinately, making them pump too hard, as it were, young seedlings of tree species whose foliage is not built for such strains require partial shading for the first year or two. the conifers belong to this class. in later life the light conditions exert a threefold influence on the development of the tree, namely, with reference to soil conditions, with reference to form development, and with reference to amount of growth. the art of the forester consists in regulating the light conditions so as to secure the full benefit of the stimulating effect of light on growth, without its deteriorating influences on the soil and on form development. as we have seen, shade is desirable in order to preserve soil moisture. now, while young trees of all kinds, during the "brush" stage of development, have a rather dense foliage, as they grow older they vary in habit, especially when growing in the forest. some, like the beech, the sugar maple, the hemlock, and the spruce, keep up a dense crown; others, like the chestnut, the oaks, the walnut, the tulip tree, and the white pine, thin out more and more, and when fully grown have a much less dense foliage; anally, there are some which do not keep up a dense shade for any length of time, like the black and honey locust, with their small, thin leaves; the catalpa, with its large but few leaves at the end of the branchlets only, and the larch, with its short, scattered bunches of needles. so we can establish a comparative scale of trees with reference to the amount of shade which they can give continuously, as densely foliaged and thinly foliaged, in various gradations. if we planted all beech or sugar maple, the desirable shading of the soil would never be lacking, while if we planted all locust or catalpa the sun would soon reach the soil and dry it out, or permit a growth of grass or weeds, which is worse, because those transpire still larger quantities of water than the bare ground evaporates or an undergrowth of woody plants would transpire. of course, a densely foliaged tree has many more leaves to shed than a thinly foliaged one, and therefore makes more litter, which increases the favorable mulch cover of the soil. another reason for keeping the ground well shaded is that the litter then decomposes slowly, but into a desirable humus, which acts favorably upon the soil, while if the litter is exposed to light, an undesirable, partly decomposed "raw" humus is apt to be formed. favorable soil conditions, then, require shade, while wood growth is increased by full enjoyment of light; to satisfy both requirements, mixed planting, with proper selection of shade-enduring and light-needing species, is resorted to. as the different species afford shade in different degrees, so they require for their development different degrees of light. the dense foliage of the beech, with a large number of leaves in the interior of the crown, proves that the leaves can exist and perform their work with a small amount of light; the beech is a shade-enduring tree. the scanty foliage of the birches, poplars, or pines shows that these are light-needing trees; hence they are never found under the dense shade of the former, while the shade-enduring can develop satisfactorily under the light shade of the thin-foliaged kinds. very favorable soil conditions increase the shade endurance of the latter, and climatic conditions also modify their relative position in the scale. all trees ultimately thrive best--i. e., grow most vigorously--in the full enjoyment of light, but their energy then goes into branching. crowded together, with the side light cut off, the lower lateral branches soon die and fall, while the main energy of growth is put into the shaft and the height growth is stimulated. the denser shade of the shade-enduring kinds, if placed as neighbors to light-needing ones, is most effective in producing this result, provided that the light is not cut off at the top; and thus, in practice, advantage is taken of the relative requirements for light of the various species.[1] [1] this relation of the different species to varying light conditions; their comparative shading value and shade endurance, is one of the most important facts to be observed and utilized by the forester. european foresters have done this, but since they had to deal with only a few species and over a limited territory, they could quite readily classify their trees with reference to their shade endurance, and take it for granted that shade endurance and density of foliage or shading value were more or less identical. with our great wealth of useful species it will be necessary and profitable to be more exact in the classification. the forester finds in close planting and in mixed growth a means of securing tall, clear trunks, free from knots, and he is able, moreover, by proper regulation of light conditions, to influence the form development, and also the quality of his crop, since slow growth and rapid growth produce wood of different character. there are some species which, although light-foliaged and giving comparatively little shade, are yet shade-enduring--i. e., can subsist, although not develop favorably, under shade; the oaks are examples of this kind. others, like the black cherry, bear a dense crown for the first twenty years, perhaps, seemingly indicating great shade endurance; but the fact that the species named soon clears itself of its branches and finally has a thin crown, indicates that it is light-needing, though a good shader for the first period of its life. others, again, like the catalpa, which is shady and shade-enduring, as the difficulty with which it clears itself indicates, leaf out so late and lose their foliage so early that their shading value is thereby impaired. black locust and honey locust, on the other hand, leave no doubt either as to their light-needing or their inferior shading quality. that soil conditions and climatic conditions also modify crown development and shade endurance has been well recognized abroad, but in our country this influence is of much more importance on account of the great variation in those conditions. thus the box elder, an excellent shader in certain portions of the west, is a failure as soil cover in others where it nevertheless will grow. we see, then, that in determining the shading value as well as the shade endurance of one species in comparison with another, with reference to forestry purposes, not only soil and climate but also the character of foliage and its length of season must be considered. physiology of tree growth. as we have seen, root and foliage are the main life organs of the tree. the trunk and branches serve to carry the crown upward and expose it to the light, which is necessary in order to prepare the food and increase the volume of the tree, and also as conductors of food materials up and down between root and foliage. a large part of the roots, too, aside from giving stability to the tree, serve only as conductors of water and food material; only the youngest parts, the fibrous roots, beset with innumerable fine hairs, serve to take up the water and minerals from the soil. these fine roots, root hairs, and young parts are therefore the essential portion of the root system. a tree may have a fine, vigorous-looking root system, yet if the young parts and fibrous roots are cut off or allowed to dry out, which they readily do--some kinds more so than others--thereby losing their power to take up water, such a tree is apt to die. under very favorable moisture and temperature conditions, however, the old roots may throw out now sprouts and replace the fibrous roots. some species, like the willows, poplars, locusts, and others, are especially capable of doing so. all trees that "transplant easily" probably possess this capacity of renewing the fibrous roots readily, or else are less subject to drying out. but it may be stated as a probable fact that most transplanted trees which die soon after the planting do so because the fibrous roots have been curtailed too much in taking up, or else have been allowed to dry out on the way from the nursery or forest to the place of planting; they were really dead before being set. conifers--pines, spruces, etc.--are especially sensitive; maples, oaks, catalpas, and apples will, in this respect, stand a good deal of abuse. hence, in transplanting, the first and foremost care of the forest, grower, besides taking the sapling up with least injury, is the proper protection of its root fibers against drying out. the water, with the minerals in solution, is taken up by the roots when the soil is warm enough, but to enable the roots to act they must be closely packed with the soil. it is conveyed mostly through the outer, which are the younger, layers of the wood of root, trunk, and branches to the leaves. here, as we have seen, under the influence of light and heat it is in large part transpired and in part combined with the carbon into organic compounds, sugar, etc., which serve as food materials. these travel from the leaf into the branchlet, and down through the outer layers of the trunk to the very tips of the root, forming new wood all the way, new buds, which lengthen into shoots, leaves, and flowers, and also new rootlets. to live and grow, therefore, the roots need the food elaborated in the leaves, just as the leaves need the water sent up from the roots. hence the interdependence of root system and crown, which must be kept in proportion when transplanting. at least, the root system must be sufficient to supply the needs of the crown. "sap up and sap down." the growing tree, in all its parts, is more or less saturated with water, and as the leaves, under the influence of sun and wind and atmospheric conditions generally transpire, new supplies are taken in through the roots and conveyed to the crown. this movement takes place even in winter, in a slight degree, to supply the loss of water by evaporation from the branches. in the growing season it is so active as to become noticeable; hence the saying that the sap is "up," or "rising," and when, toward the end of the season, the movement becomes less, the sap is said to be "down." but this movement of water is always upward; hence the notion that there is a stream upward at one season and in one part of the tree, and a stream downward at another season and perhaps in another part of the tree, is erroneous. the downward movement is of food materials, and the two movements of water upward and food downward take place simultaneously, and depend, in part at least, one upon the other, the food being carried to the young parts, wherever required, by a process of diffusion from cell to cell known as "osmosis." [illustration: fig. 1.--physiological importance of different parts of the tree; pathways of water and food materials. (schematic.)] these food materials are, by the life processes of the active cells, changed in chemical composition as need be, from sugar, which is soluble, into starch, which is insoluble, and back into sugar, and combined with nitrogenous substances to make the cell-forming material, protoplasm (fig. 1). in the fall, when the leaves cease to elaborate food, both the upward and the downward movement, more or less simultaneously, come to rest (the surplus of food materials, as starch, and sometimes as sugar, being stored for the winter in certain cell tissues), to begin again simultaneously when in spring the temperature is high enough to reawaken activity, when the stored food of last year is dissolved and started on its voyage. the exact manner in which this movement of water upward and food materials downward takes place, and the forces at work, are not yet fully understood, nor is there absolute certainty as to the parts of the tree in which the movement takes place. it appears, however, that while all the so-called "sapwood" is capable of conducting water (the heartwood is probably not), the most active movement of both water and food materials takes place in the cambium (the growing cells immediately beneath the bark) and youngest parts of the bark. the deductions from these processes important to the planter are: that injury to the living bark or bast means injury to growth, if not destruction to life; that during the period of vegetation transplanting can be done only with great caution; that the best time to move trees is in the fall, when the leaves have dropped and the movement of water and food materials has mostly ceased, or in spring, before the movement begins again, the winter being objectionable only because of the difficulty of working the soil and of keeping the roots protected against frost. all things considered, spring planting, before activity in the tree has begun, is the best, although it is not impossible to plant at other times. progress of development. like the wheat or corn plant, the tree seed require as conditions for sprouting sufficient moisture, warmth, and air. tree seeds, however, differ from grain in that most of the kinds lose their power of germination easily; with few exceptions (locust, pine, spruce), they can not be kept for any length of time. the first leaves formed often differ essentially in shape from those of the mature tree, which may cause their being confounded with other plants, weeds, etc. the little seedlings of many, especially the conifers, are quite delicate, and remain very small the first season; they need, therefore, the protecting shade of mother trees, or artificial shading, and also protection against weeds. the amount of light or shade given requires careful regulation for some of them; too much light and heat will kill them, and so will too much shade. this accounts for the failure of many seedlings that spring up in the virgin forest. the planter, then, is required to know the nature and the needs of the various kinds of seeds and seedlings, so as to provide favorable conditions, when he will avoid sowing in the open field such as require the care which it is impracticable to give outside of the nursery. [illustration: fig. 2.--bud development of beech. _b_, as it would be if all formed buds were to live; _a_, as it is, many buds failing to develop.] growth in length and ramification. while the stalk of wheat or corn grows for one season, exhausts itself in seed production, and then dies, the tree continues to grow from season to season, in length as well as in thickness. the growth in length of shaft and branches proceeds from buds, made up of cell tissues, which can subdivide and lengthen into shoots, as well as make leaves. these buds are formed during summer, and when winter begins contain embryo leaves, more or less developed, under the protecting cover of scales (fig. 3). when spring stimulates the young plant to new activity, the buds swell, shed their scales, distend their cells, increasing their number by subdivision, and thus the leaves expand, and the bud lengthens into a shoot and twig. during the season new buds are formed, and the whole process repeats itself from year to year, giving rise to the ramification and height growth of the tree. the end buds being mostly stronger and better developed, the main axis of tree or branch increases more rapidly than the rest. all these buds originate from the youngest, central part of the shoot, the pith, and hence when the tree grows in thickness, enveloping the base of the limbs, their connection with the pith can always be traced. this is the usual manner of bud formation; in addition, so-called "adventitious" buds maybe formed from the young living wood in later life, which are not connected with the pith. such buds are those which develop into sprouts from the stump when the tree is cut; also those which give rise to what are known as "water sprouts." many buds, although formed, are, however, not developed at once, and perhaps not at all, especially as the tree grows older; these either die or remain "dormant," often for a hundred years, to spring into life when necessary (fig. 4). [illustration: fig. 3.--buds of maple. _a_, longitudinal section through tip of a maple twig; _g_, end bud; _s_, lateral buds; _l_, scars of leaves of last season. _b_, cross-section through end bud, showing folded leaves in center and scales surrounding them.] the fact that each ordinary limb starts as a bud from the pith is an important one to the timber grower; it explains knotty timber and gives him the hint that in order to obtain clear timber the branches first formed must be soon removed, either by the knife or by proper shading, which kills the branches and thus "clears" the shaft. [illustration: fig. 4.--dormant bud, _k_, on a 12-year old branch of beech. the bud is still capable of development and is connected with the pith, _mm_, of the stem by a line trace of pith, _s_.] [illustration: fig. 5.--section through a 12-year old stem of beech, showing manner of bud and limb formation, _a_, dormant buds; _b_, their trace of pith extending to the pith of the stem; _c_, a limb which started two years ago from a dormant bud; _d_, normal limb; _e_, a limb dead for four years; _f_, adventitious buds.] the planter has it also in his power to influence the form development of the tree by removing some of the buds, giving thereby better chance to the remaining ones. this pruning of buds is, where practicable, often better practice than the pruning of limbs. since the tree does not grow in length except by its buds it is evident that a limb which started to grow at the height of 6 feet has its base always 6 feet from the ground, and if allowed to grow to size, must be surrounded by the wood which accumulates on the main stem or trunk. if a limb is killed and broken off early, only a slender stub composed entirely of rapidly decaying sapwood, is left, occasioning, therefore, only a small defect in the heart of the tree; but if left to grow to considerable age, the base of the limb is encased by the wood of the stem, which, when the tree is cut into lumber, appears as a knot. the longer the limb has been allowed to grow, the farther out is the timber knotty and the thicker is the knot. if the limb remained alive, the knot is "sound," closely grown together with the fibers of the tree. if the limb died off, the remaining stub may behave in different ways. in pines it will be largely composed of heartwood, very resinous and durable; separated from the fibers of the overgrowing wood, it forms a "loose" knot, which is apt to fall out of a board, leaving a hole. in broad-leaved trees, where no resin assists in the process of healing, the stub is apt to decay, and this decay, caused by the growth of fungi, is apt to penetrate into the tree (fig. 6). in parks and orchards, pruning is resorted to, and the cuts are painted or tarred to avoid the decay. in well-managed forests and dense woods in general, the light is cut off, the limb is killed when young and breaks away, the shaft "clears itself," and the sound trunk furnishes a good grade of material. the difference in development of the branch system, whether in full enjoyment of light, in open stand, or with the side light cut off, in dense position, is shown in the accompanying illustration (fig. 7). [illustration: fig. 6.--section through partly decayed knot in oak wood. _a_, wood of knot; _b_ and _c_, wood callus of the stem covering the wound; shaded portion, decayed wood, black part, a cavity remaining.] both trees start alike; the one retains its branches, the other loses them gradually, the stubs being in time overgrown; finally the second has a clear shaft, with a crown concentrated at the top, while the first is beset with branches and branch stubs for its whole length (fig. 8). when ripped open lengthwise, the interior exhibits the condition shown in figure 9, the dead parts of the knot being indicated in heavier shading. since the brandies grow in more or less regular whorls, several knots, stumps, or limbs are met every 6 to 24 inches through the entire stem. hence, in forest planting, trees are placed and kept for some time close together, in order to decrease the branching in the lower part of the tree and thus produce a clean bole and clear lumber. growth in thickness. the young seedling and the young shoot of the older tree much resemble in interior structure that of any herbaceous plant, being composed of a large amount of pith, loose squarish cells, and a few bundles of long fibers symmetrically distributed about the center, the whole covered with a thin skin or epidermis. each strand or bundle of fibers, called fibro-vascular (fiber-vessel) bundles, consists of two kinds, namely, wood fibers on the inner side and bast fibers of different structure on the outer side. between these two sets of fibers, the bast and the wood, there is a row of cells which form the really active, growing part of the plantlet, the cambium. the cambium cells are actively subdividing and expanding, giving off wood cells to the interior and bast cells to the exterior, and extending at the same time side-wise, until at the end of the season not only are the wood and bast portions increased in lines radiating from the center, but the cambium layer, the wood cells, and the bast cells of all the bundles (scattered at the beginning) join at the sides to form a complete ring, or rather hollow cylinder, around the central pith. only here and there the pith cells remain, interrupting the wood cylinder and giving rise to the system of cells known as medullary rays. the cross-section now shows a comparatively small amount of pith and bast or bark and a larger body of strong wood fibers. the new shoot at the end, to be sure, has the same appearance and arrangement as the young plantlet had, the pith preponderating, and the continuous cylinder of cambium, bast, and wood being separated into strands or bundles. [illustration: fig. 7.--development in and out of the forest. _a_, young tree alike. in both cases; _b_ and _c_, successive stages of tree grown in the open; _bâ´_ and _câ´_, corresponding stages of the tree grown in the forest. numbers refer to annual growth in height.] during the season, through the activity of the cambial part of the bundles, the same changes take place in the new shoot as did the previous year in the young seedling, while at the same time the cambium in the yearling part also actively subdivides, forming new wood and bast cells, and thus a second ring, or rather cylinder, is formed. the cambium of the young shoot is always a continuation of that of the ring or cylinder formed the year before, and this cambium cylinder always keeps moving outward, so that at the end of the season, when activity ceases, it is always the last minute layer of cells on the outside of the wood, between wood proper and bark. it is here, therefore, that the life of the tree lies, and any injury to the cambium must interfere with the growth and life of the tree. [illustration: fig. 8.--tree in and out of the forest. _d_, tree grown in the open; _dâ´_, tree grown in the forest.] the first wood cells which the cambium forms in the spring are usually or always of a more open structure, thin-walled, and with a large opening or "lumen," comparable to a blown-up paper bag; so large, in fact, sometimes, is the "lumen" that the width of the cells can be seen on a cross-section with the naked eye, as, for instance, in oak, ash, elm, the so-called "pores" are this open wood formed in spring. the cells, which are formed later in summer, have mostly thick walls, are closely crowded and compressed, and show a very small opening or "lumen," being comparable, perhaps, to a very thick wooden box. they appear in the cross-section not only denser but of a deeper color, on account of their crowded, compressed condition and thicker walls. since at the beginning of the next season again thin-walled cells with wide openings or lumina are formed, this difference in the appearance of "spring wood" and "summer wood" enables us to distinguish the layer of wood formed each year. this "annual ring" is more conspicuous in some kinds than in others. in the so-called "ring porous" woods, like oak, ash, elm, the rings are easily distinguished by the open spring wood; in the conifers, especially pines, by the dark-colored summer wood; while in maple, birch, tulip, etc., only a thin line of flattened, hence darker and regularly aligned, summer cells, often hardly recognizable, distinguishes the rings from each other. cutting through a tree, therefore, we can not only ascertain its age by counting its annual layers in the cross-section, but also determine how much wood is formed each year (fig. 10). we can, in fact, retrace the history of its growth, the vicissitudes through which it has passed, by the record preserved in its ring growth. to ascertain the age of a tree correctly, however, we must cut so near to the ground as to include the growth of the first year's little plantlet; any section higher up shows as many years too few as it took the tree to reach that height. [illustration: fig. 9.--sections of logs showing the relative development of knots. _e_, from tree grown in the open; _eâ´_, from tree grown in a dense forest; _a_ and _c_, whorls of knots; _b_, dead limb; _sk_, "sound knot;" _dk_, "dead knot."] this annual-ring formation is the rule in all countries which have distinct seasons of summer and winter and temporary cessation of growth. only exceptionally a tree may fail to make its growth throughout its whole length on account of loss of foliage or other causes; and occasionally, when its growth has been disturbed during the season, a "secondary" ring, resembling the annual ring, and distinguishable only by the expert, may appear and mar the record. to the forest planter this chapter on ring growth is of great importance, because not only does this feature of tree life afford the means of watching the progress of his crop, calculating the amount of wood formed, and therefrom determining when it is most profitable for him to harvest (namely, when the annual or periodic wood growth falls below a certain amount), but since the proportion of summer wood and spring wood determines largely the quality of the timber, and since he has it in his power to influence the preponderance of the one or other by adaptation of species to soils and by their management, ring growth furnishes an index for regulating the quality of his crop. form development. if a tree is allowed to grow in the open, it has a tendency to branch, and makes a low and spreading crown. in order to lengthen its shaft and to reduce the number of branches it is necessary to narrow its growing space, to shade its sides so that the lower branches and their foliage do not receive light enough to perform their functions. when the side shade is dense enough, these branches die and finally break off under the influence of winds and fungous growth; wood then forms over the scars and we get a clean shaft which carries a crown high up beyond the reach of shade from neighbors. [illustration: fig. 10.--scheme to illustrate the arrangement of annual growth. 1, 2, 3, etc., represent the parts of the stem grown during the first, second, third, etc., twenty years of the life of the tree, _k_, knots; the shaded part of each is the "dead knot" of lumber.] the branches being prevented from spreading out, the shaft is forced to grow upward, and hence, when crowded by others, trees become taller and more cylindrical in form, while in the open, where they can spread, they remain lower and more conical in form (figs. 11, 12). there are, to be sure, different natural types of development, some, like the walnuts, oaks, beeches, and the broad-leaved trees generally, having greater tendency to spread than others, like spruces, firs, and conifers in general, which lengthen their shaft in preference to spreading, even in the open. this tendency to spreading is also influenced by soil conditions and climate, as well as by the age of the tree. when the trees cease to grow in height, their crowns broaden, and this takes place sooner in shallow soils than in deep, moist ones; but the tendency can be checked and all can be made to develop the shaft at the expense of the branches by proper shading from the sides. it follows that the forest planter, who desires to produce long and clean shafts and best working quality of timber, must secure and maintain side shade by a close stand, while the landscape gardener, who desires characteristic form, must maintain an open stand and full enjoyment of light for his trees. now, as we have seen, different species afford different amounts of shade, and in proportion to the shade which they afford can they endure shade. the beech or sugar maple or spruce, which maintain a large amount of foliage under the dense shade of their own crown, show that their leaves can live and functionate with a small amount of light. they are shade-enduring trees. on the other hand, the black walnut, the locust, the catalpa, the poplars, and the larch show by the manner in which their crowns thin out, the foliage being confined to the ends of the branches, that their leaves require more light--they are light-needing trees; so that the scale which arranges the trees according to the amount of shade they exert serves also to measure their shade endurance. in making, therefore, mixed plantations, the different kinds must be so grouped and managed that the shady trees will not outgrow and overtop the light-needing; the latter must either have the start of the former or must be quicker growers. [illustration: fig. 11.--oak tree grown in the open.] [illustration: fig. 12.--maple tree grown in the forest.] rate of growth. not only do different species grow more or less rapidly in height and girth, but there is in each species a difference in the rate of growth during different periods of life, and a difference in the persistence of growth. it stands to reason that trees grow differently in different soils and situations, and hence we can not compare different species with respect to their rate of growth except as they grow under the same conditions. thus the black walnut may grow as fast as or faster than the ash on a rich, deep, moist, warm soil, but will soon fall to the rear in a wetter, colder, and shallower soil. given the same conditions, some species will start on a rapid upward growth at once, like the poplars, aspen, locust, and silver maple, making rapid progress (the most rapid from their tenth to their fifteenth year), but decreasing soon in rate and reaching their maximum height early. others, like the spruce, beech, and sugar maple, will begin slowly, often occupying several, sometimes as many as 10 to 15, years before they appear to grow at all, their energy all going into root growth. then comes a period of more and more accelerated growth, which reaches its maximum rate at 25 or 30 years; and when the cottonwood or aspen has reached the end of its growth in height the spruce or pine is still at its best rate, and continues to grow for a long time at that rate; in later life the rate decreases, yet height growth sometimes does not cease altogether for centuries. as a rule, the light-needing species are the ones which show the rapid height growth at the start, while the shade-enduring are slow at the start, but persistent growers. this fact is important in explaining the alternations of forest growth in nature; the persistent shade-enduring species crowd out the light-needing, and the latter rapidly take possession of any openings that fire or storm has made. it is also important with reference to the management of wood crops and starting of mixed plantations; the light-needing species must be mixed only with such shade-enduring species as are slower growers than themselves. the diameter growth shows also periodic changes in its rate, and is, of course, influenced in the same way by soil, climate, and light conditions, as the height growth. in the juvenile or brush stage, lasting 6 to 10 years in light-needing and 20 to 40 years in shade-enduring species, the diameter grows comparatively little, all energy being directed to height growth and root growth. when the crown has been definitely formed, more food material is available for wood formation, and the increase in foliage is accompanied by a more rapid increase of trunk diameter; in favorable situations, the highest rate occurs between the fortieth and sixtieth years; in the poorer situations, between the fiftieth and eightieth years, which rate continues for some time. then comes a period of slower rate, which finally in old age dwindles down almost to zero. but neither the diameter growth nor the width of the annual rings alone tells us directly what amount of wood is forming. the outer rings, being laid over a larger circumference, although thinner than the preceding rings, may yet have greater cubic contents. the statements of diameter growth are, therefore, misleading if we are interested in knowing how much wood is forming. accordingly the growth in volume must be considered separately, as determined by the enlargement of the cross-section area and the height. the growth in volume or mass accretion is quite small in young trees, so that when wood is cut young the smallest amount of crop per year is harvested, while, if it is allowed to grow, an increase more than proportionate to the number of years may be obtained. only when the tree has a fully developed crown does it begin to make much wood. its volume growth progresses then at a uniform rate, and continues to do so for decades, and sometimes for a century or more. on poorer sites the rate is slower, but remains longer on the increase, while on good sites the maximum rate is soon reached. of course, in a forest, where light conditions are not most favorable, because form development and soil conditions require shade, the total wood formation is less than in an isolated tree, favorably placed. just so the dominant trees in a forest--i. e., those which have their crowns above all others--show, of course, the advantage they have over the inferior trees which are suffering from the shade of their neighbors. finally, if we would take into consideration an entire forest growth, and determine, for instance, how much wood an acre of such forest produces at different periods, we must not overlook the fact that the number of trees per acre changes as the trees grow older. some of them are overshaded and crowded out by the others, so that a young growth of spruce might start with 100,000 little seedlings to the acre, of which in the twentieth year only 10,000 would be alive, while in the fortieth year the number would be reduced to 1,200, and in the hundredth year to 280. hence the rate of growth of any single tree gives no idea of what the acre of forest will do. tims, while a single good white pine might grow the fastest in volume when about one hundred years old, then making wood at the rate of, say, 1.5 cubic feet per year, an acre of pine on good soil, containing about 1,600 trees, may make the most wood in the thirtieth year, then growing at the rate of 170 cubic feet per acre, while in the hundredth year the rate would not exceed 70 cubic feet; and an acre of pine in a poorer location, with about 1,400 trees, may make the most wood in the fortieth year, at the rate of 100 cubic feet per acre. from the consideration of the relation of light conditions to soil conditions, to form development, and to rate of growth, we may make the following deductions of interest to the forest planter: in order to secure the best results in wood production, in quantity and quality, at the same time preserving favorable soil conditions, the forest should be composed of various species, a mixture of light-needing and shade-enduring kinds. the light-needing ones should be of quicker growth; the shady ones, in larger numbers, should be slower growers. for the first fifteen to twenty-five years the plantation should be kept as dense as possible, to secure clear shafts and good growth in height; then it should be thinned, to increase crown development and diameter growth; the thinning, however, is not to be so severe that the crowns can not close up again in two or three years; the thinning is to be repeated again and again, always favoring the best developed trees. reproduction. all trees reproduce themselves naturally from seed. man can secure their reproduction also from cuttings or layers; and some kinds can reproduce themselves by shoots from the stump when the parent tree has been cut. this latter capacity is possessed in a varying degree by different species; chestnuts, oaks, elms, maples, poplars, and willows are most excellent sprouters; most conifers do not sprout at all, and the shoots of those that do sprout soon die (sequoia or california redwood seems to be an exception). sprouts of broad-leaved trees develop differently from seedlings, growing very rapidly at first, but soon lessening in the rate of growth and never attaining the height and perhaps not the diameter of trees grown from the seed; they are also shorter lived. with age the stumps lose their capacity for sprouting. to secure best results, the parent tree should be cut close to the ground in early spring, avoiding severe frost, and a sharp cut should be made which will not sever the bark from the trunk. not all trees bear seed every year, and plentiful seed production, especially in a forest, occurs, as a rule, periodically. the periods differ with species, climate, and season. not all seeds can germinate, and in some species the number of seeds that can germinate is very small, and they lose their power of germination when kept a few hours, like the willows. others, if kept till they have become dry, will "lie over" in the soil a year or more before germinating. the same thing will occur if they are covered too deep in the soil, provided they germinate at all under such conditions. in order to germinate, seeds must have warmth, air, and moisture. the preparation of a seed bed is, therefore, necessary in order to supply these conditions in most favorable combination. in the natural forest millions of seeds rot or dry without sprouting, and millions of seedlings sprout, but soon perish under the too dense shade of the mother trees. man, desiring to reproduce a valuable wood crop, cannot afford to be as lavish as nature, and must therefore improve upon nature's methods, making more careful preparation for the production of his crop, either by growing the seedlings in nurseries and transplanting them, or else by cutting away the old growth in such a manner as to secure to the young self-grown crop better chances for life and development. 2. how to plant a forest. forest planting and tree planting are two different things. the orchardist, who plants for fruit; the landscape gardener, who plants for form; the roadside planter, who plants for shade, all have objects in view different from that of the forest planter, and therefore select and use their plant material differently. they deal with single individual trees, each one by itself destined for a definite purpose. the forester, on the other hand, plants a crop like the farmer; he deals not with the single seed or plant, but with masses of trees; the individual tree has value to him only as apart of the whole. it may come to harvest for its timber, or it may not come to harvest, and yet have answered its purpose as a part of the whole in shading the ground, or acting as nurse or "forwarder" as long as it was necessary. his object is not to grow trees, but to produce wood, the largest amount of the best quality per acre, whether it be stored in one tree or in many, and his methods must be directed to that end. as far as the manner of setting out plants or sowing seeds is concerned, the same general principles and the same care in manipulation are applicable as in any other planting, except as the coat of operating on so large a scale may necessitate less careful methods than the gardener or nurseryman can afford to apply; the nearer, however, the performance of planting can be brought to the careful manner of the gardener, the surer the success. the principles underlying such methods have been discussed in the chapter "how trees grow;" in the present chapter it is proposed to point out briefly the special considerations which should guide the forest planter in particular. what trees to plant. _adaptability to climate_ is the first requisite in the species to be planted. it is best to choose from the native growth of the region which is known to be adapted to it. with regard to species not native, the reliance must be placed upon the experience of neighboring planters and upon experiment (at first on a small scale), after study of the requirements of the kinds proposed for trial. adaptation must be studied, not only with reference to temperature ranges and rainfall, but especially with reference to atmospheric humidity and requirements of transpiration. many species have a wide range of natural distribution, and hence of climatic adaptation. if such are to be used, it is important to secure seeds from that part of the range of natural distribution where the plants must be hardiest, i. e., the coldest and driest region in which it occurs, which insures hardy qualities in the offspring. for instance, the douglas spruce from the humid and evenly tempered pacific slope will not be as hardy as that grown from seed collected on the dry and frigid slopes of the rockies. lack of attention to this requisite accounts for many failures. it must also be kept in mind that, while a species may be able to grow in another than its native climate, its wood may not there have the same valuable qualities which it develops in its native habitat. _adaptability to soil_ must be studied less with reference to mineral constituents than to physical condition. depth and moisture conditions, and the structure of the soil, which influences the movement of water in it, are the most important elements. while all trees thrive best in a moist to "fresh" soil of moderate depth (from 2 to 4 feet) and granular structure, some can adapt themselves to drier or wetter, shallow, and compact soils. fissures in rocks into which the roots can penetrate often stand for depth of soil, and usually aid in maintaining favorable moisture conditions. in soils of great depth (i. e., from the surface to the impenetrable subsoil) and of coarse structure water may drain away so fast as not to be available to the roots. soil moisture must always be studied in conjunction with atmospheric moisture; for, while a species may thrive in an arid soil, when the demands of transpiration are not great, it may not do so when aridity of atmosphere is added. trees of the swamp are apt to be indifferent to soil moisture and to thrive quite well, if not better, in drier soils. _adaptability to site._--while a species may be well adapted to the general climatic conditions of a region, and in general to the soil, there still remains to be considered its adaptability to the particular "site," under which term we may comprise the total effect of general climate, local climate, and soil. the general climatic conditions are locally influenced, especially by the slope, exposure, or aspect, and the surroundings. thus we know that eastern exposures are more liable to frost, western exposures more liable to damage from winds, southern more apt to be hot and to dry out, and northern to be cooler and damper, having in consequence a shorter period of vegetation. hollows and lowlands are more exposed to frosts and more subject to variations in soil moisture, etc. hence for these various situations it is advisable to select species which can best withstand such local dangers. _the use value, or utility_, of the species is next to be considered. this must be done with reference to the commercial and domestic demand, and the length of time it takes the species to attain its value. the greater variety of purposes a wood may serve--i. e., the greater its general utility--and the sooner it attains its use value the better. white pine for the northeastern states as a wood is like the apple among fruits, making an all-round useful material in large quantities per acre in short time. tulip poplar, applicable to a wider climatic range, is almost as valuable, while oak, ash, and hickory are standard woods in the market. other woods are of limited application. thus the black locust, which grows most quickly into useful posts, has only a limited market, much more limited than it should have; hickory soon furnishes valuable hoop poles from the thinnings, and later the best wagon material, not, however, large quantities in a short time; while black walnut of good quality is very high in price, the market is also limited, and the dark color of the heartwood, for which it is prized, is attained only by old trees. the black cherry, used for similar purposes, attains its value much sooner. by planting various species together, variety of usefulness may be secured and the certainty of a market increased. _the forest value_ of the species is only in part expressed by its use value. as has been shown in another place, the composition of the crop must be such as to insure maintenance of favorable soil conditions, as well as satisfactory development of the crop itself. some species, although of high use value, like ash, oak, etc, are poor preservers of soil conditions, allowing grass and weeds to enter the plantation and to deteriorate the soil under their thin foliage. others, like beech, sugar maple, box elder, etc., although of less use value, being dense foliaged and preserving a shady crown for a long time, are of great forest value as soil improvers. again, as the value of logs depends largely on their freedom from knots, straightness, and length, it is of importance to secure these qualities. some valuable species, if grown by themselves, make crooked trunks, do not clean their shafts of branches, and are apt to spread rather than lengthen. if planted in close companionship with others, they are forced by these "nurses or forwarders" to make better growths and clean their shafts of branches. furthermore, from financial considerations, it is well to know that some species develop more rapidly and produce larger quantities of useful material per acre than others; thus the white pine is a "big cropper," and, combining with this a tolerably good shading quality, and being in addition capable of easy reproduction, it is of highest "forest value." hence, as the object of forestry is to make money from continued wood crops, use value and forest value must both be considered in the selection of materials for forest planting. _mutual relationship of different species_, with reference especially to their relative height growth and their relative light requirements, must be considered in starting a mixed plantation. mixed forest plantations (made of several kinds) have so many advantages over pure plantations (made of one kind) that they should be preferred, except for very particular reasons. mixed plantations are capable of producing larger quantities of better and more varied material, preserve soil conditions hotter, are less liable to damage from winds, fires, and insects, and can be more readily reproduced. the following general rules should guide in making up the composition of a mixed plantation: _a._ shade-enduring kinds should form the bulk (five-eighths to seven-eighths) of the plantation, except on specially favored soils where no deterioration is to be feared from planting only light-needing kinds, and in which case those may even be planted by themselves. _b._ the light-needing trees should be surrounded by shade-enduring of slower growth, so that the former may not be overtopped, but have the necessary light and be forced by side shade to straight growth. _c._ shade-enduring species may be grown in admixture with each other when their rate of height growth is about equal, or when the slower-growing kind can be protected against the quicker-growing (for instance, by planting a larger proportion of the former in groups or by cutting back the latter). _d._ the more valuable timber trees which are to form the main crop should be so disposed individually, and planted in such numbers among the secondary crop or nurse crop, that the latter can be thinned out first without disturbing the former. where a plantation of light-foliaged trees has been made (black walnut, for instance), it can be greatly improved by "under-planting" densely with a shade-enduring kind, which will choke out weed growth, improve the soil, and thereby advance the growth of the plantation. the selection and proper combination of species with reference to this mutual relationship to each other and to the soil are the most important elements of success. _availability_ of the species also still needs consideration in this country; for, although a species may be very well adapted to the purpose in hand, it may be too difficult to obtain material for planting in quantity or at reasonable prices. while the beech is one of the best species for shade endurance, and hence for soil cover, seedlings can not be had as yet in quantity. western conifers, although promising good material for forest planting, are at present too high priced for general use. some eastern trees can be secured readily--either their seed or seedlings--from the native woods; others must be grown in nurseries before they can be placed in the field. _whether to procure seeds or plants_, and if the latter, what kind, depends upon a number of considerations. the main crop, that which is to furnish the better timber, had best be planted with nursery-grown plants, if of slow-growing kinds, perhaps once transplanted, with well-developed root systems, the plants in no case to be more than 2 to 3 years old. the secondary or nurse crop may then be sown or planted with younger and less costly material taken from the woods or grown in seed beds, or else cuttings may be used. in some localities--for instance, the western plains--the germinating of seeds in the open field is so uncertain, and the life of the young seedlings for the first year or two so precarious, that the use of seeds in the field can not be recommended. in such locations careful selection and treatment of the planting material according to the hardships which it must encounter can alone insure success. seedlings from 6 to 12 inches high furnish the best material. the planting of large-sized trees is not excluded, but is expensive and hence often impracticable, besides being less sure of success, since the larger-sized tree is apt to lose a greater proportion of its roots in transplanting. methods of planting. _preparation of soil_ is for the purpose of securing a favorable start for the young crop; its effects are lost after the first few years. most land that is to be devoted to forest planting does not admit of as careful preparation as for agricultural crops, nor is it necessary where the climate is hot too severe and the soil not too compact to prevent the young crop from establishing itself. thousands of acres in germany are planted annually without any soil preparation, yearling pine seedlings being set with a dibble in the unprepared ground. this absence of preparation is even necessary in sandy soils, like that encountered in the sand-hills of nebraska, which may, if disturbed, be blown out and shifted. in other cases a partial removal of a too rank undergrowth or soil cover and a shallow scarifying or hoeing is resorted to, or else furrows are thrown up and the trees set out in them. in land that has been tilled, deep plowing (10 to 12 inches) and thorough pulverizing give the best chances for the young crop to start. for special conditions, very dry or very moist situations, special methods are required. the best methods for planting in the semiarid regions of the far west have not yet been developed. thorough cultivation, as for agricultural crops, with subsequent culture, is successful, but expensive. a plan which might be tried would consist in breaking the raw prairie in june and turning over a shallow sod, sowing a crop of oats or alfalfa, harvesting it with a high stubble, then opening furrows for planting and leaving the ground between furrows undisturbed, so as to secure the largest amount of drainage into the furrows and a mulch between the rows. _the time for planting_ depends on climatic and soil conditions and the convenience of the planter. spring planting is preferable except in southern latitudes, especially in the west, where the winters are severe and the fall apt to be dry, the soil therefore not in favorable condition for planting. the time for fall planting is after the leaves have fallen; for spring planting, before or just when life begins anew. in order to be ready in time for spring planting, it is a good practice to take up the plants in the fall and "heel them in" over winter (covering them, closely packed, in a dry trench of soil). conifers can be planted later in spring and earlier in fall than broad-leaved trees. _the density_ of the trees is a matter in which most planters fail. the advantages of close planting lie in the quicker shading of the soil, hence the better preservation of its moisture and improved growth and form development of the crop. these advantages must be balanced against the increased cost of close planting. the closer the planting, the sooner will the plantation be self-sustaining and the surer the success. if planted in squares, or, better still, in quincunx order (the trees in every other row alternating at equal distances), which is most desirable on account of the more systematic work possible and the more complete cover which it makes, the distance should not be more than 4 feet, unless for special reasons and conditions, while 2 feet apart is not too close, and still closer planting is done by nature with the best success. the following numbers of trees per acre are required when planting at distances as indicated: 1â½ by 1â½ feet 19,360 | 2 by 4 feet 6,445 1â½ by 2 feet 14,520 | 3 by 3 feet 4,840 2 by 2 foot 10,890 | 3 by 4 feet 3,630 2 by 3 feet 7,260 | 4 by 4 feet 2,722 to decrease expense, the bulk of the plantation may be made of the cheapest kinds of trees that may serve as soil cover and secondary or nurse crop, the main crop of from 300 to 600 trees to consist of better kinds, and with better planting material, mainly of light-needing species. these should be evenly disposed through the plantation, each closely surrounded by the nurse crop. it is, of course, understood that not all trees grow up; a constant change in numbers by the death (or else timely removal) of the overshaded takes place, so that the final crop shows at 100 years a close cover, with hardly 300 trees to the acre. _after-culture_ is not entirely avoidable, especially under unfavorable climatic conditions, and if the planting was not close enough. shallow cultivation between the rows is needed to prevent weed growth and to keep the soil open, until it is shaded by the young trees, which may take a year with close planting and two or three years with rows 4 by 4 feet apart, the time varying also with the species. it is rare that a plantation succeeds in all its parts; gaps or fail places occur, as a rule, and must be filled in by additional planting as soon as possible, if of larger extent than can be closed up in a few years by the neighboring growth. when the soil is protected by a complete leaf canopy, the forest crop may be considered as established, and the after-treatment will consist of judicious thinning. 3. how to treat the wood lot. in the northeastern states it is the custom to have connected with the farm apiece of virgin woodland, commonly called the wood lot. its object primarily is to supply the farmer with the firewood, fence material, and such dimension timbers as he may need from time to time for repairs on buildings, wagons, etc. as a rule, the wood lot occupies, as it ought to, the poorer part of the farm, the rocky or stony, the dry or the wet portions, which are not well fitted for agricultural crops. as a rule, it is treated as it ought not to be, if the intention is to have it serve its purpose continuously; it is cut and culled without regard to its reproduction. as far as firewood supplies go, the careful farmer will first use the dead and dying trees, broken limbs, and leavings, which is quite proper. the careless man avoids the extra labor which such material requires, and takes whatever splits best, no matter whether the material could be used for better purposes or not. when it comes to the cutting of other material, fence rails, posts, or dimension timber, the general rule is to go into the lot and select the best trees of the best kind for the purpose. this looks at first sight like the natural, most practical way of doing. it is the method which the lumberman pursues when he "culls" the forest, and is, from his point of view perhaps, justifiable, for he only desires to secure at once what is most profitable in the forest. but for the farmer, who proposes to use his wood lot continuously for supplies of this kind, it is a method detrimental to his object, and in time it leaves him with a lot of poor, useless timber which encumbers the ground and prevents the growth of a better crop. our woods are mostly composed of many species of trees; they are mixed woods. some of the species are valuable for some special purposes, others are applicable to a variety of purposes, and again others furnish but poor material for anything but firewood, and even for that use they may not be of the best. among the most valuable in the northeastern woods we should mention the white pine--king of all--the white ash, white and chestnut oak, hickories, tulip tree, black walnut, and black cherry, the last three being now nearly exhausted; next, spruce and hemlock, red pine, sugar maple, chestnut, various oaks of the black or red oak tribe, several species of ash and birch, black locust; lastly, elms and soft maples, basswood, poplars, and sycamore. now, by the common practice of culling the best it is evident that gradually all the best trees of the best kinds are taken out, leaving only inferior trees or inferior kinds--the weeds among trees, if one may call them such--and thus the wood lot becomes well-nigh useless. it does not supply that for which it was intended; the soil, which was of little use for anything but a timber crop before, is still further deteriorated under this treatment, and being compacted by the constant running of cattle, the starting of a crop of seedlings is made nearly impossible. it would not pay to turn it into tillage ground or pasture; the farm has by so much lost in value. in other words, instead of using the interest on his capital, interest and capital have been used up together; the goose that laid the golden egg has been killed. this is not necessary if only a little system is brought into the management of the wood lot and the smallest care is taken to avoid deterioration and secure reproduction. improvement cuttings. the first care should be to improve the crop in its composition. instead of culling it of its best material, it should be culled of its weeds, the poor kinds, which we do not care to reproduce, and which, like all other weeds, propagate themselves only too readily. this weeding must not, however, be done all sit once, as it could be in a field crop, for in a full-grown piece of woodland each tree has a value, even the weed trees, as soil cover. the great secret of success in all crop production lies in the regulating of water supplies; the manuring in part and the cultivating entirely, as well as drainage and irrigation, are means to this end. in forestry these means are usually not practicable, and hence other means are resorted to. the principal of these is to keep the soil as much as possible under cover, either by the shade which the foliage of the tall trees furnishes, or by that from the underbrush, or by the litter which accumulates and in decaying forms a humus cover, a most excellent mulch. a combination of these three conditions, viz, a dense crown cover, woody underbrush where the crown cover is interrupted, and a heavy layer of well-decomposed humus, gives the best result. under such conditions, first of all, the rain, being intercepted by the foliage and litter, reaches the ground only gradually, and therefore does not compact the soil as it does in the open field, but leaves it granular and open, so that the water can readily penetrate and move in the soil. secondly, the surface evaporation is considerably reduced by the shade and lack of air circulation in the dense woods, be that more moisture remains for the use of the trees. when the shade of the crowns overhead (the so-called "crown cover," or "canopy,") is perfect, but little undergrowth will be seen; but where the crown cover is interrupted or imperfect, an undergrowth will appear. if this is composed of young trees, or even shrubs, it is an advantage, but if of weeds, and especially grass, it is a misfortune, because these transpire a great deal more water than the woody plants and allow the soil to deteriorate in structure and therefore in water capacity. some weeds and grasses, to be sure, are capable of existing where but little light reaches the soil. when they appear it is a sign to the forester that he must be careful not to thin out the crown cover any more. when the more light-needing weeds and grasses appear it is a sign that too much light reaches the ground, and that the soil is already deteriorated. if this state continues, the heavy drain which the transpiration of these weeds makes upon the soil moisture, without any appreciable conservative action by their shade, will injure the soil still further. the overhead shade or crown cover may be imperfect because there are not enough trees on the ground to close up the interspaces with their crowns, or else because the kinds of trees which make up the forest do not yield much shade; thus it can easily be observed that a beech, a sugar maple, a hemlock, is so densely foliaged that but little light reaches the soil through its crown canopy, while an ash, an oak, a larch, when full grown, in the forest, allows a good deal of light to penetrate. hence, in our weeding process for the improvement of the wood crop, we must be careful not to interrupt the crown cover too much, and thereby deteriorate the soil conditions. and for the same reason, in the selection of the kinds that are to be left or to be taken out, we shall not only consider their use value but also their shading value, trying to bring about such a mixture of shady and less shady kinds as will insure a continuously satisfactory crown cover, the shade-enduring kinds to occupy the lower stratum in the crown canopy, and to be more numerous than the light-needing. the forester, therefore, watches first the conditions of his soil cover, and his next care is for the condition of the overhead shade, the "crown cover;" for a change in the condition of the latter brings change into his soil conditions, and, inversely, from the changes in the plant cover of the soil he judges whether he may or may not change the light conditions. the changes of the soil cover teach him more often when "to let alone" than when to go on with his operations of thinning out; that is to say, he can rarely stop short of that condition which is most favorable. hence the improvement cuttings must be made with caution and only very gradually, so that no deterioration of the soil conditions be invited. we have repeated this injunction again and again, because all success in the management of future wood crops depends upon the care bestowed upon the maintenance of favorable soil conditions. as the object of this weeding is not only to remove the undesirable kinds from the present crop, but to prevent as much as possible their reappearance in subsequent crops, it maybe advisable to cut such kinds as sprout readily from the stump in summer time--june or july--when the stumps are, likely to die without sprouting. it may take several years' cutting to bring the composition of the main crop into such a condition as to satisfy us. methods of reproducing the wood crop. then comes the period of utilizing the main crop. as we propose to keep the wood lot as such, and desire to reproduce a satisfactory wood crop in place of the old one, this latter must be cut always with a view to that reproduction. there are various methods pursued for this purpose in large forestry operations which are not practicable on small areas, especially when these are expected to yield only small amounts of timber, and these little by little as required. it is possible, to be sure, to cut the entire crop and replant a new one, or else to use the ax skillfully and bring about a natural reproduction in a few years; but we want in the present case to lengthen out the period during which the old crop is cut, and hence must resort to other methods. there are three methods practicable. we may clear narrow strips or bands entirely, expecting the neighboring growth to furnish the seed for covering the strip with a new crop--"the strip method;" or we can take out single trees here and there, relying again on an after growth from seed shed by the surrounding trees--the "selection method;" or, finally, instead of single trees, we may cut entire groups of trees hero and there in the same manner, the gaps to be filled, as in the other cases, with a young crop from the seed of the surrounding trees, and this we may call the "group method." in _the strip method_, in order to secure sufficient seeding of the cleared strip, the latter must not be so broad that the seed from the neighboring growth can not be carried over it by the wind. in order to get the best results from the carrying power of the wind (as well as to avoid windfalls when the old growth is suddenly opened on the windward side) the strips should be located on the side opposite the prevailing winds. oaks, beech, hickory, and nut trees in general with heavy seeds will not seed over any considerable breadth of strip, while with maple and ash the breadth may be made twice as great as the height of the timber, and the mother trees with lighter seeds, like spruce and pine, or birch and elm, maybe able to cover strips of a breadth of 3 or 4 and even 8 times their height. but such broad strips are hazardous, since with insufficient seed fall, or fail years in the seed, the strip may remain exposed to sun and wind for several years without a good cover and deteriorate. it is safer, therefore, to make the strips no broader than just the height of the neighboring timber, in which case not only has the seed better chance of covering the ground, but the soil and seedlings have more protection from the mother crop. in hilly country the strips must not be made in the direction of the slope, for the water would wash out soil and seed. every year, then, or from time to time, a new strip is to be cleared and "regenerated." but if the first strip failed to cover itself satisfactorily, the operation is stopped, for it would be unwise to remove the seed trees further by an additional clearing. accordingly, this method should be used only where the kinds composing the mother crop are frequent and abundant seeders and give assurance of reseeding the strips quickly and successfully. [illustration: fig. 13.--showing plan of group system in regenerating a forest crop. 1, 2, 3, 4, successive groups of young timber, 1 being the oldest, 4 the youngest, 5 old timber; _a_, wind mantle, specially managed to secure protection.] the other two methods have greater chances of success in that they preserve the soil conditions more surely, and there is more assurance of seeding from the neighboring trees on all sides. _the selection method_, by which single trees are taken out all over the forest, is the same as has been practiced by the farmer and lumberman hitherto, only they have forgotten to look after the young crop. millions of seed may fall to the ground and germinate, but perish from the excessive shade of the mother trees. if we wish to be successful in establishing a new crop, it will be necessary to be ready with the ax all the time and give light as needed by the young crop. the openings made by taking out single trees are so small that there is great danger of the young crop being lost, or at least impeded in its development, because it is impracticable to come in time to its relief with the ax. the best method, therefore, in all respects, is the "_group method_" which not only secures continuous soil cover, chances for full seeding, and more satisfactory light conditions, but requires loss careful attention, or at least permits more freedom of movement and adaptation to local conditions (fig. 13). it is especially adapted to mixed woods, as it permits securing for each species the most desirable light conditions by making the openings larger or smaller, according as the species we wish to favor in a particular group demand more or less shade. further, when different species are ripe for regeneration at different times, this plan makes it possible to take them in hand as needed. again, we can begin with one group or we can take in hand several groups simultaneously, as may be desirable and practicable. we start our groups of new crop either where a young growth is already on the ground, enlarging around it, or where old timber has reached its highest usefulness and should be cut in order that we may not lose the larger growth which young trees would make; or else we choose a place which is but poorly stocked, where, if it is not regenerated, the soil is likely to deteriorate further. the choice is affected further by the consideration that dry situations should be taken in hand earlier than those in which the soil and site are more favorable, and that some species reach maturity and highest use value earlier than others and should therefore be reproduced earlier. in short, we begin the regeneration when and where the necessity for it exists, or where the young crop has the best chance to start most satisfactorily with the least artificial aid. of course, advantage should betaken of the occurrence of seed years, which come at different intervals with different species. if we begin with a group of young growth already on the ground, our plan is to remove gradually the old trees standing over them when no longer required for shade, and then to cut away the adjoining old growth and enlarge the opening in successive narrow bands around the young growth. when the first band has seeded itself satisfactorily, and the young growth has come to require more light (which may take several years), we remove another band around it, and thus the regeneration progresses. where no young growth already exists, of course the first opening is made to afford a start, and afterwards the enlargement follows as occasion requires. size of openings. the size of the openings and the rapidity with which they should be enlarged vary, of course, with local conditions and the species which is to 'be favored, the light-needing species requiring larger openings and quicker light additions than the shade-enduring. it is difficult to give any rules, since the modifications due to local conditions are so manifold, requiring observation and judgment. caution in not opening too much at a time and too quickly may avoid failure in securing good stands. in general, the first openings may contain from one-fourth to one-half an acre or more, and the gradual enlarging may progress by clearing bands of a breadth not to exceed the height of the surrounding timber. the time of the year when the cutting is to be done is naturally in winter, when the farmer has the most leisure, and when the wood seasons best after felling and is also most readily moved. since it is expected that the seed fallen in the autumn will sprout in the spring, all wood should, of course, be removed from the seed ground. the first opening, as well as the enlargement of the groups, should not be made at once, but by gradual thinning out, if the soil is not in good condition to receive and germinate the seed and it is impracticable to put it in such condition by artificial means--hoeing or plowing. it is, of course, quite practicable--nay, sometimes very desirable--to prepare the soil for the reception and germination of the seed. where undesirable undergrowth has started, it should be cut out, and where the soil is deteriorated with weed growth or compacted by the tramping of cattle, it should be hoed or otherwise scarified, so that the seed may find favorable conditions. to let pigs do the plowing and the covering of acorns is not an uncommon practice abroad. it is also quite proper, if the reproduction from the seed of the surrounding mother trees does not progress satisfactorily, to assist, when an opportunity is afforded, by planting such desirable species as were or were not in the composition of the original crop. it may require ten, twenty, or forty years or more to secure the reproduction of a wood lot in this way. a new growth, denser and better than the old, with timber of varying age, will be the result. the progress of the regeneration in groups is shown on the accompanying plan, the different shadings showing the successive additions of young crop, the darkest denoting the oldest parts, first regenerated. if we should make a section through any one of the groups, this, ideally represented, would be like figure 14, the old growth on the outside, the youngest new crop adjoining it, and tiers of older growths of varying height toward the center of the group. wind mantle. on the plan there will be noted a strip specially shaded, surrounding the entire plat (fig. 13, _a_), representing a strip of timber which should surround the farmer's wood lot, and which he should keep as dense as possible, especially favoring undergrowth. this part, if practicable, should be kept reproduced as coppice or by the method of selection, i. e., by taking out trees hero and there. when gaps are made, they should be filled, if possible, by introducing shade-enduring kinds, which, like the spruces and firs and beech, retain their branches down to the foot for a long time. this mantle is intended to protect the interior against the drying influence of winds, which are bound to enter the small wood lot and deteriorate the soil. the smaller the lot, the more necessary and desirable it is to maintain such a protective cover or wind-break. [illustration: fig. 14.--appearance of regeneration by group method.] coppice. besides reproducing a wood crop from the seed of mother trees or by planting, there is another reproduction possible by sprouts from the stump. this, to be sure, can be done only with broad-leaved species, since conifers, with but few exceptions, do not sprout from the stump. when a wood lot is cut over and over again, the reproduction taking place by such sprouts we call coppice. most wooded areas in the eastern states have been so cut that reproduction from seed could not take place, and hence we have large areas of coppice, with very few seedling trees interspersed. as we have seen in the chapter on "how trees grow," the sprouts do not develop into as good trees as the seedlings. they grow faster, to be sure, in the beginning, but do not grow as tall and are apt to be shorter lived. for the production of firewood, fence, and post material, coppice management may suffice, but not for dimension timber. and even to keep the coppice in good reproductive condition, care should be taken to secure a certain proportion of seedling trees, since the old stumps, after repeated cutting, tail to sprout and die out. soil and climate influence the success of the coppice; shallow soils produce weaker but more numerous sprouts and are more readily deteriorated by the repeated laying bare of the soil; a mild climate is most favorable to a continuance of the reproductive power of the stump. some species sprout more readily than others; hence the composition of the crop will change, unless attention is paid to it. in the coppice, as in any other management of a natural wood crop, a desirable composition must first be secured, which is done by timely improvement cuttings, as described in a previous section. the best trees for coppice in the northeastern states are the chestnut, various oaks, hickory, ash, elm, maples, basswood, and black locust, which are all good sprouters. when cutting is done for reproduction, the time and manner are the main care. the best results are probably obtained, both financially and with regard to satisfactory reproduction, when the coppice is cut between the twentieth and thirtieth years. all cutting must be done in early spring or in winter, avoiding, however, days of severe frost, which is apt to sever the bark from the trunk and to kill the cambium. cutting in summer kills the stump, as a rule. the cut should be made slanting downward, and as smooth as possible, to prevent collection of moisture on the stump and the resulting decay, and as close as possible to the ground, where the stump is less exposed to injuries, and the new sprouts, starting close to the ground, may strike independent roots. fail places or gaps should be filled by planting. this can be readily done by bending to the ground some of the neighboring sprouts, when 2 to 3 years old, notching, fastening them down with a wooden hook or a stone, and covering them with soil a short distance (4 to 6 inches) from the end. the sprout will then strike root, and after a year or so may be severed from the mother stock by a sharp cut (fig. 15). for the recuperation of the crop, it is desirable to maintain a supply of seedling trees, which may be secured either by the natural seeding of a few mother trees of the old crop which are left, or by planting. this kind of management, coppice with seedling or standard trees intermixed, if the latter are left regularly and well distributed over the wood lot, leads to a management called "standard coppice." in this it is attempted to avoid the drawbacks of the coppice, viz, failure to produce dimension material and running out of the stocks. the former object is, however, only partially accomplished, as the trees grown without sufficient side shading are apt to produce branchy boles and hence knotty timber, besides injuring the coppice by their shade. plan of management. in order to harmonize the requirements of the wood lot from a sylvicultural point of view, and the needs of the farmer for wood supplies, the cutting must follow some systematic plan. the improvement cuttings need not, in point of time, have been made all over the lot before beginning the cuttings for regeneration, provided they have been made in those parts which are to be regenerated. both the cuttings may go on simultaneously, and this enables the farmer to gauge the amount of cutting to his consumption. according to the amount of wood needed, one or more groups may be started at the same time. it is, however, desirable, for the sake of renewing the crop systematically, to arrange the groups in a regular order over the lot. [illustration: fig. 15.--method of layering to produce new stocks in coppice wood.] 4. how to cultivate the wood crop. where only firewood is desired, i. e., wood without special form, size, or quality, no attention to the crop is necessary, except to insure that it covers the ground completely. nevertheless, even in such a crop, which is usually managed as coppice,[2] some of the operations described in this chapter may prove advantageous. where, however, not only quantity but useful quality of the crop is also to be secured, the development of the wood crop may be advantageously influenced by controlling the supply of light available to the individual trees. [2] see page 35 for description of coppice. it may be proper to repeat here briefly what has been explained in previous pages regarding the influence of light on tree development. effect of light on wood production. dense shade preserves soil moisture, the most essential element for wood production; a close stand of suitable kinds of trees secures this shading and prevents the surface evaporation of soil moisture, making it available for wood production. but a close stand also cuts off side light and confines the lateral growing space, and hence prevents the development of side branches and forces the growth energy of the soil to expend itself in height growth; the crown is carried up, and long, cylindrical shafts, clear of branches, are developed; a close stand thus secures desirable form and quality. yet, since the quality of wood production or accretion (other things being equal) is in direct proportion to the amount of foliage and the available light, and since an open position promotes the development of a larger crown and of more foliage, an open stand tends to secure a larger amount of wood accretion on each tree. on the other hand, a tree grown in the open, besides producing more branches, deposits a larger proportion of wood at the base, so that the shape of the bole becomes more conical, a form which in sawing proves unprofitable; whereas a tree grown in the dense forest both lengthens its shaft at the expense of branch growth and makes a more even deposit of wood over the whole trunk, thus attaining a more cylindrical form. while, then, the total amount of wood production per acre may be as large in a close stand of trees as in an open one (within limits), the distribution of this amount among a larger or smaller number of individual trees produces different results in the quality of the crop. and since the size of a tree or log is important in determining its usefulness and value, the sooner the individual trees reach useful size, without suffering in other points of quality, the more profitable the whole crop. number of trees per acre. the care of the forester, then, should be to maintain the smallest number of individuals on the ground which will secure the greatest amount of wood growth in the most desirable form of which the soil and climate are capable, without deteriorating the soil conditions. he tries to secure the most advantageous individual development of single trees without suffering the disadvantages resulting from too open stand. the solution of this problem requires the greatest skill and judgment, and rules can hardly be formulated with precision, since for every species or combination of species and conditions these rules must be modified. in a well-established young crop the number of seedlings per acre varies greatly, from 3,000 to 100,000, according to soil, species, and the manner in which it originated, whether planted, sown, or seeded naturally.[3] left to themselves, the seedlings, as they develop, begin to crowd each other. at first this crowding results only in increasing the height growth and in preventing the spread and full development of side branches; by and by the lower branches failing to receive sufficient light finally die and break off--the shaft "clears itself." then a distinct development of definite crowns takes place, and after some years a difference of height growth in different individuals becomes marked. not a few trees fail to reach the general upper crown surface, and, being more or less overtopped, we can readily classify them according to height and development of crown, the superior or "dominating" ones growing more and more vigorously, the inferior or "dominated" trees falling more and more behind, and finally dying for lack of light, and thus a natural reduction in numbers, or thinning, takes place. this natural thinning goes on with varying rates at different ages continuing through the entire life of the crop, so that, while only 4,000 trees per acre may be required in the tenth year to make a dense crown cover or normally close stand, untouched by man, in the fortieth year 1,200 would suffice to make the same dense cover, in the eightieth year 350 would be a full stand, and in the one hundredth not more than 250, according to soil and species, more or less. as we can discern three stages in the development of a single tree--the juvenile, adolescent, and mature--so, in the development of a forest growth, we may distinguish three corresponding stages, namely, the "thicket" or brushwood, the "pole-wood" or sapling, and the "timber" stage. during the thicket stage, in which the trees have a bushy appearance, allowing hardly any distinction of stem and crown, the height growth is most rapid. this period may last, according to conditions and species, from 5 or 10 to 30 and even 40 years--longer on poor soils and with shade-enduring species, shorter with light-needing species on good soils--and, while it lasts, it is in the interest of the wood grower to maintain the close stand, which produces the long shaft, clear of branches, on which at a later period the wood that makes valuable, clear timber, may accumulate. form development is now most important. the lower branches are to die and break off before they become too large. (see illustrations of the progress of "clearing," on pp. 15 and 16.) with light-needing species and with deciduous trees generally this dying off is accomplished more easily than with conifers. the spruces and even the white pine require very dense shading to "clear" the shaft. during this period it is only necessary to weed out the undesirable kinds, such as trees infested by insect and fungus, shrubs, sickly, stunted, or bushy trees which are apt to overtop and prevent the development of their better neighbors. in short, our attention is now devoted mainly to improving the composition of the crop. [3] if the crop does not, at 3 to 5 years of age, shade the ground well, with a complete crown cover, or canopy, it can not be said to be well established and should be filled out by planting. weeding and cleaning the crop. this weeding or cleaning is easily done with shears when the crop is from 3 to 5 years old. later, mere cutting back of the undesirable trees with a knife or hatchet maybe practiced. in well-made artificial plantations this weeding is rarely needed until about the eighth or tenth year. but in natural growths the young crop is sometimes so dense as to inordinately interfere with the development of the individual trees. the stems then remain so slender that there is danger of their being bent or broken by storm or snow when the growth is thinned out later. in such cases timely thinning is indicated to stimulate more rapid development of the rest of the crop. this can be done most cheaply by cutting swaths or lanes one yard wide and us far apart through the crop, leaving strips standing. the outer trees of the strip, at least, will then shoot ahead and become the main crop. these weeding or improvement cuttings, which must be made gradually and be repeated every two or three years, are best performed during the summer months, or in august and september, when it is easy to judge what should be taken out. methods of thinning. during the "thicket" stage, then, which may last from 10 to 25 and more years, the crop is gradually brought into proper composition and condition. when the "pole-wood" stage is reached, most of the saplings being now from 3 to 6 inches in diameter and from 15 to 25 feet in height, the variation in sizes and in appearance becomes more and more marked. some of the taller trees begin to show a long, clear shaft and a definite crown. the trees can be more or less readily classified into height and size classes. the rate at which the height growth has progressed begins to fall off and diameter growth increases. now comes the time when attention must be given to increasing this diameter growth by reducing the number of individuals and thus having all the wood which the soil can produce deposited on fewer individuals. this is done by judicious and often repeated thinning, taking out some of the trees and thereby giving more light and increasing the foliage of those remaining; and as the crowns expand, so do the trunks increase their diameter in direct proportion. these thinnings must, however, be made cautiously lest at the same time the soil is exposed too much, or the branch growth of those trees which are to become timber wood is too much stimulated. so varying are the conditions to be considered, according to soil, site, species, and development of the crop, that it is well-nigh impossible, without a long and detailed discussion, to lay down rules for the proper procedure. in addition the opinions of authorities differ largely both as to manner and degree of thinning, the old school advising moderate, and the new school severer thinnings. for the farmer, who can give personal attention to detail and whose object is to grow a variety of sizes and kinds of wood, the following general method may perhaps be most useful: first determine which trees are to be treated as the main crop or "final harvest" crop. for this 300 to 500 trees per acre of the best grown and most useful kinds may be selected, which should be distributed as uniformly as possible over the acre. these, then--or as many as may live till the final harvest--are destined to grow into timber and are to form the special favorites as much as possible. they may at first be marked to insure recognition; later on they will be readily distinguished by their superior development the rest, which we will call the "subordinate" crop, is then to serve merely as filler, nurse, and soil cover. what trees to remove. it is now necessary, by careful observation of the surroundings of each of the "final harvest" crop trees, or "superiors," as we may call them, to determine what trees of the "subordinate" crop trees, or "inferiors," must be removed. all nurse trees that threaten to overtop the superiors must either be cut out or cut back and topped, if that is practicable, so that the crown of the superiors can develop freely. those that are only narrowing in the superiors from the side, without preventing their free top development, need not be interfered with, especially while they are still useful in preventing the formation and spreading of side branches on the superiors. as soon as the latter have fully cleared their shafts, these crowding inferiors must be removed. care must be taken, however, not to remove too many at a time, thus opening the crown cover too severely and thereby exposing the soil to the drying influence of the sun. gradually, as the crowns of inferiors standing farther away begin to interfere with those of the superiors, the inferiors are removed, and thus the full effect of the light is secured in the accretion of the main harvest crop; at the same time the branch growth has been prevented and the soil has been kept shaded. meanwhile thinnings may also be made in the subordinate crop, in order to secure also the most material from this part of the crop. this is done by cutting out all trees that threaten to be killed by their neighbors. in this way many a useful stick is saved and the dead material, only good for firewood, lessened. it is evident that trees which in the struggle for existence have fallen behind, so as to be overtopped by their neighbors, can not, either by their presence or by their removal, influence the remaining growth. they are removed only in order to utilize their wood before it decays. it may be well to remark again that an undergrowth of woody plants interferes in no way with the development of the main crop, but, on the contrary, aids by its shade in preserving favorable moisture conditions. its existence, however, shows in most cases that the crown cover is not as dense as it should be, and hence that thinning is not required. grass and weed growth, on the other hand, is emphatically disadvantageous and shows that the crown cover is dangerously open. the answer to the three questions, when to begin the thinnings, how severely to thin, and how often to repeat the operation, must always depend upon the varying appearance of the growth and the necessities in each case. the first necessity for interference may arise with light-needing species as early as the twelfth or fifteenth year; with shade-enduring, not before the twentieth or twenty-fifth year. the necessary severity of the thinning and the repetition are somewhat interdependent. it is better to thin carefully and repeat the operation oftener than to open up so severely at once as to jeopardize the soil conditions. especially in younger growths and on poorer soil, it is best never to open a continuous crown cover so that it could not close up again within 3 to 5 years; rather repeat the operation oftener. later, when the trees have attained heights of 50 to 60 feet and clear boles (which may be in 40 to 50 years, according to soil and kind) the thinning may be more severe, so as to require repetition only every 6 to 10 years. the condition of the crown cover, then, is the criterion which directs the ax. as soon as the crowns again touch or interlace, the time has arrived to thin again. in mixed growths it must not be overlooked that light-needing species must be specially protected against shadier neighbors. shade-enduring trees, such as the spruces, beech, sugar maple, and hickories, bear overtopping for a time and will then grow vigorously when more light is given, while light-needing species, like the pines, larch, oaks, and ash, when once suppressed, may never be able to recover. particular attention is called to the necessity of leaving a rather denser "wind mantle" all around small groves. in this part of the grove the thinning must be less severe, unless coniferous trees on the outside can be encouraged by severe thinning to hold their branches low down, thus increasing their value as wind-breaks. the thinnings, then, while giving to the "final harvest" crop all the advantage of light for promoting its rapid development into serviceable timber size, furnish also better material from the subordinate crop. at 60 to 70 years of age the latter may have been entirely removed and only the originally selected "superiors" remain on the ground, or as many of them as have not died and been removed; 250 to 400 of these per acre will make a perfect stand of most valuable form and size, ready for the final harvest, which should be made as indicated in the preceding chapter. 5.--the relation of forests to farms. that all things in nature are related to each other and interdependent is a common saying, a fact doubted by nobody, yet often forgotten or neglected in practical life. the reason is partly indifference and partly ignorance as to the actual nature of the relationship; hence we suffer, deservedly or not. the farmer's business, more than any other, perhaps, depends for its success upon a true estimate of and careful regard for this inter-relation, he adapts his crop to the nature of the soil, the manner of its cultivation to the changes of the seasons, and altogether he shapes conditions and places them in their proper relations to each other and adapts himself to them. soil, moisture, and heat are the three factors which, if properly related and utilized, combine to produce his crops. in some directions he can control these factors more or less readily; in others they are withdrawn from his immediate influence, and he is seemingly helpless. he can maintain the fertility of the soil by manuring, by proper rotation of crops, and by deep culture; he can remove surplus moisture by ditching and draining; he can, by irrigation systems, bring water to his crops, and by timely cultivation prevent excessive evaporation, thereby rendering more water available to the crop; but he can not control the rainfall nor the temperature changes of the seasons. recent attempts to control the rainfall by direct means exhibit one of the greatest follies and misconceptions of natural forces we have witnessed during this age. nevertheless, by indirect means the farmer has it in his power to exercise much greater control over these forces than he has attempted hitherto. he can prevent or reduce the unfavorable effects of temperature changes; he can increase the available water supplies, and prevent the evil effects of excessive rainfall; he can so manage the waters which fall as to get the most benefit from them and avoid the harm which they are able to inflict. before attempting to control the rainfall itself by artifice, we should study how to secure the best use of that which falls, as it comes within reach of human agencies and becomes available by natural causes. how poorly we understand the use of these water supplies is evidenced yearly by destructive freshets and floods, with the accompanying washing of soil, followed by droughts, low waters, and deterioration of agricultural lands. it is claimed that annually in the united states about 200 square miles of fertile soil are washed into brooks and rivers, a loss of soil capital which can not be repaired for centuries. at the same time millions of dollars are appropriated yearly in the river and harbor bills to dig out the lost farms from the rivers, and many thousands of dollars' worth of crops and other property are destroyed by floods and overflows; not to count the large loss from droughts which this country suffers yearly in one part or the other, and which, undoubtedly, could be largely avoided, if we knew how to manage the available water supplies. the regulation, proper distribution, and utilization of the rain waters in humid as well as in arid regions--water management--is to be the great problem of successful-agriculture in the future. one of the most powerful means for such water management lies in the proper distribution and maintenance of forest areas. nay, we can say that the most successful water management is not possible without forest management. the forest waters the farm. whether forests increase the amount of precipitation within or near their limits is still an open question, although there are indications that under certain conditions large, dense forest areas may have such an effect. at any rate, the water transpired by the foliage is certain, in some degree, to increase the relative humidity near the forest, and thereby increase directly or indirectly the water supplies in its neighborhood. this much we can assert, also, that while extended plains and fields, heated by the sun, and hence giving rise to warm currents of air, have the tendency to prevent condensation of the passing moisture-bearing currents, forest areas, with their cooler, moister air strata, do not have such a tendency, and local showers may therefore become more frequent in their neighborhood. but, though no increase in the amount of rainfall may be secured by forest areas, the availability of whatever falls is increased for the locality by a well-kept and properly located forest growth. the foliage, twigs, and branches break the fall of the raindrops, and so does the litter of the forest floor, hence the soil under this cover is not compacted as in the open field, but kept loose and granular, so that the water can readily penetrate and percolate; the water thus reaches the ground more slowly, dripping gradually from the leaves, branches, and trunks, and allowing more time for it to sink into the soil. this percolation is also made easier by the channels along the many roots. similarly, on account of the open structure of the soil and the slower melting of the snow under a forest cover in spring, where it lies a fortnight to a month longer than in exposed positions and melts with less waste from evaporation, the snow waters more fully penetrate the ground. again, more snow is caught and preserved under the forest cover than on the wind-swept fields and prairies. all these conditions operate together, with the result that larger amounts of the water sink into the forest soil and to greater depths than in open fields. this moisture is conserved because of the reduced evaporation in the cool and still forest air, being protected from the two great moisture-dissipating agents, sun and wind. by these conditions alone the water supplies available in the soil are increased from 50 to 60 per cent over those available on the open field. owing to those two causes, then--increased percolation and decreased evaporation--larger amounts of moisture become available to feed the springs and subsoil waters, and these become finally available to the farm, if the forest is located at a higher elevation than the field. the great importance of the subsoil water especially and the influence of forest areas upon it has so far received too little attention and appreciation. it is the subsoil water that is capable of supplying the needed moisture in times of drought. the forest tempers the farm. another method by which a forest belt becomes a conservator of moisture lies in its wind-breaking capacity, by which both velocity and temperature of winds are modified and evaporation from the fields to the leeward is reduced. on the prairie, wind-swept every day and every hour, the farmer has learned to plant a wind-break around his buildings and orchards, often only a single-row of trees, and finds even that a desirable shelter, tempering both the hot winds of summer and the cold blasts of winter. the fields he usually leaves unprotected; yet a wind-break around his crops to the windward would bring him increased yield, and a timber belt would act still more effectively. says a farmer from illinois: my experience is that now in cold and stormy winters fields protected by timber belts yield full crops, while fields not protected yield only one-third of a crop. twenty-five or thirty years ago we never had any wheat killed by winter frost, and every year we had a full crop of peaches, which is now very rare. at that time we had plenty of timber around our fields and orchards, now cleared away. not only is the temperature of the winds modified by passing over and through the shaded and cooler spaces of protecting timber bolts disposed toward the windward and alternating with the fields, but their velocity is broken and moderated, and since with reduced velocity the evaporative power of the winds is very greatly reduced, so more water is left available for crops. every foot in height of a forest growth will protect 1 rod in distance, and several bolts in succession would probably greatly increase the effective distance. by preventing deep freezing of the soil the winter cold is not so much prolonged, and the frequent fogs and mists that hover near forest areas prevent many frosts. that stock will thrive better where it can find protection from the cold blasts of winter and from the heat of the sun in summer is a well-established fact. the forest protects the farm. on the sandy plains, where the winds are apt to blow the sand, shifting it hither and thither, a forest belt to the windward is the only means to keep the farm protected. in the mountain and hill country the farms are apt to suffer from heavy rains washing away the soil. where the tops and slopes are bared of their forest cover, the litter of the forest floor burnt up, the soil trampled and compacted by cattle and by the patter of the raindrops, the water can not penetrate the soil readily, but is earned off superficially, especially when the soil is of, day and naturally compact. as a result the waters, rushing over the surface down the hill, run together in rivulets and streams and acquire such a force as to be able to move loose particles and even stones; the ground becomes furrowed with gullies and runs; the fertile soil is washed away; the fields below are covered with silt; the roads are damaged; the water courses tear their banks, and later run dry because the waters that should feed them by subterranean channels have been carried away in the flood. the forest cover on the hilltops and steep hillsides which are not fit for cultivation prevents this erosive action of the waters by the same influence by which it increases available water supplies. the important effects of a forest cover, then, are retention of larger quantities of water and carrying them off under ground and giving them up gradually, thus extending the time of their usefulness and preventing their destructive action. in order to be thoroughly effective, the forest growth must be dense, and, especially, the forest floor must not be robbed of its accumulations of foliage, surface mulch and litter, or its underbrush by fire, nor must it be compacted by the trampling of cattle. on the gentler slopes, which are devoted to cultivation, methods of underdraining, such as horizontal ditches partly filled with stones and covered with soil, terracing, and contour plowing, deep cultivation, sodding, and proper rotation of crops, must be employed to prevent damage from surface waters. the forest supplies the farm with useful material. all the benefits derived from the favorable influence of forest bolts upon water conditions can be had without losing any of the useful material that the forest produces. the forest grows to be cut and to be utilized; it is a crop to be harvested. it is a crop which, if properly managed, does not need to be replanted; it reproduces itself. when once established, the ax, if properly guided by skillful hands, is the only tool necessary to cultivate it and to reproduce it. there is no necessity of planting unless the wood lot has been mismanaged. the wood lot, then, if properly managed, is not only the guardian of the farm, but it is the savings bank from which fair interest can be annually drawn, utilizing for the purpose the poorest part of the farm. nor does the wood lot require much attention; it is to the farm what the workbasket is to the good housewife--a means with which improve the odds and ends of time, especially during the winter, when other farm business is at a standstill. it may be added that the material which the farmer can secure from the wood lot, besides the other advantages recited above, is of far greater importance and value than is generally admitted. on a well-regulated farm of 160 acres, with its 4 miles and more of fencing and with its wood fires in range and stove, at least 25 cords of wood are required annually, besides material for repair of buildings, or altogether the annual product of probably 40 to 50 acres of well-stocked forest is needed. the product may represent, according to location, an actual stumpage value of from $1 to $3 per acre, a sure crop coming every year without regard to weather, without trouble and work, and raised on the poorest part of the farm. it is questionable whether such net results could be secured with the same steadiness from any other crop. nor must it be overlooked that the work in harvesting this crop falls into a time when little else could be done. wire fences and coal fires are, no doubt, good substitutes, but they require ready cash, and often the distance of haulage makes them rather expensive. presently, too, when the virgin woods have been still further culled of their valuable stores, the farmer who has preserved a sufficiently large and well-tended wood lot will be able to derive a comfortable money revenue from it by supplying the market with wood of various kinds and sizes. the german state forests, with their complicated administrations, which eat up 4 per cent of the gross income, yield, with prices of wood about the same as in our country, an annual net revenue of from $1 to $4 and more per acre. why should not the farmer, who does not pay salaries to managers, overseers, and forest guards, make at least as much money out of this crop when he is within reach of a market? with varying conditions the methods would of course vary. in a general way, if he happens to have a virgin growth of mixed woods, the first care would be to improve the composition of the wood lot by cutting out the less desirable kinds, the weeds of tree growth, and the poorly grown trees which impede the development of more deserving neighbors. the wood thus cut he will use as firewood or in any other way, and, even if he could not use it at all, and had to burn it up, the operation would pay indirectly by leaving him a better crop. then he may use the rest of the crop, gradually cutting the trees as needed, but he must take care that the openings are not made too large, so that they can readily fill out with young growth from the seed of the remaining trees, and he must also pay attention to the young aftergrowth, giving it light as needed. thus without ever resorting to planting he may harvest the old timber and have a now crop taking its place and perpetuate the wood lot without in any way curtailing his use of the same. farmers' bulletins. these bulletins are sent free of charge to any address upon application to the secretary of agriculture. washington, d. c. only the following are available for distribution: no. 15. some destructive potato diseases: what they are and how to prevent thorn. pp. 8. no. 16. leguminous plants for green manuring and for feeding. pp. 24. no. 18. forage plants for the south. pp. 30. no. 19. important insecticides: directions for their preparation and use. pp. 20. no. 21. barnyard manure. pp. 32. no. 22. feeding farm animals. pp. 32. no. 23. foods: nutritive value and cost. pp. 32. no. 24. hog cholera and swine plague. pp. 16. no. 25. peanuts: culture and uses. pp. 24. no. 26. sweet potatoes: culture and uses. pp. 30. no. 27. flax for seed and fiber. pp. 16. no. 28. weeds; and how to kill them. pp. 30. no. 29. souring of milk, and other changes in milk products. pp. 28. no. 30. grape diseases on the pacific coast. pp. 16. no. 31. alfalfa, or lucern. pp. 23. no. 32. silos and silage. pp. 31. no. 33. peach growing for market. pp. 24. no. 34. meats: composition and cooking. pp. 29. no. 35. potato culture. pp. 23. no. 36. cotton seed and its products. pp. 10. no. 37. katir corn: characteristics, culture, and uses. pp. 12. no. 38. spraying for fruit diseases. pp. 12. no. 39. onion culture. pp. 31. no. 40. farm drainage. pp. 24. no. 41. fowls: care and feeding. pp. 24. no. 42. facts about milk. pp. 29. no. 43. sewage disposal on the farm. pp. 22. no. 44. commercial fertilizers. pp. 24. no. 45. some insects injurious to stored grain. pp. 32. no. 46. irrigation in humid climates. pp. 27. no. 47. insects affecting the cotton plant. pp. 32. no. 48. the manuring of cotton. pp. 10. no. 49. sheep feeding. pp. 24. no. 50. sorghum as a forage crop. pp. 24. no. 51. standard varieties of chickens. pp. 48. no. 52. the sugar beet. pp. 48. no. 53. how to grow mushrooms. pp. 20. no. 54. some common birds in their relation to agriculture. pp. 40. no. 55. the dairy herd: its formation and management. pp. 24. no. 56. experiment station work--i. pp. 30. no. 57. butter making on the farm. pp. 15. no. 58. the soy bean as a forage crop. pp. 24. no. 59. bee keeping. pp. 32. no. 60. methods of curing tobacco. pp. 10. no. 61. asparagus culture. pp. 40. no. 62. marketing farm produce. pp. 28. no. 63. care of milk on the farm. pp. 40. no. 64. ducks and geese. pp. 48. no. 65. experiment station work--ii. pp. 32. no. 66. meadows and pastures. pp. 24. no. 67. forestry for farmers. pp. 48. no. 68. the black rot of the cabbage. pp. 22. no. 69. experiment station work--iii. pp. 32. no. 70. the principal insect enemies of the grape. pp. 24. no. 71. some essentials of beef production. pp. 24. no. 72. cattle ranges of the southwest. pp. 32. no. 73. experiment station work--iv. pp. 32. no. 74. milk as food. pp. 39. no. 75. the grain smuts. pp. 20. no. 76. tomato growing. pp. 30. no. 77. the liming of soils. pp. 19. no. 78. experiment station work--v. pp. 32. no. 79. experiment station work--vi. pp. 28. no. 80. the peach twig-borer--an important enemy of stone fruits. pp. 10. no. 81. corn culture in the south. pp. 24. no. 82. the culture of tobacco. pp. 23. no. 83. tobacco soils. pp. 23. no. 84. experiment station work--vii. pp. 82. no. 85. fish as food. pp. 30. no. 86. thirty poisonous plants. pp. 32. no. 87. experiment station work--viii. (in press.) no. 88. alkali lands. pp. 23. no. 89. cowpeas. (in press.) * * * * * transcriber note illustrations were move so a to prevent splitting paragraphs. minor typos corrected. illustrations were obtained from the the internet archive and the university of north texas' usda farmers' bulletins digital library. [illustration: ohio arbor day 1913] department of education state of ohio in accordance with section 358 of the general code of ohio this arbor and bird day manual is issued for the benefit of the schools of our state compiled by mrs. grace r. clifton issued by the state commissioner of common schools april 1913 columbus, ohio: the f. j. heer printing co. 1913 state of ohio executive department office of the governor. proclamation. by authority of the law of the state of ohio, friday, april 4th, 1913, is hereby named and set apart as arbor day. the statutes provide that those in charge of public schools and institutions of learning are required to devote at least two hours to giving information to the pupils and students concerning the value and interest of forestry and the duty of the public to protect the birds thereof and also for planting forest trees. it is well that our people have come to a full appreciation of the commercial, as well as the sentimental value of these things. this appreciation was arrived at through the proper inculcation into the minds of the young of the importance of observing the matters of nature upon which we are all so dependent. but let us not confine our observance of arbor day alone to the schools and institutions of learning. let us at least carry the spirit of the day also into our homes as well. and above all, let us be mindful at this time of the great scheme of nature wherein the humblest plant and flower, as well as the lordliest of the animal creation, has its proper place. [illustration: ohio state seal] in testimony whereof, i have hereunto subscribed my name and caused the great seal of the state to be affixed at columbus, this fifteenth day of january, in the year of our lord, one thousand, nine hundred and thirteen. by the governor: james m. cox. chas. h. graves secretary of state. [illustration: (signed) james m. cox] section 358. the state commissioner of common schools shall issue each year a manual for arbor day exercises. the manual shall contain matters relating to forestry and birds, including a copy of such laws relating to the protection of song and insectivorous birds as he deems proper. he shall transmit copies of the manual to the superintendents of city, village, special and township schools and to the clerks of boards of education, who shall cause them to be distributed among the teachers of the schools under their charge. on arbor day, and other days when convenient, the teachers shall cause such laws to be read to the scholars of their respective schools and shall encourage them to aid in the protection of such birds. section 7688. not later than april the governor of the state shall appoint and set apart one day in the spring season of each year, as a day on which those in charge of the public schools and institutions of learning under state control, or state patronage, for at least two hours must give information to the pupils and students concerning the value and interest of forests, the duty of the public to protect the birds thereof, and also for planting forest trees. such a day shall be known as arbor day. section 1409. no persons shall catch, kill, injure, pursue or have in his possession either dead or alive, or purchase, expose for sale, transport or ship to a port within or without the state a turtle or mourning dove, sparrow, nuthatch, warbler, flicker, vireo, wren, american robin, catbird, tanager, bobolink, blue jay, oriole, grosbeck or redbird, creeper, redstart, waxwing, woodpecker, humming bird, killdeer, swallow, blue bird, blackbird, meadow lark, bunting, starling, redwing, purple martin, brown thresher, american goldfinch, chewink or ground robin, pewee or phoebe bird, chickadee, fly catcher, knat catcher, mouse hawk, whippoorwill, snow bird, titmouse, gull, eagle, buzzard, or any wild bird other than a game bird. no part of the plumage, skin or body of such bird shall be sold or had in possession for sale. section 1410. no person shall disturb or destroy the eggs, nests or young of a bird named in the preceding section; but nothing of the preceding section shall prohibit the killing of a chicken hawk, blue hawk, cooper hawk, sharp skinned hawk, crow, great horned owl, or english sparrow, or the destroying of their nests, or prohibit the owner or duly authorized agent of the premises from killing blackbirds at any time, except on sunday, when they are found to be a nuisance or are injuring grain or other property. introduction. this arbor and bird day annual has been compiled and published for the benefit of the teachers of ohio. it is our purpose to have this book used from the time it is received until the close of the school term. we find that but few books written about birds and their habits come into the hands of the boys and girls; therefore, we have attempted to include as much additional information as possible concerning the most common birds of ohio. you will find that the articles about birds are but a continuation of bird study found in the 1912 arbor and bird day annual. we are under obligations to "nature and life", a publication of the audubon society, for their articles, for which credit is given after each selection. johnny appleseed is a character with whom all the boys and girls should become acquainted. c. l. martzolf's article about this peculiar man should be read carefully. f. b. pearson contributed a fine description and history of the "logan elm". charles degarmo of cornell university generously contributed two poems that have not appeared in print before this publication. g. r. c. [illustration: "the old beech tree," ohio university campus, athens, ohio.] the class tree. (tune: america.) grow thou and flourish well ever the story tell, of this glad day; long may thy branches raise to heaven our grateful praise waft them on sunlight rays to god away. deep in the earth to-day, safely thy roots we lay, tree of our love; grow thou and flourish long; ever our grateful song shall its glad notes prolong to god above. "let music swell the breeze, and ring from all the trees," on this glad day: bless thou each student band o'er all our happy land; teach them thy love's command. great god, we pray. --_emma s. thomas, schoharie, n.y., in teacher's magazine._ this is arbor day. (tune: lightly row.) arbor day, arbor day, see, the fields are fresh and green, all is bright, cheerful sight, after winter's night. birds are flying in the air, all we see is fresh and fair; bowers green now are seen, flowers peep between. swaying trees, swaying trees, rocking gently in the breeze, dressed so gay, fine array, for this is arbor day. while we plant our trees so dear, all the others list to hear how we sing, in the spring, and our voices ring. here we stand, here we stand, round the tree, a royal band; music floats, cheering notes, sweetly, gaily floats. march along with heads so high while our tree is standing nigh; step away, light and gay, on this arbor day. --_selected._ [illustration: this school building is located at pickerington, fairfield county. violet township helped to build this building, and the town and township have among the best of the centralized schools of the state.] why we plant the tree. first pupil. we plant the tree for the shade it gives; for the shade of a leafy tree on a hot summer's day when the hot sun shines, is pleasant for all to see. second pupil. we plant the tree for the dear birds' sakes, for they can take their rest, while the mate sings of love and cheer to the mother on her nest. third pupil. we plant the tree to please the eye, for who does not like to see, whether on hill or plain or dale, the beauty of a tree? fourth pupil. we plant the tree for the wood to use in winter to keep us warm, and for hall and church and store and house, to have shelter from the storm. --_primary education._ what the tree teaches us. first pupil. i am taught by the oak to be rugged and strong in defence of the right; in defiance of wrong. second pupil. i have learned from the maple, that beauty, to win the love all hearts, must have sweetness within. third pupil. the beech with its branches widespreading and low, awakes in my heart hospitality's glow. fourth pupil. the pine tells of constancy, in its sweet voice; it whispers of hope, till sad mortals rejoice. --_selected._ arbor day fete. by grace a. lusk, milwaukee. (stage, if possible, represents scene out-of-doors; raised throne to right.) _enter chorus._ every season hath its pleasures, which we sing in joyous measures; in summer's sunshine, rich and sweet, blossom flowers, ripens wheat; autumn puts the wood aflame, poets give her beauties fame; winter comes--a world of snow and crisp, clear air make faces glow; spring awakens nature dear, song birds chant 'neath skies so clear, every season hath its pleasures, which we sing with joyous measures. _enter boy and girl_ (with flag and drum). _boy_: in summer comes the joyous fourth, i beat my drum for all i'm worth; _girl_: our crackers make a joyous noise, for girls like fun as well as boys. (the holidays, after speaking, step to left and right of throne.) _enter girl_ (in puritan dress). after reaping harvest's gold thanks we render, for manifold the blessings are each passing year, thanksgiving is a day of cheer. _enter girl_ (in coat and furs, arms full of packages and holly). on the night before christmas there came to our house, a right jolly old elf, as still as a mouse; he filled all the stockings, trimmed each christmas tree, made our christmas merry--a good saint is he! _enter very small boy_ (carrying a big book under his arm with 1913 printed on it). the wild bells rang across the snow, the old year went--though loath to go; the new year came, while bells were ringing; his days of joy and sorrow bringing. _enter girl_ (in white trimmed with red hearts). mine is a day of piercing darts, flowers sweet, and big red hearts, cupids tender, verses fine, i'm the happy valentine. _enter two boys_ (carrying flags). _together_: birthdays of patriots, brave and true, in february drear, make cheer for you. _first boy_: lincoln so kind, was everyone's friend; _second boy_: washington did a young nation defend. _chorus_ (to holidays). once, each year, supreme you reign, o'er the lads and lassies in your train, now comes our gentle springtime fay, the gladsome, happy arbor day. _enter arbor day_ (in white, crown of flowers, accompanied by two small maids with flowers, accompanist softly plays mendelssohn's spring song). _chorus continues._ each holiday brings joy and gladness- makes us banish thoughts of sadness, arbor day, your reign is brief,- but every blossom, every leaf, every bird of wood or field its fullest homage now doth yield. may you be a happy queen, we, happy subjects are, i ween. _arbor day_ (while chorus leads her to throne). thank you for your greeting hearty, this will be a merry party. _chorus._ our friends, the children, in meadows at play, are coming to join our glad holiday. _school children_ (with baskets and bouquets of flowers pass to right of stage, salute in military fashion, saying): dear arbor day, your subjects loyal, give you greetings, hearty, royal. _queen._ thank you, friends, greeting sweeter, never yet a queen had greet her. _enter ten girls_ (in white with flowers in hands and in their hair; they quickly and lightly run across stage and form in line; each courtesies as she says her lines). _first girl_: i'm the queen, for i'm the rose, the proudest, sweetest flower that blows. _second girl_: i'm shy violet, from the wood, you know me by my purple hood. _third girl_: i'm the dandelion yellow, some call me a saucy fellow. _fourth girl_: i'm anemone, shy and tender, on my stalk so tall and slender. _fifth girl_: i'm morning glory that climbs the wall, my trumpet flowers softly call. _sixth girl_: i'm buttercup with a chalice to hold the rich warm sunshine's yellow gold. _seventh girl_: i'm apple-blossom, my pink dresses the bee admires, so he confesses. _eighth girl_: i'm waterlily, my golden heart keeps the sunbeam's glancing dart. _ninth girl_: i'm shy crocus, the first to show my pretty head from beneath the snow. _tenth girl_: i'm sleepy poppy, from my home in the wheat, i've come with the others our new queen to greet. _all in unison_: dear arbor day, your subjects loyal, give you greeting, hearty royal. _arbor day._ thank you, blossoms, sweet and tender, i your kindness shall remember. _rose_ (turning to flowers and holidays). nature laughs in gleeful joy, in songbirds trill, in flowerlets coy, shall we, also, voices raise, sing our gentle spring queen's praise? (school children, holidays and flowers sing while flowers join hands and dance about in circle.) (tune: campbells are coming.) springtime is here, tra-la, tra-la, brooklets run clear, tra-la, tra-la, birds are winging, flowers springing, for springtime is here, tra-la, tra-la. (alternate girls step inside circle, face outward, other circle about.) the gentle may breeze, tra-la, tra-la, plays o'er the green leas, tra-la, tra-la, dandelions twinkle, violets sprinkle, the sward 'neath the trees, tra-la, tra-la. (each girl in inner circle gives her right hand to left hand of girl in outer circle, thus in "wheel form" they circle singing.) the garden flowers gay, tra-la, tra-la, are here to stay, tra-la, tra-la, the rich red roses, and all pretty posies, say springtime is here, tra-la, tra-la. (dropping hands in single file they pass to back of stage singing.) springtime is here, tra-la, tra-la, brooklets run clear, tra-la, tra-la, birds are winging, flowers springing, for springtime is here, tra-la, tra-la. _arbor day._ thank you, friends, greeting sweeter, never yet a queen had greet her. but who comes now in trim array so straight and proud,--tell me, pray? _trees enter_ (carrying budded boughs of trees; they march and countermarch in simple march figures, while piano plays "campbells are coming," or "narcissus." they form in line, each saluting queen as he speaks his line.) _first boy:_ the maple gives us grateful shade; _second boy:_ the laurel's honors never fade; _third boy:_ the chestnut's flowers are fine to see; _fourth boy:_ but the apple's are better, thinks the bee; _fifth boy:_ the fir tree softly seems to sigh; _sixth boy:_ the spruce lifts up its head so high; _seventh boy:_ the elm tree's beauty you'll remark; _eighth boy:_ the birch is proud of its silver bark; _ninth boy:_ the cedar tree is stately and tall, _tenth boy:_ but the hale old oak is king of all. _trees in unison:_ arbor day, your subjects loyal, give you greetings; hearty, royal. (march to music to back of stage behind flowers.) _arbor day._ thank you, trees, from lowland and hill, i appreciate your hearty good will, are others still coming to our fete? we welcome them, though they be late. _enter ten small girls_ (run in on tiptoe lightly, waving arms while the others sing.) the birds are flying, tra-la, tra-la, their strong wings a-trying, tra-la, tra-la, from east and west, they come with the rest, for springtime is here, tra-la, tra-la. _first girl_ (courtesies): the robin has a pretty vest, _second girl:_ the bluebird sweetly sings his best; _third girl:_ the bob-o-link trills in its meadow home, _fourth girl:_ the bluejay calls in a shrill loud tone, _fifth girl:_ the blackbird sings in the tall marsh rushes, _sixth girl:_ but sweeter, softer, call the thrushes, _seventh girl:_ the oriole whistles from its swinging nest, _eighth girl:_ but the song sparrow sings the sweetest and best. _ninth girl:_ the meadow lark chants his mad, merry glee, _tenth girl:_ woodpecker just taps, so busy is he. _in unison:_ dear arbor day, your subjects loyal, give you greeting, hearty, royal. _arbor day:_ a queen whose welcomed by the birds, feels joy too deep for idle words. dear friends, my subjects, it is may; let us sing spring's roundelay. (here may be introduced groups of the charming flower songs by mrs. gaynor, bird songs by nevin, simple folk dances, and appropriate spring poems, etc., as part of the may day fete.) _arbor day._ this day has been so full of pleasure, i cannot yet my sadness measure. and scatter our joyousness far and wide. (exit, first the birds, then the trees, the flowers, the school children, the holidays, then arbor day and chorus, singing.) the birds are trilling, tra-la, tra-la, their glad songs are filling, tra-la, tra-la, the wood and dale, the meadow and vale, the springtime is come, tra-la, tra-la. the gentle may breeze, tra-la, tra-la, plays o'er the green leas, tra-la, tra-la, dandelions twinkle, violets sprinkle, the sward 'neath the trees, tra-la, tra-la. the garden flowers gay, tra-la, tra-la, are here to stay, tra-la, tra-la, the rich red rosies and all the posies, say springtime is here, tra-la, tra-la. springtime is here, tra-la, tra-la, brooklets run clear, tra-la, tra-la, birds are winging, flowers springing, for springtime is here, tra-la, tra-la. (simple costumes make this more effective. all the girls wear white gowns--chorus has a simple greek dress. arbor day a crown of flowers and scepter, her maids baskets of flowers; the flower girls wear chaplets of blossoms, artificial ones are best; the holidays can wear appropriate dress; the school-children enter as if from play with their baskets, dolls, flowers, fishing rods, etc.) a broken wing. in front of my pew sits a maiden- a little brown wing in her hat, with its touches of tropical azure, and the sheen of the sun upon that. through the colored pane shines a glory, by which the vast shadows are stirred, but i pine for the spirit and splendor, that painted the wing of that bird. the organ rolls down its great anthem, with the soul of a song it is blent; but for me, i am sick for the singing, of one little song that is spent. the voice of the preacher is gentle; "no sparrow shall fall to the ground;" but the poor broken wing on the bonnet, is mocking the merciful sound. --_selected._ hunting the wild. one christmas, over forty years ago, my grandfather sent to me from colorado a real indian bow and arrows. it was a beautiful bow with a sinew string and wrapped in the middle and at the ends with sinews. the arrow-heads were iron spikes, bound in place with wrapping of fine sinews. the eagle feathers' tips were also bound with sinews. it was a beautiful, snow-clad christmas morning, and i remember how i yearned to go with this bow and arrows into the cedar grove to shoot the birds feeding there. this yearning must have expressed itself in some way, for i distinctly remember how a man with my bow and arrows led the way, and i in restrained delight followed him to the cedar grove. i remember how he maneuvered among the trees, and with keen eyes watched for an opportunity to make a shot. he stopped, whispered to me, pointed to a bird in the trunk of a cedar. raising the bow, it bent taut under his firm, cautious pull. "whiz," went the arrow, and there, pinned to the tree with the iron spike, fluttered a hairy woodpecker. to my wondering child-mind it was a great feat--my inherent instinct for hunting the wild approved and applauded. that very phase of human nature is what we are now trying to eliminate from the present and coming generation. --eugene swope. [illustration: "hungry hollow."] wren notes. from nature and culture. we have grown to expect at least one wren's nest on our porch or elsewhere in our yard each year; so, as usual, we put our boxes this spring with notices, figuratively: "for wrens only--no sparrows need apply." knowing jenny's fastidious taste, we furnish several boxes, thus giving her a choice. there is but little we would not do to induce her to live in our neighborhood, and it would be a great disappointment to us if she would not accept one of our houses, rent free. this year, 1912, she carried twigs to three different boxes before she settled down to business. when this occurred, to our amusement, she went to the other two boxes for twigs, bringing them to the chosen site, instead of getting them from the ground, which for obvious reasons would have been much easier. mr. wren is not so hard to suit. anything is good enough, in his estimation, much to the disgust of his spouse. [illustration: we are seven.] one day he made bold to select a box and carried in a few twigs to lay the "cornerstone" of a structure. soon mrs. wren came upon the scene and in unmistakable language told him what she thought of him. still scolding, this xantippe of birds threw out the material he had brought, and, meekly submitting, he accepted her choice of a new location. we always have to reckon with the sparrows--"avian rats," as some one has aptly called them. we do our best in helping jenny drive them away by emptying out the stuff they bring in, by shooting them away, and even by use of the air gun. when absent one day for several hours we found, upon our return, the following things in the box: a rusty nail, an old safety pin, a hairpin, an elastic fixture, besides the usual bits of grass, weeds, sticks, roots, etc. after emptying this out, it gave mrs. wren her inning once more, and she improved the opportunity; for she built an unusually fine nest, which is not altogether apparent in this illustration. the box containing the nest was placed upon a ledge of the porch and so could be easily taken down for inspection. the material first used in the nest was twigs found under a nearby plum tree. then it was lined with grass, horse hair, a blue jay's feather, some hen's feathers, and some cottony material like lint. jenny finally completed her boudoir by festooning a snake skin about it. when the nestlings began to walk about over the nest, this skin broke up into bits; so does not show in the picture. this nest was begun may 4, and the first egg was laid may 12. one more egg was added each day until eight were counted. they began to hatch the 30th, thus celebrating memorial day. seven eggs hatched and the little ones kept the old birds more than busy, early and late, feeding them. first the tiniest little spiders and bugs were brought. then came larger ones, and finally beetles, crickets, large spiders, etc., were dropped into the yawning mouths. so fast they grew, one could almost see the progress from day to day. they posed for this picture june 17, leaving the nest the 18th, and on the 19th the parent birds began their second nest in another box on the same porch. the first egg was laid the 23rd, thus taking but four days in the construction of this nest, while the first required eight. as a matter of fact it was not so carefully made. this time only five eggs were laid, and at the present moment mr. wren is singing encouragement and appreciation to his brooding mate; and, although the thermometer registers 98â° in the shade, his notes joyously ripple out loud and clear, not only to jenny's delight, but to ours as well. a comparison. i'd ruther lay out here among the trees, with the singing birds and the bumble bees, a-knowing that i can do as i please, than to live what folks call a life of ease- up thar in the city. for i don't 'xactly understan' where the comfort is for any man, in walking hot bricks and using a fan, and enjoying himself as he says he can- up thar in the city. it's kinder lonesome, mebbe, you'll say, a-livin' out here day after day, in this kinder easy careless way, but an hour out here's better'n a day- up thar in the city. as for that, just look at the flowers aroun', a-peepin' their heads up all over the groun,' and the fruit a-bendin' the trees 'way down; you don't find sech things as these in town- or, ruther, in the city. as i said afore, sech things as these- the flowers, the birds, and the bumble bees, and a-livin' out here among the trees, where you can take your ease and do 's you please- make it better'n in the city. now, all the talk don't 'mount to snuff 'bout this kinder life a-being rough, and i'm sure it's plenty good enough, and 'tween you and me, 'taint as tough- as livin' in the city. --_selected._ * * * * * "the woods were made for hunters of dreams, the streams for fishers of song; to those who hunt thus, go gunless for game, the woods and the streams belong." [illustration: a solitary giant that will soon disappear.] dame nature's recipe (april). take a dozen little clouds and a patch of blue; take a million raindrops, as many sunbeams, too. take a host of violets, a wandering little breeze, and myriads of little leaves dancing on the trees. then mix them well together, in the very quickest way, showers and sunshine, birds and flowers, and you'll have an april day. --_selected._ the grouse. hattie washburn, goodwin, s.d. "the grouse is a very fine bird." the sentence leaped out of the conversation and caught my wandering attention. with a quick smile i looked toward our rather corpulent guest across the table. i love birds, and a word in their praise ever fills me with pleasure, not alone because one delights in the praise of whatever he cherishes, but because the expression of such a sentiment indicates that the speaker is one who will befriend the birds or at least leave them unmolested. "take them when they are properly prepared," our guest continued, and i lowered my eyes to my plate in disgust. he appreciated their value only as a palatable dish to feed his fat body or possibly as a target for his gun. such is the general attitude, it would seem, toward the grouse family, from the ruffled grouse of the wooded portions of the eastern states to the prairie chicken of our vast plains, the dusky grouse of the mountain regions of the west and all their related species. the drumming of the ruffled grouse so harmoniously breaking the stillness of the woodland is dear to the nature-lover; no sound is more characteristic of the prairies than the prairie chicken's melodious booking that echoes afar like the low notes of a vast organ; the dusky grouse's booming call, that may seem to come from a distance even when the bird is near by, has its place in the great symphony of nature, yet these musical sounds are being steadily and relentlessly silenced by the gun of the sportsman. by this silencing that costs the lives of countless hundreds of innocent and harmless birds, the agriculturist is being robbed of one of his most powerful allies in the endless battle against insects. nature has given the grouse tribe large, palatable bodies and characteristics which render them easy marks for the hunter, with only zest enough to the quest to make these birds what sportsmen call "good game." she has also endowed the grouse with food habits which should cause them to live and multiply under the protection of man. the former characteristics, however, seem most strongly to attract mankind in general, and the grouse is known as game rather than the insect-eating bird that it is. laws have been made for the protection of the pinnated grouse, or prairie chicken, and others of their tribe. these laws have been enforced and have aided materially in the great work of bird-protection. they have also, it is regrettable to state, been violated and ignored. too often the land owner is too lenient; being blinded to his own interests or being keenly alive to the need of protecting the grouse within his realm, is powerless to act because of lack of evidence. the prairie hen nests upon the ground, choosing her own nesting site, performing the duties of incubation, and rearing her young unaided by the cock. there are few wooers in bird-life so ardent as the pinnated grouse, yet he that joins in the mating ceremony of booming morning after morning on some chosen booming-ground or fiercely contests with other males for the favor of the chosen one deserts her soon after the winning. thus the eggs and young, having only one protector, are unduly exposed. since they are always on the ground until the young are able to fly their loss is great. it is estimated that half of the prairie hens' eggs are destroyed by fire, water and other causes. wet seasons are very injurious to the prairie chicks, and at all times they are in danger from skunks and other prowlers, save through the cunning and courageous protection of their devoted mother. these unavoidable dangers should appeal to the farmer to render the prairie chicken his kindness and protection whenever he can. he has few, if any, greater allies, for during the rearing of the young and throughout the summer the food of the prairie chicken consists principally of insects, chiefly of the destructive grasshopper. during the winter they feed upon weed-seed and scattered grain. of course, at times the prairie chickens make slight inroads upon the crops, but these are many times repaid by the noxious weed-seeds they destroy. the wild rose is one of the most beautiful flowers on the prairie. it is also one of the most troublesome weeds, in the destruction of which the prairie chicken has no superior, for one of their principal foods in winter is the wild rose fruit. the beneficial characteristics of the prairie chicken, varied by environment and ensuing tendencies of the birds, hold true of the entire grouse family. wherever found, the grouse are considered good game birds. were their good works in the destruction of weeds and insects as well known as is their desirability for the table or for targets for the sportsmen, they would be regarded as one of the most valuable among the agriculturist's feathered friends. --_reprint from nature and culture._ [illustration] bunny. there was once a little bunny, in a little wooden hutch; he'd a happy little master, and he loved him very much. but that bunny wasn't happy, tho' he'd such a pleasant home, for he thought 'twould be much nicer in the world outside to roam. so he asked the pretty ponies, and both answered with a neigh, "don't be silly; we should miss you, if you were to run away." so that foolish little bunny whispered, "thank you, very much," and went back again, contented, to his little wooden hutch. [illustration: a summer scene in mercer county.] [illustration: a branch of the maumee.] ohio's pioneer tree-planter. by clement l. martzolff, ohio university, athens, ohio. in the year 1806, a man living in jefferson county, happened to look out upon the ohio river one day when he saw floating down with the tide a strange looking craft. it consisted of two ordinary canoes lashed together. the crew was one very oddly-dressed man and the cargo comprised racks of appleseeds. this singular man was john chapman, better known as "johnny appleseed," from his penchant for gathering apple-seeds at the cider-presses in western pennsylvania, bringing them to ohio, planting them at suitable places, so when the pioneer came he would find an abundance of young apple trees ready for planting. this was the mission of "johnny appleseed" who conscientiously believed it had been heaven sent. he was deeply religious and his faith taught him he could live as complete a life in thus serving his fellow-men, as in perhaps some higher (?) sphere of usefulness. certainly the result of his labors proved a great blessing to the ohio pioneer. very little is known of johnny appleseed before he came to ohio. he was born in springfield, massachusetts, in the opening of the revolutionary war, 1775. as a boy he loved to roam the woods, searching for plants and flowers. he was a lover of nature in all its forms. he studied the birds as well as the flowers. he loved the song of the brook as he did that of the birds. at night he would lie upon his back and gaze into the sky and whether he studied flowers or stars, brooks or birds, he saw god's hand-writing in them all. it is thought he came westward with his half-brother about the year 1801, and located somewhere about pittsburgh. his father, nathaniel chapman, shortly afterward became one of the residents of marietta and later moved to duck creek, in washington county, where he died. "johnny" never spoke much about his previous life. it was said by some that he had been once disappointed in love and this accounted for his never marrying and for living the life he did. this is not probable. such stories are told about every old bachelor and since they are so common, they lose their value. what educational advantages our tree-planter enjoyed, we do not know, either. but it is certain he possessed a fair knowledge of the rudiments of learning. he was a great reader for one of his time and his mode of life, and moreover, he was a clear thinker. there are some who would call "johnny appleseed" "queer;" others, "freakish;" again, "eccentric," etc. this peculiar, odd personage may be described by all these terms. but the ruling passion of his life was to plant apple-seeds, because he loved to see trees grow and because he loved his fellow-men. the world has often been made better because there was a man who possessed but one idea, and he worked it for all it was worth. "johnny's" methods were to keep up with the van of pioneerdom and move along with it to the westward. so we find him in the early years of the century in western pennsylvania, then in ohio, and after forty-five years of service to mankind, he dies and is buried near ft. wayne in indiana. his nurseries were usually located in the moist land along some stream. here he would plant the seeds, surround the patch with a brush fence and wander off to plant another one elsewhere. returning at intervals to prune and care for them, he would soon have thrifty trees growing all over the country. he did not plant these trees for money, but the pioneer got them oftentimes for old clothes, although his usual price for each tree was "a fip-penny-bit." the first nursery johnny planted in ohio was on george's run in jefferson county. others he planted along the river front, when he moved into the interior of the state. for years he lived in a little rude hut in richland county near the present town of perrysville, from where he operated his nurseries in the counties of richland, ashland, wayne, knox, and tuscarawas. on his journeys across the country he usually camped in the woods, although the pioneer latch-string was always hanging out for "apple-seed john." he carried his cooking utensils with him. his mush-pan serving him for a hat. when he would accept the hospitality of a friend, he preferred making his bed on the floor. he wore few clothes and went bare-footed the most of his time, even when the weather was quite cold. for a coat a coffee sack with holes cut for neck and arms was ample. there were plenty of indians in those days and they were troublesome, too, since several massacres occurred in that region. but they never did any harm to our hero. no doubt they thought he was quite a "medicine man." once, during the war of 1812, when the red-men were at their depredations and all the people were flocking to the mansfield block-house for protection, it was necessary to get a message to mt. vernon, asking for the assistance of the militia. it was thirty miles away and the trip had to be made in the night. johnny volunteered his services. bare-footed and bare-headed he made his way along the forest trails, where wild animals and probably wild indians were lurking. the next morning he had returned and with him was the needed help. he loved everything that lived. he harmed no animal, and if he found any that were wounded or mis-treated, he would care for them as best he could. once when a snake had bitten him, he instinctively killed it. he never quite forgave himself for this "ungodly passion." he, as has already been stated, was deeply religious. he was a disciple of emanuel swedenborg, and he always carried some religious books about with him, in the bosom of his shirt. these books he would give away. often he would divide a book into several pieces, so it would go farther. when he visited the pioneers, he would always hold worship and discuss religious subjects with them. but johnny was getting old. the first trees he planted had for years been bearing fruit. still he kept planting and caring for new nurseries. once in ft. wayne he heard that some cattle had broken into one of them and were destroying his trees. the distance was twenty miles. he started at once to protect his property. it was in the early spring of 1845. the weather was raw and the trip was too much for him. he sought shelter at a pioneer home, partook of a bowl of bread and milk for his supper, and before retiring for the night as usual held worship. the family never forgot that evening. how the simple-minded old man read from the book, "blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall see god." then he prayed and as he spoke with god, he grew eloquent. his words made a deep impression on all who heard him. in the morning he was found to have a high fever. pneumonia had developed during the night. a physician was called, but the age of the man and the exposure to which he had subjected himself for so many years were against him. with the sunshine of joy and satisfaction upon his countenance as though his dying eyes were already looking into the new jerusalem, "god's finger touched him and he slept." * * * * * * so he kept traveling, far and wide, 'till his old limbs failed him and he died. he said, at last: "'tis a comfort to feel i've done some good in the world, though not a great deal." weary travelers journeying west, in the shade of his trees find pleasant rest, and often they start with glad surprise at the rosy fruit that around them lies. and if they inquire whence came such trees where not a bough once swayed in the breeze? the reply still comes as they travel on, "these trees were planted by appleseed john." (_from "appleseed john" by maria child._) * * * * * * grandpa stopped, and from the grass at our feet, picked up an apple, large, juicy, and sweet; then took out his jack-knife, and, cutting a slice, said, as we ate it, "isn't it nice to have such apples to eat and enjoy? well, there weren't very many when i was a boy, for the country was new--e'en food was scant; we had hardly enough to keep us from want, and this good man, as he rode around, oft eating and sleeping upon the ground, always carried and planted appleseeds- not for himself, but for others' needs. the appleseeds grew, and we, to-day, eat of the fruit planted by the way. while johnny--bless him--is under the sod- his body is--ah! he is with god; for, child, though it seemed a trifling deed, for a man just to plant an appleseed, the apple-tree's shade, the flowers, the fruit, have proved a blessing to man and to brute. look at the orchards throughout the land, all of them planted by old johnny's hand. he will forever remembered be; i would wish to have all so think of me." * * * * * * _bibliography of john chapman._ _howe's history of ohio, vol. ii, p. 484._ _ohio archaeological and historical society publications, vol. vi, p. 290. vol. ix, p. 301._ _"philip seymour" or "pioneer life in richland county" by rev. james f. mcgraw._ _"the quest of john chapman" by newell dwight hillis._ [illustration: jackson township, pickaway county, centralized school building.] why study birds? a cincinnati teacher in one of the big intermediate schools recently discussed with her class the question of studying birds. she reminded them that they are city children living in a densely populated district, and that they could hardly expect to see the live birds unless they went into the country, but agreed to forming a bird-study class if the children could give good reasons for doing so. one child called attention to the fact that they read and studied about many things all over the world that they never hoped to see, why not about birds also? one boy thought it just as necessary for city children to know what was to be seen in the country, as for country children to know what could be seen in the city. there were other reasons offered equally as good, but behind it all was a real live desire, a natural desire, that need give no reasons for its existence, to learn something about the wild birds. the teacher saw this, and being one who realizes that schools are maintained for the benefit of children rather than that children are born and reared to serve a school system, consented to the organization of a junior audubon class. bird study in some measure should be given to every class in every school, city and country. not just because it is new, not just because it is a branch of the now popular nature-study, not just because the children are eager for it, all of which are good reasons, but because of the great need of a national change of attitude toward the wild birds if we are to succeed in preserving this absolutely essential part of our natural resources. --_eugene swope._ troop of winter birds led by captain nut-hatch. h. w. weisgerber. _from nature and culture._ how many of the boys that roam the winter woods appreciate the services of the white-breasted nut-hatch? he is the captain of the small troop of winter resident birds, and where his "yank", "yank", is heard there are the other birds also. sometimes he is far in advance of the troop, but the small company of followers press on and go where he leads. in the winter birds are not as common as during the summer, and the bird student sometimes tramps a long ways before he sees one of any kind. then, all of a sudden he hears the call-note of the nut-hatch, and if he is wise, he will follow it up until he comes upon the company, which will not be far away from where the nut-hatch is heard. sometimes only three species are found, but generally four different kinds of birds make up the small company that road the woods together. these four are the white-breasted nuthatch, tufted titmouse, downy woodpecker, and the merry little chickadee. what a happy, contented quartet they are! one cold and cloudy november morning i thought i had caught a pair of nuthatches that had betrayed their trust. i had followed an old rail fence that bordered a weedy cornfield next to an open woods, and the only birds seen were a few juncos and tree sparrows. after walking about thirty rods, a pair of nuthatches were found; the next ten minutes were spent listening and looking for the other birds that should have been about. none were seen or heard. i was about to make a note of the fact; but, it being a cold, windy morning, i deferred this part, and moved on in order to get warm. i paralleled my first walk by keeping in the woods along the fence, waiting for the troop to come. i had not gone many rods until a note was heard, then a titmouse came in sight, and in a few minutes i was surrounded by titmice, downy woodpeckers, chickadees, and a number of golden-crowned kinglets. altogether there were twenty-five or more of the little fellows, and they moved so fast that i did not get to see them all, so i followed them to the place where i first saw the nuthatches. here was where white-breasted was christened "captain nuthatch." farmer john. home from his journey farmer john arrived this morning safe and sound; his black coat off and his old clothes on, "now i'm myself," said farmer john, and he thinks, "i'll look around." up leaps the dog: "get down, you pup! are you so glad you would eat me up?" and the old cow lows at the gate to greet him, the horses prick up their ears to meet him. "well, well, old bay, ha, ha, old gray, do you get good food when i'm away?" "you haven't a rib," says farmer john; "the cattle are looking round and sleek; the colt is going to be a roan, and a beauty, too; how he has grown! we'll ween the calf in a week." says farmer john, "when i've been off- to call you again about the trough, and watch you and pat you while you drink, is a greater comfort than you can think;" and he pats old bay, and he slaps old gray, "ah, this is the comfort of going away!" "for, after all," says farmer john, "the best of a journey is getting home; i've seen great sights but i would not give this spot and the peaceful life i live for all their paris and rome; these hills for the city's stifled air and big hotels and bustle and glare; lands all houses, and roads all stone that deafen your ears and batter your bones! would you, old bay? would you, old gray? that's what one gets by going away." "there money is king," says farmer john, "and fashion is queen, and it's very queer to see how sometimes when the man is raking and scraping all he can, the wife spends, every year, enough you would think for a score of wifes to keep them in luxury all their lives! the town is a perfect babylon to a quiet chat," said farmer john. "you see, old bay, you see, old gray, i'm wiser than when i went away. "i've found this out," said farmer john, "that happiness is not bought and sold, and clutched in a life of waste and hurry, in nights of pleasure and days of worry, and wealth isn't all in gold, mortgages, stocks and ten per cent, but in simple ways and sweet content, few wants, pure hopes and noble ends, some land to till and a few good friends, like you, old bay, and you, old gray, that's what i've learned by going away." and a happy man is farmer john- oh, a rich and happy man is he! he sees the peas and pumpkins growing, the corn in tassel, the buckwheat blowing, and fruit on vine and tree; the large, kind oxen look their thanks as he rubs their foreheads and pats their flanks; the doves light round him and strut and coo; says farmer john, "i'll take you, too; and you, old bay, and you, old gray, next time i travel so far away." --_trowbridge._ [illustration: this picture represents first grade children enjoying the best of school opportunities.] [illustration: a school exhibit.] bird study. w. h. wisman, new paris, ohio. in order to carry on the work of bird study with any degree of success, experience has taught me that the subject must continually be kept before the pupils in all of its phases. this means actual work among the birds, with eyes sharpened for every movement and ears tuned to every sound. the first essential, i think, is for the pupil to know the bird by sight--that is, at close range--and to be able to give a minute description, paying attention to details in markings, especially in cases where distinctive markings determine the species. our work in autumn consists in a sharp lookout for the warblers that are returning toward the southland at the beginning of the school term. this requires careful observation, and pupils are encouraged to be watchful at this time and report any small bird they may be able to find on their way to or from school, or at home. a record is kept, and pupils are urged to compete for the longest list of different species. later in the season, when the leaves are well off the trees, we start a nest-hunting contest, the object being to see who can find the greatest number of nests in a specified time. samples of nests are secured and put up in the school room. [illustration] when cold weather comes the question of food supply is considered. shelters for the birds are constructed, and feeding places are prepared. one method is to place a feeding board outside a south window, and fastening a good-sized branch of a tree outside the window, upon which pieces of suet are fastened. the remains of the children's lunches, together with seeds, kernels of nuts, etc., are placed upon the board, and birds soon learn to come to the banquet prepared for them. the pupils are urged to go home and do likewise. monthly bird lists are kept, showing the kinds of birds that may be seen each month, and pupils are required to keep note-books in which anything of interest may be noted. in the spring the question of housing the birds is considered, and pupils are taught to construct simple bird houses, and all are interested in placing these boxes about their homes. in connection with this field work, attention is given to the literature upon this subject. scrap-books are kept, and any article relating to birds found in papers or magazines is clipped and pasted in this book. we have in the school room over one hundred and fifty pictures in colors of the birds to be found in this section of the state, and using these as a basis, i give frequent "lectures" on the habits or any other points of interest concerning these birds. the pupils are very enthusiastic in the work, and the influence has not only extended throughout the entire district, but other teachers and pupils in the surrounding districts have caught the spirit and much is being done along this line throughout the township. --_reprint from nature and culture._ the white birch. by charles degarmo. have you seen the white birch in the spring, in the spring? when the sunlight gleams upon her branches in the spring? when her green leaves, young and tender, through their soft concealment render glimpses of her outlines slender in the spring. have you seen her wave her branches in the spring, in the spring? wave those airy, milk-white branches in the spring? as they glisten in the light of a day divinely bright when to see them is delight, in the spring. have you seen the sunbeams glancing in the spring, in the spring? glancing on her leaflets glossy in the spring? when the wind sets them in motion, like the ripples on the ocean, and they stir our fond devotion, in the spring. if you have not, then you know not, in the spring, in the spring, half the beauty of the birches in the spring. past their tops of silver sheen in the distance far are seen blue-tinged hills in living green, in the spring. --_after wm. martin._ [illustration: notice the spreading branches of this tree.] blue. by charles degarmo. there's plentiful blue in the midst of the green; for blue are the joys that chatter and preen; the blue bells all nod and sway with the breeze; blue-tinged are the hills that border the scene, and blue birds sing low of nests in the trees. in the land of the north when the bird's on the wing, then the blue in the woods is a charm of the spring. on waters of blue where soft breezes blow, with sunshine above and shadow below, my boat sails the bay, with naught to annoy, for two[1] that i love sit close as we go, and laughing blue eyes that mirror with joy. far away to the south, where the warm tropics lie, there the blue of the sea is the blue of the sky. --_from the author's forthcoming book, "an aesthetic view of the world."_ [1] the author's little granddaughters. sunrise never fails. upon the sadness of the sea the sunset broods regretfully; from the far spaces, slow withdraws the wistful afterglow. so out of life the splendor dies, so darken all the happy skies, so gathers twilight cold and stern; but overhead the planets burn. and up the east another day shall chase the bitter dark away, what though our eyes with tears be wet? the sunrise never failed us yet. the blush of dawn may yet restore our light and hope and joys once more. sad soul, take comfort, nor forget that sunrise never failed us yet. --_celia thaxter._ [illustration: new washington, crawford county, high school.] who-oo i wonder if you have ever heard of the queer, little, dismal whiney-bird, as black as a crow, as glum as an owl- a most peculiar kind of a fowl? he is oftenest seen on rainy days, when children are barred from outdoor plays; when the weather is bright and the warm sun shines, then he flies far away to the gloomy pines, dreary-looking, indeed, is his old black cloak, and his whiney cry makes the whole house blue- "there's nothing to do-oo! there's nothing to do-oo!" did you ever meet this doleful bird? he's found where the children are, i've heard, now, who can he be? it can't be you. but who is the whiney-bird? who-oo? who-oo? --_jean halifax in st. nicholas._ the bluebird. by mabel osgood wright. the national association of audubon societies educational leaflet no. 24. who dares write of the bluebird, thinking to add a fresher tint to his plumage, a new tone to his melodious voice, or a word of praise to his gentle life, that is as much a part of our human heritage and blended with our memories as any other attribute of home? not i, surely, for i know him too well and each year feel myself more spellbound and mute by the memories he awakens. yet i would repeat his brief biography, lest there be any who, being absorbed by living inward, have not yet looked outward and upward to this poet of the sky and earth and the fullness and goodness thereof. [sidenote: the bluebird's country.] for the bluebird was the first of all poets,--even before man had blazed a trail in the wilderness or set up the sign of his habitation and tamed his thoughts to wear harness and travel to measure. and so he came to inherit the earth before man, and this, our country, is all the bluebird's county, for at some time of the year he roves about it from the atlantic to the pacific and from mexico to nova scotia, though westward, after he passes the range of the rocky mountains, he wears a different dress and bears other longer names. [sidenote: the bluebird's travels.] in spite of the fact that our eastern bluebird is a home-body, loving his nesting haunt and returning to it year after year, he is an adventurous traveler. ranging all over the eastern united states at some time in the season, this bird has its nesting haunts at the very edge of the gulf states and upward, as far north as manitoba and nova scotia. when the breeding season is over, the birds travel sometimes in family groups and sometimes in large flocks, moving southward little by little, according to season and food-supply, some journeying as far as mexico, others lingering through the middle and southern states. the bluebirds that live in our orchards in summer are very unlikely to be those that we see in the same place in winter days. next to the breeding impulse, the migrating instinct seems to be the strongest factor of bird life. when the life of the home is over, nature whispers, "to wing, up and on!" so a few of the bluebirds who have nested in massachusetts may be those who linger in new jersey, while those whose breeding haunts were in nova scotia, drift downward to fill their places in massachusetts. but the great mass of even those birds we call winter residents go to the more southern parts of their range every winter, those who do not being but a handful in comparison. "what does this great downward journey of autumn mean?" you ask. what is the necessity for migration among a class of birds that are able to find food in fully half of the annual range? why do birds seek extremes for nesting sites? this is a question about which the wise men have many theories, but they are still groping. one theory is that once the whole country had a more even climate and that many species of birds lived all the year in places that are now unsuitable for a permanent residence. therefore, the home instinct being so strong, though they were driven from their nesting sites by scarcity of food and stress of weather, their instinct led them back as soon as the return of spring made it possible. thus the hereditary love of the place where they were given life may underlie the great subject of migration in general and that of the bluebird's home in particular. [sidenote: the bluebird at home.] before more than the first notes of spring song have sounded in the distance, bluebirds are to be seen by twos and threes about the edge of old orchards along open roads, where the skirting trees have crumbled or decaying knot-holes have left tempting nooks for the tree-trunk birds, with whom the bluebird may be classed. for, though he takes kindly to a bird-box, or a convenient hole in a fencepost, telegraph pole or outbuilding, a tree hole must have been his first home and consequently he has a strong feeling in its favor. as with many other species of migrant birds, the male is the first to arrive; and he does not seem to be particularly interested in house-hunting until the arrival of the female, when the courtship begins without delay, and the delicate purling song with the refrain, "dear, dear, think of it, think of it," and the low, two-syllabled answer of the female is heard in every orchard. the building of the nest is not an important function,--merely gathering of a few wisps and straws, with some chance feathers for lining. it seems to be shared by both parents, as are the duties of hatching and feeding the young. the eggs vary in number, six being the maximum, and they are not especially attractive, being of so pale a blue that it is better to call them a bluish white. two broods are usually raised each year, though three are said to be not uncommon; for bluebirds are active during a long season, and, while the first nest is made before the middle of april, last year a brood left the box over my rose arbor september 12, though i do not know whether this was a belated or a prolonged family arrangement. as parents the bluebirds are tireless, both in supplying the nest with insect food and attending to its sanitation; the wastage being taken away and dropped at a distance from the nest at almost unbelievable short intervals, proving the wonderful rapidity of digestion and the immense amount of labor required to supply the mill inside the little speckled throats with grist. the young bluebirds are spotted thickly on throat and back, after the manner of the throat of their cousin, the robin, or, rather, the back feathers are spotted, the breast feathers having dusky edges, giving a speckled effect. the study of the graduations of plumage of almost any brightly colored male bird from its first clothing until the perfectly matured feather of its breeding season, is in itself, a science and a subject about which there are many theories and differences of opinion by equally distinguished men. [sidenote: the food of the bluebird.] the food of the nestling bluebird is insectivorous, or, rather to be more exact, i should say animal; but the adult birds vary their diet at all seasons by eating berries and small fruits. in autumn and early winter, cedar and honeysuckle berries, the grape-like cluster of fruit of the poison ivy, bittersweet and catbrier berries are all consumed according to their needs. professor beal, of the department of agriculture, writes, after a prolonged study, that 76 per cent. of the bluebird's food "consists of insects and their allies, while the other 24 per cent. is made up of various vegetable substances, found mostly in stomachs taken in winter. beetles constitute 28 per cent. of the whole food, grasshoppers 22, caterpillars 11, and various insects, including quite a number of spiders, comprise the remainder of the insect diet. all these are more or less harmful, except a few predaceous beetles, which amount to 8 per cent., but in view of the large consumption of grasshoppers and caterpillars, we can at least condone this offense, if such it may be called. the destruction of grasshoppers is very noticeable in the months of august and september, when these insects form more than 60 per cent. of the diet." it is not easy to tempt bluebirds to an artificial feeding-place, such as i keep supplied with food for juncos, chickadees, woodpeckers, nuthatches, jays, etc.; though in winter they will eat dried currants and make their own selection from mill sweepings if scattered about the trees of their haunts. for, above all things, the bluebird, though friendly and seeking the borderland between the wild and the tame, never becomes familiar, and never does he lose the half-remote individuality that is one of his great charms. though he lives with us and gives no sign of pride of birth or race, he is not of us, as the song sparrow, chippy or even the easily alarmed robin. the poet's mantle envelopes him even as the apple blossoms throw a rosy mist about his doorway, and it is best so. the bluebirds. 1. eastern bluebird (sialia sialis). _adult male._--length 7 inches. upper parts, wings and tail bright blue; breast and sides rusty, reddish brown, belly white. adult female.--similar to the male, but upper parts except the upper tail coverts, duller, gray or brownish blue, the breast and sides paler. nestling.--wings and tail essentially like those of adult, upper parts dark sooty brown, the back spotted with whitish; below, whitish, but the feathers of the breast and sides widely margined with brown, producing a spotted appearance. this plumage is soon followed by the fall or winter plumage, in which the blue feathers of the back are fringed with rusty, and young and old birds are then alike in color. _range._--eastern united states west to the rocky mountains; nests from the gulf states to manitoba and nova scotia; winters from southern new england southward. 1a. azure bluebird (sialia sialis azurea). similar to the eastern bluebird, but breast paler, upper parts lighter, more cerulean blue. _range._--mountains of eastern mexico north to southern arizona. 2. western bluebird (sialia mexicana occidentalis). _adult male._--above deep blue, the foreback in part chestnut; throat blue, breast and sides chestnut, the belly bluish grayish. _adult female._--above grayish blue, chestnut of back faintly indicated, throat grayish blue, breast rusty, paler than in male, belly grayish. _range._--pacific coast region from northern lower california north to british columbia, east to nevada. 2a. chestnut-backed bluebird (sialia mexicana anabelae). similar to the western bluebird, but foreback wholly chestnut. _range._--rocky mountain region from mexico north to wyoming. 2b. san pedro bluebird (sialia mexicana anabelae). similar to the western bluebird, but back with less chestnut. _range._--san pedro martir mountains, lower california. 3. mountain bluebird (sialia arctica). _adult male._--almost wholly blue, above beautiful cerulean, below paler, belly whitish. adult female.--above brownish gray, upper tail coverts, wings and tail bluish below pale fawn, belly whitish. _range._--western united states from rocky mountains to sierras, and from new mexico north to the great slave lake region. to celia. drink to me only with thine eyes, and i will pledge with mine; or leave a kiss in the cup and i'll not look for wine. the thirst that from the soul doth rise doth ask a drink divine; but might i of jove's nectar sup, i would not change for thine. i sent thee late a rosy wreath, not so much honoring thee as giving it a hope that there it could not withered be; but thou thereon didst only breathe and sen'st it back to me; since when it grows, and smells, i swear, not of itself but thee! --_ben johnson._ [illustration: a tree that stands in the open country has a hard struggle for existence.] don't forget the tree. (a poem for arbor day.) how beauteous is the lordly tree that scatters cooling shade! the landscape, o how fair and free by loving nature made; the birds that build in leafy bough hail each returning spring, and in the emerald forests now they make the welkin ring. the tree we plant in years becomes a monarch old and gray, and thousands from unbuilded homes will bless our arbor day; we plant not for the present time, but for the days in store. and those who come from distant clime will bless us o'er and o'er. hail arbor day! with busy hands with cheerful hearts and free we come in nature; loving hands to plant the bush or tree; unto the wide extending plain, or to the sun scorched way we bring the cooling shade again with joy this arbor day. don't forget the tree. where halts the pilgrim for an hour let some tree rear its head, our work can greet him with a flower, or luscious fruit instead; plant for the dawning years a tree, 'twill not be labor lost; you'll live to bless the day and see how little was the cost. plant trees upon the barren hill and in the village street, and shade the little sunny rill whose song is rich and sweet; where there's a will there is a way. so let the children come and plant a tree this arbor day- a tree that stands for home. methinks the rose will fairer bloom upon the bush we set, and softer be its perfume above its coronet; let every child in freedom's land hail arbor day with glee, and plant with every busy hand a shrub, a bush or tree. god made the many trees for shade, so plant one on this day, in field, in town, in glen and glade they yield a gentle sway; in troops let all the children come with music, song and cheer; for arbor day is near to home, and home is always dear. go plant a tree where none is found, make bright some treeless spot, and as the ceaseless years go round you will not be forgot; from hill to hill, from shore to shore, let hands forget their play, and men will bless forevermore our sacred arbor day. --_t. c. harbaugh._ [illustration: along the maumee.] [illustration: the thoughtless lumber-man leaves an uncanny wake.] trailing arbutus. ere the latest snow of springtime leaves the shelter of the woodlands; while it still in every hollow waits with a wavering indecision, loath to vanish at the mandate of the swiftly conquering sunshine- then the spirit of the springtime comes with gentle exorcism. 'tis the arbutus, frail beauty, pale with fright, yet blushing rosy at the simple joy of living, and before her modest presence harsh winds calm their fiercest bluster, and the last resisting armies of the snow-king quickly vanish. then she sends her sweetest fragrance upward, like a breath of incense, to the sun, who cheers and thanks her with his warmest, grateful kisses. --_mary nowlan wittwer, adelphi, ohio._ [illustration: many times "three score years and ten."] the logan elm. the logan elm, about six miles from circleville, with five acres of park surrounding it, is now the property of the ohio historical and archaeological society, having been transferred to that organization by the pickaway historical association on october 2, 1912. it is altogether proper that this historic tree and ground should become the property of ohio so that every person in our commonwealth may feel a proprietary interest in this spot and all that it means. we have traveled far on the pathway of civilization since the day when the chief of the mingoes made this spot memorable by his native eloquence, but we do well to look back, now and again, to these landmarks so as to catch a view of the road over which we have come. such a view gives us courage and spirit for the journey that lies before us for we are made to feel that since we have done this much we shall be able to do even more and better. in his historical collections howe says of the speech of logan: "it was repeated throughout the north american colonies as a lesson of eloquence in the schools, and copied upon the pages of literary journals in great britain and the continent. this brief effusion of mingled pride, courage and sorrow, elevated the character of the native american throughout the intelligent world; and the place where it was delivered can never be forgotten so long as touching eloquence is admired by men." this being true, it is quite fitting that the schools shall place this speech in the category of eloquence and give the children to know that real eloquence is the expression of deep and sincere emotion. the logan elm remains to us the visible symbol of an example of this sort of eloquence and our celebration of arbor day will be all the more inspiring if all the children come to know the meaning of this tree and feel the real eloquence of the speech. the version of the speech here given is found in jefferson's notes and is as follows: "i appeal to any white man to say, if ever he entered logan's cabin hungry and i gave him not meats; if ever he came cold or naked and i gave him not clothing. during the course of the last long and bloody war, logan remained in his tent an advocate for peace. nay, such was my love for the whites, that those of my own country pointed at me as they passed by and said, 'logan is the friend of white men.' i had even thought to live with you, but for the injuries of one man. colonel cresap, the last spring, in cold blood, and unprovoked, cut off all the relatives of logan; not sparing even any women and children. there runs not a drop of my blood in the veins of any human creature. this called on me for revenge. i have sought it. i have killed many. i have fully glutted my vengeance. for my country, i rejoice at the beams of peace. yet, do not harbor the thought that mine is the joy of fear. logan never felt fear. he will not turn on his heel to save his life. who is there to mourn for logan? not one." --_f. b. pearson._ little dog tray. when at the close of a wearisome day homeward disheartened, you moodily stray, what would you take for your little dog tray? take for the wag of his tail? sitting alone at the old picket gate, little dog tray will patiently wait watching: no matter if early or late slow is the wag of his tail. look! see him start as a form comes in view! what has the dog with that vision to do? how does he tell that he knows it is you? just by the wag of his tail. oh, the wild glee in his rhythmical song sung in the motion that keeps him along! is it a love that he bears for the throng? judge by the wag of his tail. swift as the wind he has run to your side, eager and happy to show you his pride; bounding aloft, then ahead as your guide merrily wagging his tail. no one may know why he loves you so well nor if your voice or your face weave the spell but that he loves you his actions will tell, such as the wag of his tail. loves you and shares in your hunger and thirst riches and poverty, landed or cursed, always the same, for the best or the worst proved by the wag of his tail. love such as his will abide to the end, do what you will, distort your ways you may wend, hardships and knocks but insure him your friend shown by the wag of his tail. curse him--he lies at your feet to adore! strike him--he loves you the same as before! violent blows--snap your finger! once more there is the wag of his tail. watchful he sits at your side in repose loyal before you he stealthily goes eager to champion your cause with your foes told by the wag of his tail. friendship may fade and earth's love may grow cold chains such as these oft are flimsiest mold, love of the dog for his master will hold long as the wag of his tail. not as a peer, neither cringing like slave one solemn boon, as the last he may crave, little dog tray sits and moans on your grave sad is the way of his tail. when at the close of a wearisome day homeward, disheartened, you moodily stray, what would you take for your little dog tray? take for the wag of his tail? --_by walter p. neff._ [illustration: lady betty.] a kipling tribute. "buy a pup and your money will buy love unflinching that cannot lie perfect passion and worship fed, by a kick in the ribs or a pat on the head, nevertheless it is hardly fair to risk your heart for a dog to tear. when the fourteen years which nature permits are closing in asthma, or tumor, or fits, and the "vet's" unspoken presentation runs to lethal chambers or loaded guns, then you will find, its your own affair that ---you've given your heart for a dog to tear." --_by lee a. dollinger._ "man's best friend." senator vest had been retained as the attorney of a man whose dog had been wantonly shot by a neighbor. the plaintiff demanded $200.00. when vest finished speaking the jury awarded $500.00 without leaving their seats. this is what he said: "_gentlemen of the jury:_ the best friend a man has in this world may turn against him and become his enemy. his son or daughter that he has reared with loving care may prove ungrateful. those who are nearest and dearest to us, those whom we trust with our happiness and our good name, may become traitors to their faith. the money that a man has he may lose. it flies away from him, perhaps when he needs it most. "a man's reputation may be sacrificed in a moment of ill considered action. the people who are prone to fall on their knees to do us honor when success is with us, may be the first to throw the stone of malice when failure settles its cloud upon our heads. the one absolutely unselfish friend that man can have in this selfish world, the one that never deserts him, the one that never proves ungrateful or treacherous is his dog. "a man's dog stands by him in prosperity and in poverty, in health and in sickness. he will sleep on the cold ground where the wintry winds blow and the snow drives fiercely, if only he may be near his master's side. he will kiss the hand that has no food to offer. he will lick the wounds and sores that come in encounter with the roughness of the world. he will guard the sleep of his pauper master as if he were a prince. when all other friends desert, he remains. "when riches take wings and reputation falls to pieces he is as constant in his love, as the sun on its journey through the heavens. if misfortune drives the master forth an outcast in the world, friendless and homeless, the faithful dog asks no higher privilege than that of accompanying him to guard against danger, to fight against his enemies, and when the last scene of all comes, and death takes the master in his embrace and his body is laid away in the cold ground, no matter if all other friends pursue their way, there by his grave side will the noble dog be found, his head between his paws, his eyes sad but open in alert watchfulness, faithful and true even in death." "there is but one drawback to a dog's friendship, it does not last long enough." --_van dyke._ the redstarts. cordelia j. stanwood, ellsworth, me. reprints from nature and culture. the redstart is one of the most beautiful of the warblers. it flutters through the branches like the sunbeams through the dancing leaves; again, it suggests a darting flame or a gorgeous autumn-leaf tossed hither and thither by the wind. the redstart winters in the tropics--mexico, south america, and the west indies--but nests in almost every part of north america east of the rockies. the female models an exquisite statant, increment nest, well set down in the crotch of a tree, but the kind of a tree selected and the materials used vary in different localities. the most beautiful nest i ever found was located sixteen feet from the ground, in the crotch of a white birch. the support was formed by the main trunk and several ascending, rudimentary branches. when i looked up into the tree a tiny, fluffy mass of white birch curls attracted my attention. on this cushion the nest was shaped of similar curls of white birch bark and partially decomposed inner bark, fiber; the rim, firm and well modeled, consisted of what looked like split culms of hay, but i decided that it must be the outside of decayed goldenrod stems. it was lined with horse hair, human hair, and the feathers of the female. a daintier, warmer, safer, little cradle no bird could desire. another nest, located in a maple five feet high from the ground, was placed on a foundation of dead leaves, coarse meadow grass, and white birch bark. the cup was constructed of fine cedar bark fiber; the outside was ornamented with the white egg cases of some insect. the nest had a beautifully turned brim of the same material as was used in the former nest. the lining, likewise, was of goldenrod fiber, and a few of the green and yellow feathers of the female. as usual, more or less spider's floss entered into the composition of this well-made structure. the dwelling strikingly corresponded in color with the gray maple crotch that supported it. each house was well adapted to its surroundings. the female builds the nest almost unassisted and appears, likewise to incubate and brood the young. the male, however, sings from his varied repertoire to cheer his mate at her task, and assists the female in feeding the young and cleansing the domicile, but when disturbed by an observer, the female is more assiduous than the male in her attentions to their offspring. [illustration] usually when a person attempts to inspect a redstart's nest containing young, the female drops from the nest a dead weight and falls from branch to branch of any tree in the way, striking the ground with a dull thud. her next move is to trail a helpless wing along the ground. at another time she flies from the nest and alights on the ground with spread wings and tail. the yellow markings on the wing and tail show conspicuously as the bird moves forward by the wings, as if her legs were too weak to sustain her weight. at the same time the bird twitters very softly, almost inaudibly; in other words, she feigns the helplessness of a young bird. these pretty deceptions, the expression of the mother instinct, always appeal to me very strongly. while studying a family of redstarts that lived in a gray birch some twelve feet above the ground, the hen and one nestling disappeared. across the hayfield from the grove of the birds that i was observing was a bit of woodland to which both redstarts resorted frequently, presumably for feed. here was the nest of a redstart containing four fresh eggs. that day i arranged with a care to lower the nest a number of feet. the birds deserted. on examining the nest i found that one egg has been cracked. whether this nest belonged to the redstarts of the grove and the female left her young in the care of the cock while she constructed a third nest, i cannot say. exactly what became of the mother remained a mystery. it was with grave concern that i watched the gayly dressed little songster for an entire day to see if he would take upon himself the duties of the mother-bird. nothing could have been more touching than to note the faithfulness with which he performed all the work of two birds save brooding the young. the following morning the nest was empty, but i found the father-bird in a coppice feeding the little family. evidently he had undertaken the entire care of his small flock. one nest of redstarts that i studied from the egg stage was on the wing on the tenth day. as the nest was but five feet from the ground, within reach, and as i called there nearly every day, it is not surprising that the old bird tolled the young from the nest as soon as they were able to fly. at this age redstart nestlings preen vigorously and fly short distances. the nest of the redstarts, when vacated, was immaculate, save for the quill and pin feather cases that filled the interstices. [illustration] the bird seems to raise a second brood, at least some years, as nearly all the dates at which i have discovered the bird nesting are later than those i find recorded. redstarts were completing a nest june 13, 1908; a male and female were feeding four young five or six days old july 13, 1907; a bird was ready to incubate four fresh eggs the same day, and still another redstart was incubating four eggs july 5, 1910; these were not hatched until nine days later. if the birds feed two broods during the summer, then they are nearly twice as useful as they have been generally supposed to be. the redstart is the most active of the active warblers, and the number of gnats, flies, caterpillars, moths, other insects and their eggs that these birds consume or feed to their nestlings in one day is incredible. while it does splendid work in the woods it frequently comes to the orchard and is not unknown to paly its quest for food in the village streets. while we admire the redstart for its beauty and its charming little songs, we respect the bird for his utility. in this case the proverbial "fine feathers" do cover fine little bird. the old tree. i. the old beech tree, so green and gray! how oft i've heard thee, whispering say, with beckoning branches waving low, "rest here, where cooling breezes blow!" and in thy shadows deep and dark, how oft i've touched thy cool gray bark; and still i bless thee, old beech tree, for old sweet memories dear to me. repeat the stories yet half told of those who carved their names so bold! in whispers tell of them today, o venerable beech, so green and gray! ii. the old beech tree, so green and gray, the old-time welcome gives today, with beckoning branches reaching down to mother earth all garbed in brown. thy gnarled, bark-covered roots up-bend a further welcome to extend. thy low-extending branches wave, as though a green-robed prelate gave a benediction, and had blessed a people weary and oppressed. and so i rest with thee today, my old beech tree, so green and gray! --_richard nevin pemberton._ [illustration] the horse's prayer to his master. to thee, my master, i offer my prayer: feed me, water and care for me, and when the day's work is done, provide me with shelter, a clean dry bed, and a stall wide enough for me to lie down in comfort. always be kind to me. talk to me. your voice often means as much to me as the reins. pet me sometimes, that i may serve you the more gladly and learn to love you. do not jerk the reins, and do not whip me when going up hill. never strike, beat or kick me when i do not understand what you want, but give me a chance to understand you. watch me, and if i fail to do your bidding, see if something is not wrong with my harness or feet. do not check me so that i cannot have the free use of my head. if you insist that i wear blinders so that i cannot see behind me, as it was intended i should, i pray you to be careful that the blinders stand well out from my eyes. do not overload me, or hitch me where water will drip on me. keep me well shod. examine my teeth when i do not eat. i may have an ulcerated tooth, and that, you know, is very painful. do not fix my head in an unnatural position, or take away my best defense against flies and mosquitoes by cutting off my tail. i cannot tell you when i am thirsty, so give me clean cool water often. i cannot tell you in words when i am sick, so watch me, and by signs you may know my condition. give me all possible shelter from the hot sun, and put a blanket on me not when i am working but when i am standing in the cold. never put a frosty bit in my mouth. first warm it by holding it a moment in your hands. and finally, o my master, when my useful strength is gone, do not turn me out to starve or freeze, or sell me to some human brute, to be slowly tortured and starved to death; but do thou, my master, take my life in the kindest way, and your god will reward you here and hereafter. you will not consider me irreverent if i ask this in the name of him who was born in a stable. amen. [illustration] "one, two, three!" 1. it was an old, old, old, old lady, and a boy that was half past three; and the way that they played together was beautiful to see. 2. she couldn't go running and jumping, and the boy, no more could he; for he was a thin little fellow, with a thin little twisted knee. 3. they sat in the yellow twilight, out under the maple tree; and the game that they played i'll tell you, just as it was told to me. 4. it was hide and go seek they were playing, though you'd never have known it to be- with an old, old, old, old lady, and a boy with a twisted knee. 5. the boy would bend his face down on his one little sound right knee, and he guessed where she was hiding, in guesses one, two, three! 6. "you are in the china closet!" he would cry, and laugh with glee- it wasn't the china closet; but he still had two and three. 7. "you are up in papa's big bedroom, in the chest with the queer old key!" and she said: "you are _warm_ and _warmer_; but you're not quite right," said she. 8. "it can't be the little cupboard where mamma's things used to be so it must be the clothespress, gran'ma!" and he found her with his three. 9. then she covered her face with her fingers, that were wrinkled and white and wee, and she guessed where the boy was hiding, with a one and a two and a three. 10. and they never had stirred from their places, right under the maple tree- this old, old, old, old lady, and the boy with the lame little knee- this dear, dear, dear old lady, and the boy who was half past three. --_from poems of h. c. bunner; copyrighted 1884, 1892, 1899 by chas. scribner's sons._ bird-study in ohio public schools. dr. eugene swope. audubon field agent for ohio, 4 w. seventh st., cincinnati, o. the national movement for the study and protection of our wild birds is as well understood and supported by the teachers of ohio as of any other state. the number of junior audubon classes formed in the schools of ohio last year was second only to new jersey. that little state took the lead. ohio ought to take the lead this year. with our commissioner f. w. miller giving his approval and encouragement, and our supervisors of agriculture recommending bird study as a necessary feature of elementary agriculture, ohio ought to be able to report a large number of bird classes by the middle of may. [illustration: birds at home.] it is a rare thing to find a superintendent or principal actually unfriendly toward bird study, but a very large percent hesitate to admit it into their schools because it is new and untried. the claims of bird study upon superintendents and principals is one that cannot much longer be overlooked. the national desire to know the wild birds and to save the remnant now left, is yearly becoming stronger. an ever-increasing number of homes are becoming active centers and parents are looking to the public schools for help, and children everywhere are eager for bird study. there is no risk in introducing junior audubon classes in a school. some of our country's foremost educators have tried it with gratifying results, for they find that there is no better subject to develope the power of _attention_ in children, there is no better subject to train children's _memories_, there is no better subject to awake _originality_ of thought in young minds, and it is unquestionably the supreme subject for composition work. any teacher who cares to give bird study a trial may correspond with me and receive gratis, the help now offered by the ohio audubon society. the boy with the hoe. "say, how do you hoe your row, young chap? say, how do you hoe your row? do you hoe it fair? do you hoe it square? do you hoe it the best you know? do you cut the weeds as you ought to do? and leave what's worth while there? the harvest you garner depends on you, are you working it on the square? "are you killing the noxious weeds, young chap? are you making it straight and clean? are you going straight, at a hustling gait, do you scatter all that's mean? do you laugh and sing and whistle shrill, and dance a step or two? the road you hoe leads up a hill; the harvest is up to you." --_selected._ [illustration: why do boys love such a place as this?] the beech tree's petition. o leave this barren spot to me! spare, woodman, spare the beechen tree! though bush or floweret never grow my dark unwarming shade below; nor summer bud perfume the dew of rosy blush, or yellow hue; nor fruits of autumn, blossom born, my green and glossy leaves adorn; nor murmuring tribes from me derive the ambrosial amber of the hive; yet leave this barren spot to me; spare, woodman, spare the beechen tree! trice twenty summers have i seen the sky grow bright, the forest green; and many a wintry wind have stood in bloomless, fruitless solitude, since childhood in my pleasant bower first spent its sweet and pensive hour; since youthful lovers in my shade their vows of truth and rapture made, and on my trunk's surviving frame carved many a long-forgotten name. oh! by the sighs of gentle sound, first breather upon this sacred ground; by all that love has whispered here, or beauty heard with ravished ear; as love's own altar honor me; spare, woodman, spare the beechen tree. --_thomas campbell._ [illustration: turtlecreek township school exhibit at warren county fair.] the cardinal. by william dutcher, president of national association of audubon societies. educational leaflet no. 18. the cardinal is one of the most brilliant of american birds; the name is derived from its color, which is a deep red, somewhat less vivid than scarlet. this color is supposed to be named from the vestments of a cardinal, an ecclesiastic of high rank in the roman church. the female bird, while not so conspicuous as her mate, is clad in a rich brown with just enough of red to light it up. they are indeed a striking pair, and wherever they are found soon become favorites. they are known as cardinal grosbeaks, red-birds, crested red-birds, virginia nightingales, and lately james lane allen has made familiar kentucky cardinal. the illustration shows the cardinal's most prominent features--a very large strong bill, a conspicuous crest, which can be erected or depressed at will, short rounded wings and a long tail. the length of the cardinal is a little over eight inches from tip of bill to end of tail. once seen, the cardinal can never be mistaken for any other bird, especially as its plumage virtually never changes but remains much the same at all seasons of the year. cardinals are resident wherever they are found, and their center of abundance is in the southern portion of the united states. the northern limit of its range is approximately a line drawn from a point in the vicinity of new york city, westward to southeastern nebraska; thence southward to texas, where it is found in the greater part of the state. these lines are arbitrary, but are given in order that a teacher may show scholars in a general way where cardinals can be found. further, they give teachers and pupils who reside outside these limits an opportunity to extend the cardinal's known range by proving that it lives in their locality. there have been records of the cardinal made as far north as nova scotia and southern ontario, but it is believed that these were escaped cage birds, the cardinal, probably owing to its beauty of plumage and richness of song, having long been a favorite cage bird. alexander wilson, in american ornithology (vol. ii, page 145), which was published in 1828, says, "this is one of our most common cage birds, and is very generally known, not only in north america, but even in europe; numbers of them having been carried over both to france and england, in which last country they are usually called virginia nightingales." dr. russ, the great german aviculturist, says, "beloved in its home by both americans and germans, it is protected and caught only for the cage bird fancy. had been bred in holland a century and a half ago and later in england." it is true that until recently large numbers of cardinals were caught or taken from the nest while young, for shipment to foreign countries by bird dealers. owing to the efforts of the national association, this traffic is a thing of the past. the model law, which is in force in all the states where the cardinal is found, prohibits all traffic in these birds and forbids their being shipped from the state. the cardinal is too beautiful and valuable a bird to be confined within the narrow limits of a cage, where its splendid spirit is soon broken by its unavailing attempts to escape. mrs. olive thorne miller, in one of her charming pictures of bird life, says of a captive cardinal, that, "he is a cynic, morose and crusty." such a character cannot be attributed to the cardinal when it is at liberty. its wild, free song, its restless activity and its boldness are the antithesis of a depressed cage captive. even when it receives the best care from its human jailer it is still a prisoner confined in a space so small that it never has an opportunity to stretch its wings in flight, nor can it ever bathe in the bright sunshine or view the blue skies above it. the whispering of the winds through the sylvan shades is lost to the captive forever. is it strange that the nature of this wild free spirit changes? the writer has seen many hundreds of these beautiful birds in cages ready to be shipped, each one doomed to a short existence, a prisoner and an exile. fortunately, this condition is now changed; and, had the national association accomplished no other good, the stopping of the cage-bird traffic would be a sufficient reason for its organization. in the south, where the cardinal is one of the most abundant birds, it is a special favorite, rivaling the mockingbird in the affections of the people. it is commonly found in the towns as well as the rural districts. the female bird builds the nest, which is loosely constructed of leaves, bark, twigs, shreds of grape-vine, and is lined with dry grasses. the nest is placed in bushes or vines from eight to ten feet from the ground. three or four white eggs, speckled with brown, are laid, and it is probable that in the south two broods are raised each season. the home life of cardinals is a pattern of domestic felicity, so true are the sexes to each other. even in winter they seem to be paired, for a male and a female are always seen together. however, during the season of incubation the tender solicitude of the male for his mate is best shown. in fact, his extreme anxiety that the home and its inmates should not be discovered excites him so much that he actually leads the visitor to the nest in the attempt to mislead. the song of the male cardinal is loud and clear, with a melodious ring, "what cheer! what cheer! what cheer!" winding up with a peculiar long-drawn out e-e-e. contrary to the usual custom in bird families, the female cardinal is an excellent singer, although her notes are in an entirely different key from those of her gifted mate, being lower and to some ears more sweet and musical. audubon's "american ornithological biography" is so rare at the present day, being found only in the largest libraries, and is consequently so inaccessible to the ordinary reader, that his description of the song of the cardinal is quoted in full. "its song is at first loud and clear, resembling the finest sounds produced by the flageolet, and gradually descends into more marked and continued cadences, until it dies away in the air around. during the love season the song is emitted with increased emphasis by this proud musician, who, as if aware of his powers, swells his throat, spreads his rosy tail, droops his wings, and leans alternately to the right and left, as if on the eve of expiring with delight at the delicious sounds of his own voice. again and again are those melodies repeated, the bird resting only at intervals to breathe. they may be heard from long before the sun gilds the eastern horizon, to the period when the blazing orb pours down its noonday floods of heat and light, driving the birds to the coverts to seek repose for a while. nature again invigorated, the musician recommences his song, when, as if he had never strained his throat before, he makes the whole neighborhood resound, nor ceases until the shades of evening close around him. day after day the song of the red-bird beguiles the weariness of his mate as she assiduously warmed her eggs; and at times she also assists with the modesty of her gentler sex. few individuals of our own race refuse their homage and admiration to the sweet songster. how pleasing is it, when, by a clouded sky, the woods are rendered so dark that, were it not for an occasional glimpse of clearer light falling between the trees, you might imagine night at hand, while you are yet far distant from your home, how pleasing to have your ear suddenly saluted by the well-known notes of this favorite bird, assuring you of peace around, and of the full hour that still remains for you to pursue your walk in security! how often have i enjoyed this pleasure and how often, in due humbleness of hope, do i trust that i may enjoy it again." [illustration: a school ground worth many times what it costs.] [illustration: bird houses.] in addition to its great esthetic value of song and plumage, the cardinal has another important character which should endear it to the husbandman. its food is various, consisting of wild fruits such as grapes, berries, mulberries, cedar berries, seeds of grasses and of many species of weeds, also large numbers of adult beetles, grasshoppers, crickets, flies, ants and their larvae; it is especially fond of rose-bugs. the cardinal is from every point of view a bird of great interest and value, and any person who makes its intimate acquaintance will form a life-long friendship. --_reprinted from bird-lore._ the hermit thrush. while walking through a lonely wood i heard a lovely voice: a voice so fresh and true and good it made my heart rejoice. it sounded like a sunday bell, rung softly in a town, or like a stream, that in a dell forever trickles down. it seemed to me a voice of love, that always had loved me, so softly it rang out above- so wild and wanderingly. o voice, were you a golden dove, or just a plain gray bird? o voice, you are my wandering love, lost, yet forever heard. --_arvia mackaye, 9 years old._ my little bo-peep. my little bo-peep does not cry for lost sheep- o no! she is sobbing for bread; her hands are so tired, so weary her feet, that she sighs, "i wish i were dead." my little bo-peep does not wander away o'er meadows so grassy and green; 'mid the factory din, face wan, white and thin, my little bo-peep can be seen. my little bo-peep does not dream of white sheep- her day's work reaches into the night; on her pallet of straw, a few hours of rest- for her task she is up with the light. o let's find a day for my bo-peep to play- let's give her a breath of fresh air; somehow we'll feel better when giving our thanks to god for our blessings in prayer. marion, ohio. --_isabella virginia freeland._ [illustration] the oak tree. long ago in changeful autumn, when the leaves are turning brown, from a tall oak's topmost branches fell a little acorn down. and it tumbled by the pathway, and a chance foot trod it deep in the ground, where all the winter in its shell it lay asleep. with the white snow lying over, and the frost to hold it fast, till there came the mild spring weather, when it burst its shell at last. many years kind nature nursed it, summers hot and winters long; down the sun looked bright upon it, while it grew up tall and strong. now it stands up like a giant, casting shadows broad and high, with huge trunk and leafy branches spreading up into the sky. child, when haply you are resting, 'neath the great oak's monster shade, think how little was the acorn whence that mighty tree was made. think how simple things and lowly have a part in nature's plan; how the great have small beginnings, and the child becomes a man. little efforts work great actions; lessons in our childhood taught mold the spirits to the temper whereby noblest deeds are wrought. cherish then the gifts of childhood, use them gently, guard them well: for their future growth and greatness who can measure, who can tell? --_colorado arbor and bird day._ the poplar field. the poplars are felled; farewell to the shade and the whispering sound of the cool colonnade; the winds play no longer and sing in the leaves, nor ouse on his bosom their image receives. twelve years have elapsed since i first took a view of my favorite field, and the bank where they grew; and now in the grass behold they are laid, and the tree is my seat that once lent me their shade. the blackbird has fled to another retreat, where the hazel affords him a screen from the heat; and the scene where his melody charmed me before resounds with his sweet-flowing ditty no more. my fugitive years are all hasting away, and i must ere long lie as lowly as they, with a turf on my breast and a stone at my head ere another such grove shall arise in its stead. to change both my heart and my fancy employs; i reflect on the frailty of man and his joys; short-lived as we are, yet our pleasures, we see, have a still shorter date, and die sooner than we. --_cowper._ in the orchard. far down in the orchard i found her, her earnest eyes gazing aloft. a baby hand waved me a warning, a baby voice called to me--soft. "hush, mamma, don't frighten the birdies; they're busy at work, don't you see? a-picking the worms from the blossoms a-growing on god's apple-tree!" ah, child, when thy life work is given, god may not have great things for thee. be content if he sets thee to guarding the blossoms upon his fruit tree. adelphi, ohio. --_mary nowlan wittwer._ "thank you" and "amen". when we were at grandpa's house to dine, he looked about with sober face; then clasps his hands and shuts his eyes, and sister says he's saying grace. he says long words that i don't know; i'm only six years old--but then i know two words he always says, and one is "thanks" and one's "amen." while walking in my grandpa's woods we saw a squirrel, big and gray; he held a nut between his paws, but did not eat it right away. he closed his little shining eyes, his hands raised just like grandpa's--then i said, "o sister, keep real still, he's saying "thank you" and "amen."" * * * * * "he that planteth a tree is a servant of god, he provideth a kindness for many generations, and faces that he hath not seen shall bless him." * * * * * one impulse from a vernal wood may teach you more of man, of moral evil and of good, than all the sages can. [illustration: a country school building.] [illustration: south salem school with house for superintendent, rent free.] springtime. air--"auld lang syne." the winter storms have passed away, and springtime now is here, with sunshine smiling all around, and heavens blue and clear. the gifts of nature brighten earth, and nature her garden gay; they give a cheery greeting bright on this, the arbor day. the birds with gladsome voices sing, each its melodious lay, and music swells each little throat on this, the arbor day. the trees put forth their greenest leaves, on this, the arbor day. and welcome now the chosen tree which we shall plant today. _ellen beauchamp._ do apple seeds point up or down? when teacher called the apple class, they gathered round to see what question deep in apple lore their task that day might be. "now tell me," said the teacher, to little polly brown, "do apple seeds grow pointing up, or are they pointing down?" poor polly didn't know, for she had never thought to look (and that's the kind of question you can't find in a book.) and of the whole big apple class not one small pupil knew if apple seeds point up or down! but then, my dear, do you? --_carolyn wells in st. nicholas._ [illustration] if mother nature patches the leaves of trees and vines, i'm sure she does her darning with the needles of the pines. they are so long and slender; and sometimes in full view, they have their thread of cobwebs and thimbles made of dew. --_william h. hayne._ the jolly old crow. on the limb of a tree sat a jolly old crow, and chattered away with glee, with glee, as he saw the old farmer go out to sow, and he cried: "it's all for me, for me- caw, caw, caw! i've learned all the tricks of this wonderful man, who has such a regard for the crow, the crow, that he lays out his grounds in a regular plan, and covers his corn in a row, a row- caw, caw, caw!" --_selected._ they'll come again. they'll come again to the apple tree, robin and all the rest; when the orchard branches are fair to see in the snow of the blossoms dressed, and the prettiest thing in the world will be the building of the nest. a plump little girl and a thin little bird. a plump little girl and a thin little bird were out in the meadow together. "how cold that poor little bird must be without any clothes like mine," said she, "although it is sunshiny weather!" "a nice little girl is that," piped he, "but, oh, how cold she must be! for, see, she hasn't a single feather!" so each shivered to think of the other poor thing, "although it is sunshiny weather!" --_m. m. dodge._ how the woodpecker knows. how does he know where to dig his hole, the woodpecker there on the elm tree hole? how does he know what kind of a limb to use for a drum, and to burrow in? how does he find where the young grubs grow- i'd like to know? the woodpecker flew to a maple limb, and drummed a tattoo that was fun for him, "no breakfast here! it's too hard for that." he said, as down on his tail he sat, "just listen to this: rrrr rat-rat-tat." do you know when you wound any dear little bird, or take from its home-nest another, that the cries of their anguish in heaven are heard, that god pities those birds and their mother? do you know the same god made the birds and the boys, and both for the very same reason, that each life should be bright with its homes and its joys, for each in its measure and season? do you know if you hark to the song in the air, so sweet in the freshness of morning, that the birds seem to sing, "we will trust to your care to keep us from danger and mourning?" do you, if you'd listen with soul and with heart, you never would ruffle a feather of the dear little birds that make our glad world a part, for all are god's children together? the boy's protest. when a fellow knows every bird's nest in the fields for miles around, where the squirrels play in the sunshine, where the prettiest flowers are found; when he knows a pair of robins that will fly to his hands for crumbs, he hates to be penned in a school-room, and he's glad when saturday comes. there's a bee-tree on the hillside, but i'll not tell any one where; there's a school of trout in the mill-stream, and i want to go fishing there. i know where an oriole's building, and a log where a partridge drums, and i'm going to the woods to see them, as soon as saturday comes. they shouldn't keep school in the springtime, when the world is so fresh and bright, when you want to be fishing and climbing, and playing from morn till night. it's a shame to be kept in the school-room, writing and working out sums; all week it's like being in prison, and i'm glad when saturday comes. --_new york independent._ [illustration: an antwerp scene.] [illustration] the oriole's song. tangled and green the orchard way, breath of blossoms, and waft of breeze; dew-wet vistas of breaking day, drifted snow on the drooping trees. through branching bloom, and mist of green, now here, now there, upon the wing, flame of oriole faintly seen- vision fair of the winsome spring. a low-drawn cadence, thrilling, low, a call, a charm unto the ear; a forest brook in golden flow, a love song to the waking year. and all the gladness of a young may is touching with pathos at the strain; the melting music of the lay our heart's deep secrets wakes again. --_sheila._ the red-headed woodpecker. by florence merriam bailey. the national association of audubon societies educational leaflet no. 43. the woodpeckers are a band of foresters most of whom spend their lives saving trees. many of them do their work hidden in the dark forests, but the red-heads hunt largely out in plain sight of passers-by. why? because, while they devour enough enemies of the trees to deserve the name of foresters, they are particularly fond of vegetable foods and large beetles found in the open. watch one of the handsome red-headed birds on a fence. down he drops to pick up an ant or a grasshopper from the ground; then up he shoots to catch a wasp or beetle in the air. nor does he stop with fly-catching. nutting--beech-nutting--is one of his favorite pastimes; while berries, fruits and seeds are all to his taste. if, in his appreciation of the good things that man offers, the red-head on rare occasions takes a bit more cultivated fruit or berries than his rightful share, his attention should be diverted by planting some of his favorite wild fruits, such as dogwood, mulberry, elderberry, chokecherry, or wild black cherry. but, in judging of what is a bird's fair share of man's crops, many things should be considered. food is bought for the canary and other house pets; and many people who do not care for caged pets buy food for the wild birds summer and winter, to bring them to their houses. flowers cost something, too. but without birds and flowers, what would the country be? before raising his hand against a bird, a man should think of many things. a man who is unfair to a bird is unfair to himself. [sidenote: feeding habits.] it would be a stingy man, indeed, who would begrudge the woodpeckers their acorns and beechnuts. while the leaves are still green on the trees, the redheads discover the beechnuts and go to work. "it is a truly beautiful sight," dr. merriam says, "to watch these magnificent birds creeping about after the manner of warblers, among the small branches and twigs, which bend low with their weight, while picking and husking the tender nuts." the nuts are not always eaten on the spot, for, like their famous california cousins, the redheads store up food for winter use. all sorts of odd nooks and crannies serve the redheads for storehouses--knot-holes, pockets under patches of raised bark, cracks between shingles and fences, and even railroad ties. sometimes, instead of nuts, grasshoppers and other eatables are put away in storage. the wise birds at times make real caches, concealing their stores by hammering down pieces of wood or bark over them. beechnuts are such a large part of the fall and winter food of the redheads in some localities, that, like the gray squirrels, the birds are common in good beechnut winters and absent in others. cold and snow do not trouble them, if they have plenty to eat, for, as major bendire says, many of them "winter along our northern border, in certain years, when they can find an abundant supply of food." in fact, in the greater part of the eastern states the redhead is "a rather regular resident," but in the western part of its range "it appears to migrate pretty regularly," so that it is rare to see one "north of latitude 40â°, in winter." the western boundary of the redhead's range is the rocky mountains, but east of the mountains it breeds from manitoba and northern new york south to the gulf of mexico; though it is a rare bird in eastern new england. [sidenote: migration.] in sections where this erratic woodpecker migrates, it leaves its nesting-grounds early in october, and returns the latter part of april or the beginning of may. before too much taken up with the serious business of life, the redhead goes gaily about, as major bendire says, "frolicking and playing hide-and-seek with its mate, and when not so engaged, amusing itself by drumming on some resonant dead limb, or on the roof and sides of houses, barns, etc." for though, like other drummers, the woodpeckers are not found in the front ranks of the orchestra, they beat a royal tattoo that may well express many fine feelings. when the musical spring holiday is over and the birds have chosen a tree for the nest, they hew out a pocket in a trunk or branch, anywhere from eight to eighty feet from the ground. when the young hatch, there comes a happy day for the looker-on who, by kind intent and unobtrusive way, has earned the right to watch the lovely birds flying back and forth, caring for their brood. [sidenote: nest.] and then, at last, come the days when the gray-headed youngsters, from hanging out of the window, boldly open their wings and launch into the air. anxious times these are for old birds,--times when the watcher's admiration may be roused by heroic deeds of parental love; for many a parent bird fairly flaunts in the face of the enemy, as if trying to say, "kill me; spare my young!" one family of redheads once gave me a delightful three weeks. when the old birds were first discovered, one was on a stub in a meadow. when joined by its mate, as the farmer was coming with oxen and hayrack to take up the rows of haycocks that led down the field, the pair flew slowly ahead along a line of locusts, pecking quietly at the bark of each tree before flying on. at the foot of the meadow they flew over to a small grove in the adjoining pasture. as it was july, it was easy to draw conclusions. and when i went to the grove to investigate, the pair were so much alarmed that they at once corroborated my conclusions. did i mean harm? why had i come? one of them leaned far down across a dead limb and inspected me, rattling and bowing nervously; the other stationed itself on the back of a branch over which it peered at me with one eye. both of them cried krit-tar-rah every time i ventured to take a step. as they positively would not commit themselves as to which one of the many woodpecker holes in sight belonged to them i had to make a tour of the grove. [illustration: a school exhibit.] [illustration: wayne township centralized school located at lees creek, clinton county, ohio.] on its edge was a promising old stub with a number of big, round holes and, picking up a stick, i rapped on the trunk. both birds were over my head in an instant, rattling and scolding till you would have thought i had come to chop down the tree and carry off the young before their eyes. i felt injured, but having found the nest could afford to watch from a distance. it was not long before the old birds began feeding their young. they would fly to the stub and stand under the nest while rousing the brood by rattling into the hole, which had the odd effect of muffling their voices. when, as they flew back and forth a yellow-hammer stopped in passing, they drove him off in a hurry. they wanted that grove to themselves. on my next visits, if, in spite of many precautions, they discovered me, they flew to dead tree tops to watch me, or startled me by an angry quarrâ´ quarrâ´ quarrâ´ over my head. when they found that i made no attempt to go near the nest, however, they finally put up with me and went about their business. after being at the nest together they would often fly off in opposite directions, to hunt on different beats. if one hunted in the grove, the other would go out to the rail fence. a high maple was a favorite lookout and hunting-ground for the one who stayed in the grove, and cracks in the bark afforded good places to wedge insects into. the bird who hunted on the fence, if suspecting a grub in a rail, would stand motionless as a robin on the grass, apparently listening; but when the right moment came would drill down rapidly and spear the grub. if an insect passed that way the redhead would make a sally into the air for it, sometimes shooting straight up for fifteen or twenty feet and coming down almost as straight; at others flying out and back in an ellipse, horizontally or obliquely up in the air or down over the ground. but oftener than all, perhaps, it flew down onto the ground to pick up something which its sharp eyes had discovered there. once it brought up some insect, hit it against the rail, gave a business-like hop and flew off to feed its young. the young left the nest between my visits, but when, chancing to focus my glass on a passing woodpecker i discovered that its head was gray instead of red, i knew for a certainty what had happened. the fledgling seemed already much at home on its wings. it flew out into the air, caught a white miller and went back to the tree with it, shaking it and then rapping it vigorously against a branch before venturing to swallow it. when the youngster flew, i followed rousing a robin who made such an outcry that one of the old redheads flew over in alarm. "kik-a-rik, kik-a-rik," it cried as it hurried from tree to tree, trying to keep an eye on me while looking for the youngster. neither of us could find it for some time, but after looking in vain over the west side of a big tree i rounded the trunk and found it calmly sitting on a branch on the east side--which goes to prove that it is never safe to say a woodpecker isn't on a tree, till you have seen both sides! the old redhead found the lost fledgling about the time that i did and flew over to it with what looked like a big grub. at the delectable sight, the youngster dropped all its airs of independence, and with weak infantile cries turned and opened wide its bill! two days later i found two birds that may have been father and son, on the side of a gladpole, out in the big world together. the old bird's head glowed crimson in the strong sunlight, and it was fortunate indeed that only friends were by. the striking tricolor makes the redheads such good targets that they are in especial danger from human enemies and need loyal, valiant defenders wherever they live. and what a privilege it is to have birds of such interesting habits and beautiful plumage in your neighborhood! how the long country roads are enlivened, how the green fields are lit up, as one of the brilliant birds rises from a fence-post and flies over them! in the city, it is rare good luck, indeed, to have a pair nest in an oak where you can watch them and even a passing glimpse or an occasional visit is something to be thankful for. "there's the redhead!" you exclaim exultantly, when a loud tattoo beats on your city roof in spring. and "there's the redhead!" you cry with delight, as a soft kikarik comes from a leafless oak you are passing in winter; and the city street, so dull and uninteresting before, is suddenly illumined by the sight. --_reprinted from bird-lore._ four leaf clovers. i know a place where the sun is like gold, and the cherry blooms burst with snow, and down underneath is the loveliest nook, where the four-leaf clovers grow. one leaf is for hope, and one is for faith, and one is for love, you know, but god put another in for luck- if you search, you will find where they grow. but you must have hope, and you must have faith, you must love and be strong, and so if you work, if you wait, you will find the place where the four-leaf clovers grow. --_ella higginson._ the flower folk. hope is like a harebell trembling from its birth, love is like a rose the joy of all the earth; faith is like a lily lifted high and white, love is like a lovely rose, the world's delight; harebells and sweet lilies show a thornless growth but the rose with all its thorns excels them both. --_christina g. rossetti._ arbor day march. air--"marching through georgia." celebrate the arbor day with march and song and cheer, for the season comes to us but once in every year; should we not remember it, and make the memory dear, memories sweet for this may day. chorus. hurrah! hurrah! the arbor day is here; hurrah! hurrah! it gladdens every year, so we plant a young tree on blithesome arbor day, while we are singing for gladness. arbor day song. (air: hold the fort.) friends and parents gather with us, in our school today, thoughts of grove and tangled wildwoods, in our minds hold sway. chorus. spare the trees, oh thoughtless woodman, hew but what you need, they give balm to vagrant breezes, for their lives we plead. giant oaks in sunny pastures cast their pleasant shade maples clad in gold and crimson cheer the darkened glade. lofty firs and murmuring pine trees shading mountain's crest, are the growth of weary ages; for them we protest. heralded in leafy banners, season's four we greet; every bough a sacred temple for the song birds sweet. --_iowa special days._ we love the trees. (tune: "there's music in the air.") we love the grand old trees, with the oak, their royal king, and the maple, forest queen, we to her homage bring; and the elm, with stately form, long withstanding wind and storm, pine, low whispering to the breeze, o, we love the grand old trees! we love the grand old trees, the cedar, bright above the snow, the poplar, straight and tall, and the willow, weeping low, butternut and walnut, too, hickory, so staunch and true, basswood, blooming for the bees, o, we love the grand old trees! we love the grand old trees, the tulip, branching broad and high, the beech, with shining robe, and the birch, so sweet and shy, aged chestnuts, fair to see, holly, bright with christmas glee, laurel, crown for victories, o, we love the grand old trees! --_ada s. sherwood, in journal of education._ recitation. do you know the trees by name when you see them growing in the fields or in the woods? they are well worth knowing. watch them in the early spring, when their buds are swelling; watch each tiny little leaf leave its little dwelling. watch them later, when their leaves everywhere are showing; soon you'll know the different trees when you see them growing. --_selected._ goin' barefooted. it's more fun goin' barefoot than anythin' i know, there ain't a single 'nother thing that helps your feelin's so. some days i stay in muvver's room, a-gettin' in her way, an' when i've bothered her so much, she sez, "oh, run and play!" i say, "kin i go barefoot?" en she sez, "if y' choose." nen i alwuz wanter holler when i'm pullin' off my shoes! it's fun a-going barefoot when yer playin' any game, 'cause robbers would be noisy, an' indians awful tame unless they had their shoes off when they crep' up in the night, an' folks can't know they're comin' till they get right close in sight. an' i'm surely goin' barefoot every day when i get old, an' haven't got a nurse to say i'll catch my death of cold. an' if you're goin' barefoot, yer want to go outdoors; y' can't stretch out an' dig yer heels in stupid, hardwood floors, like you can dig 'em in th' dirt. an' where th' long grass grows, th' blades feel kinder tickley and cool between yer toes. so when i'm pullin' off my shoes i'm mighty 'fraid i'll cough, 'cause then i know ma'd stop me 'fore i got my stockin's off. if y' often go 'round barefoot there's lots o' things to know- of how to curl yer feet on stones, so they won't hurt y' so; an' when th' grass is stickley, an' pricks y' at a touch, jes' plank yer feet down solid, an' it don't hurt half so much; i lose my hat mos' every day--i wish i did my shoes; er else i wisht i was so poor i hadn't none to lose! --_burges johnson, in "harper's magazine."_ the year's at the spring, and day's at the morn; morning's at seven; the hill-sides dew pearled: the larks on the wing: the snails on the thorn; god's in his heaven- all's right with the world! --_browning._ in fact there is nothing that keeps its youth so far as i know, but a tree and truth. --_o. w. holmes._ there's never a leaf or a blade too mean to be some creature's palace. --_lowell._ time to rise. a birdie with a yellow bill hopped upon the window sill. cocked his shining eye and said: "ain't you 'shamed, you sleepy-head!" flowers are the sweetest things god ever made and forgot to put a soul into. --_beecher._ the best verses i have printed are the trees i have planted. --_holmes._ there was never mystery but 'tis figured in the flowers; was never secret history but birds tell it in the bowers. --_emerson._ [illustration: our shy neighbor.] the wiseacres of the forest. _from nature and culture._ so many have an idea that bird-life does not blossom out until the flowers do, and that our shy neighbors do not wake to life and joy and song until the warm breezes of spring have chased to the realm of memory winter's cold and snow. several weeks of wandering through the woods during the months of january and february taught me that to him who has time to devote, and that amount of patience which enables a hunter to rise at three in the morning, crawl through wet, tangled swamp-grass in the cold and snow, and then sit shivering for hours in a "hide" awaiting the ducks, there will be shots, camera shots, replete with interest and full of instruction; revelations of a world's population little known because of their unobtrusive life. they who lead the "simple life" may not make as much stir in the world as some others we know: but never make the mistake of thinking the life one lacking in interest. these "little journeys" of mine were for the purpose of prying into the secrets of our friends "the owls." as far back as the uncovered picture-writing of the ancients, mr. owl has been the synonym for wisdom. does he deserve the title? as company lends interest, i was accompanied by a friend who took equal delight in these jaunts; and off we started one fourteenth of january. for some six miles we tramped along the kaw valley, in kansas, ever on the lookout for trees with large hollow trunks or broken limbs. now, if any one believes an owl is entirely a night-bird, let him follow in my footsteps, and he will learn a thing or two. these are some of the mysteries of "the wild." entering a spot of the forest where the banks of the stream were lined thickly on both sides with trees, both large and small, we seated ourselves for a time to rest and to watch. like egyptian darkness, the quiet was of a kind to be felt, but it did not long remain this way. suddenly the strange quiet was broken by a fierce, angry call of a crow. now, where did he come from, and why this display of anger? possibly at our intrusion; yet this could hardly be, as it was far too early in the season for the crow to be nesting. before we had time to settle our question the stillness was further broken by several shrill answers, and into the branchy arena came other crows. these were followed by others, and still others. surely we were not the cause of all this disturbance. finally there were no less than two dozen crows flying around a large tree with a broken top, and making a clatter that would have put a boiler factory to shame. one could easily imagine it to be a congress of crows exorcised over an insurgency move and demanding the previous question. then came the solution of the mystery. in dignified yet rapid flight a huge owl dropped from a limb on the other side of the stump, and with a flight as silent as the grave winged her way into the deeper woods followed by that rabble of noisy, cawing crows. it seemed strange that the owl did not turn upon her tormentors; she who had talons long, strong, and sharp; a beak that could easily make its impression upon a pine stick; but her reputed wisdom here led her to know that safety lay in flight, as her size would be her undoing; that the crow would find many points of attack ere she could turn around. safety lay in flight and shelter where the crows could not reach her, and would finally caw themselves hoarse and tired, and at last depart. many times have i watched these actions on the part of the owls and crows, and always with the same results. not alone the larger, but also the smaller owls adopt the same course of action to escape their tormentors. this leads me to believe that this partly accounts for their foraging at night. [illustration: nest of barred owl.] we now turned our attention to the tree--truly a monarch of the "forest primeval"--a huge sycamore, about five feet in diameter at the base, with few limbs to aid in climbing. but we simply must get up to that hollow, and after much effort success was ours; and there, deep down in the hole, on a bed of warm chips and half-rotted punky wood, all nicely cuddled up, lay two little fluffy white baby owls--young hoot owls. as it takes about four weeks for incubation, and these babies were fully a week old, nesting must have begun at least in the middle of december. much depends on the winter; this one having been very mild. in fact, i have noticed that birds are quite accurate weather prophets, were we only skilled enough to read their predictions. but it is always safe, i find, to be early in the field. and now came our first disappointment. it was impossible to secure a picture of the nest and baby owls, owing to the unfavorable position of the tree and nest; so, taking a farewell look at the place, we returned, hoping for better luck next time. [illustration: nest and eggs of screech owl.] the following week we were out and at it again, and were more fortunate in that we discovered the home of another owl, similar in shape, but smaller, and differently marked. this was the barred owl, so called because of its markings. here, again, the nest was up quite a ways, and difficult to get to. after much trouble we cut down a small tree and hoisted it into the larger tree so that it came near the hole where the nest was. this enabled me to get above the nest, so that i could swing down to the hole by a rope and get a view of the nest and contents. after many attempts i succeeded in snapping two or three negatives, one of which turned out fairly good and accompanies this article. every move i made while taking the pictures was punctuated by hoots of anger and disgust by the mother owl, who had flown to a nearby tree, until she aroused the attention of some ever-observant crows; then she had all she could do taking care of herself and getting rid of her tormentors. if ever a free matinee in birdland was billed, it occurred that afternoon. the weeks now slowly passed without further success. one must have patience, much patience, in birdland. it may take years to secure what will prove satisfactory views of some species. many snaps, when taken, prove undesirable after development, and each week adds to the uncertainty of finding anything "at home" when next you come. while the percentage of successful incubation is fairly large, yet the numerous enemies of the feathered tribe make the uncertainty of life in birdland quite noticeable. [illustration: baby screech owls.] the time was now ripe for us to turn our attention to the little screech owls; a small but interesting and valuable species. here i found a marked difference. any small hole or cavity suits their fancy. generally speaking, it must be small enough to exclude larger birds or animals that might prey upon them; but at times their boasted wisdom seemingly forsakes them, and they take up with any habitation. i have known them to nest in boxes in shade-trees and in bird-houses under the eaves of the barn. on this trip i found a fresh set of eggs in an old hollow stump formerly made by and used as the nesting-place of the yellow-shafted woodpecker. mrs. owl was at home, and very much disliked being disturbed. unlike the larger owls, she refused to fly away, and i had to lift her repeatedly from the eggs that i might take the picture. as sometimes happens, the negative was a failure; and returning the next week to try for better luck, i found safely curled up within the cavity an opossum. the eggs and mother bird were not in evidence, and the "possum" told no tales. similar experiences have often occurred to me when i have returned for better views or to follow up a certain line of study. the next nest of this species i found in a large hollow limb, which in falling had lodged crosswise in a tree. it was rather a queer place for a screech owl, but, i presume, suited her fancy. however, it was favorably located, and if successful i could at least follow up the process of nature; and this is just what i did. the only change made was in bringing the eggs, and later the young, forward from the recess of the cavity to insure better light. i wished to also take the parent bird upon the nest; but in this case they were perverse, and refused to be taken. one of the birds decided that he did not wish to be taken, and after repeated trials i concluded he knew best, and gave over the attempt. i also took the most courageous one and posed him on the stump of the tree. the result is not altogether satisfactory, but is interesting. [illustration: nest and eggs of long-eared owl.] my next acquisition was the long-eared owl. with camera and tripod strapped upon the bicycle i started upon a ride of some fifteen miles, which brought me to an old nursery, abandoned, overgrown, and wild. here, in a much-neglected fir grove i found the nests and eggs of this variety. the first taken was in a pine. climbing an adjacent tree, i located myself about five feet from the nest, and after carefully securing and focussing the camera, secured the view. my second i found later in the day in an apple tree. the tree was in bloom, but not leaved out, and offered but scant hide or protection for the nest. indeed i, at first, took it for an old crow's nest, and was about to pass on, when up over the rim of the nest bobbed two long ear-like tufts--whence the bird gets its name. approaching the tree, the mother quietly left, and as long as i was in that vicinity i saw nothing further of her. the long-eared owl is not very particular in the choice of her nesting-place. they will often build in a communal manner, several pairs selecting a fir grove or other suitable place; and here you will find the nests quite near together. again, they will be isolated in location; one here, and another quite a distance away, as the notion strikes them. the nest also seems to vary with their state of mind. at times they will build a very elaborate structure of their own; then, again, they take up with an old crow's nest or the summer nest of a squirrel, and with very little patching up make this answer their purpose. because of this variability on their part, it is not an easy matter to locate an occupied nest. [illustration: elaborate nest of long-eared owl.] one more, and i am done with the owls. the securing of this was of great interest to me, not alone for the sake of the picture, but because it settled two questions on which i had long been in doubt. at the time of which i now write i was living in an indian school, and previous to this all my ideas of indians and indian life had been gathered from cooper. near the school was a large village of prairie dogs covering something like ten acres of ground. one day i saw a small species of owl flying around and lighting on the different mounds. i immediately knew it to be the burrowing owl; but where among all those thousand and more holes to dig for her was a question i could not answer. to assist me, i brought the supposed craft of the red man's children to bear; but of no avail. not one of over two hundred could give me the least ray of light. then i got down to principles and discovered that there were some mounds around which were scattered butterflies' and grasshoppers' legs and wings, parts of frogs and toads, and the little pellets usually ejected by owls in the process of digestion. i also found that these mounds were invariably covered by an animal compost gathered from the surrounding prairie. i resolved to put my theory to the test by digging into one of these holes. here the indian boy was a great help, as he thoroughly knew his verb "to dig." i followed the hole down through hardpan to a depth of three feet, and back for over ten feet, where at last i found mrs. owl sitting on her nest of fresh eggs. here i took her picture while her large round eyes followed my every move as i focused and snapped her. it was while investigating this subject that i also exploded a somewhat common belief that prairie dogs, owls, and rattlesnakes live together in the same quarters in perfect amity. this is not the case. if they are ever found together it is either an accident unknown to one or the other party, or one of three has purposely crawled into the other's home for deeds dark and evil. altogether the experiences gained amply repaid me for the effort spent. these visits to the silent ones were payments ample enough in themselves, but my closer acquaintance with a very interesting family made them doubly so. i find that the owl is one of our best and most valuable friends, destroying during a season much of the troublesome animal population that injures the agricultural interests of the land. if careless boys and indifferent "others" could get this fact well grounded and use some other mark in target practice, all parties would be better off and much good gained. to take any life is ill, but to take good life is crime. [illustration: burrowing owl and her eggs.] the jays. "i know an old man, his name is jay, he wears a blue coat, and a hat of gray. he has a nice nest high up in a tree, where sits his dear mate content as can be. there are four blue eggs in the little brown nest, which will soon be baby birds blue, like the rest." address of the birds. an exercise for five pupils. _the robin_- "i am a robin, very brown and big and plump and smooth and round. my breast is pretty, bright and red and see this top-knot on my head! i heard the boys awhile ago shooting robins o'er the snow, and flew away in trembling fear and thought i'd hide from them in here. _the blue bird_- i'm a blue bird. don't you see me sitting on this apple-tree, i left my nest an hour ago to look for bugs and worms, you know; and now i know the very thing- that while i'm waiting i will sing, oh! beautiful and balmy spring. _the woodpecker_- i'm a woodpecker--a bird whose sound through wood and dale is heard. i tap, tap, tap, with noisy glee, to test the bark of every tree. i saw a rainbow stretching gay, across the sky, the other day; and some one said, "good-bye to rain, the woodpecker has come again." _the lark_- i'm the lark and early rise to greet the sun-god of the skies, and upright cleave the freshening air, to sail in regions still more fair. who could not soar on lusty wing, his maker's praises thus to sing? _the nightingale_- in music i excel the lark, she comes at dawn, i come at dark, and when the stars are shining bright, i sing the praises of the night. _in concert_- oh! in a chorus sweet we'll sing, and wake the echoes of the spring." little by little. "little by little," the acorn said, as it slowly sank in its mossy bed, "i am improving every day, hidden deep in the earth away." little by little each day it grew; little by little it sipped the dew; downward it sent out a threadlike root; up in the air sprung a tiny shoot, day after day, and year after year, little by little the leaves appear; and the slender branches spread far and wide, till the mighty oak is the forest's pride. "little by little," said the thoughtful boy, "moment by moment, i'll well employ, learning a little every day, and not misspending my time in play; whatever i do i will do it well. little by little, i'll learn to know the treasured wisdom of long ago; and one of these days, perhaps, will see that the world will be the better for me." --_selected._ a little pollywog. "a tiny little pollywog, and little brothers three, lived in the water near a log, as happy as could be. a-swimming, swimming all the day, a-sleeping all the night, and trying, though they were so gay, to do just what was right; a-growing, growing all the while, because they did their best; but i am afraid that you will smile when i tell you the rest. one morning, sitting on the log, they looked in mute surprise; four legs had every pollywog, where two had met their eyes. their mother, letting fall a tear, said, "oh, my pollywogs, it can't be you that sitting here!" for all of them were frogs. and with their legs they've grown some lungs; so you just wait and see. in summer time their little tongues will sing 'kachink' with glee." --_school education._ an arbor day tree. dear little tree that we plant today what will you be when we're old and gray? "the savings bank of the squirrel and mouse, for robin and wren an apartment house, the dressing-room of the butterfly's ball, the locust's and katydid's concert hall, the school-boy's ladder in pleasant june, the school-girl's tent in the july noon. and my leaves shall whisper them merrily, a tale of the children who planted me." --_from the intelligence._ the robin and the flower. a robin once sat in the bright winter's sun, a foolish red robin was he, for he sang a sweet song that springtime had come when the day was as cold as could be. so gay was his song of the warmth of the hour, so merrily babbled the sound, that it stole through the dream of a dear little flower who was slumbering under the ground. the sleeper awakened, soft lifted the sod and harkened the robin's sweet song, full glad was her heart and thankful to god that winter so quickly had gone. the robin still sang and the dear little flower unfolded her petals of pink:- "i'll hold up my chalice," she said, "for a shower that from me my robin may drink." the singer flew quickly to welcome his love,- his love that was faltering low:- oh, where was the warmth from the heaven above? instead of a shower there was snow. then robin quick covered her o'er with his wing, "don't leave me, i love you," he cried: and he kissed her so tenderly, poor little thing, but the blossom, his loved one, had died. red robin still sits in the bright winter's sun, but a sorrowing robin is he; no longer he sings that the springtime has come when the day is as cold as can be. --_charles a. myall._ give fools their gold and knaves their power; let fortune's bubbles rise and fall; who sows a field, or trains a flower or plants a tree is more than all. for he who blesses most is blest; and god and man shall own his worth who toils to leave as his bequest an added beauty to the earth. --_whittier._ bird puzzle. 1. there's a bird whose name tells if he flies fast or slow, 2. one which boys use when with long strides they go, 3. there is one that tells tales, although he can't sing, 4. and one who flies high, but is held by a string. 5. by one a high rank in the army is held; 6. there's another whose name with one letter is spelled. 7. there is one that a farmer in harvest would use; 8. and one you can easily fool if you choose. 9. what bird, at dessert, is it useful to hold? 10. and which in the chimney place oft hung of old? 11. which bird wears a bit of sky in its dress? 12. which one always stands in the corner at chess? 13. there is one built a church, of london the pride; 14. we have one when we talk with a friend by our side. 15. what bird would its bill find useful at tea, 16. and which would its tail use to steer with at sea? 17. which proudly a musical instrument wears? 18. and which the same name as a small island bears? 19. which bird is called foolish and stupid and silly? 20. and which always wanting to punish poor billy? 21. which bird is an artisan, works at his trade? 22. and which is the stuff of which flags are made? 23. one, we're told by the poet, at heaven's gate sings; 24. there's one which in holland the new baby brings. 25. what bird have we with us in eating and drinking? 26. one, used for a fence, you can say without thinking. 27. what bird is a scoffer, a scorner, a jest? 28. which one is too lazy to build her own nest? 29. from a high wind at evening one name is inferred. 30. guess these, and you're wise as minerva's own bird. answers to bird puzzle. 1. swift 2. stilt 3. tatler 4. kite 5. adjutant 6. jay 7. thrasher 8. gull 9. nut-cracker 10. crane 11. blue bird 12. rook 13. wren 14. chat 15. spoon-bill 16. rudder-duck 17. lyre-bird 18. canary 19. loon 20. whippoorwill 21. weaver 22. bunting 23. lark 24. stork 25. swallow 26. rail 27. mocking bird 28. cuckoo 29. nightingale 30. owl the catbird. he sits on the branch of yon blossoming tree, this mad-cap cousin of robin and thrush, and sings without ceasing the whole morning long; now wild, now tender, the wayward song that flows from his soft gray, fluttering throat; but oft he stops in his sweetest note, and shaking a flower from the blossoming bough, drawls out: "mi-eu, mi-ow!" --_edith m. thomas._ the mocking bird. he didn't know much music when first he come along; an' all the birds went wonderin' why he didn't sing a song. they primed their feathers in the sun, an' sung their sweetest notes; an' music jest come on the run from all their purty throats! but still that bird was silent in summer time an' fall; he jest set still an' listened an' he wouldn't sing at all! but one night when them songsters was tired out an' still, an' the wind sighed down the valley an' went creepin' up the hill; when the stars was all a-tremble in the dreamin' fields o' blue, an' the daisy in the darkness felt the fallin' o' the dew,- there come a sound o' melody no mortal ever heard, an' all the birds seemed singin' from the throat o' one sweet bird! then the other birds went playin' in a land too fur to call; fer there warn't no use in stayin' when one bird could sing fer all! --_frank l. stanton._ [illustration: the buckeye state] the school book of forestry by charles lathrop pack president of the american tree association 1922 [illustration: forest fire guard stationed in a tree top] the author gratefully acknowledges information and assistance from the writings and reports of col. w.b. greeley, u.s. forester; col. henry s. graves, former u.s. forester; gifford pinchot, former u.s. forester; dr. b.e. fernow, dr. j.w. toumey, f.w. besley, w.i. hutchinson, r.h.d. boerker, prof. nelson c. brown, prof. r.s. hosmer, e.a. sterling, r.s. kellogg, e.t. allen, s. gordon dorrance, dr. hugh p. baker, alfred gaskill, j.s. illick, and many other leaders in forestry. "the part of good citizens" a people without children would face a hopeless future; a country without trees is almost as helpless; forests which are so used that they cannot renew themselves will soon vanish, and with them all their benefits. when you help to preserve our forests or plant new ones you are acting the part of good citizens. --theodore roosevelt. introduction our forests, with their billions of trees, are the backbone of agriculture, the skeleton of lumbering, and the heart of industry. even now, in spite of their depletion, they are the cream of our natural resources. they furnish wood for the nation, pasture for thousands of cattle and sheep, and water supply for countless cities and farms. they are the dominions of wild life. millions of birds, game animals, and fish live in the forests and the forest streams. the time is coming when our forests will be the greatest playgrounds of america. it is necessary that we preserve, protect, and expand our timberlands. by so doing we shall provide for the needs of future generations. the forest is one of the most faithful friends of man. it provides him with materials to build homes. it furnishes fuel. it aids agriculture by preventing floods and storing the surplus rainfall in the soil for the use of farm crops. it supplies the foundation for all our railroads. it is the producer of fertile soils. it gives employment to millions of workmen. it is a resource which bountifully repays kind treatment. it is the best organized feature of the plant world. the forest is not merely a collection of different kinds of trees. it is a permanent asset which will yield large returns over long periods when properly managed. our forest fortune has been thoughtlessly squandered by successive generations of spendthrifts. fortunately, it is not too late to rebuild it through coöperative effort. the work has been well begun, but it is a work of years, and it is to the youth of the country that we must look for its continuous expansion and perpetuation. a part of our effort must be directed toward familiarizing them with the needs and rewards of an intelligent forestry policy. contents introduction chapter i. how trees grow and multiply ii. the forest families iii. forests and floods iv. wild life of the forest v. important forest trees and their uses vi. the greatest enemy of the forest--fire vii. insects and diseases that destroy forests viii. the growth of the forestry idea ix. our national forests x. the national forests of alaska xi. progress in state forestry xii. the playgrounds of the nation xiii. solving our forestry problems xiv. why the united states should practice forestry xv. why the lumberman should practice forestry xvi. why the farmer should practice forestry xvii. putting wood waste to work xviii. wood for the nation illustrations forest fire guard stationed in a tree top section of a virgin forest the sequoias of california a forest ranger and his forest cabin pine which yields turpentine and timber forest fires destroy millions of dollars worth of timber every year blackened ruins of a fire swept forest forest management provides for cutting mature trees seed beds in a forest nursery sowing forest seed in an effort to grow a new forest a camping ground in a national forest good forests mean good hunting and fishing young white pine seeded from adjoining pine trees what some kinds of timber cutting do to a forest on poor soil trees are more profitable than farm crops a forest crop on its way to the market [transcriber's note: "section of a virgin forest" is the seventh (not the second) illustration in the book.] chapter i how trees grow and multiply the trees of the forest grow by forming new layers of wood directly under the bark. trees are held upright in the soil by means of roots which reach to a depth of many feet where the soil is loose and porous. these roots are the supports of the tree. they hold it rigidly in position. they also supply the tree with food. through delicate hairs on the roots, they absorb soil moisture and plant food from the earth and pass them along to the tree. the body of the tree acts as a passage way through which the food and drink are conveyed to the top or crown. the crown is the place where the food is digested and the regeneration of trees effected. the leaves contain a material known as chlorophyll, which, in the presence of light and heat, changes mineral substances into plant food. chlorophyll gives the leaves their green color. the cells of the plant that are rich in chlorophyll have the power to convert carbonic-acid gas into carbon and oxygen. these cells combine the carbon and the soil water into chemical mixtures which are partially digested when they reach the crown of the tree. the water, containing salts, which is gathered by the roots is brought up to the leaves. here it combines with the carbonic-acid gas taken from the air. under the action of chlorophyll and sunlight these substances are split up, the carbon, oxygen and hydrogen being combined into plant food. it is either used immediately or stored away for future emergency. trees breathe somewhat like human beings. they take in oxygen and give off carbonic-acid gas. the air enters the tree through the leaves and small openings in the bark, which are easily seen in such trees as the cherry and birch. trees breathe constantly, but they digest and assimilate food only during the day and in the presence of light. in the process of digestion and assimilation they give off oxygen in abundance, but they retain most of the carbonic acid gas, which is a plant food, and whatever part of it is not used immediately is stored up by the tree and used for its growth and development. trees also give off their excess moisture through the leaves and bark. otherwise they would become waterlogged during periods when the water is rising rapidly from the roots. after the first year, trees grow by increasing the thickness of the older buds. increase in height and density of crown cover is due to the development of the younger twigs. new growth on the tree is spread evenly between the wood and bark over the entire body of the plant. this process of wood production resembles a factory enterprise in which three layers of material are engaged. in the first two of these delicate tissues the wood is actually made. the inner side of the middle layer produces new wood while the outer side grows bark. the third layer is responsible for the production of the tough, outer bark. year after year new layers of wood are formed around the first layers. this first layer finally develops into heartwood, which, so far as growth is concerned, is dead material. its cells are blocked up and prevent the flow of sap. it aids in supporting the tree. the living sapwood surrounds the heartwood. each year one ring of this sapwood develops. this process of growth may continue until the annual layers amount to 50 or 100, or more, according to the life of the tree. one can tell the age of a tree by counting the number of annual rings. sometimes, because of the interruption of normal growth, two false rings may be produced instead of a single true ring. however, such blemishes are easy for the trained eye to recognize. heartwood does not occur in all varieties of trees. in some cases, where both heartwood and sapwood appear, it is difficult to distinguish between them as their colors are so nearly alike. because it takes up so much moisture and plant food, sapwood rots much more quickly than heartwood. the sapwood really acts as a pipe line to carry water from the roots to the top of the tree. in some of our largest trees the moisture is raised as high as 300 feet or more through the sapwood. strange though it may seem, trees fight with each other for a place in the sunlight. sprightly trees that shoot skyward at a swift pace are the ones that develop into the monarchs of the forest. they excel their mates in growth because at all times they are exposed to plenty of light. the less fortunate trees, that are more stocky and sturdy, and less speedy in their climb toward the sky, are killed out in large numbers each year. the weaker, spindly trees of the forest, which are slow growers, often are smothered out by the more vigorous trees. some trees are able to grow in the shade. they develop near or under the large trees of the forest. when the giants of the woodland die, these smaller trees, which previously were shaded, develop rapidly as a result of their freedom from suppression. in many cases they grow almost as large and high as the huge trees that they replace. in our eastern forests the hemlock often follows the white pine in this way. spruce trees may live for many years in dense shade. then finally, when they have access to plenty of light they may develop into sturdy trees. a tree that is a pigmy in one locality may rank as a giant in another region due to different conditions of growth and climate. for example, the canoe birch at its northern limit is a runt. it never grows higher than a few feet above the ground. under the most favorable conditions in florida, where this species thrives, such trees often tower to a height of 125 feet. in sheltered regions the seeds of trees may fall, sprout and take root close to their parent trees. as a rule, the wind plays a prominent part in distributing seed in every section of the country. pine and fir seeds are equipped with wings like those of a bird or an airplane. they enable the seeds to fly long distances on the wind before they drop to the ground and are covered with leaves. maple seeds fly by means of double-winged sails which carry them far afield before they settle. ash seeds have peculiar appendages which act like a skate-sail in transporting them to distant sections. cottonwood seeds have downy wings which aid their flight, while basswood seeds are distributed over the country by means of parachute-like wings. the pods of the locust tree fall on the frozen ground or snow crust and are blown long distances from their source. on the other hand, oak, hickory, and chestnut trees produce heavy seeds which generally remain where they fall. squirrels are the most industrious foresters in the animal world. each year they bury great quantities of tree seeds in hoards or caches hidden away in hollow logs or in the moss and leaves of the forest floor. birds also scatter tree seed here, there, and everywhere over the forests and the surrounding country. running streams and rivers carry seeds uninjured for many miles and finally deposit them in places where they sprout and grow into trees. many seeds are carried by the ocean currents to distant foreign shores. the decay of leaves and woodland vegetation forms rich and fertile soils in the forests, in which conditions are favorable for the development of new tree growth. when living tree seeds are exposed to proper amounts of moisture, warmth and air in a fertile soil, they will sprout and grow. a root develops which pushes its way down into the soil, while the leaf-bud of the plant, which springs from the other end of the seed, works its way upward toward the light and air. this leafy part of the seed finally forms the stem of the tree. but trees may produce plenty of seed and yet fail to maintain their proper proportion in the forest. this results because much of the seed is unsound. even where a satisfactory supply of sound fertile seed is produced, it does not follow that the trees of that variety will be maintained in the forest, as the seed supply may be scattered in unfavorable positions for germination. millions of little seedlings, however, start to grow in the forest each year, but only a small number survive and become large trees. this is because so many of the seedlings are destroyed by forest fires, cattle and sheep grazing, unfavorable soil and weather conditions, and many other causes. beech and chestnut trees and others of the broad-leaved type reproduce by means of sprouts as well as by seed. generally, the young stumps of broad-leaved trees produce more sprouts than the stumps of older trees which have stood for some time. among the cone-bearing trees reproduction by sprouts is rare. the redwood of california is one of the few exceptions. the pitch pine of the eastern states produces many sprouts, few of which live and develop into marketable timber. when trees are grown in nurseries, the practice is to sow the seed in special beds filled with rich soil. lath screens are used as shade. they protect the young seedlings from the sun just as the parent trees would do in the forest. the seedbeds are kept well cultivated and free of weeds so that the seedlings may have the best opportunities for rapid growth. generally the seeds are sown in the spring between march and may. such seeds as the elms and soft maples, which ripen in the early summer, are sown as soon as possible after they are gathered. practical tests have shown that thick sowings of tree seeds give the best results. there is little danger of weeds smothering out the seedlings under such conditions. after the seed has germinated the beds may be thinned so that the seedlings will have more room to develop. during the fall of the same year, or in the following spring, the seedlings should be transplanted to nursery rows. thereafter it is customary to transplant the young trees at least once again during damp weather. when the trees finally are robust and vigorous and have reached the age of two to five years, they are dug up carefully and set out permanently. the usual practice is to keep the seedlings one year in the seedbed and two years in the nursery rows before they are set out. whether the transplanting should take place during the spring or fall depends largely on the climate and geography of the locality. practical experience is the best guide in such matters. some farmers and land owners are now interested in setting out hardwood forests for commercial purposes. if they do not wish to purchase their seedlings from a reliable nursery-man, they can grow them from carefully selected seed planted in well-prepared seedbeds. the popular practice is to sow the seed in drills about 2 to 3 feet apart so that horses may be used for cultivation. the seeds are sown to a depth of 2 to 3 times their thickness. they are placed close enough in the drill so that from 12 to 15 seedlings to the linear foot result. in order to hasten the sprouting of the seeds, some planters soak them in cold water for several days before sowing. in the case of such hard-coated seed as the black locust or honey locust, it is best to soak them in hot water before planting. chapter ii the forest families trees are as queer in picking out places to live and in their habits of growth as are the peoples of the various races which inhabit the world. some trees do best in the icy northland. they become weak and die when brought to warm climates. others that are accustomed to tropical weather fail to make further growth when exposed to extreme cold. the appearance of jack frost means death to most of the trees that come from near the equator. even on the opposite slopes of the same mountain the types of trees are often very different. trees that do well on the north side require plenty of moisture and cool weather. those that prosper on south exposures are equipped to resist late and early frosts as well as very hot sunshine. the moisture needs of different trees are as remarkable as their likes and dislikes for warmth and cold. some trees attain large size in a swampy country. trees of the same kind will become stunted in sections where dry weather persists. in some parts of the united states forestry experts can tell where they are by the local tree growth. for example, in the extreme northern districts the spruce and the balsam fir are native. as one travels farther south these give way to little jack pine and aspen trees. next come the stately forests of white and norway pine. sometimes a few slow-growing hemlock trees appear in the colder sections. if one continues his journey toward the equator he will next pass through forests of broad-leaved trees. they will include oak, maple, beech, chestnut, hickory, and sycamore. in kentucky, which is a centre of the broad-leaved belt, there are several hundred different varieties of trees. farther south, the cone-bearing species prevail. they are followed in the march toward the gulf of mexico by the tropical trees of southern florida. if one journeys west from the mississippi river across the great plains he finally will come to the rocky mountains, where evergreen trees predominate. if oak, maple, poplar, or other broad-leaved trees grow in that region, they occur in scattered stands. in the eastern forests the trees are close together. they form a leafy canopy overhead. in the forests of the rockies the evergreens stand some distance apart so that their tops do not touch. as a result, these western forests do not shade the ground as well as those in the east. this causes the soils of these forests to be much drier, and also increases the danger from fire. the forests of western washington and oregon, unlike most timberlands of the rocky mountain region, are as dense as any forests in the world. even at midday it is as dark as twilight in these forests. the trees are gigantic. they tower 150 to 300 feet above the ground. their trunks often are 6 feet or larger in diameter. they make the trees of the eastern forests look stunted. they are excelled in size only by the mammoth redwood trees of northern california and the giant sequoias of the southern sierras. [illustration: the sequoias of california] differences of climate have largely influenced tree growth and types in this country. the distribution of tree families is changing all the time. it shifts just as the climate and other conditions change. trees constantly strive among themselves for control of different localities. for a time one species will predominate. then other varieties will appear and displace the ones already established. the distribution of trees changes very remarkably from one century to another. for example, in some sections, the red and black oaks are replacing the white oaks. some trees are light-lovers. they require much more sunlight than others that do well under heavy shade. oak trees require plenty of light; maples or beeches thrive on little light. the seed of trees requiring little light may be scattered in a dense forest together with that of trees which need plenty of daylight in order to make normal growth. the seedlings that like shade will develop under such conditions while those that need light will pine away and die. gradually the shade-loving trees will replace the light-loving trees in such a forest stand. even the different trees of the same family often strive with one another for light and moisture. each tree differs from every other one in shape and size. trees will adapt themselves to the light and moisture conditions to which they are exposed. a tree that has access to plenty of moisture and sunlight grows evenly from the ground to its top with a bushy, wide-spreading crown. the same tree, if it grows in the shade, will reach a greater height but will have a small compact crown. trees run a race in their rapidity of growth. the winners get the desirable places in the sunlight and prosper. the losers develop into stunted trees that often die, due to lack of light exposure. a better quality of lumber results from tall straight trees than that produced by the symmetrical, branching trees. that is why every forester who sets out trees tries to provide conditions which will make them grow tall and with the smallest possible covering of branches on the lower part of the trunks. where trees are exposed to strong winds, they develop deep and strong root systems. they produce large and strong trunks that can bend and resist violent winds which sway and twist them in every direction. such trees are much stronger and sturdier than those that grow in a sheltered forest. the trees that are blown down in the forest provide space for the introduction and growth of new varieties. these activities are constantly changing the type of tree growth in the forest. our original forests which bordered the atlantic coast line when america was first settled, were dense and impenetrable. the colonists feared the forests because they sheltered the hostile indians who lurked near the white settlements. in time this fear of the forest developed into hatred of the forest. as a result, the colonists cut trees as rapidly as they could. in every way they fought back the wilderness. they and their children's children have worked so effectively that the original wealth of woodlands has been depleted. at present, cleared fields and cutover areas abound in regions that at one time were covered with magnificent stands of timber. in many sections of the country our forests are now so reduced that they are of little commercial importance. however, these areas are not yet entirely denuded. predictions have been made frequently that our woodlands would soon disappear. scientific foresters report that such statements are incorrect. there are only a few districts in the country which probably will never again support much tree growth. their denuded condition is due largely to the destruction of the neighboring mountain forests and to the activities of erosion. under ordinary conditions, natural reforestation will maintain a satisfactory tree growth on lands where a practical system of forest protection is practiced. the complete removal of the forest is now accomplished only in fertile farming regions, where the agricultural value of the land is too high to permit it to remain longer in forest cover. even in the mississippi valley and the great lakes belts there are still large areas of forest land. most of the farms have woodlots which provide fuel, fencing, and some lumber. for the most part, these farm woodlots are abused. they have not been managed correctly. fortunately, a change for the better is now evident. the farm woodlot owners are coming to appreciate the importance of protecting the trees for future use. in some cases, they are even replanting areas that have been cut over. there are large tracts of sandy, rocky and swampy land in these districts that are satisfactory for tree production. in fact, about all these fields are good for is the growing of timber. campaigns are now under way to increase tree planting and develop the production of lands adapted for forestry which previously have been idle. the united states of the future will not be a desert, tree-less country. however, immediate measures to save our remaining trees must be developed. the greater part of our virgin timber has already been felled. the aftermath forests, which succeed the virgin stand, generally are inferior. our supplies of ash, black walnut and hickory, once abundant, are now seriously limited. formerly, these mixed forests covered vast stretches of country which today support only a scant crop of young trees which will not be ready for market for many years. these second-growth stands will never approach in value or quality the original forests. over large areas, poplar, white birch, and jack pine trees now predominate on lands which formerly bore dense stands of white pine. in many places, scrubby underbrush and stunted trees occupy lands which heretofore have been heavy producers of marketable timber trees. generally speaking, farm lands should not be used for forestry purposes. on the other hand, some forest lands can be profitably cleared and used for agriculture. for example, settlers are felling trees and fighting stumps in northern wisconsin, michigan, and minnesota. some of these virgin lands are valuable for farming purposes, others are not. it is preferable that they should produce farm crops instead of tree crops if the land is best adapted to agricultural use. it is an economic necessity that all lands in this country best suited for farming purposes should be tilled. our ever-increasing population demands that every acre of land useful for growing crops should be cleared and devoted to farming. under such conditions, the settlers should reserve sufficient woodlands for their home needs, carefully distinguishing between the land that is best for agricultural purposes and the land that is best for forestry purposes, and thus doubling their resources. thoughtless lumbermen have pillaged millions of acres of our most productive forests. the early lumbermen wasted our woodland resources. they made the same mistakes as everyone else in the care and protection of our original forests. the greatest blame for the wasting of our lumber resources rests with the state and federal authorities who permitted the depletion. many of our lumbermen now appreciate the need of preserving and protecting our forests for future generations. some of them have changed their policies and are now doing all in their power to aid forest conservation. the ability of a properly managed forest to produce new crops of trees year after year promises us a future supply of wood sufficient for all our needs if only we will conserve our timberlands as they deserve. it is our duty to handle the forests in the same way that fertile farming fields are managed. that is to say, they should be so treated that they will yield a profitable money crop every year without reducing their powers of future production. private owners and farmers are coming slowly to realize the grave importance of preserving and extending our woodlands. the public, the state and the nation are now solidly behind the movement to improve our forestry and to safe-guard our forests. several of the states, including new york and pennsylvania, have purchased large areas of timberlands for state forests. these will be developed as future sources of lumber supply. chapter iii forests and floods forests are necessary at the headwaters of streams. the trees break the force of the rain drops, and the forest floor, acting as a large sponge, absorbs rainfall and prevents run-off and floods. unless there are forests at the sources of streams and rivers, floods occur. the spring uprisings of the mississippi, ohio and missouri rivers are due largely to the lack of forests at their headwaters. in the regions drained by these streams the run-off water is not absorbed as it should be. it flows unimpeded from the higher levels to the river valleys. it floods the river courses with so much water that they burst their banks and pour pell-mell over the surrounding country. many floods which occur in the united states occur because we have cut down large areas of trees which formerly protected the sources of streams and rivers. a grave danger that threatens western farming is that some time in the future the greater part of the vegetation and forest cover on the watersheds of that section may entirely disappear. such a condition would cause floods after every heavy rain. the available supplies of rainwater which are needed for the thirsty crops would be wasted as flood waters. these floods would cause great damage in the valleys through which they rushed. the freshets would be followed by periods of water famine. the streams would then be so low that they could not supply the normal demands. farmers would suffer on account of the lack of irrigation water. towns and cities that depended on the mountain streams for their water supplies would be handicapped severely. in a thousand and one ways, a deficient water supply due to forest depletion would cause hardships and suffering in the regions exposed to such misfortune. the important part which forests play in the development of our country is shown by the fact that from the streams of the national forests over 700 western cities and towns, with an aggregate population of nearly 2,500,000, obtain their domestic water supply. the forests include 1266 irrigation projects and 325 water-power plants, in addition to many other power and irrigation companies which depend on the government timberlands for water conservation and the regulation of rain water run-off and stream flow. the national forests aid greatly in conserving and making available for use the precious limited rainfall of the arid regions. that is why settlers in irrigated districts are deeply interested in the cutting of timber in the federal woodlands. destructive lumbering is never practiced in these forests. in its place has been substituted a system of management that assures the continued preservation of the forest-cover. uncle sam is paying special attention to the western water-sheds which supply reclamation and irrigation projects. he understands that the ability of the forest to regulate stream flow is of great importance. the irrigation farmers also desire a regular flow, evenly distributed, throughout the growing season. one of the chief reasons for the establishment of the national forest was to preserve the natural conditions favorable to stream flow. in a treeless country, the rise of the streams is a very accurate measure of the rainfall. in the region where forests are frequent, an ordinary rain is scarcely noticed in its effect on the stream. in a denuded district no natural obstacles impede the raindrops as they patter to the ground. the surface of the soil is usually hard. it is baked and dried out by the sun. it is not in condition to absorb or retain much of the run-off water, consequently, the rain water finds little to stop it as it swirls down the slopes. in torrents it rushes down the stream beds, like sheets of water flowing down the steep roof of a house. conditions are very different in a region where forest cover is abundant. in the forests, the tops of the trees catch much of the rain that falls. the leaves, twigs, branches and trunks of the trees also soak up considerable moisture. the amount of rainfall that directly strikes the ground is relatively small. the upper layer of the forested ground consists of a network of shrubs, and dead leaves, branches, and moss. this forest carpet acts like an enormous sponge. it soaks up the moisture which drops from the trees during a storm. it can absorb and hold for a time a rainfall of four or five inches. the water that finally reaches the ground sinks into the soil and is evaporated or runs off slowly. the portion that is absorbed by the soil is taken up by the roots of the trees and plants or goes to supply springs and watercourses. the power of the trees and forest soil to absorb water regulates the rate at which the rainfall is fed to the streams and rivers. frequently it takes weeks and even months for all the waters of a certain rain to reach these streams. this gradual supplying of water to the streams regulates their flow. it prevents floods and freshets. careful observation and measurements have shown that unforested regions will discharge rain water at least twice as fast as will forested districts. the stealing of soil by erosion occurs where run-off waters are not obstructed by forest growth. silt, sand, and every other kind of soil are swept from their natural positions and spritted away by the foaming waters as they surge down the steep slopes. the stream or river which is flooded by these rushing waters roars down its narrow channel, tearing loose and undermining the jutting banks. in some cases, it will break from its ordinary course to flood exposed fields and to carry away more soil. as the speed of the stream increases its power to steal soil and carry it off is increased. engineers report that the carrying power of a stream is increased 64 times when its rate of flow is doubled. if the flow of a river is speeded up ten times, this raging torrent will be able to carry one million times as much foreign material as it did when it was flowing at a normal rate of speed, causing inexpressible damage and destruction of life and property. the protection afforded by forests on the water-sheds of streams furnishing the domestic water supply for cities and towns is becoming more fully realized. a large number of cities and towns have purchased and are maintaining municipal or communal forests for this very reason. chapter iv wild life of the forest the forests of our country are the home and breeding grounds of hundreds of millions of birds and game animals, which the forests provide with food and shelter. if we had no forests, many of these birds and animals would soon disappear. the acorns and other nuts that the squirrels live upon are examples of the food that the forest provides for its residents. in the clear, cold streams of the forests there are many different kinds of fish. if the forests were destroyed by cutting or fire many of the brooks and rivers would either dry up or the water would become so low that thousands of fish would die. the most abundant game animals of forest regions are deer, elk, antelope and moose. partridge, grouse, quail, wild turkeys and other game birds are plentiful in some regions. the best known of all the inhabitants of the woods are the squirrels. the presence of these many birds and animals adds greatly to the attractiveness of the forest. predatory animals, such as wolves, bears, mountain lions, coyotes and bobcats also live in the forest. they kill much livestock each year in the mountain regions of the western states and they also prey on some species of bird life. the federal and some state governments now employ professional hunters to trap and shoot these marauders. each year the hunters kill thousands of predatory animals, thus saving the farmers and cattle and sheep owners many thousands of dollars. sportsmen are so numerous and hunting is so popular, that game refuges have to be provided in the forests and parks. were it not for these havens of refuge where hunting is not permitted, some of our best known wild game and birds would soon be extinct. there are more than 11,640,648 acres of forest land in the government game refuges. california has 22 game refuges in her 17 national forests. new mexico has 19, while montana, idaho, colorado, washington and oregon also have set aside areas of government forest land for that purpose. in establishing a game refuge, it is necessary to pick out a large area of land that contains enough good feed for both the summer and winter use of the animals that will inhabit it. [illustration: a forest ranger and his forest cabin] livestock is sometimes grazed on game refuges, but only in small numbers, so that plenty of grass will be left for the support of the wild game. the refuges are under the direction of the federal and the state game departments. to perpetuate game animals and game birds, it is not enough to pass game laws and forbid the shooting of certain animals and birds except at special times of the year; it is also necessary to provide good breeding grounds for the birds and animals where they will not be molested or killed. the game refuges provide such conditions. the division of the range country into small farms and the raising of all kinds of crops have, it is claimed, done more to decrease our herds of antelope, elk, deer and other big game than have the rifles of the hunters. the plow and harrow have driven the wild life back into the rougher country. the snow becomes very deep in the mountains in the winter and the wild animals could not get food were it not for the game refuges in the low country. in the yellowstone national park country great bands of elk come down from the mountains during severe winters and have to be fed on hay to keep them from starving, as there is not sufficient winter range in this region to supply food for the thousands of elk. where the elk are protected from hunters they increase rapidly. this means that some of the surplus animals have to be killed, otherwise, the elk would soon be so numerous that they would seriously interfere with the grazing of domestic livestock. in different sections of the elk country, a count is made every few years on the breeding animals in each band. whenever a surplus accumulates, the state permits hunters to shoot some of the elk. if the breeding herds get too small, no hunting is allowed. in this way, a proper balance is maintained. in many states the wild game birds and fur-bearing animals of the forests are protected by closed seasons during which hunting is not permitted. it is realized that birds and animals are not only of interest to visitors to the forests, but that they, as well as the trees, are a valuable forest product. chapter v important forest trees and their uses of our native trees, the white pine is one of the best and most valuable. it is a tall straight tree that grows to a height of 100 to 150 feet. it produces wood that is light in weight and easy to work because it is so soft. at one time there were extensive pine forests in the northeastern states. many of the trees were very large, and occasionally one may still see pine stumps that are 5 to 6 feet in diameter. white pine made fine lumber for houses and other buildings and this timber was among the first to be exhausted in the country. spruce trees have long furnished the bulk of the woodpulp used in making our supplies of paper. these trees live in the colder climates of the northern states. they like to grow in low, wet localities close to lakes or rivers. the spruces generally do not grow higher than 75-100 feet. the wood is soft like pine and even whiter in color. the aboriginal indians used the roots of the spruce trees as thread, twine and rope. the cedar trees, which are landmarks in many of our northern states, yield light, soft, durable wood that is useful in making poles, fence posts, lead pencils and cedar chests. the wood of the red cedar gives off a peculiar odor which is said to keep moths away from clothes stored in cedar chests, but it is the close construction of the chest which keeps them out. these trees are becoming scarce in all parts of the country. cedars generally are small trees that grow slowly and live a long time. the outside wood is white and the heartwood is red or yellow. cedar posts last a long time and are excellent for use in farm fences. chestnut blight, which destroys entire forests of chestnut timber, is gradually exhausting our supplies of this wood. chestnut timber has long been used for railroad ties, fence posts and in the manufacture of cheap furniture. the wood is soft and brown in color. the bark and wood are treated at special plants in such a way that an extract which is valuable for tanning leather is obtained. chestnut trees are upstanding, straight trees that tower 80 to 100 feet above the ground. the extinction of our chestnut forests threatens as no effectual control measures for checking the chestnut blight disease over large areas has yet been discovered. the yellow poplar or tulip poplar furnishes timber for the manufacture of furniture, paper, the interior of railroad cars and automobiles. the dugouts of the early settlers and indians were hewed out of poplar logs. these boats were stronger than those made of canoe birch. poplar wood is yellow in color and soft in texture. the poplar is the largest broad-leaf tree in this country and the trees are of great size and height. some specimens found in the mountains of the south have been over 200 feet high and 8 to 10 feet in diameter, while poplars 125 to 150 feet high are quite common. among our most useful and valuable trees are the white oak, and its close kin, the red oak, which produce a brown-colored, hard wood of remarkable durability. the white oak is the monarch of the forest, as it lives very long and is larger and stronger than the majority of its associates. the timber is used for railroad ties, furniture, and in general construction work where tough, durable lumber is needed. many of our wooden ships have been built of oak. the white oaks often grow as high as 100 feet and attain massive dimensions. the seeds of the white oaks are light brown acorns, which are highly relished by birds and animals. many southern farmers range their hogs in white oak forests so that the porkers can live on the acorn crop. beech wood is strong and tough and is used in making boxes and barrels and casks for the shipment of butter, sugar and other foods. it makes axles and shafts for water-wheels that will last for many years. the shoes worn by dutch children are generally made of beech. the wood is red in color. the beech tree is of medium size growing to a height of about 75 feet above the ground. there is only one common variety of beech tree in this country. hickory trees are very popular because they produce sweet, edible nuts. the hickory wood is exceedingly strong and tough and is used wherever stout material is needed. for the spokes, wheels and bodies of buggies and wagons, for agricultural implements, for automobile wheels and for handles, hickory is unexcelled. the shafts of golf clubs as well as some types of base-ball bats are made of hickory. most hickory trees are easy to identify on account of their shaggy bark. the nuts of the hickory, which ripen in the autumn, are sweet, delicious and much in demand. our native elm tree is stately, reaching a height of 100 feet and a diameter of 5 to 6 feet or more. it is one of our best shade trees. elm wood is light brown in color and very heavy and strong. it is the best available wood for making wagon wheel hubs and is also used largely for baskets and barrels. the rims of bicycle wheels generally are made of elm. the canoe birch is a tree which was treasured by the early indians because it yielded bark for making canoes. birch wood is used in making shoe lasts and pegs because of its strength and light weight, and the millions of spools on which cotton is wound are made of birch wood. school desks and church furniture, also, are made of birch. the orange-colored inner bark of the birch tree is so fine and delicate that the early settlers could use it as they would paper. no matter whether birch wood is green or dry, it will burn readily. the birch was the most useful tree of the forest to the indians. its bark was used not only for making their canoes, but also for building their wigwams. they even dried and ground the inner bark into a flour which they used as a food. the northern sugar maple is another tree which is a favorite in all sections where it is grown. this tree yields a hard wood that is the best and toughest timber grown in some localities. the trees grow to heights of 75 to 100 feet and attain girths of 5 to 9 feet. maple lumber is stout and heavy. it makes fine flooring and is used in skating rinks and for bowling alleys. many pianos are made of maple. wooden dishes and rolling pins are usually made from maple wood. during the spring of the year when the sap is flowing, the average mature maple tree will yield from fifteen to twenty gallons of sap in a period of three to four weeks. this sap is afterwards boiled down to maple syrup and sugar. hemlock trees, despite the fact that they rank among the most beautiful trees of the forest, produce lumber which is suitable only for rough building operations. the wood is brown and soft and will not last long when exposed to the weather. it cracks and splits easily because it is so brittle. hemlock is now of considerable importance as pulpwood for making paper. for many years, a material important for tanning leather has been extracted in large amounts from the bark of hemlock trees. one of the most pleasing uses to which the balsam fir is put is as christmas trees. sometimes it is used in making paper pulp. the balsam fir seldom grows higher than 50 feet or thicker than 12 inches. the leaves of this tree have a very sweet odor and are in demand at christmas time. foresters and woodsmen often use balsam boughs to make their beds and pillows when camping in the woods. [illustration: pine which yields turpentine and timber] our native supplies of hardwoods and softwoods are used for general building purposes, for farm repairs, for railroad ties, in the furniture and veneer industry, in the handle industry, and in the vehicle and agricultural implement industries. on the average each american farmer uses about 2,000 board feet of lumber each year. new farm building decreased in the several years following the world war, due to the high price of lumber and labor. as a result of this lack of necessary building, millions of dollars worth of farm machinery stood out in the weather. livestock lacked stables in some sections. very little building was done in that period in two hundred and fifty prosperous agricultural counties in thirty-two different states. the railroads consume about 15 per cent. of our total lumber cut. they use between 100,000,000 and 125,000,000 railroad ties a year. it used to be that most of the cross-ties were of white oak cut close to the places where they were used. now douglas fir, southern pine and other woods are being used largely throughout the middle western and eastern states. the supply of white oak ties is small and the prices are high. some years ago, when white oak was abundant, the railroads that now are using other cross-ties would not have even considered such material for use in their roadbeds. the fact that other ties are now being used emphasizes the fact that we are short on oak timber in the sections where this hardwood formerly was common. the furniture industry uses hardwoods of superior grade and quality. the factories of this industry have moved from region to region as the supply of hardwoods became depleted. originally, these factories were located in the northeastern states. then, as the supplies of hardwood timber in those sections gave out, they moved westward. they remained near the corn belt until the virgin hardwood forests of the middle west were practically exhausted. the furniture industry is now largely dependent on what hardwoods are left in the remote sections of the southern appalachians and the lower mississippi valley. when these limited supplies are used up, there will be very little more old-growth timber in the country for them to use. the furniture, veneer, handle, vehicle, automobile and agricultural implement industries all are in competition for hardwood timber. the furniture industry uses 1,250,000,000 feet of high-grade hardwood lumber annually. production of timber of this type for furniture has decreased as much as 50 per cent. during the past few years. it is now difficult for the furniture factories and veneer plants to secure enough raw materials. facilities for drying the green lumber artificially are few. it used to be that the hardwood lumber was seasoned for six to nine months before being sold. furniture dealers now have to buy the material green from the sawmills. competition has become so keen that buyers pay high prices. they must have the material to keep their plants running and to supply their trade. the veneer industry provides furniture manufacturers, musical instrument factories, box makers and the automobile industry with high-grade material. the industry uses annually 780,000,000 board feet of first quality hardwood cut from virgin stands of timber. red gum and white oak are the hardwoods most in demand. in the lake states, a branch of the veneer industry which uses maple, birch and basswood is located. oak formerly was the most important wood used. now red gum has replaced the oak, as the supplies of the latter timber have dwindled. at present there is less than one-fourth of a normal supply of veneer timber in sight. even the supplies in the farmers' woodlands are being depleted. the industry is now largely dependent on the timber of the southern mississippi valley. the veneer industry requires best-grade material. clear logs are demanded that are at least 16 inches in diameter at the small end. it is getting harder every year to secure such logs. like the furniture industry, the veneer mills lack adequate supplies of good timber. no satisfactory substitutes for the hickory and ash used in the handle industry have yet been found. about the only stocks of these timbers now left are in the southern states. even in those parts the supplies are getting short and it is necessary to cut timber in the more remote sections distant from the railroad. the ash shortage is even more serious than that of hickory timber. the supplies of ash in the middle west states north of the ohio river are practically exhausted. the demand for ash and hickory handles is larger even than before the world war. the entire world depends on the united states for handles made from these woods. handle dealers are now willing to pay high prices for ash and hickory timber. some of them prepared for the shortage by buying tracts of hardwood timber. when these reserves are cut over, these dealers will be in the same position as the rest of the trade. ash and hickory are in demand also by the vehicle and agricultural implement industries. they also use considerable oak and compete with the furniture industry to secure what they need of this timber. most of these plants are located in the middle west but they draw their timber chiefly from the south. hickory is a necessary wood to the vehicle industry for use in spokes and wheels. the factories exert every effort to secure adequate supplies of timber from the farm woodlands, sawmills and logging camps. the automobile industry now uses considerable hickory in the wheels and spokes of motor cars. most of the stock used by the vehicle industry is purchased green. neither the lumber nor vehicle industry is equipped with enough kilns for curing this green material. the losses in working and manufacturing are heavy, running as high as 40 per cent. many substitutes for ash, oak and hickory have been tried but they have failed to prove satisfactory. on account of the shortage and the high prices of hickory, vehicle factories are using steel in place of hickory wherever possible. steel is more expensive but it can always be secured in quantity when needed. furthermore, it is durable and very strong. thus we see that our resources of useful soft woods and hard woods have both been so diminished that prompt reforestation of these species is an urgent necessity. chapter vi the greatest enemy of the forest--fire our forests are exposed to destruction by many enemies, the worst of which is fire. from 8,000,000 to 12,000,000 acres of forest lands annually are burned over by destructive fires. these fires are started in many different ways. they may be caused by sparks or hot ashes from a locomotive. lightning strikes in many forests every summer, particularly those of the western states, and ignites many trees. in the south people sometimes set fires in order to improve the grazing. settlers and farmers who are clearing land often start big brush fires that get out of their control. campers, tourists, hunters, and fishermen are responsible for many forest fires by neglecting to extinguish their campfires. sparks from logging engines also cause fires. cigar and cigarette stubs and burning matches carelessly thrown aside start many forest fires. occasionally fires are also maliciously set by evil-minded people. the officers of the national forests in the west have become very expert in running down the people who set incendiary fires. they collect evidence at the scene of the fire, such as pieces of letters and envelopes, matches, lost handkerchiefs and similar articles. they hunt for foot tracks and hoof marks. they study automobile tire tracks. they make plaster of paris impressions of these tracks. they follow the tracks--sometimes indian fashion. often there are peculiarities about the tracks which lead to the detection and punishment of the culprits. a horse may be shod in an unusual manner; a man may have peculiar hob nails or rubber heels on his boots or else his footprints may show some deformity. the forest rangers play the parts of detectives very well. this novel police work has greatly reduced the number of incendiary fires. [illustration: forest fires destroy millions of dollars worth of timber every year] a forest fire may destroy in a few hours trees that required hundreds of years to grow. a heavy stand of timber may be reduced to a desolate waste because some one forgot to put out a campfire. occasionally large forest fires burn farm buildings and homes and kill hundreds of people. during the dry summer season when a strong wind is blowing, the fire will run for many miles. it always leaves woe and desolation in its wake. a mammoth forest fire in wisconsin many years ago burned over an area of two thousand square miles. it killed about fourteen hundred people and destroyed many millions of dollars worth of timber and other property. a big forest fire in michigan laid waste a tract forty miles wide and one hundred and eighty miles long. more than four billion feet of lumber, worth $10,000,000, was destroyed and several hundred people lost their lives. in recent years, a destructive forest fire in minnesota caused a loss of $25,000,000 worth of timber and property. there are several different kinds of forest fires. some burn unseen two to four feet beneath the surface of the ground. where the soil contains much peat, these fires may persist for weeks or even months. sometimes, they do not give off any noticeable smoke. their fuel is the decaying wood, tree roots and similar material in the soil. these underground fires can be stopped only by flooding the area or by digging trenches down to the mineral soil. the most effectual way to fight light surface fires is to throw sand or earth on the flames. where the fire has not made much headway, the flames can sometimes be beaten out with green branches, wet gunny sacks or blankets. the leaves and debris may be raked away in a path so as to impede their advance. usually in the hardwood forests, there is not much cover, such as dry leaves, on the ground. fires in these forests destroy the seedlings and saplings, but do not usually kill the mature trees. however, they damage the base of the trees and make it easy for fungi and insects to enter. they also burn the top soil and reduce the water-absorbing powers of the forest floor. in thick, dense evergreen forests where the carpet is heavy, fires are much more serious. they frequently kill the standing trees, burning trunks and branches and even following the roots deep into the ground. dead standing trees and logs aid fires of this kind. the wind sweeps pieces of burning bark or rotten wood great distances to kindle new fires. when they fall, dead trees scatter sparks and embers over a wide belt. fires also run along the tops of the coniferous trees high above the ground. these are called "crown-fires" and are very difficult to control. the wind plays a big part in the intensity of a forest fire. if the fire can be turned so that it will run into the wind, it can be put out more easily. fires that have the wind back of them and plenty of dry fuel ahead, speed on their way of destruction at a velocity of 5 to 10 miles an hour, or more. they usually destroy everything in their course that will burn, and waste great amounts of valuable timber. wild animals, in panic, run together before the flames. settlers and farmers with their families flee. many are overtaken in the mad flight and perish. the fierce fires of this type can be stopped only by heavy rain, a change of wind, or by barriers which provide no fuel and thus choke out the flames. large fires are sometimes controlled by back-firing. a back-fire is a second fire built and so directed as to run against the wind and toward the main fire. when the two fires meet, both will go out on account of lack of fuel. when properly used by experienced persons, back-fires are very effectual. in inexperienced hands they are dangerous, as the wind may change suddenly or they may be lighted too soon. in such cases they often become as great a menace as the main fire. another practical system of fighting fires is to make fire lines around the burning area. these fire lines or lanes as they are sometimes called, are stretches of land from which all trees and shrubs have been removed. in the centre of the lines a narrow trench is dug to mineral soil or the lines are plowed or burned over so that they are bare of fuel. such lines also are of value around woods and grain fields to keep the fire out. they are commonly used along railroad tracks where locomotive sparks are a constant source of fire dangers. our forests, on account of their great size and the relatively small man force which guards them, are more exposed to fire dangers than any other woodlands in the world. the scant rainfall of many of the western states where great unbroken areas of forest are located increases the fire damages. the fact that the western country in many sections is sparsely settled favors destruction by forest fires. the prevalence of lightning in the mountains during the summer adds farther to the danger. one of the most important tasks of the rangers in the federal forests is to prevent forest fires. during the fire season, extra forest guards are kept busy hunting for signs of smoke throughout the forests. the lookouts in their high towers, which overlook large areas of forest, watch constantly for smoke, and as soon as they locate signs of fire they notify the supervisor of the forest. lookouts use special scientific instruments which enable them to locate the position of the fires from the smoke. at the supervisor's headquarters and the ranger stations scattered through the forests, equipment, horses and automobiles are kept ready for instant use when a fire is reported. telephone lines and radio sets are used to spread the news about fires that have broken out. from five thousand to six thousand forest fires occur each year in the national forests of our country. to show how efficient the forest rangers are in fighting fires, it is worthy of note that by their prompt actions, 80 per cent. of these fires are confined to areas of less than ten acres each, while only 20 per cent. spread over areas larger than ten acres. lightning causes from 25 to 30 per cent. of the fires. the remaining 70 or 75 per cent. are classed as "man-caused fires," which are set by campers, smokers, railroads, brush burners, sawmills and incendiaries. the total annual loss from forest fires in the federal forests varies from a few hundred thousands of dollars in favorable years to several million in particularly bad fire seasons. during the last few years, due to efficient fire-fighting methods, the annual losses have been steadily reduced. the best way of fighting forest fires is to prevent them. the forest officers do their best to reduce the chances for fire outbreak in the government woodlands. they give away much dead timber that either has fallen or still is standing. lumbermen who hold contracts to cut timber in the national forest are required to pile and burn all the slashings. dry grass is a serious fire menace. that is why grazing is encouraged in the forests. rangers patrol the principal automobile roads to see that careless campers and tourists have not left burning campfires. railroads are required to equip their locomotives with spark-arresters. they also are obliged to keep their rights of way free of material which burns readily. spark-arresters are required also on logging engines. the national and state forests are posted with signs and notices asking the campers and tourists to be careful with campfires, tobacco and matches. advertisements are run in newspapers, warning people to be careful so as not to set fire to the forests. exhibits are made at fairs, shows, community meetings and similar gatherings, showing the dangers from forest fires and how these destructive conflagrations may be controlled. every possible means is used to teach the public to respect and protect the forests. [illustration: blackened ruins of a fire-swept forest] for many years, the united states forest service and state forestry departments have been keeping a record of forest fires and their causes. studies have been made of the length and character of each fire season. information has been gathered concerning the parts of the forest where lightning is most likely to strike or where campfires are likely to be left by tourists. the spots or zones of greatest fire danger are located in this way and more forest guards are placed in these areas during the dangerous fire season. careful surveys of this kind are aiding greatly in reducing the number of forest fires. in trying to get all possible information about future weather conditions, the forestry departments coöperate with the united states weather bureau. when the experts predict that long periods of dry weather or dangerous storms are approaching, the forest rangers are especially watchful, as during such times, the menace to the woods is greatest. the rangers also have big fire maps which they hang in their cabins. these maps show the location of dangerous fire areas, roads, trails, lookout-posts, cities, towns and ranches, sawmills, logging camps, telephone lines, fire tool boxes and other data of value to fire fighters. all this information is so arranged as to be readily available in time of need. it shows where emergency fire fighters, tools and food supplies can be secured, and how best to attack a fire in any certain district. a detailed plan for fighting forest fires is also prepared and kept on file at every ranger station. the following are six rules which, if put in practice, will help prevent outbreaks of fires: 1. matches.--be sure your match is out. break it in two before you throw it away. 2. tobacco.--throw pipe ashes and cigar or cigarette stubs in the dust of the road and stamp or pinch out the fire before leaving them. don't throw them into the brush, leaves or needles. 3. making camp.--build a small campfire. build it in the open, not against a tree or log, or near brush. scrape away the trash from all around it. 4. leaving camp.--never leave a campfire, even for a short time, without quenching it with water or earth. be sure it is out. 5. bonfires.--never build bonfires in windy weather or where there is the slightest danger of their escaping from control. don't make them larger than you need. 6. fighting fires.--if you find a fire, try to put it out. if you can't, get word of it to the nearest united states forest ranger or state fire warden at once. remember "minutes count" in reporting forest fires. chapter vii insects and diseases that destroy forests forest insects and tree diseases occasion heavy losses each year among the standing marketable trees. insects cause a total loss of more than $100,000,000 annually to the forest products of the united states. a great number of destructive insects are constantly at work in the forests injuring or killing live trees or else attacking dead timber. forest weevils kill tree seeds and destroy the young shoots on trees. bark and timber beetles bore into and girdle trees and destroy the wood. many borers and timber worms infest logs and lumber after they are cut and before they are removed from the forest. this scattered work of the insects here, there, and everywhere throughout the forests causes great damage. different kinds of flies and moths deposit their eggs on the leaves of the trees. after the eggs hatch, the baby caterpillars feed on the tender, juicy leaves. some of the bugs destroy all the leaves and thus remove an important means which the tree has of getting food and drink. wire worms attack the roots of the tree. leaf hoppers suck on the sap supply of the leaves. leaf rollers cause the leaves to curl up and die. trees injured by fire fall easy prey before the attacks of forest insects. it takes a healthy, sturdy tree to escape injury by these pirates of the forests. there are more than five hundred insects that attack oak trees and at least two hundred and fifty different species that carry on destruction among the pines. insect pests have worked so actively that many forests have lost practically all their best trees of certain species. quantities of the largest spruce trees in the adirondacks have been killed off by bark beetles. the saw-fly worm has killed off most of the mature larches in these eastern forests. as they travel over the national and state forests, the rangers are always on the watch for signs of tree infection. whenever they notice red-brown masses of pitch and sawdust on the bark of the trees, they know that insects are busy there. where the needles of a pine or spruce turn yellow or red, the presence of bark beetles is shown. signs of pitch on the bark of coniferous trees are the first symptoms of infection. these beetles bore through the bark and into the wood. there they lay eggs. the parent beetles soon die but their children continue the work of burrowing in the wood. finally, they kill the tree by making a complete cut around the trunk through the layers of wood that act as waiters to carry the food from the roots to the trunk, branches and leaves. the next spring these young develop into full-grown beetles, and come out from the diseased tree. they then attack new trees. when the forest rangers find evidences of serious infection, they cut down the diseased trees. they strip the bark from the trunk and branches and burn it in the fall or winter when the beetles are working in the bark and can be destroyed most easily. if the infection of trees extends over a large tract, and there is a nearby market for the lumber the timber is sold as soon as possible. trap trees are also used in controlling certain species of injurious forest insects. certain trees are girdled with an ax so that they will become weakened or die, and thus provide easy means of entrance for the insects. the beetles swarm to such trees in great numbers. when the tree is full of insects, it is cut down and burned. in this way, infections which are not too severe can often be remedied. the bark-boring beetles are the most destructive insects that attack our forests. they have wasted enormous tracts of pine timber throughout the southern states. the eastern spruce beetle has destroyed countless feet of spruce. the engelmann spruce beetle has devastated many forests of the rocky mountains. the black hills beetle has killed billions of feet of marketable timber in the black hills of south dakota. the hickory bark beetle, the douglas fir beetle and the larch worm have been very destructive. forest fungi cause most of the forest tree diseases. a tree disease is any condition that prevents the tree from growing and developing in a normal, healthy manner. acid fumes from smelters, frost, sunscald, dry or extremely wet weather, all limit the growth of trees. leaf diseases lessen the food supplies of the trees. bark diseases prevent the movement of the food supplies. sapwood ailments cut off the water supply that rises from the roots. seed and flower diseases prevent the trees from producing more of their kind. most of the tree parasites can gain entrance to the trees only through knots and wounds. infection usually occurs through wounds in the tree trunk or branches caused by lightning, fire, or by men or animals. the cone-bearing trees give off pitch to cover such wounds. in this way they protect the injuries against disease infection. the hardwood trees are unable to protect their wounds as effectively as the evergreens. where the wound is large, the exposed sapwood dies, dries out, and cracks. the fungi enter these cracks and work their way to the heartwood. many of the fungi cannot live unless they reach the heartwood of the tree. fires wound the base and trunks of forest trees severely so that they are exposed to serious destruction by heartrot. foresters try to locate and dispose of all the diseased trees in the state and government forests. they strive to remove all the sources of tree disease from the woods. they can grow healthy trees if all disease germs are kept away from the timberlands. some tree diseases have become established so strongly in forest regions that it is almost impossible to drive them out. for example, chestnut blight is a fungous disease that is killing many of our most valuable chestnut trees. the fungi of this disease worm their way through the holes in the bark of the trees, and spread around the trunk. diseased patches or cankers form on the limbs or trunk of the tree. after the canker forms on the trunk, the tree soon dies. chestnut blight has killed most of the chestnut trees in new york and pennsylvania. it is now active in virginia and west virginia and is working its way down into north and south carolina. [illustration: section of a virgin forest] diseased trees are a menace to the forest. they rob the healthy trees of space, light and food. that is why it is necessary to remove them as soon as they are discovered. in the smaller and older forests of europe, tree surgery and doctoring are practised widely. wounds are treated and cured and the trees are pruned and sprayed at regular intervals. in our extensive woods such practices are too expensive. all the foresters can do is to cut down the sick trees in order to save the ones that are sound. there is a big difference between tree damages caused by forest insects and those caused by forest fungi and mistletoe. the insects are always present in the forest. however, it is only occasionally that they concentrate and work great injury and damage in any one section. at rare intervals, some very destructive insects may centre their work in one district. they will kill a large number of trees in a short time. they continue their destruction until some natural agency puts them to flight. the fungi, on the other hand, develop slowly and work over long periods. sudden outbreaks of fungous diseases are unusual. heavy snows, lightning and wind storms also lay low many of the tree giants of the forest. heavy falls of snow may weigh down the young, tall trees to such an extent that they break. lightning--it is worst in the hills and mountains of the western states--may strike and damage a number of trees in the same vicinity. if these trees are not killed outright, they are usually damaged so badly that forest insects and fungi complete their destruction. big trees are sometimes uprooted during forest storms so that they fall on younger trees and cripple and deform them. winds benefit the forests in that they blow down old trees that are no longer of much use and provide space for younger and healthier trees to grow. usually the trees that are blown down have shallow roots or else are situated in marshy, wet spots so that their root-hold in the soil is not secure. trees that have been exposed to fire are often weakened and blown down easily. where excessive livestock grazing is permitted in young forests considerable damage may result. goats, cattle and sheep injure young seedlings by browsing. they eat the tender shoots of the trees. the trampling of sheep, especially on steep hills, damages the very young trees. on mountain sides the trampling of sheep frequently breaks up the forest floor of sponge-like grass and debris and thus aids freshets and floods. in the alps of france sheep grazing destroyed the mountain forests and, later on, the grass which replaced the woods. destructive floods resulted. it has cost the french people many millions of dollars to repair the damage done by the sheep. the federal government does its best to keep foreign tree diseases out of the united states. as soon as any serious disease is discovered in foreign countries the secretary of agriculture puts in force a quarantine against that country. no seed or tree stock can be imported. furthermore, all the new species of trees, cuttings or plants introduced to this country are given thorough examination and inspection by government experts at the ports where the products are received from abroad. all diseased trees are fumigated, or if found diseased, destroyed. in this manner the government protects our country against new diseases which might come to our shores on foreign plants and tree stock. chapter viii the growth of the forestry idea our forests of the new world were so abundant when the early settlers landed on the atlantic coast that it was almost impossible to find enough cleared land in one tract to make a 40-acre farm. these thick, dense timberlands extended westward to the prairie country. it was but natural, therefore, that the forest should be considered by these pioneers as an obstacle and viewed as an enemy. farms and settlements had to be hewed out of the timberlands, and the forests seemed inexhaustible. experts say that the original, virgin forests of the united states covered approximately 822,000,000 acres. they are now shrunk to one-sixth of that area. at one time they were the richest forests in the world. today there are millions of acres which contain neither timber nor young growth. considerable can be restored if the essential measures are started on a national scale. such measures would insure an adequate lumber supply for all time to come. rules and regulations concerning the cutting of lumber and the misuse of forests were suggested as early as the seventeenth century. plymouth colony in 1626 passed an ordinance prohibiting the cutting of timber from the colony lands without official consent. this is said to be the first conservation law passed in america. william penn was one of the early champions of the "woodman, spare that tree" slogan. he ordered his colonists to leave one acre of forest for every five acres of land that were cleared. in 1799 congress set aside $200,000 for the purchase of a small forest reserve to be used as a supply source of ship timbers for the navy. about twenty-five years later, it gave the president the power to call upon the army and navy whenever necessary to protect the live oak and red cedar timber so selected in florida. in 1827, the government started its first work in forestry. it was an attempt to raise live oak in the southern states to provide ship timbers for the navy. forty years later, the wisconsin state legislature began to investigate the destruction of the forests of that state in order to protect them and prolong their life. michigan and maine, in turn, followed suit. these were some of the first steps taken to study our forests and protect them against possible extinction. the purpose of the timber culture act passed by congress in 1873 was to increase national interest in reforestation. it provided that every settler who would plant and maintain 40 acres of timber in the treeless sections should be entitled to secure patent for 160 acres of the public domain--that vast territory consisting of all the states and territories west of the mississippi, except texas, as well as ohio, indiana, illinois, michigan, wisconsin, florida, alabama and mississippi. this act, as well as several state laws, failed because the settlers did not know enough about tree planting. the laws also were not effective because they did not prevent dishonest practices. in 1876, the first special agent in forestry was appointed by the commissioner of agriculture to study the annual consumption, exportation and importation of timber and other forest products, the probable supply for future wants, and the means best adapted for forest preservation. five years later, the division of forestry was organized as a branch of the department of agriculture. it was established in order to carry on investigations about forestry and how to preserve our trees. [illustration: cutting mature trees and leaving seed trees to insure a second crop] for some nine years the division of forestry was nothing more than a department of information. it distributed technical facts and figures about the management of private woodlands and collected data concerning our forest resources. it did not manage any of the government timberlands because there were no forest reserves at that time. it was not until 1891 that the first forest reserve, the yellowstone park timberland reserve, was created by special proclamation of president harrison. later it became part of the national park reserves. although the division of forestry had no special powers to oversee and direct the management of the forest reserves, during the next six years a total of 40,000,000 acres of valuable timberland were so designated and set aside. at the request of the secretary of the interior, the national academy of sciences therefore worked out a basis for laws governing national forests. congress enacted this law in 1897. thereafter the department of the interior had active charge of the timberlands. at that time little was known scientifically about the american forests. there were no schools of forestry in this country. during the period 1898-1903, several such schools were established. president mckinley, during his term of office, increased the number of forest reserves from 28 to over 40, covering a total area of 30,000,000 acres. president roosevelt added many millions of acres to the forest reserves, bringing the net total to more than 150,000,000 acres, including 159 different forests. in 1905, the administration of the forest reserves was transferred from the department of the interior to the department of agriculture, and their name changed to national forests. no great additions to the government timberlands have been made since that time. small, valuable areas have been added. other undesirable tracts have been cut off from the original reserves. the growth of the division of forestry, now the united states forest service, has been very remarkable since 1898, when it consisted of only a few scientific workers and clerks. at present it employs more than 2,600 workers, which number is increased during the dangerous fire season to from 4,000 to 5,000 employees. the annual appropriations have been increased from $28,500 to approximately $6,500,000. the annual income from uncle sam's woodlands is also on the gain and now amounts to about $5,000,000 yearly. this income results largely from the sale of timber and the grazing of livestock on the national forests. chapter ix our national forests our national forests include 147 distinct and separate bodies of timber in twenty-seven different states and in alaska and porto rico. they cover more than 156,000,000 acres. if they could be massed together in one huge area like the state of texas, it would make easier the task of handling the forests and fighting fires. the united states forest service, which has charge of their management and protection, is one of the largest and most efficient organizations of its kind in the world. it employs expert foresters, scientists, rangers and clerks. the business of running the forest is centred in eight district offices located in different parts of the country with a general headquarters at washington, d.c. these districts are in charge of district foresters and their assistants. the district headquarters and the states that they look after are: no. 1. northern district, missoula, montana. (montana, northeastern washington, northern idaho, and northwestern south dakota.) no. 2. rocky mountain district, denver, colorado. (colorado, wyoming, the remainder of south dakota, nebraska, northern michigan, and northern minnesota.) no. 3. southwestern district, albuquerque, new mexico. (most of arizona and new mexico.) no. 4. intermountain district, ogden, utah. (utah, southern idaho, western wyoming, eastern and central nevada, and northwestern arizona.) no. 5. california district, san francisco, california. (california and southwestern nevada.) no. 6. north pacific district, portland, oregon. (washington and oregon.) no. 7. eastern district, washington, d.c. (arkansas, alabama, florida, oklahoma, north carolina, south carolina, georgia, tennessee, virginia, west virginia, new hampshire, maine, and porto rico.) no. 8. alaska district, juneau, alaska. (alaska.) each of the national forests is under the direct supervision of a forest supervisor and is split up into from 5 to 10 or more ranger districts. each ranger district is in charge of a forest ranger who has an area of from 100,000 to 200,000 acres in his charge. the national forests are, for the most part, located in the mountainous region of the west, with small scattered areas in the lake states, and the white mountains, southern appalachians and ozarks of the eastern and southern states. many of them are a wilderness of dense timber. it is a huge task to protect these forests against the ravages of fire. fire fighting takes precedence over all other work in the national forests. lookout stations are established on high points to watch for signs of fire. airplanes are used on fire patrol over great areas of forest. where railroads pass through the national forests, rangers operate motor cars and hand-cars over the tracks in their patrol work. launches are used in alaska and on some of the forests where there are large lakes, to enable the fire fighters and forest guardians to cover their beats quickly. every year the national forests are being improved and made more accessible by the building of permanent roads, trails and telephone lines. special trails are built to and in the fire protection areas of remote sections. a network of good roads is constructed in every forest to improve fire fighting activities as well as to afford better means of communication between towns, settlements and farms. the road and trail plan followed in the national forests is mapped out years in advance. in the more remote sections, trails are first constructed. later, these trails may be developed into wagon or motor roads. congress annually appropriates large sums of money for the building of roads in the national forests. over 25,000 miles of roads and 35,000 miles of trails have already been constructed in these forests. communication throughout the national forests is had by the use of the telephone and the radio or wireless telephone. signalling by means of the heliograph is practiced on bright days in regions that have no telephones. arrangements made with private telephone companies permit the forest officers to use their lines. the efficient communication systems aid in the administration of the forests and speeds the work of gathering fire fighters quickly at the points where smoke is detected. agricultural and forestry experts have surveyed the lands in the national forests. thus they have prevented the use of lands for forestry purposes which are better adapted for farming. since 1910, more than 26,500,000 acres of lands have been excluded from the forests. these lands were more useful for farming or grazing than for forestry. practically all lands within the national forests have now been examined and classified. at intervals congress has combined several areas of forest lands into single tracts. government lands outside the national forests have also been traded for state or private lands within their boundaries. thus the forests have been lined-up in more compact bodies. careful surveys are made before such trades are closed to make sure that the land given to uncle sam is valuable for timber production and the protection of stream flow, and that the government receives full value for the land that is exchanged. the national forests contain nearly five hundred billion board feet of merchantable timber. this is 23 per cent. of the remaining timber in the country. whenever the trees in the forest reach maturity they are sold and put to use. all green trees to be cut are selected by qualified forest officers and blazed and marked with a "u.s." this marking is done carefully so as to protect the forest and insure a future crop of trees on the area. timber is furnished at low rates to local farmers, settlers, and stockmen for use in making improvements. much fire wood and dead and down timber also is given away. the removal of such material lessens the fire danger in the forest. over a billion feet of timber, valued at more than $3,000,000, is sold annually from the national forests. one generally does not think of meat, leather and wool as forest crops. nevertheless, the national forests play an important part in the western livestock industry. experts report that over one-fifth of the cattle and one-half of the sheep of the western states are grazed in the national forests. these livestock are estimated to be worth nearly one-quarter billion dollars. more than 9,500,000 head of livestock are pastured annually under permit in the federal forests. in addition, some 4,000,000 to 6,000,000 calves and lambs are grazed free of charge. [illustration: seed beds in a forest nursery] the ranges suitable for stock grazing are used to pasture sheep, cattle, horses, hogs and goats. the secretary of agriculture decides what number and what kind of animals shall graze on each forest. he regulates the grazing and prevents injury to the ranges from being overstocked with too many cattle and sheep. the forest ranges are divided into grazing units. generally, the cattle and horses are grazed in the valleys and on the lower slopes of the mountain. the sheep and goats are pastured on the high mountain sides and in the grassy meadows at or above timberline. preferences to graze live stock on the forest ranges are for the most part granted to stockmen who own improved ranch property and live in or near one of the national forests. the fee for grazing on forest ranges is based on a yearlong rate of $1.20 a head of cattle, $1.50 for horses, $.90 for hogs and $.30 a head for sheep. at times it is necessary, for short periods, to prohibit grazing on the government forest ranges. for example, when mature timber has been cut from certain areas, it is essential that sheep be kept off such tracts until the young growth has made a good start in natural reforestation. camping grounds needed for recreation purposes by the public are excluded from the grazing range. if a shortage of the water supply of a neighboring town or city threatens, or if floods or erosion become serious due to fire or overgrazing of the land, the range is closed to live-stock and allowed to recuperate. where artificial planting is practiced, grazing is often forbidden until the young trees get a good start. the total receipts which uncle sam collects from the 30,000 or more stockmen who graze their cattle and sheep on the national forests amount to nearly $2,500,000 annually. as a result of the teachings of the forest service, the stockmen are now raising better livestock. improved breeding animals are kept in the herds and flocks. many of the fat stock now go directly from the range to the market. formerly, most of the animals had to be fed on corn and grain in some of the middle western states to flesh them for market. experiments have been carried on which have shown the advantages of new feeding and herding methods. the ranchers have banded together in livestock associations, which coöperate with the forest service in managing the forest ranges. it costs about $5 to sow one acre of ground to tree seed, and approximately $10 an acre to set out seedling trees. the seed is obtained from the same locality where it is to be planted. in many instances, cones are purchased from settlers who make a business of gathering them. the federal foresters dry these cones in the sun and thresh out the seed, which they then fan and clean. if it is desired to store supplies of tree seed from year to year it is kept in sacks or jars, in a cool, dry place, protected from rats and mice. where seed is sown directly on the ground, poison bait must be scattered over the area in order to destroy the gophers, mice and chipmunks which otherwise would eat the seed. sowing seed broadcast on unprepared land has usually failed unless the soil and weather conditions were just right. for the most part, setting out nursery seedlings has given better results than direct seeding. two men can set out between five hundred and one thousand trees a day. the national forests contain about one million acres of denuded forest lands. much of this was cut-over and so severely burned before the creation of the forests that it bears no tree growth. some of these lands will reseed themselves naturally while other areas have to be seeded or planted by hand. in this way the lands that will produce profitable trees are fitted to support forest cover. because the soils and climate of our national forests are different, special experiments have been carried on in different places to decide the best practices to follow. two method of reforestation are commonly practiced. in some places, the tree seed is sown directly upon the ground and, thereafter, may or may not be cultivated. this method is limited to the localities where the soil and moisture conditions are favorable for rapid growth. under the other plan, the seedlings are grown in nurseries for several years under favorable conditions. they are then moved to the field and set out in permanent plantations. chapter x the national forests of alaska there are two great national forests in alaska. they cover 20,579,740 acres or about 5-1/2 per cent. of the total area of alaska. the larger of these woodlands, the tongass national forest, is estimated to contain 70,000,000,000 board feet of timber ripe for marketing. stands of 100,000 board feet per acre are not infrequent. this is the alaskan forest that will some day be shipping large amounts of timber to the states. it has over 12,000 miles of shore line and ninety per cent. of the usable timber is within two miles of tidewater. this makes it easy to log the timber and load the lumber directly from the forests to the steamers. this forest is 1500 miles closer to the mainland markets than is the other alaskan national forest. in most of the national forests the rangers ride around their beats on horseback. the foresters in the tongass use motor boats. they travel in couples; two men to a 35-foot boat, which is provided with comfortable eating and sleeping quarters. the rangers live on the boat all the time. during the summer they work sixteen to twenty hours daily. the days are long and the nights short, and they must travel long distances between points of work. on such runs one man steers the boat and watches the forested shoreline for three or four hours at a time, while his mate reads or sleeps; then they change off. in this way, they are able to make the most efficient use of the long periods of daylight. the other big timberland in alaska is the chugach national forest. it is a smaller edition of the tongass forest. its trees are not so large and the stand of timber only about one-half as heavy as in the tongass. experts estimate that it contains 7,000,000,000 board feet of lumber. western hemlock predominates. there is also much spruce, poplar and birch. stands of 40,000 to 50,000 feet of lumber an acre are not unusual. in the future, the lumber of the chugach national forest will play an important part in the industrial life of alaska. even now, it is used by the fishing, mining, railroad and agricultural interests. on account of its great distance from the markets of the pacific northwest it will be a long time before lumber from this forest will be exported. the timber in the tongass national forest runs 60 per cent. western hemlock and 20 per cent. sitka spruce. the other 20 per cent. consists of western red cedar, yellow cypress, lodge-pole pine, cottonwood and white fir. the yellow cypress is very valuable for cabinet making. all these species except the cedar are suitable for pulp manufacture. peculiarly enough, considerable of the lumber used in alaska for box shooks in the canneries and in building work is imported from the united states. the local residents do not think their native timber is as good as that which they import. alaska will probably develop into one of the principal paper sources of the united states. our national forests in alaska contain approximately 100,000,000 cords of timber suitable for paper manufacture. experts report that these forests could produce 2,000,000 cords of pulpwood annually for centuries without depletion. about 6,000,000 tons of pulpwood annually are now required to keep us supplied with enough paper. the tongass national forest could easily supply one-third of this amount indefinitely. this forest is also rich in water power. it would take more than 250,000 horses to produce as much power as that which the streams and rivers of southern alaska supply. the western hemlock and sitka spruce are the best for paper making. the spruce trees are generally sound and of good quality. the hemlock trees are not so good, being subject to decay at the butts. this often causes fluted trunks. the butt logs from such trees usually are inferior. this defect in the hemlock reduces its market value to about one-half that of the spruce for paper making. some of the paper mills in british columbia are now using these species of pulpwood and report that they make high-grade paper. the pulp logs are floated down to the paper mill. in the mill the bark is removed from the logs. special knives remove all the knots and cut the logs into pieces twelve inches long and six inches thick. these sticks then pass into a powerful grinding machine which tears them into small chips. the chips are cooked in special steamers until they are soft. the softened chips are beaten to pieces in large vats until they form a pasty pulp. the pulp is spread over an endless belt of woven wire cloth of small mesh. the water runs off and leaves a sheet of wet pulp which then is run between a large number of heated and polished steel cylinders which press and dry the pulp into sheets of paper. finally, it is wound into large rolls ready for commercial use. if a pulp and paper industry is built up in alaska, it will be of great benefit to that northern country. it will increase the population by creating a demand for more labor. it will aid the farming operations by making a home market for their products. it will improve transportation and develop all kinds of business. altogether 420,000,000 feet of lumber have been cut and sold from the national forests of alaska in the past ten years. this material has been made into such products as piling, saw logs and shingle bolts. all this lumber has been used in alaska and none of it has been exported. much of the timber was cut so that it would fall almost into tide-water. then the logs were fastened together in rafts and towed to the sawmills. one typical raft of logs contained more than 1,500,000 feet of lumber. it is not unusual for spruce trees in alaska to attain a diameter of from six to nine feet and to contain 10,000 or 15,000 feet of lumber. southeastern alaska has many deep-water harbors which are open the year round. practically all the timber in that section is controlled by the government and is within the tongass national forest. this means that this important crop will be handled properly. no waste of material will occur. cutting will be permitted only where the good of the forest justifies such work. chapter xi progress in state forestry the rapid depletion and threatened exhaustion of the timber supply in the more thickly populated sections of the east has prompted several of the states to initiate action looking toward the conservation of their timber resources. as far back as 1880, a forestry commission was appointed in new hampshire to formulate a forest policy for the state. vermont took similar action two years later, followed within the next few years by many of the northeastern and lake states. these commissions were mainly boards of inquiry, for the purpose of gathering reliable information upon which to report, with recommendations, for the adoption of a state forest policy. as a result of the inquiries, forestry departments were established in a number of states. the report of the new york commission of 1884 resulted in forest legislation, in 1885, creating a forestry department and providing for the acquisition of state forests. liberal appropriations were made from time to time for this purpose, until now the state forests embrace nearly 2,000,000 acres, the largest of any single state. new york state forests were created, especially, for the protection of the adirondack and catskill regions as great camping and hunting grounds, and not for timber production. the people of the state were so fearful that through political manipulation this vast forest resource might fall into the hands of the timber exploiters, that a constitutional amendment was proposed and adopted, absolutely prohibiting the cutting of green timber from the state lands. thus, while new york owns large areas of state forest land, it is unproductive so far as furnishing timber supplies to the state is concerned. it is held distinctly for the recreation it affords to campers and hunters, and contains many famous summer resorts. state forestry in pennsylvania began in 1887, when a commission was appointed to study conditions, resulting in the establishment of a commission of forestry in 1895. two years later, an act was passed providing for the purchase of state forests. at the present time, pennsylvania has 1,250,000 acres of state forest land. unlike those of new york, pennsylvania forests were acquired and are managed primarily for timber production, although the recreational uses are not overlooked. the large areas of state-owned lands in the lake states suitable, mainly, for timber growing, enabled this section to create extensive state forests without the necessity of purchase as was the case in new york and pennsylvania. as a result, wisconsin has nearly 400,000 acres of state forest land, minnesota, about 330,000, and michigan, about 200,000 acres. south dakota, with a relatively small area of forest land, has set aside 80,000 acres for state forest. a number of other states have initiated a policy of acquiring state forest lands, notably, new hampshire, vermont, massachusetts, connecticut, new jersey, maryland, and indiana, each with small areas, but likely to be greatly increased within the next few years under the development of present policies. other states are falling in line with this forward movement. there are but 4,237,587 acres in state forests in the united states. this is only 1-1/2 per cent. of the cut-over and denuded land in the country which is useful only for tree production. the lack of funds prevents many states from embarking more extensively in this work. many states set aside only a few thousand a year; others, that are more progressive and realize the need of forestry extension, spend annually from one hundred thousand to five hundred thousand dollars. foresters are, generally, agreed that as much as 25 per cent. of the forest land of every state should be publicly owned for producing large sized timber, requiring seventy-five to one hundred years to grow, and which the private owner would not be interested in producing. national, state, or communal forests must supply it. all of these combined comprise a very small part of the forests of most of the states, so that much larger areas must be acquired by the states and the national government to safeguard our future timber supplies. not less than thirty-two states are actually engaged in state forestry work. many of them have well-organized forestry departments, which, in states like new york and pennsylvania, having large areas of state forests, are devoted largely to the care and protection of these lands. in other states having no state forests, the work is largely educational in character. the most notable progress in forestry has been made in fire protection. all states having forestry departments lay especial emphasis upon forest protection, since it is recognized that only by protecting the forests from fire is it possible to succeed in growing timber crops. in fact, in most cases, the prevention of fire in itself is sufficient to insure re-growth and productive forests. pennsylvania is spending $500,000 annually in protecting her forests from fire. the coöperation of the federal government, under a provision of the weeks law which appropriates small sums of money for forest protection, provided the state will appropriate an equal or greater amount, has done much to encourage the establishment of systems of forest protection in many of the states. [illustration: sowing forest seed in an effort to grow a new forest] the enormous areas of denuded, or waste land in the various states, comprising more than 80,000,000 acres, which can be made again productive only by forest planting, present another big problem in state forestry. many of the states have established state forestry nurseries for the growing of tree seedlings to plant up these lands. the trees are either given away, or sold at cost, millions being distributed each year, indicating a live interest and growing sentiment in re-foresting waste lands. the appalling waste of timber resources through excessive and reckless cutting, amounting to forest devastation, is deplorable, but we are helpless to prevent it. since the bulk of woodlands are privately owned, and there are no effective laws limiting the cutting of timber with a view to conserving the supply, the only means of bringing about regulated cutting on private lands is through coöperation with the owners. this is being done in some of the states in a limited way, through educational methods, involving investigations, reports, demonstrations, and other means of bringing improved forestry practices to the attention of existing owners and enlisting their coöperation and support in forest conservation. forestry in the state, or in the nation, seems to progress no more rapidly than the timber disappears; in fact, the individual states do not take precaution to conserve their timber supplies until exhaustion is threatened. the damage has been largely done before the remedy is considered. we are today paying a tremendous toll for our lack of foresight in these matters. as a timber producing state becomes a timber importing state, (a condition existing in most of the eastern and middle states) we begin to pay a heavy toll in the loss of home industries dependent upon wood, and also in heavy freight charges on lumber that we must import from distant points to supply our needs. in many states, the expenditure of an amount for reforestation and fire protection equal to this freight bill on imported lumber would make the state self-supporting in a decade, instead of becoming worse off each year. marked progress has been made along the lines indicated, but few of the states have begun to measure up to their full responsibility in protecting their future timber supply. chapter xii the playgrounds of the nation the public forests are steadily increasing in popularity as the playgrounds of the nation. the woodlands offer splendid opportunities for camping, hunting, fishing and outdoor life. millions of motorists now spend their vacations in the government and state forests. railroads and automobiles make the forests accessible to all. thousands of miles of improved motor highways lead into the very heart of the hills. more than 5,500,000 people annually visit the national forests. of this number, some 2,500,000 are campers, fishermen and hunters. [illustration: a camping ground in a national forest] the forests provide cheap health insurance to all who will enjoy what they offer in sport and recreation. for example, over 1,000,000 vacationists visit colorado's forests each year. if each person spent but five days in the forests, this would mean a total of 5,000,000 days or 50,000,000 hours of rest and enjoyment. recreation at the beaches and amusement parks costs at least fifty cents an hour. applying that rate to the free fun which the people get out of the forests, in colorado in one year the tourists, campers and fishermen gained $25,000,000 worth of pleasure from the forests. the national and state forests furnish summer homes for thousands of people who live in the neighboring cities and towns. regular summer home sites are laid off in many of the forests. usually these individual sites cover about one-quarter acre or less. they rent for $5 to $25 a year, depending on the location. a man can rent one of these camp grounds for a term of years. he can build a summer cottage or bungalow on it. there are no special rules about the size or cost of the houses. uncle sam requires only that the cottages be sightly and the surroundings be kept clean and sanitary. many of the cabins are built for $150 to $300. some of them are more permanent and cost from $3,000 to $5,000 or $10,000. in the angeles national forest in southern california, over sixteen hundred of these cottages are now in use and many more are being built. where there are dead or mature trees in the forest, near summer home sites, timber can be purchased at low prices for use in building cottages. even the people of small means can build cabins in the forests and enjoy living in the mountains during the heat of the summer. these camps provide fine surroundings for the rompings and summer games of the children and young people. in california a number of cities have set up municipal camps in the national forests. at very low costs, the city residents can spend their vacations at these camps. tents and cottages are provided. facilities for all kinds of games and sports furnish recreation. each family may stay at the camp for two weeks. the expenses are so low for meals and tents that the municipal camps furnish the best and cheapest vacation which the family of limited means can enjoy. these camps are very popular. wherever they have been tried, they have been successful. there are twelve municipal camps in california. they cost $150,000. fine automobile camps are maintained along many of the important national and state forest highways for the use of tourists. concrete fireplaces, tables, benches and running water are provided at these wayside camping places. the tourists who carry their camp kits like to stop at these automobile camps. they meet many other tourists and exchange information about the best trails to follow and the condition of the roads. sometimes, permanent cabins and shelters are provided for the use of the cross-country travelers. the only rules are that care be exercised in the use of fire and the camping sites be kept in clean and sanitary condition. all the forest roads are posted with many signs asking the tourists to be careful in the use of matches, tobacco and camp fires, so as not to start destructive forest fires. in the federal and state forests hundreds of man-caused fires occur annually, due to the neglect and carelessness of campers and tourists to put out their camp fires. a single match or a cigarette stub tossed from a passing automobile may start a costly fire. during the season from may to october, the western forests usually are as dry as tinder. rains are rare during that period. a fire once started runs riot unless efficient control measures are used at once. those interested in fishing and hunting usually can find plenty of chance to pursue their favorite sports in the national and state forests. there is good fishing in the forest streams and lakes, as the rangers, working in coöperation with federal and state hatcheries yearly restock important waters. fishing and hunting in the national forests are regulated by the fish and game laws of that state in which the forests are located. the killing of wild game is permitted during certain open seasons in most of the forest regions. [illustration: good forests mean good hunting and fishing] the eastern forests in the white mountains, the adirondacks, and the appalachians, are not, for the most part, as well developed as recreation grounds as are the western vacation lands. however, more interest is being taken each year in the outdoor life features of the eastern forests, and ultimately they will be used on a large scale as summer camp grounds. many hikers and campers now spend their annual vacations in these forests. throughout the white mountain forest of new hampshire, regular trails for walking parties have been made. at frequent intervals simple camps for the use of travelers have been built by mountaineering clubs. this forest, located as it is near centres of large population is visited by a half-million tourists each season. the pisgah national forest of north carolina is becoming a centre for automobile travel as it contains a fine macadam road. the superior national forest of minnesota, which covers 1,250,000 acres and contains 150,000 acres of lakes, is becoming very popular. it is called "the land of ten thousand lakes." one can travel in a canoe through this forest for a month at a time without passing over the same lake twice. other popular national forests are the angeles in southern california, the pike and colorado in colorado, and the oregon and wenatchee--the pacific northwest. visitors to these forests total more than 1,750,000 a year. the western forests are also being used for winter sports. they furnish excellent conditions for snow-shoe trips, skiing and sledding. the people who have camps on government land use their places for week-end excursions during the snow season when the roads are passable. the white mountain national forest is used more for winter sports than any other government woodland. at many of the towns of new hampshire and maine, huge carnivals are held each winter. championship contests in skiing, snowshoeing, skating, ski jumping, tobogganing and ski-joring are held. snow sport games are also annual events in the routt, leadville and pike national forests of colorado. cross country ski races and ski-joring contests are also held. in the truckee national forest of california, dog-team races over courses of 25 to 50 miles are held each winter. about eighty per cent. of the 5,500,000 people who visit the national forests are automobile tourists. the other twenty per cent. consists of sportsmen interested in hunting, fishing, canoeing, boating, mountain climbing, bathing, riding and hiking. in the pacific coast states there are a number of mountain climbing clubs whose members compete with each other in making difficult ascents. the mountaineering clubs of portland, oregon, for example, stage an interesting contest each summer in climbing mount hood, one of the highest peaks in the country. chapter xiii solving our forestry problems a system of forestry which will provide sufficient lumber for the needs of our country and keep our forest land productive must be built on the extension of our public forests. our national forests are, at present, the one bright feature of future lumbering. their tree crops will never be cut faster than they can be grown. a balance between production and consumption will always be maintained. our needs for more timber, the necessity for protecting the headwaters of streams, the demands for saving wild life, and the playground possibilities of our forests justify their extension. approximately eighty per cent of the american forests are now privately owned. the chances are that most of these wooded tracts will always remain in the hands of private owners. it is important that the production of these forests be kept up without injuring their future value. we must prepare for the lumber demands of many years from now. some method must be worked out of harnessing our idle forest lands and putting them to work growing timber. any regulations that are imposed on the private owners of woodlands must be reasonable. changes in our present methods of taxing timberlands must be made to encourage reforestation. the public must aid the private individuals in fighting forest fires, the greatest menace that modern forestry has to face. a national policy is needed which will permit the private owner to grow trees which will give him fair and reasonable profit when sold. the farmers of this country use about one-half of all the lumber consumed annually. they own approximately 191,000,000 acres of timber in their farm woodlots. if farmers would devote a little time and labor to the permanent upkeep and improvement of their timber, they would aid in decreasing the danger of a future lumber famine. if they would but keep track of the acreage production of their woodlands as closely as they do of their corn and wheat crops, american forestry would benefit greatly. between 1908 and 1913, the u.s. forest service established two forest experiment stations in california and one each in washington, idaho, colorado, and arizona. they devote the same degree of science and skill to the solution of tree growing and lumbering problems as the agricultural experiment stations give to questions of farm and crop management. despite the fact that these forestry stations did fine work for the sections that they served, recently a number of them had to close, due to lack of funds. congress does not yet realize the importance of this work. more forest experiment stations are needed throughout the country. such problems as what kinds of trees are best to grow, must be solved. of the 495 species of trees in this country, 125 are important commercially. they all differ in their histories, characteristics and requirements. research and study should be made of these trees in the sections where they grow best. our knowledge regarding tree planting and the peculiarities of the different species is, as yet, very meagre. we must discover the best methods of cutting trees and of disposing of the slash. we must investigate rates of growth, yields and other problems of forest management. we must study the effect of climate on forest fires. we must continue experiments in order to develop better systems of fire protection. we need more forest experiment stations to promote the production of more timber. twenty of our leading industries utilize lumber as their most important raw material. fifty-five different industries use specialized grades and quality of lumber in the manufacture of many products. this use of lumber includes general mill work and planing mill products, such as building crates and boxes, vehicles, railroad cars, furniture, agricultural implements and wooden ware. our manufacturers make and use more than two hundred and seventy-five different kinds of paper, including newsprint, boxboard, building papers, book papers and many kinds of specialty papers. the forest experiment stations would help solve the practical problems of these many industries. they could work out methods by which to maintain our forests and still turn out the thirty-five to forty billion board feet of lumber used each year. they are needed to determine methods of increasing our annual cut for pulp and paper. they are necessary so that we can increase our annual output of poles, pilings, cooperage and veneer. a forest experiment station is needed in the southern pine belt. the large pine forests of dixieland have been shaved down from 130,000,000 acres to 23,500,000 acres. in that region there are more than 30,000,000 acres of waste forest lands which should be reclaimed and devoted to the growing of trees. eastern and middle western manufacturing and lumbering centres are interested in the restoring of the southern pine forests. during the last score of years, they have used two-thirds of the annual output of those forests. in another ten to fifteen years home demand will use most of the pine cut in the south. the east and middle west will then have to rely mostly on the pacific coast forests for their pine lumber. the lake states need a forest experiment station to work out methods by which the white pine, hemlock, spruce, beech, birch and maple forests of that section can be renewed. the lake states are now producing only one-ninth as much white pine as they were thirty years ago. these states now cut only 3,500,000,000 feet of all kinds of lumber annually. their output is growing smaller each year. wisconsin led the united states in lumber production in 1900. now she cuts less than the second-growth yield of maine. michigan, which led in lumber production before wisconsin, now harvests a crop of white pine that is 50 per cent. smaller than that of massachusetts. experts believe that a forest experiment station in the lake states would stimulate production so that enough lumber could be produced to satisfy the local demands. not least in importance among the forest regions requiring an experiment station are the new england states and northern and eastern new york. in that section there are approximately 25,000,000 acres of forest lands. five and one-half million acres consist of waste and idle land. eight million acres grow nothing but fuel-wood. the rest of the timber tracts are not producing anywhere near their capacity. new england produces 30 per cent. and new york 50 per cent. of our newsprint. maine is the leading state in pulp production. new england imports 50 per cent. of her lumber, while new york cuts less than one-half the timber she annually consumes. another experiment station should be provided to study the forestry problems of pennsylvania, southern and western new york, ohio, maryland, new jersey and delaware. at one time this region was the most important lumber centre of the united states. pennsylvania spends $100,000,000 a year in importing lumber which should be grown at home. the denuded and waste lands at the headwaters of the allegheny river now extend over one-half million acres. new jersey is using more than twenty times as much lumber as is produced in the state. ohio is a centre for wood manufacturing industries, yet her timber-producing possibilities are neglected, as are those of other states needing wood for similar purposes. european nations have spent large sums of money in investigating forestry problems to make timber producing economically feasible, and have found that it paid. in this country, our forest experiment stations will have to deal with a timbered area twice that of all europe, exclusive of russia. that is why we shall need many of these stations to help solve the many questions of national welfare which are so dependent upon our forests. chapter xiv why the united states should practice forestry of late years the demand for lumber by the world trade has been very great. most of the countries which have extensive forests are taking steps to protect their supplies. they limit cutting and restrict exports of timber. both new zealand and switzerland have passed laws of this kind. sweden exports much lumber, but by law forbids the cutting of timber in excess of the annual growth. norway regulates private cutting. england is planning to plant 1,770,000 acres of new forest reserve. this body of timber when ready for cutting, would be sufficient to supply her home needs in time of emergency for at least three years. france is enlarging her forest nurseries and protecting her timber in every possible way. even russia, a country with huge forest tracts, is beginning to practice conservation. russia now requires that all timber cut under concession shall be replaced by plantings of trees. for many years, the united states and china were the greatest wasters of forest resources under the sun. now this country has begun to practice scientific forestry on a large scale so that china now has the worst-managed forests in the world. japan, on the other hand, handles her forests efficiently and has established a national forestry school. austria, norway, sweden and italy have devoted much time, labor and money to the development of practical systems of forestry. turkey, greece, spain and portugal, all follow sane and sensible forestry practices. even russia takes care of her national timberlands and annually draws enormous incomes from their maintenance. france and germany both have highly successful forestry systems. switzerland, australia, and new zealand are using their forests in a practical manner and saving sufficient supplies of wood for posterity. history tells us that the forests first were protected as the homes of wild game. little attention was paid to the trees in those days. the forests were places to hunt and abodes devoted to wild animals. scientific forestry was first studied and practised widely in the nineteenth century. its development and expansion have been rapid. germany still leads as one of the most prominent countries that practices efficient forestry. german forests are now said to be worth more than $5,000,000,000. france has over 2,750,000 acres of fine publicly owned forests, in addition to private forests, which yield a net income of more than $2 an acre a year to the government. the french have led in extending reforestation on denuded mountain sides. british india has well-managed forests which cover over 200,000 square miles of area. these timberlands return a net income of from $3,000,000 to $4,000,000 a year. india now protects more than 35,000 square miles of forest against fire at an annual cost of less than half a cent an acre. forest experts say that the united states, which produces more than one-half of all the sawed timber in the world, should pay more attention to the export lumber business. such trade must be built up on the basis of a permanent supply of timber. this means the practice of careful conservation and the replacement of forests that have been destroyed. we can not export timber from such meagre reserves as the pine forests of the south, which will not supply even the domestic needs of the region for much more than ten or fifteen years longer. many of our timber men desire to develop extensive export trade. our sawmills are large enough and numerous enough to cut much more timber annually than we need in this country. however, the danger is that we shall only abuse our forests the more and further deplete the timber reserves of future generations as a result of extensive export trade. if such trade is developed on a large scale, a conservative, practical national forestry policy must be worked out, endorsed and lived up to by every producing exporter. the u.s. forest service reports that before the world war, we were exporting annually 3,000,000,000 board feet of lumber and sawlogs, not including ties, staves and similar material. this material consisted of southern yellow pine, douglas fir, white oak, redwood, white pine, yellow poplar, cypress, walnut, hickory, ash, basswood and similar kinds of wood. the exports were made up of 79 per cent. softwoods and 21 per cent. hardwoods. the export trade consumed about 8-1/2 per cent. of our annual lumber cut. southern yellow pine was the most popular timber shipped abroad. one-half of the total export was of this material. during the four years before the war our imports of lumber from foreign countries amounted to about 1,200,000,000 board feet of lumber and logs. in 1918, imports exceeded exports by 100,000,000 board feet. in addition to this lumber, we also shipped in, largely from canada, 1,370,000 cords of pulp wood, 596,000 tons of wood pulp, 516,000 tons of paper, and close to a billion shingles. some of the material, such as wood pulp and paper, also came from sweden, norway, germany, spain, the netherlands and the united kingdom. as a result of the war, european countries for several years can use 7,000,000,000 feet of lumber a year above their normal requirements. for housing construction, england needs 2,000,000,000 feet a year more than normally; france, 1,500,000,000 feet; italy, 1,750,000,000 feet; belgium and spain 750,000,000 feet apiece. even before the war, there was a great deficiency of timber in parts of europe. it amounted to 16,000,000,000 board feet a year and was supplied by russia, the united states, canada, sweden, austria-hungary and a few other countries of western europe. if we can regulate cutting and replenish our forests as they deserve, there is a remarkable opportunity for us to build up a large and permanent export trade. [illustration: young white pine seeded from adjoining pine trees] the central and south american countries now have to depend on canada, the united states and sweden for most of their softwoods. unless they develop home forests by the practice of modern forestry, they will always be dependent on imported timber of this type. south africa and egypt are both heavy importers of lumber. africa has large tropical forests but the timber is hard to get at and move. china produces but little lumber and needs much. she is developing into a heavy importing country. japan grows only about enough timber to supply her home needs. australia imports softwoods from the united states and canada. new zealand is in the market for douglas fir and hardwoods. in the past, our export lumber business has been second only to that of russia in total amount. the value of the timber that we exported was larger than that of russia because much of our timber that was sent abroad consisted of the best grades of material grown in this country. in the future, we shall have to compete in the softwood export business with russia, finland, sweden, norway and the various states of southeastern europe which sell lumber. in the hardwood business, we have only a limited number of rivals. with the exception of a small section of eastern europe, our hardwood forests are the finest in the temperate zone. we export hickory, black walnut, yellow poplar, white and red oak even to russia and sweden, countries that are our keenest rivals in the softwood export business. europe wants export lumber from our eastern states because the transportation costs on such material are low. she does not like to pay heavy costs of hauling timber from the pacific coast to the atlantic seaboard and then have it reshipped by water. our eastern forests are practically exhausted. our supplies of export lumber except douglas fir are declining. most of the kinds of export timber that europe wants we need right at home. we have only about 258,000,000,000 feet of southern yellow pine left, yet this material composes one-half of our annual shipments abroad. we are cutting this material at the rate of 16,000,000,000 board feet a year. some authorities believe that our reserves will last only sixteen years unless measures to protect them are put into effect at once. at the present rate of cutting long-leaf pine trees, our outputs of naval stores including turpentine and rosin are dwindling. we cannot afford to increase our export of southern yellow pine unless reforestation is started on all land suitable for that purpose. our pine lands of the southern states must be restocked and made permanently productive. then they could maintain the turpentine industry, provide all the lumber of this kind we need for home use, and supply a larger surplus for export. although our supplies of douglas fir, western white pine, sugar pine and western yellow pine are still large, they will have to bear an extra burden when all the southern pine is gone. this indicates that the large supplies of these woods will not last as long as we would wish. to prevent overtaxing their production, it is essential that part of the load be passed to the southern pine cut-over lands. by proper protection and renewal of our forests, we can increase our production of lumber and still have a permanent supply. the forest service estimates that by protecting our cut-over and waste lands from fire and practicing care to secure reproduction after logging on our remaining virgin forest land, we can produce annually at least 27,750,000,000 cubic feet of wood, including 70,000,000,000 board feet of sawtimber. such a production would meet indefinitely the needs of our growing population, and still leave an amount of timber available for export. our hardwoods need protection as well as our softwoods. ten per cent of our yearly cut of valuable white oak is shipped overseas. in addition we annually waste much of our best oak in the preparation of split staves for export. at the present rate of cutting, the supply, it is said, will not last more than twenty-five years. we ship abroad about seven per cent. of our poplar lumber. our supplies of this material will be exhausted in about twenty years if the present rate of cutting continues. we sell to foreign countries at least one-half of our cut of black walnut which will be exhausted in ten to twelve years unless present methods are reformed. our supplies of hickory, ash and basswood will be used up in twenty to thirty years. we need all this hardwood lumber for future domestic purposes. however, the furniture factories of france, spain and italy are behind on orders. they need hardwood and much of our valuable hardwood timber is being shipped to europe. experience has proved that correct systems of handling the private forests can not be secured by mere suggestions or education. no ordinary method of public coöperation has been worked out which produces the desired results. it is necessary that suitable measures be adopted to induce private owners to preserve and protect their woodlands. the timberlands must be protected against forest fires. timber must be cut so as to aid natural reproduction of forest. cut-over lands must be reforested. if such methods were practiced, and national, state and municipal forests were established and extended, our lumber problem would largely solve itself. we not only should produce a large permanent supply of timber for domestic use, but also should have great reserves available for export. under such conditions, the united states would become the greatest supply source in the world for lumber. chapter xv why the lumberman should practice forestry the lumber industry of this country can aid reforestation by practicing better methods. it can harvest its annual crop of timber without injuring the future production of the forests. it can limit forest fires by leaving the woods in a safe condition after it has removed the timber. some private timber owners who make a living out of cutting lumber, have even reached the stage where they are planting trees. they are coming to appreciate the need for replacing trees that they cut down, in order that new growth may develop to furnish future timber crops. the trouble in this country has been that the lumbermen have harvested the crop of the forests in the shortest possible time instead of spreading out the work over a long period. most of our privately owned forests have been temporarily ruined by practices of this sort. the aim of the ordinary lumberman is to fell the trees and reduce them to lumber with the least labor possible. he does not exercise special care as to how the tree is cut down. he pays little attention to the protection of young trees and new growth. he cuts the tree to fall in the direction that best serves his purpose, no matter whether this means that the forest giant will crush and seriously cripple many young trees. he wastes large parts of the trunk in cutting. he leaves the tops and chips and branches scattered over the ground to dry out. they develop into a fire trap. as generally followed, the ordinary method of lumbering is destructive of the forests. it ravages the future production of the timberlands. it pays no heed to the young growth of the forest. it does not provide for the proper growth and development of the future forest. our vast stretches of desolate and deserted cut-over lands are silent witnesses to the ruin which has been worked by the practice of destructive lumbering. fortunately, a change for the better is now developing. with the last of our timberland riches in sight on the pacific coast, the lumbering industry is coming to see that it must prepare for the future. consequently, operators are handling the woods better than ever before. they now are trying to increase both the production and permanent value of the remaining forests. they aim to harvest the tree yield more thoroughly and to extend their cuttings over many years. they appreciate that it is necessary to protect and preserve the forest at the same time that profitable tree crops are being removed. they see the need for saving and increasing young growth and for protecting the woodlands against fire. if only these methods of forestry had been observed from the time the early settlers felled the first trees, not only would our forests be producing at present all the lumber we could use, but also the united states would be the greatest lumber-exporting country in the world. [illustration: what some kinds of timber cutting do to a forest] it will never be possible to stop timber cutting entirely in this country, nor would it be desirable to do so. the demands for building material, fuel, wood pulp and the like are too great to permit of such a condition. the nation would suffer if all forest cutting was suspended. there is a vital need, however, of perpetuating our remaining forests. wasteful lumbering practices should be stopped. only trees that are ready for harvest should be felled. they should be cut under conditions which will protect the best interests and production of the timberlands. as a class, our lumbermen are no more selfish or greedy than men in many other branches of business. they have worked under peculiar conditions in the united states. our population was small as compared with our vast forest resources. conditions imposed in france and germany, where the population is so dense that more conservative systems of lumbering are generally practiced, were not always applicable in this country. furthermore, our lumbermen have known little about scientific forestry. this science is comparatively new in america. all our forestry schools are still in the early stages of their development. as lumbermen learn more about the value of modern forestry they gradually are coming to practice its principles. the early lumbermen often made mistakes in estimating the timber yields of the forests. they also neglected to provide for the future production of the woodlands after the virgin timber was removed. those who followed in their steps have learned by these errors what mistakes to avoid. our lumbermen lead the world in skill and ingenuity. they have worked out most efficient methods of felling and logging the trees. many foreign countries have long practiced forestry and lumbering, yet their lumbermen cannot compete with the americans when it comes to a matter of ingenuity in the woods. american woods and methods of logging are peculiar. they would no more fit under european forest conditions than would foreign systems be suitable in this country. american lumbermen are slowly coming to devise and follow a combination method which includes all the good points of foreign forestry revised to apply to our conditions. we can keep our remaining forests alive and piece out their production over a long period if we practice conservation methods generally throughout the country. our remaining forests can be lumbered according to the rules of practical forestry without great expense to the owners. in the long run, they will realize much larger returns from handling the woods in this way. this work of saving the forests should begin at once. it should be practiced in every state. our cut-over and idle lands should be put to work. our forest lands should be handled just like fertile farming lands that produce big crops. the farmer does not attempt to take all the fertility out of the land in the harvest of one bumper crop. he handles the field so that it will produce profitable crops every season. he fertilizes the soil and tills it so as to add to its productive power. similarly, our forests should be worked so that they will yield successive crops of lumber year after year. lumbermen who own forests from which they desire to harvest a timber crop should first of all survey the woods, or have some experienced forester do this work, to decide on what trees should be cut and the best methods of logging to follow. the trees to be cut should be selected carefully and marked. the owner should determine how best to protect the young and standing timber during lumbering. he should decide on what plantings he will make to replace the trees that are cut. he should survey and estimate the future yield of the forest. he should study the young trees and decide about when they will be ripe to cut and what they will yield. from this information, he can determine his future income from the forest and the best ways of handling the woodlands. under present conditions in this country, only those trees should be cut from our forests which are mature and ready for the ax. this means that the harvest must be made under conditions where there are enough young trees to take the place of the full-grown trees that are removed. cutting is best done during the winter when the trees are dormant. if the cutting is performed during the spring or summer, the bark, twigs and leaves of the surrounding young growth may be seriously damaged by the falling trees. the trees should be cut as low to the ground as is practicable, as high stumps waste valuable timber. care should be taken so that they will not break or split in falling. trees should be dropped so that they will not crush young seedlings and sapling growth as they fall. it is no more difficult or costly to throw a tree so that it will not injure young trees than it is to drop it anywhere without regard for the future of the forest. directly after cutting, the fallen timber should be trimmed so as to remove branches that are crushing down any young growth or seedling. in some forests the young growth is so thick that it is impossible to throw trees without falling them on some of these baby trees which will spring back into place again if the heavy branches are removed at once. the top of the tree should be trimmed so that it will lie close to the ground. under such conditions it will rot rapidly and be less of a fire menace. the dry tops of trees which lodge above the ground are most dangerous sources of fire as they burn easily and rapidly. the lumbermen can also aid the future development of the forests by using care in skidding and hauling the logs to the yard or mill. care should be exercised in the logging operations not to tear or damage the bark of trunks of standing timber. if possible, only the trees of unimportant timber species should be cut for making corduroy roads in the forests. this will be a saving of valuable material. in lumbering operations as practiced in this country, the logs are usually moved to the sawmills on sleds or by means of logging railroads. if streams are near by, the logs are run into the water and floated to the mill. if the current is not swift enough, special dams are built. then when enough logs are gathered for the drive, the dam is opened and the captive waters flood away rapidly and carry the logs to the mill. on larger streams and rivers, the logs are often fastened together in rafts. expert log drivers who ride on the tipping, rolling logs in the raging river, guide the logs on these drives. on arrival at the sawmill, the logs are reduced to lumber. many different kinds of saws are used in this work. one of the most efficient is the circular saw which performs rapid work. it is so wide in bite, however, that it wastes much wood in sawdust. for example, in cutting four boards of one-inch lumber, an ordinary circular saw wastes enough material to make a fifth board, because it cuts an opening that is one-quarter of an inch in width. band saws, although they do not work at such high speed, are replacing circular saws in many mills because they are less wasteful of lumber. although sawmills try to prevent waste of wood by converting slabs and short pieces into laths and shingles, large amounts of refuse, such as sawdust, slabs and edgings, are burned each season. as a rule, only about one-third of the tree is finally used for construction purposes, the balance being wasted in one way or another. chapter xvi why the farmer should practice forestry the tree crop is a profitable crop for the average farmer to grow. notwithstanding the comparatively sure and easy incomes which result from the farm woodlands that are well managed, farmers as a class neglect their timber. not infrequently they sell their timber on the stump at low rates through ignorance of the real market value of the wood. in other cases, they do not care for their woodlands properly. they cut without regard to future growth. they do not pile the slashings and hence expose the timber tracts to fire dangers. they convert young trees into hewed crossties which would yield twice as great a return if allowed to grow for four or five years longer and then be cut as lumber. just to show how a small tract of trees will grow into money if allowed to mature, the case of a three-acre side-hill pasture in new england is interesting. forty-four years ago the farmer who owned this waste land dug up fourteen hundred seedling pines which were growing in a clump and set them out on the sidehill. twenty years later the farmer died. his widow sold the three acres of young pine for $300. fifteen years later the woodlot again changed hands for a consideration of $1,000, a lumber company buying it. today, this small body of pine woods contains 90,000 board feet of lumber worth at least $1,500 on the stump. the farmer who set out the trees devoted about $35 worth of land and labor to the miniature forest. within a generation this expenditure has grown into a valuable asset which yielded a return of $34.09 a year on the investment. [illustration: on poor soil trees such as these are more profitable than farm crops ] a new york farmer who plays square with his woodland realizes a continuous profit of $1 a day from a 115-acre timber tract. the annual growth of this well-managed farm forest is .65 cords of wood per acre, equivalent to 75 cords of wood--mostly tulip poplar--a year. the farmer's profit amounts to $4.68 a cord, or a total of $364.50 from the entire timber tract. over in new hampshire, an associate sold a two-acre stand of white pine--this was before the inflated war prices were in force--for $2,000 on the stump. the total cut of this farm forest amounted to 254 cords equivalent to 170,000 board feet of lumber. this was an average of about 85,000 feet an acre. the trees were between eighty and eighty-five years old when felled. this indicates an annual growth on each acre of about 1,000 feet of lumber. the gross returns from the sale of the woodland crops amounted to $12.20 an acre a year. these, of course, are not average instances. farmers should prize their woodlands because they provide building material for fences and farm outbuildings as well as for general repairs. the farm woodland also supplies fuel for the farm house. any surplus materials can be sold in the form of standing timber, sawlogs, posts, poles, crossties, pulpwood, blocks or bolts. the farm forest also serves as a good windbreak for the farm buildings. it supplies shelter for the livestock during stormy weather and protects the soil against erosion. during slack times, it provides profitable work for the farm hands. there are approximately one-fifth of a billion acres of farm woodlands in the united states. in the eastern united states there are about 169,000,000 acres of farmland forests. if these woodlands could be joined together in a solid strip one hundred miles wide, they would reach from new york to san francisco. they would amount to an area almost eight times as large as the combined forests of france which furnished the bulk of the timber used by the allies during the world war. in the north, the farm woodlands compose two-fifths of all the forests. altogether there are approximately 53,000,000 acres of farm woodlots which yield a gross income of about $162,000,000 annually to their owners. surveys show that in the new england states more than 65 per cent. of the forested land is on farms, while in ohio, indiana, illinois and iowa from 80 to 100 per cent. of the timber tracts are on corn belt farms. conditions in the south also emphasize the importance of farm woods, as in this region there are more than 125,000,000 acres which yield an income of about $150,000,000 a year. in fact the woodlands on the farms compose about 50 per cent. of all the forest lands south of the mason-dixon line. in maryland, virginia, north carolina, kentucky and oklahoma, over 60 per cent. of all the forest land is on farms. the government says timber raising is very profitable in the eastern states because there is plenty of cheap land which is not suitable for farming, while the rainfall is abundant and favors rapid tree growth. furthermore, there are many large cities which use enormous supplies of lumber. the transportation facilities, both rail and water, are excellent. this section is a long distance from the last of the virgin forests of the pacific coast country. the farms that reported at the last census sold an average of about $82 worth of tree crop products a year. new york, north carolina, virginia, georgia, tennessee, alabama, kentucky, wisconsin and pennsylvania each sold over $15,000,000 worth of lumber and other forest products from their farm woodlots during a single season. in 1918 the report showed that the farms of the country burn up about 78,000,000 cords of firewood annually, equal to approximately 11.5 cords of fuel a farm. the southern states burn more wood than the colder northern states. in north carolina each farm consumes eighteen cords of fuel annually, while the farms of south carolina and arkansas used seventeen cords apiece, and those of mississippi, georgia, tennessee, louisiana, and kentucky from fifteen to sixteen cords. even under these conditions of extensive cordwood use, our farm woodlots are producing only about one-third to one-half of the wood supplies which they could grow if they were properly managed. the farmer who appreciates the importance of caring for his home forests is always interested in knowing how much timber will grow on an acre during a period of twelve months. the government reports that where the farm woodlots are fully stocked with trees and well-cared for, an acre of hardwoods will produce from one-half to one cord of wood--a cord of wood is equal to about 500 board feet of lumber. a pine forest will produce from one to two cords of wood an acre. the growth is greater in the warmer southern climate than it is in the north where the growing season is much shorter. expert foresters say that posts and crossties can be grown in from ten to thirty years and that most of the rapid growing trees will make saw timber in between twenty and forty years. after the farm woodland is logged, a new stand of young trees will develop from seeds or sprouts from the stumps. farmers find that it is profitable to harrow the ground in the cut-over woodlands to aid natural reproduction, or to turn hogs into the timber tract to rustle a living as these animals aid in scattering the seed under favorable circumstances. it is also noteworthy that the most vigorous sprouts come from the clean, well-cut stumps from which the trees were cut during the late fall, winter or early spring before the sap begins to flow. the top of each stump should be cut slanting so that it will readily shed water. the trees that reproduce by sprouts include the oak, hickory, basswood, chestnut, gum, cottonwood, willows and young short-leaf and pitch pines. in order that the farm woodland may be kept in the best of productive condition, the farmer should remove for firewood the trees adapted only for that purpose. usually, removing these trees improves the growth of the remaining trees by giving them better chances to develop. trees should be cut whose growth has been stunted because trees of more rapid growth crowded them out. diseased trees or those that have been seriously injured by insects should be felled. in sections exposed to chestnut blight or gypsy moth infection, it is advisable to remove the chestnut and birch trees before they are damaged seriously. it is wise management to cut the fire-scarred trees as well as those that are crooked, large-crowned and short-boled, as they will not make good lumber. the removal of these undesirable trees improves the forest by providing more growing space for the sturdy, healthy trees. sound dead trees as well as the slow-growing trees that crowd the fast growing varieties should be cut. in addition, where such less valuable trees as the beech, birch, black oak, jack oak or black gum are crowding valuable trees like the sugar maples, white or short-leaf pines, yellow poplar or white oak, the former species should be chopped down. these cutting operations should be done with the least possible damage to the living and young trees. the "weed trees" should be cut down, just as the weeds are hoed out of a field of corn, in order that the surviving trees may make better growth. often the farmer errs in marketing his tree crops. there have been numerous instances where farmers have been deluded by timber cruisers and others who purchased their valuable forest tracts for a mere fraction of what the woodlands were really worth. the united states forest service and state forestry departments have investigated many of these cases and its experts advise farmers who are planning to sell tree crops to get prices for the various wood products from as many sawmills and wood-using plants as possible. the foresters recommend that the farmers consult with their neighbors who have sold timber. sometimes it may pay to sell the timber locally if the prices are right, as then the heavy transportation costs are eliminated. most states have state foresters who examine woodlands and advise the owner just what to do. it pays to advertise in the newspapers and secure as many competitive bids as possible for the timber on the stump. generally, unless the prices offered for such timber are unusually high, the farmer will get greater returns by logging and sawing the timber and selling it in the form of lumber and other wood products. the farmer who owns a large forest tract should have some reliable and experienced timberman carefully inspect his timber and estimate the amount and value. the owner should deal with only responsible buyers. he should use a written agreement in selling timber, particularly where the purchaser is to do the cutting. the farm woodland owner must always bear in mind that standing timber can always be held over a period of low prices without rapid deterioration. in selling lumber, the best plan is to use the inferior timber at home for building and repair work and to market the best of the material. chapter xvii putting wood waste to work for many years technical studies of wood were neglected. detailed investigations of steel, concrete, oil, rubber and other materials were made but wood apparently was forgotten. it has been only during the last decade since the establishment of the forest products laboratory of the united states forest service, at madison, wisconsin, that tests and experiments to determine the real value of different woods have been begun. one of the big problems of the government scientists at that station, which is conducted in coöperation with the university of wisconsin, is to check the needless waste of wood. by actual test they find out all about the wasteful practices of lumbering in the woods and mills. then they try to educate and convert the lumbermen and manufacturers away from such practices. the laboratory experts have already performed more than 500,000 tests with 149 different kinds of native woods. as a result of these experiments, these woods are now being used to better advantage with less waste in the building and manufacturing industries. a potential saving of at least 20 per cent. of the timbers used for building purposes is promised, which means a salvage of about $40,000,000 annually as a result of strength tests of southern yellow pine and douglas fir. additional tests have shown that the red heartwood of hickory is just as strong and serviceable as the white sap wood. formerly, the custom has been to throw away the heartwood as useless. this discovery greatly extends the use of our hickory supply. heretofore, the custom has been to season woods by drying them in the sun. this method of curing not only took a long time but also was wasteful and expensive. the forestry scientists and lumbermen have now improved the use of dry kilns and artificial systems of curing green lumber. now more than thirty-five of the leading woods such as douglas fir, southern yellow pine, spruce, gum and oak can be seasoned in the kilns in short time. it used to take about two years of air drying to season fir and spruce. at present the artificial kiln performs this job in from twenty to forty days. the kiln-dried lumber is just as strong and useful for construction as the air-cured stock. tests have proved that kiln drying of walnut for use in gun stocks or airplane propellers, in some cases reduced the waste of material from 60 to 2 per cent. the kiln-dried material was ready for use in one-third the time it would have taken to season the material in the air. heavy green oak timbers for wagons and wheels were dried in the kiln in ninety to one hundred days. it would have taken two years to cure this material outdoors. by their valuable test work, scientists are devising efficient means of protecting wood against decay. they treat the woods with such chemicals as creosote, zinc chloride and other preservatives. the life of the average railroad tie is at least doubled by such treatment. we could save about one and one-half billion board feet of valuable hardwood lumber annually if all the 85,000,000 untreated railroad ties now in use could be protected in this manner. if all wood exposed to decay were similarly treated, we could save about six billion board feet of timber each year. about one-sixth of all the lumber that is cut in the united states is used in making crates and packing boxes. the majority of these boxes are not satisfactory. either they are not strong enough or else they are not the right size or shape. during a recent year, the railroads paid out more than $100,000,000 to shippers who lost goods in transit due to boxes and crates that were damaged in shipment. in order to find out what woods are best to use in crates and boxes and what sizes and shapes will withstand rough handling, the laboratory experts developed a novel drum that tosses the boxes to and fro and gives them the same kind of rough handling they get on the railroad. this testing machine has demonstrated that the proper method of nailing the box is of great importance. tests have shown that the weakest wood properly nailed into a container is more serviceable than the strongest wood poorly nailed. better designs of boxes have been worked out which save lumber and space and produce stronger containers. educating the lumbering industry away from extravagant practices is one of the important activities of the modern forestry experts. operators who manufacture handles, spokes, chairs, furniture, toys and agricultural implements could, by scientific methods of wood using, produce just as good products by using 10 to 50 per cent. of the tree as they do by using all of it. the furniture industry not infrequently wastes from 40 to 60 per cent. of the raw lumber which it buys. much of this waste could be saved by cutting the small sizes of material directly from the log instead of from lumber. it is also essential that sizes of material used in these industries be standardized. the forest products laboratory has perfected practical methods of building up material from small pieces which otherwise would be thrown away. for example, shoe lasts, hat blocks, bowling pins, base-ball bats, wagon bolsters and wheel hubs are now made of short pieces of material which are fastened together with waterproof glue. if this method of built-up construction can be made popular in all sections of the country, very great savings in our annual consumption of wood can be brought about. as matters now stand, approximately 25 per cent. of the tree in the forest is lost or wasted in the woods, 40 per cent. at the mills, 5 per cent. in seasoning the lumber and from 5 to 10 per cent. in working the lumber over into the manufactured articles. this new method of construction which makes full use of odds and ends and slabs and edgings offers a profitable way to make use of the 75 per cent. of material which now is wasted. the vast importance of preserving our forests is emphasized when one stops to consider the great number of uses to which wood is put. in addition to being used as a building material, wood is also manufactured into newspaper and writing paper. furthermore, it is a most important product in the making of linoleum, artificial silk, gunpowder, paints, soaps, inks, celluloid, varnishes, sausage casings, chloroform and iodoform. wood alcohol, which is made by the destructive distillation of wood, is another important by-product. acetate of lime, which is used extensively in chemical plants, and charcoal, are other products which result from wood distillation. the charcoal makes a good fuel and is valuable for smelting iron, tin and copper, in the manufacture of gunpowder, as an insulating material, and as a clarifier in sugar refineries. it is predicted that the future fuel for use in automobile engines will be obtained from wood waste. ethyl or "grain" alcohol can now be made from sawdust and other mill refuse. one ton of dry douglas fir or southern yellow pine will yield from twenty to twenty-five gallons of 95 per cent. alcohol. it is estimated that more than 300,000,000 gallons of alcohol could be made annually from wood now wasted at the mills. this supply could be increased by the use of second-growth, inferior trees and other low-grade material. chapter xviii wood for the nation westward the course of forest discovery and depletion has taken its way in the united states. the pine and hardwood forests of the atlantic and new england states first fell before the bite of the woodman's ax and the sweep of his saw. wasteful lumbering finally sapped the resources of these productive timberlands. shift was then made farther westward to the lake states. their vast stretches of white pine and native hardwoods were cut to a skeleton of their original size. the lumbering operations then spread to the southern pine belt. in a few years the supplies of marketable lumber in that region were considerably reduced. then the westward trail was resumed. the strip of country between the mississippi river and the cascade, sierra nevada and coast ranges was combed and cut. today, the last big drive against our timber assets is being waged in the forests of the pacific coast. our virgin forests originally covered 822,000,000 acres. today, only one-sixth of them are left. all the forest land now in the united states including culled, burned and cut-over tracts, totals 463,000,000 acres. we now have more waste and cut-over lands in this country than the combined forest area of germany, belgium, denmark, holland, france, switzerland, spain and portugal. the merchantable timber left in the united states is estimated at 2,215,000,000,000 board feet. the rest is second-growth trees of poor quality. one-half of this timber is in california, washington and oregon. it is a long and costly haul from these pacific coast forests to the eastern markets. less than one-fifth of our remaining timber is hardwood. 56,000,000,000 board feet of material of saw timber size are used or destroyed in the united states each year. altogether, we use more than 26,000,000,000 cubic feet of timber of all classes annually. our forests are making annual growth at the rate of less than one-fourth of this total consumption. we are rapidly cutting away the last of our virgin forests. we also are cutting small-sized and thrifty trees much more rapidly than we can replace them. [illustration: a forest crop on its way to the market] the united states is short on timber today because our fathers and forefathers abused our forests. if they had planted trees on the lands after the virgin timber was removed, we should now be one of the richest countries in the world in forest resources. instead, they left barren stretches and desolate wastes where dense woods once stood. it is time that the present owners of the land begin the reclamation of our 326,000,000 acres of cut-over timberlands. some of these lands still are yielding fair crops of timber due to natural restocking and proper care. most of them are indifferent producers. one-quarter of all this land is bare of forest growth. it is our duty as citizens of the united states to aid as we may in the reforestation of this area. fires are cutting down the size of our forests each year. during a recent five-year period, 160,000 forest fires burned over 56,488,000 acres, an area as large as the state of utah, and destroyed or damaged timber and property valued at $85,715,000. year by year, fires and bad timber practices have been increasing our total areas of waste and cut-over land. we are facing a future lumber famine, not alone because we have used up our timber, but also because we have failed to make use of our vast acreage of idle land adapted for growing forests. we must call a halt and begin all over again. our new start must be along the lines of timber planting and tree increase. the landowners, the states and the federal government must all get together in this big drive for reforestation. it is impossible to make national forests out of all the idle forest land. on the other hand, the matter of reforestation cannot be left to private owners. some of them would set out trees and restore the forests as desired. others would not. the public has large interests at stake. it must bear part of the burden. proper protection of the forests against fire can come only through united public action. everyone must do his part to reduce the fire danger. the public must also bring about needed changes in many of our tax methods so that private owners will be encouraged to go into the business of raising timber. the government must do its share, the private landowner must help to the utmost and the public must aid in every possible way, including payment of higher prices for lumber as the cost of growing timber increases. france and scandinavia have solved their forest problems along about the same lines the united states will have to follow. these countries keep up well-protected public forests. all the landowners are taught how to set out and raise trees. everyone has learned to respect the timberlands. the woods are thought of as treasures which must be carefully handled. the average man would no more think of abusing the trees in the forest than he would of setting fire to his home. the foreign countries are now busy working out their forestry problems of the years to come. we in america are letting the future take care of itself. our states should aid generally in the work of preventing forest fires. they should pass laws which will require more careful handling of private forest lands. they should pass more favorable timber tax laws so that tree growing will be encouraged. uncle sam should be the director in charge of all this work. he should instruct the states how to protect their forests against fire. he should teach them how to renew their depleted woodlands. he should work for a gradual and regular expansion of the national forests. the united states forest service should have the power to help the various states in matters of fire protection, ways of cutting forests, methods of renewing forests and of deciding whether idle lands were better adapted for farming or forestry purposes. experts believe that the government should spend at least $2,000,000 a year in the purchase of new national forests. about one-fifth of all our forests are now publicly owned. one of the best ways of preventing the concentration of timber in private ownership is to increase the area of publicly owned forests. such actions would prevent the waste of valuable timber and would aid planting work. for best results, it is thought that the federal government should own about one-half of all the forests in the country. to protect the watersheds of navigable streams the government should buy 1,000,000 acres of woodlands in new england and 5,000,000 acres in the southern appalachian mountains. the national forests should also be extended and consolidated. federal funds should be increased so that the forest service can undertake on a large scale the replanting of burned-over lands in the national forests. as soon as this work is well under way, congress should supply about $1,000,000 annually for such work. many watersheds in the national forests are bare of cover due to forest fires. as a result, the water of these streams is not sufficient for the needs of irrigation, water power and city water supply of the surrounding regions. right now, even our leading foresters do not know exactly what the forest resources of the country amount to. it will take several years to make such a survey even after the necessary funds are provided. we need to know just how much wood of each class and type is available. we want to know, in each case, the present and possible output. we want to find out the timber requirements of each state and of every important wood-using industry. exact figures are needed on the timber stands and their growth. the experimental work of the forest service should be extended. practically every forest is different from every other forest. it is necessary to work out locally the problems of each timber reservation. most urgent of all is the demand for a law to allow federal officers to render greater assistance to the state forestry departments in fighting forest fires. many state laws designed to perpetuate our forests must be passed if our remaining timber resources are to be saved. during times when fires threaten, all the forest lands in each state should be guarded by organized agencies. this protection should include cut-over and unimproved land as well as timber tracts. such a plan would require that the state and federal governments bear about one-half the expenses while the private forest owners should stand the balance. there would be special rules regulating the disposal of slashings, methods of cutting timber, and of extracting forest products such as pulpwood or naval stores. if our forests are to be saved for the future we must begin conservation at once. to a small degree, luck plays a part in maintaining the size of the forest. some woodlands in the south atlantic states are now producing their third cut of saw logs. despite forest fires and other destructive agencies, these forests have continued to produce. some of the northern timberlands have grown crops of saw timber and wood pulp for from one hundred fifty to two hundred fifty years. expert foresters report that private owners are each year increasing their plantings on denuded woodlands. new england landowners are planting between 12,000,000 and 15,000,000 young forest trees a year. the middle atlantic and central states are doing about as well. to save our forests, planting of this sort must be universal. it takes from fifty to one hundred years to grow a crop of merchantable timber. what the united states needs is a national forestry policy which will induce every landowner to plant and grow more trees on land that is not useful for farm crops. our forestry problem is to put to work millions of acres of idle land. as one eminent forester recently remarked, "if we are to remain a nation of timber users, we must become a nation of wood growers." usda forest service research paper nc-52 1971 [illustration] ecological studies of the timber wolf in northeastern minnesota north central forest experiment station forest service u. s. department of agriculture foreword the largest population of timber wolves remaining in the united states (excluding alaska) lives in northern minnesota. many of these wolves inhabit the superior national forest, so protecting the habitat of this endangered species is largely a forest service responsibility. as the "age of ecology" broadens into the 1970's, wolves and wolf habitat will become a subject of concerted research. forest land managers will have to know more about how the timber wolf fits into a forest system. building on nearly 50 years of research in northern forests, we at the north central station intend to expand our studies of wildlife habitat. we are happy to publish the enclosed papers as one step in this direction. d. b. king, director north central forest experiment station d. b. king, director forest service--u.s. department of agriculture folwell avenue st. paul, minnesota 55101 ecological studies of the timber wolf in northeastern minnesota l. david mech and l. d. frenzel, jr. (editors) contents movements, behavior, and ecology of timber wolves in northeastern minnesota l. david mech, l. d. frenzel, jr., robert r. ream, and john w. winship 1 an analysis of the age, sex, and condition of deer killed by wolves in northeastern minnesota l. david mech and l. d. frenzel, jr. 35 the effect of snow conditions on the vulnerability of white-tailed deer to wolf predation l. david mech, l. d. frenzel, jr., and p. d. karns 51 the possible occurrence of the great plains wolf in northeastern minnesota l. david mech and l. d. frenzel, jr. 60 the authors dr. mech, formerly with the department of biology, macalester college, st. paul, minnesota, is now employed by the u.s. bureau of sport fisheries and wildlife, twin cities, minnesota. dr. frenzel, formerly with the department of biology, macalester college, st. paul, minnesota, is now employed by the department of entomology, fisheries, and wildlife, university of minnesota, st. paul, minnesota. dr. ream, formerly with the north central forest experiment station (maintained in cooperation with the university of minnesota), forest service, u.s. department of agriculture, is now employed by the school of forestry, university of montana, missoula, montana. mr. winship is with the u.s. bureau of sport fisheries and wildlife, twin cities, minnesota. mr. karns is with the minnesota department of conservation, forest lake, minnesota. for sale by the superintendent of documents, u.s. government printing office, washington, d.c. 20402 movements, behavior, and ecology of timber wolves in northeastern minnesota l. david mech, l. d. frenzel, jr., robert r. ream, and john w. winship the largest population of wolves (_canis lupus_) remaining today in the continental united states outside of alaska is in northern minnesota. as of mid-1970 this population was not legally protected, and the species, which once ranged over almost all of north america, is now considered by the u.s. department of the interior to be in danger of extinction in the contiguous 48 states. until the present research, the only field studies of minnesota wolves were those of olson (1938 a, b) and stenlund (1955). those investigations provided much useful general information about minnesota wolves and gave the present authors an excellent background with which to begin more detailed investigations. this paper reports on the basic aspects of a series of studies that began in 1964, and concentrates primarily on wolf movements and activity, social behavior, hunting behavior, and population organization. most of the data were collected during january, february, and march 1967; february, november, and december 1968; and january through august 1969. a total of 192 days was spent in the field. according to a distribution map of wolf subspecies (goldman 1944), the race of wolves in our study area is _canis lupus lycaon_. however, evidence presented by mech and frenzel (see page 60) suggests that there may be strong influence by _c. l. nubilus_, a more western race of wolf formerly thought to be extinct (goldman 1944). between 1965 and the present, wolves in the study area were neither protected nor bountied, and the influence of trapping and hunting is thought to have been negligible. the study area this study was conducted in the superior national forest (fig. 1) in northern st. louis, lake, and cook counties of northeastern minnesota (92° west longitude, 48° north latitude), an area well described by stenlund (1955). most of the data were collected from within and immediately south of the boundary waters canoe area, a special wilderness region in which travel by motorized vehicles is restricted. the total study area encompasses approximately 1.5 million acres, and numerous lakes and rivers comprise about 15 percent of this area (fig. 2). the topography varies from large stretches of swamps to rocky ridges, with altitudes ranging from 1,000 to 2,300 feet above sea level (fig. 3). winter temperatures lower than -30° f. are not unusual, and snow depths generally range from 20 to 30 inches on the level. however, an important exception occurred in early 1969 when depths of 45 inches and more accumulated in much of the area. further details on snow conditions in the study area during the period of this investigation are given by mech _et al._ (see page 51). conifers predominate in the forest overstory, with the following species present: jack pine (_pinus banksiana_ lamb.), white pine (_p. strobus_ l.), red pine (_p. resinosa_ ait.), black spruce (_picea_ mariana (mill.) b.s.p.), white spruce (_p. glauca_ (moench) voss), balsam fir (_abies balsamea_ (l.) mill.), white cedar (_thuja occidentalis_ l.), and tamarack (_larix laricina_ (duroi) k. koch). however, as a result of extensive cutting and fires much of the conifer cover is interspersed with large stands of white birch (_betula papyrifera_ marsh.) and aspen (_populus tremuloides_ michx.). detailed descriptions of the forest vegetation were presented by ohmann and ream (1969). [illustration: _figure 1 (left half)--map of the study area._] [illustration: _figure 1 (right half)--map of the study area._ boundary waters canoe area superior national forest] [illustration: _figure 2.--lakes are common throughout most of the study area. (photo courtesy of l. d. mech.)_] [illustration: _figure 3.--ridges, islands, swamps, and bays are part of the variable topography in the superior national forest. (photo courtesy of l. d. mech.)_] methods the observations discussed in this paper were all made from aircraft, the method of flying being that reported by burkholder (1959) and mech (1966a). the following aircraft were used (in order of size): aeronca champ,[1] supercub, cessna 172, cessna 180, and cessna 206. the smaller aircraft were excellent for holding in tight circles during observations but had the disadvantage of being slow and cold; the larger planes could cover the study area much more quickly and were more comfortable, but were not as maneuverable during observations. for radiotracking, to be discussed below, the best compromise seemed to be a cessna 172. to make observations of wolves, we flew over frozen waterways until tracks were found, and then followed the tracks until we lost them or saw the wolves (fig. 4). several times we located wolves directly just by scanning the lakes. however, because there seemed to be a number of packs in the area, and because most wolves were the same color (with the exception of a few black or white individuals) (see mech and frenzel, page 60), it usually was not possible to follow packs from one day to the next and be certain of identification. moreover, it was impossible to locate any pack at will because most wolves also spent much time inland. [illustration: _figure 4.--an important technique used in the study involved aerial tracking and observing of wolf packs. (photo courtesy of l. d. frenzel.)_] therefore, to facilitate our observations and to obtain data on wolf movements and extent of range, we began a radiotracking program in 1968-69. a professional trapper, robert himes, was employed to capture the wolves. using newhouse no. 4 and 14 steel traps at scent-post sets, he caught two wolves, and captured another with a live-snare similar to that used by nellis (1968); the senior author trapped two additional wolves (fig. 5). [illustration: _figure 5.--a wolf caught in a trap. (photo courtesy of d. l. breneman.)_] the four wolves held in steel traps were restrained by a choker (fig. 6), and then anesthetized by intramuscular injections (fig. 7a, b) of a combination of 30 mg. of phencyclidine hydrochloride (sernylan, parke-davis co.) and 25 mg. promazine hydrochloride (sparine, wyeth laboratories) as prescribed by seal and erickson (1969); these drugs proved most satisfactory. [illustration: _figure 6.--a choker was used to restrain wolves caught in traps. (photo courtesy of d. l. breneman.)_] [illustration: _figure 7.--a. a small hypodermic syringe is loaded with drugs. b. the loaded syringe is used on the end of a pole. (photos courtesy of d. l. breneman.)_] the fifth wolf (a female), which was captured around the chest by the live-snare, was handled without drugs. a forked stick was used to hold down her head (kolenosky and johnston 1967), and she offered no resistance (fig. 8). evidently she went into shock or some other psychophysiological state of unconsciousness, for after her release she remained on her side and did not move for 1.5 hours, despite our prodding during the first few minutes (fig. 9). then suddenly she leaped up and ran off. [illustration: _figure 8.--once pinned by the forked stick, the wolf ceased struggling. (photo courtesy of richard bend.)_] [illustration: _figure 9.--after release, the wolf lay still for 1-1/2 hours before jumping up and running off. (photo courtesy of l. d. mech.)_] each wolf was examined, outfitted with a radio transmitter collar 15 inches inside circumference (fig. 10) and tagged with identification numbers in both ears (fig. 11). each transmitter was of a different frequency in the 150 mh_z range, emitted a pulsed signal ranging from 75 to 350 pulses per minute, and had a calculated life of at least 300 days (fig. 12). two types of 12-inch whip antennas were used on the transmitters: one type extended up the side of the collar and then stuck out above for 6 inches; the other was fully attached inside the collar and extended up one side, around the top, and partly down the other side. the transmitter, batteries, and antenna were molded into a collar of acrylic weighing 11 ounces (mech _et al._ 1965).[2] all radio equipment functioned flawlessly for at least 5 months, and one transmitter continued operating for at least 9 months. [illustration: _figure 10.--a radio transmitter collar was placed around the neck of each trapped wolf. (photo courtesy of d. l. breneman.)_] [illustration: _figure 11.--each ear of the wolf was tagged with identifying numbers. (photo courtesy of richard bend.)_] [illustration: _figure 12.--each radio collar had a different frequency tuned to special receivers, which allowed each wolf to be identified. (photo courtesy of d. l. breneman.)_] for tracking radio-equipped wolves, a directional yagi antenna (fig. 13) was attached to each of the wing struts of an aircraft and connected inside to a portable receiver. the usual tracking technique was to fly at 1,500 to 3,000 feet elevation to the last known location of the wolf being sought (fig. 14). if a signal was not obtained at that point, the aircraft spiraled upward until the signal was found or until 10,000 feet altitude had been reached. if the signal still was not heard, a search pattern was flown at 10,000 feet. the range of the signal from this altitude was 15 to 35 miles; at 3,000 feet it was 10 to 15 miles. collars with antennas molded fully inside gave only about two-thirds the range of those protruding partly, but could be expected to last longer because the antennas could not break off. it is unknown whether any protruding antennas did break during the study, but on january 5, 1970, one wolf was recaptured, and its antenna had broken. [illustration: _figure 13.--directional yagi antennas fastened to the wing struts of the aircraft were necessary to "home in" on the wolves. (photo courtesy of u.s. bureau of sport fisheries and wildlife.)_] [illustration: _figure 14.--the tracking aircraft was usually flown at altitudes of 1,500 to 3,000 feet. (photo courtesy of dick shank.)_] when a signal was received, the aircraft was headed in the approximate direction of the source until the signal strength reached a peak; a 90° turn was then made in the direction the signal seemed the strongest. a series of these maneuvers soon narrowed the area to the point where visual search was possible. after practice and experience with this technique, we could locate the approximate source of the signal within 10 to 30 minutes after first receiving it. even though the radiotagged wolves spent most of their time inland, often in stands of conifers, they were frequently observed from the aircraft. the technique was to circle at 300 to 800 feet altitude around a radius of a quarter mile from the point where the strongest signal emanated. from december through april, 65 percent of the wolves located by radio were sighted; the rate was much higher for more experienced personnel. a pack of five wolves that was tracked was seen 31 times out of 33 attempts during february and march. whenever wolves were located, radiotagged or not, observations were made from an altitude that did not disturb them. packs varied in the concern shown the aircraft, but only one or two ran from it. the radiotagged wolves, and a pack of 10 to 13 animals, were habituated to the aircraft and usually could be observed from altitudes of 500 feet and less without disturbance (fig. 15). almost all the radiotracking was done from aircraft, but when inclement weather prevented flying, some attempts from the ground succeeded when wolves were close enough to roads. the usual range on the ground was 0.75 to 1.50 miles. one wolf was approached to within 35 feet through radiotracking. [illustration: _figure 15.--the wolves studied soon became accustomed to the aircraft and could then be observed during their natural activity. (photo courtesy of l. d. mech.)_] footnotes: [1] _mention of trade names does not constitute endorsement by the usda forest service._ [2] _the acrylic collar was fashioned by the davidson co., minneapolis, minnesota, which also produced some of the transmitters. other transmitters and two radio receivers were manufactured by the avm instrument co., champaign, illinois._ results and observations aerial observations made during this study involved 490 hours distributed as follows: january, february, march 1967--124 hours; february 1968--10 hours; december 1968 through august 1969--356 hours. seventy-seven observations involving a total of 323 wolves were made (table 1), excluding animals located through radiotracking. one male and four female wolves were radiotagged, and they and their associates were followed intermittently for periods of 5 to 8 months (table 2). all except one initially suffered some injury to a foot. three of these animals were seen limping, but only in one case was the limp judged extreme enough to have significantly affected the movements or behavior of the animal. in that one case, the wolf (no. 1057) was caught in a steel trap on an extremely cold night, and her foot froze. after that she was often seen hopping on three legs. she was not able to keep up with her pack, which consisted of 10 to 13 members, and her movements were much restricted compared with those of other wolves. however, she was frequently observed feeding on fresh kills, and may even have made them herself. _table 1.--sizes of wolf population units observed in northeastern minnesota_ #: _number_ %: _percent_ +------------------+-------------------------------------------+ | | wolf observations | |population unit[3]+----------+----------+----------+----------+ |(number of wolves)| winter | winter | total |winters[4]| | | 1966-67 | 1968-69 | | 1948-53 | +------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ | # % # % # % # % | | 1 8 31 17 33 25 32 48 43 | | 2 3 12 6 12 9 12 24 22 | | 3 3 12 2 4 5 6 7 6 | | 4 - - 7 14 7 9 7 6 | | 5 2 7 4 8 6 8 8 7 | | 6 3 12 4 8 7 9 7 6 | | 7 2 7 1 2 3 4 4 4 | | 8 3 12 3 6 6 8 3 3 | | 9 - - 2 4 2 3 3 3 | | 10 2 7 2 4 4 5 - - | | 11 - - - - - - - - | | 12 - - 1 2 1 1 1 1 | | 13 - - 2 4 2 3 - - | | --------------------------------------------+ |total number | | of wolves 109 - 214 - 323 - 318 - | |total number | | of observations 26 - 51 - 77 - 112 - | |mean population | | unit size 4.2 - 4.2 - 4.2 - 2.8 - | +--------------------------------------------------------------+ footnotes: [3] because wolf packs sometimes split temporarily, these figures may not strictly represent actual pack sizes; nevertheless they should provide reasonably accurate approximations. [4] from stenlund (1955). _table 2.--background information on five radiotagged wolves studied in northeastern minnesota_ #: _number_ --------:---------:-------:--------:--------:-------:-------:---------- wolf :estimated: usual :location: date : last : days : general --------:weight[5]:associ-:captured:captured: date :located: condition # :sex:(pounds) :ations : : :located: : ----:---:---------:-------:--------:--------:-------:-------:---------- # 1051 m 75 none[6] t62n-r7w nov. apr. 84 good, but two -s18 27/68 24/69 toes frozen in trap; animal limped lightly for 5-6 wks. 1053 f 60 none t62n-r8w dec. aug. 72 thin; top of -s13 10/68 29/69 foot cut in trap but no broken bones or frozen toes; limped for at least 10 wks. 1055 f 60 another t61n-r10w jan. may 65 thin; two toes wolf -s26 5/69 30/69 lightly frozen; intermit no limp ever tently noticed. 1057 f 60 pack of t66n-r5w jan. apr. 47 thin; front 13[7] -s33 8/69 24/69 foot frozen in trap; lost use of foot and could not stay with pack. 1059 f 65 pack t62n-r11w jan. aug. 51 good but thin; of 5 -s26 22/69 29/69 captured in snare; no apparent injury. ----:---:---------:-------:--------:--------:-------:-------:------------footnotes: [5] wolf 1059, when killed by a trapper on january 10, 1970, appeared to be of the same size and condition as when radiotagged; she only weighed 53 pounds, however, indicating that probably all the weights are overestimated. [6] tracks of a pack of at least two other wolves came by trap where 1051 was caught; however, there was never any other indication that 1051 may have been a member of a pack. [7] a frozen foot prevented 1057 from staying with her pack; but she did associate with other wolves intermittently and with the whole pack when it came by her restricted area. the precise ages of the radiotagged wolves were unknown. all individuals, however, had sharp unworn teeth, indicating that they were all relatively young. no. 1051, the only male studied, had testes 2.0 cm. long and 1.5 cm. wide; their volume therefore would be less than 4.5 cc. the small size of these testes, compared with the 7 to 28 cc. reported by fuller and novakowski (1955) as the volume of the testes from wolves taken during fall, would indicate that 1051 had not yet matured. since the animal's testes and canine lengths were considerably greater than those of pups caught in a later study, we presume 1051 was 18 or 30 months old. two of the females, no. 1055 and no. 1059, both captured in january, had vulvas that seemed to be beginning to swell. no. 1059 was killed by a trapper about a year later, on january 10, 1970, and an examination revealed that she had bred in 1969 and carried five fetuses. sectioning her incisors and reading the apparent annulations indicated that she probably was 3+ or 4+ years old.[8] three of the wolves were basically lone individuals. one of these, no. 1051, was captured on a night when tracks of at least two other wolves came by the trap, and this could mean that he had been part of a pack. however, it is also possible that these were merely tracks of non-associated wolves that were also traveling through the area. in any case, 1051 was not seen associating with any other wolf until 4 months after he was caught, and even then the association seemed to be temporary and casual. it could be argued that capture, handling by humans, or wearing a collar prevented him from regaining old associations or making new ones. however, the wolves radiotagged by kolenosky and johnston (1967) were quickly accepted back into their packs, and so were two of ours. thus we conclude that 1051 probably was a lone wolf when captured. when 1053 was trapped, her tracks were the only ones in the area, and she was never seen closely associating with another wolf. no. 1055 probably was with another wolf when captured, as evidenced by tracks. about a month after she was radiotagged she associated with another wolf intermittently for about 2 weeks, after which she was only seen alone. no. 1057 and no. 1059 were both members of packs. no. 1057 was captured during the night after a pack of 13 wolves was seen heading toward the area; 5 days later she was seen with 10 other wolves, which no doubt represented this same pack. this wolf's association with the pack was interrupted, however, because of the foot injury sustained during capture. when 1059 was caught, tracks of two other wolves were seen in the immediate vicinity, and one of the animals was seen within a quarter mile of the trapped wolf. three days after 1059's release, and perhaps sooner, she was back with her pack, with which she remained at least through march. the detailed histories of the associations of the radiotagged wolves will be discussed in a later section. radiotagged wolves were tracked every day that weather permitted during december, january, and february; every week during march, april, and may; and once a month during june, july, and august (fig. 16). information was obtained for a total of 570 "wolf-days"--a wolf-day being a day in which one radiotagged wolf was located; a pack of five being located for 1 day would constitute 5 wolf-days. [illustration: _figure 16.--distribution of the days on which data were obtained for each of the radiotagged wolves. because tracking success was 99 percent, this also represents the distribution of effort. during june, july, and august, wolves 1053 and 1059 were located 1 day each month._] the last day that animals 1051 and 1057 were heard from was april 24, 1969. both had traveled long distances during the previous week and may have moved out of range. signals from wolf 1055 were last heard on may 30; this animal had also been ranging widely. circles with radii of at least 50 miles around the last known locations of each wolf were searched unsuccessfully for the signals. during all subsequent tracking nights for the remaining wolves, the missing animals were also sought, but to no avail. before the last dates that signals from these animals were heard, attempts to locate marked animals from the air had failed in only three instances. footnotes: [8] _david w. kuehn, personal correspondence to l. d. mech, 1970._ daytime activity patterns when radiotagged wolves were located, notes were kept on the type of activity they were engaged in; the results are summarized in figure 17. in a total of 171 observations made between 9:00 a.m. and 6:00 p.m., the wolves were resting 62 percent of the time, traveling 28 percent and feeding 10 percent. they tended to travel more before 11:00 a.m. and after 3:00 p.m., although resting still composed at least 45 percent of the activity during every hour (fig. 18). [illustration: _figure 17.--percentage of time spent by radiotagged wolves in various types of activity throughout the day, from december through april._] [illustration: _figure 18.--generally the wolves rested during most of the day. (photo courtesy of l. d. mech.)_] these results generally agree with the statement by mech (1966a) that wolves on nearby isle royale tend to rest about 11:00 a.m. and begin traveling again about 4:00 p.m. however, it does appear that the minnesota wolves spend much more of the day resting than do the isle royale animals. the difference may be caused by the difference in pack sizes studied. the isle royale pack of 15 to 16 may have had to travel more to find enough food to feed all its members than did the lone wolves and pack of five in the present study. movements and range wolf movement is greatly hindered by deep, soft snow, so during winter travel, wolves frequently use areas where they sink into the snow the least. in our study area, frozen waterways are used extensively where possible, just as reported by stenlund (1955). where few lakes or rivers exist, wolves follow railroad beds and logging roads, often soon after a plow or other vehicle has driven on them. in cutting cross country through deep snow, wolves travel single file and tend to stick to windblown ridges and to trails of deer and moose. wolves that have ranges small enough to cover in a few days form a network of their own trails, which they can maintain merely by traveling regularly over them. packs on isle royale depended a great deal on such a system of trails (mech 1966a), and so did pack no. 1059 in our study area. wolf packs can travel up to 45 miles in a day but it is usually larger packs that do so (stenlund 1955, burkholder 1959, mech 1966a, pimlott _et al._ 1969). in our study area we sometimes saw evidence of long moves by large packs along strings of lakes and waterways. however, most of our movement data pertain to lone wolves and a pack of five. the daily travel of these animals was usually much less than that reported for large packs. our radiotracking data provide an index to the extent of travel for each wolf rather than the actual amount of travel, for it is based on straight line distances between consecutive points at which an animal was found. this measure will be referred to as the "net daily distance." much variation was found in the net daily distances of wolves, with the longest ranging from 4.5 miles for 1057 to 12.8 for 1055 (table 3). the mean net daily distance for each animal, excluding days with no net movement, varied from 1.5 to 3.6 miles. the movements of these wolves may have been affected by the snow depth and penetrability, for mean and maximum net daily distances suddenly increased for all animals between february 23 and 28, when snow penetrability had decreased to a point where walking wolves would be expected to sink in only about 6 inches (table 4). other possible explanations for the wolves' sudden increase in movements will be discussed below. the straight line distances traveled between consecutive weekly locations (called the "net weekly distances") showed a similar variation (table 3). the maximum net weekly distance for each wolf varied from 4.6 miles for 1059 to 49.0 for 1055, with means ranging from 2.9 to 15.6 miles for the same wolves. no doubt 1059's net weekly distances were relatively short because her total range and that of her pack were much smaller than those of the other wolves. it is difficult to obtain comparable measures of the extent of the ranges covered by each of the radiotagged wolves because their patterns of travel varied so much. thus the figures given in table 5 should be regarded only as gross indicators of the minimum range of each animal. the area figures are especially deceiving in the case of 1055, for she had a horseshoe-shaped range, much of which apparently was not used. _table 3.--straight line distances (miles) between consecutive locations of radiotagged wolves_ #: _number_ %: _percent_ ---------------------------------------------------:--------------------------- : : net weekly : net daily distances : distances :----------------------------------------------:--------------------------- : : : : :mean net : : : : : : : : :distance : : : : : days :days no : days :mean net:per day : :weeks:mean net: wolf: data : net :movement:distance:excluding :range:data :distance: range # :obtained:movement: :per day :days of no: : :per week: : : : : :movement : : : : :--------:--------:--------:--------:----------:-----:-----:--------:------ : # : # % : # % : miles : miles :miles: # : miles : miles 1051 54 13 24 41 76 2.0 2.6 0.0-12.0 22 12.7 1.0-46.0 1053 37 20 54 17 46 1.0 2.1 0.0-5.0 23 6.3 0.0-23.6 1055 46 7 15 39 85 2.9 3.6 0.0-12.8 21 15.6 1.7-49.0 1057 29 11 38 18 62 1.0 1.5 0.0-4.5 15 4.6 0.0-31.0 1059 26 1 4 25 96 2.5 2.6 0.0-5.6 18 2.9 0.0-4.6 ----:--------:--------:--------:--------:----------:-----:-----:--------:------nevertheless, one major piece of information is obvious from the figures: 1059's pack of five wolves had a much smaller range than any of the other uninjured animals--approximately 43 square miles when figured by the minimum-area method (mohr 1947). the next smallest range was that of 1051 (excluding the area of his later dispersal--see below), which was some seven times the size of the pack's range. _table 4.--straight line distances (miles) traveled between consecutive days ("net daily distance") by radiotagged wolves in northeastern minnesota during february 1969_ +-------+-------------------------+-------------------------+ | | mean net | greatest net | | wolf | daily distance | daily distance | |number +------------+------------+------------+------------+ | | feb. 1-23 | feb. 23-28 | feb. 1-23 | feb. 23-28 | +-------+------------+------------+------------+------------+ | 1051 1.1 3.5 2.3 4.8 | | 1053 0.7 2.5 3.0 5.0 | | 1055 2.7 6.2 8.0 12.8 | | 1057 1.0 1.5 4.0 4.5 | | 1059 2.2 3.1 4.0 5.6 | +-------+------------+------------+------------+------------+ there is little published information on the movements and ranges of lone wolves with which to compare our data. mech (1970) summarized information regarding ranges of packs. reported ranges varied from 36 square miles for a pack of two wolves in minnesota (stenlund 1955) to 5,000 square miles for a pack of 10 in alaska (burkholder 1959). considering only data based on intensive study in the same general region (minnesota, isle royale, and ontario) as our study area, the largest range reported was 210 square miles for a pack of 15 to 21 wolves on isle royale (mech 1966, jordan _et al._ 1967). on a per-wolf basis, the ranges in this region varied from 6 to 28 square miles per wolf. our pack of five with its range of 43 square miles would have about 9 square miles per wolf. a more accurate assessment of the ranges of the radiotagged wolves requires an individual discussion for each. _no. 1051._--the range of 1051 was composed basically of three distinct areas (fig. 19). within 10 days after being released, the wolf left the general area of his capture (area a near isabella lake) and traveled to area b along highway 1, some 17 miles to the southwest. from december 9 to january 4 wolf 1051 remained in area b, which covers about 45 square miles. between january 4 and 6 he returned to area a and stayed in 13 square miles until february 3. between february 3 and 5 he shifted to area c east of snowbank lake, 11 miles northwest of area a. he remained in that 16-square-mile area until february 25, then suddenly left and headed 8 miles to the northeast. _table 5.--extent of ranges used by radiotagged wolves_ +--------+----------+----------+--------------+----------------------+ | wolf | greatest | greatest | total area[9]|area[9] of intense use| | number | length | width | | (before late feb.) | +--------+----------+----------+--------------+----------------------+ | _miles_ _miles_ _sq. miles_ _sq. miles_ | | | |1051[10] 28.5 13.6 318 13 (location a[11])| | 45 (location b) | | 16 (location c) | |1053 31.1 22.0 392 31 | |1055 55.4 24.9 997 40 | |1057 32.3 3.8 77 14 | |1059[12] 8.4 8.0 43 39 | +--------+----------+----------+--------------+----------------------+ footnotes: [9] minimum area method (mohr 1947). [10] before dispersal. [11] see text and figure 19. [12] pack of five. [illustration: _figure 19.--locations and range of wolf 1051. lines are not travel routes; rather they merely indicate sequence of locations. only selected lakes are shown._] from february 26 until april 24 the movements of 1051 were strongly indicative of dispersal (fig. 20). his average weekly straight line move during that period was 25 miles (compared with 6 miles per week before this period), and until march 14 he maintained an almost straight south-southwest heading to a location west of the town of castle danger. after that the animal traveled a series of northwest-southwest alternations that on april 3 took him east of big sandy lake to a point 129 miles southwest of where he had begun the dispersal. there he remained for about 2 weeks, but between april 17 and 24 he traveled 26 miles northwest. we last saw him at 3:30 p.m. on april 24 heading northwest through a swamp 15 miles southeast of grand rapids, approximately 122 miles from where he had started. the total of straight line distances between 16 consecutive pairs of locations taken at intervals of from 1 to 8 days was 226 miles, which is the minimum distance the wolf traveled during his dispersal. [illustration: _figure 20.--dispersal of wolf 1051. lines merely indicate sequence of locations. only selected lakes are shown._] we observed 1051 for distances of up to 5 miles during these travels; he maintained a steady trot that seemed faster than usual, and he appeared intent on heading in a straight line. he did chase deer during his travels, and twice was seen feeding on carcasses. in the area where he remained for about 2 weeks, he was twice seen closely associated with another wolf. this relationship will be discussed later. an extensive search was made for 1051's signals on may 2 in an area of at least 50 miles radius from his last known location, but it was unsuccessful. on each subsequent tracking flight, the wolf's frequency was also monitored with no success. possible explanations for the loss of the signal from this wolf include the following: (1) premature expiration of the transmitter, (2) capture of the wolf and breakage of the transmitter, (3) loss of the exposed antenna and consequent reduction of range, and (4) travel of the wolf out of range of the tracking aircraft. during 1051's travels a number of interesting events took place: nov. 27, 1968--captured and radiotagged dec. 4, 1968--crossed road in front of tracking truck dec. 8, 1968--moved to area b dec. 9, 1968--surprised on the ground at distance of 35 feet dec. 18, 1968--chased by loggers with axes dec. 25, 1968--almost shot by trapper who saw collar and withheld fire jan. 5, 1969--returned to area a jan. 13, 1969--"bumped" twice on logging road by loggers in auto but no apparent injury feb. 4, 1969--moved to area c feb. 26, 1969--began long-range southwest movement considered to be dispersal mar. 14, 1969--seen feeding on old carcass within 200 yards of houses, dogs, and a man walking mar. 27, 1969--chased two deer across 4-lane state highway 53 apr. 3, 1969--found with another wolf at point farthest south in his range apr. 24, 1969--last contact with this animal; was seen traveling nw _wolf 1053._--this wolf was basically a scavenger who subsisted for long periods on the remains of old carcasses. she was known to have visited the remains of at least four deer and three moose, and she stayed near one moose carcass from february 8 to 20, at least during the day. between her date of capture, december 10, and february 28, 1053 traveled about in an area of 31 square miles in the arrow lake-maniwaki lake region (fig. 21). [illustration: _figure 21.--locations and range of wolf 1053. only selected lakes are shown._] between february 28 and march 6 she suddenly moved 13 miles to the east-southeast near the sawbill trail, and during the next week she traveled a straight line distance of 24 miles southwest to a point southeast of the town of isabella. her subsequent travels eventually took her over a much larger area. before february 28, 1053's average weekly straight line distance was 2 miles, but after that date it increased to 11 miles. _wolf 1055._--the range of this animal from january 5, when she was captured, to february 23 covered about 40 square miles near stony lake, slate lake, and the jack pine lookout tower (fig. 22), and her mean weekly distance was 4 miles. between february 23 and 24, however, she traveled 13 miles northeastward, the beginning of a series of long moves. by march 5, 1055 had reached crescent lake, a point 39 miles east-northeast of her previous area of intensive use. she then gradually headed back toward the west and south during the next 10 days and within the next month repeated this pattern. when her signal was heard last on may 30, 1055 was near martin landing in the center of her range. her mean net weekly distance after february 23 had increased to 22 miles. [illustration: _figure 22.--locations and range of wolf 1055. only selected lakes are shown._] _wolf 1057._--the movements of 1057 cannot be considered normal because freezing of a front foot prevented her accompanying the pack of which she was a member. nevertheless, even data from an abnormal animal can provide some information. on january 13, 5 days after capture and release on red rock lake, 1057 was located 4 miles from the capture point with a pack of 10 other wolves. she was limping and fell behind when they moved. five days later she was again seen with the pack 12 miles away between knife lake and kekekabic lake. she then remained in about 14 square miles of that general area through april 17 (fig. 23). [illustration: _figure 23.--locations and range of wolf 1057. only selected lakes are shown._] suddenly on april 24, 1057 was found in ontario some 31 miles northeast of her location of the previous week. that was the last time we heard her signal even though on may 2 we scanned an area with a radius of 35 miles from her last known location and listened for her signal during every subsequent flight. _wolf 1059._--this animal was a member of a pack of three to five wolves (see next section). the movements of the group varied little and were concentrated in the august lake, omaday lake, and keeley creek area in about 43 square miles (fig. 24). contrary to animals 1051, 1053, and 1055, this pack did not suddenly begin a series of longer weekly movements in late february. both before and after february 28, the average weekly straight line movement of the pack was just less than 3 miles. [illustration: _figure 24.--location and range of wolf 1059 and pack. only selected lakes are shown._] probably these animals did begin traveling more in late february, for their net daily distances did increase at that time along with those of the other wolves (table 4). however, the increased travel took place within the restricted area of the pack's usual range rather than in new areas as occurred with the other wolves. because 1059 was later found to have bred and carried five fetuses, her movements during whelping season (late april and early may) are of interest. her locations on both april 24 and may 2 were within 250 yards of each other, which might indicate that she was denning. on may 9, however, she was 2.5 miles east of these locations, on the 17th and 21st was 2 miles west of them, and on the 30th was 3 miles north of them. in early january 1970, wolf 1059 was killed by a trapper in the southeast corner of her pack's 1969 range. _summer locations._--signals from only 1053 and 1059 were heard during summer, and then tracking attempts were made only on june 28, july 29, and august 29. locations for 1053 on those occasions were near kelly landing and isabella lake, within her previous range. wolf 1059 was found each time within 2 miles outside of the southwest corner of the pack's winter and spring range. wolf associations, social behavior, and reproduction in our study area, population units of wolves exist as both single animals (lone wolves) and packs. in a total of 77 observations, lone wolves constituted 32 percent of the sightings (fig. 25), with packs of from 2 to 13 members making up the remainder (table 1). on the basis of the number of wolves seen, rather than the number of observations, lone wolves accounted for only 25 (8 percent) out of 323. [illustration: _figure 25.--only 8 percent of the wolves observed were lone wolves. (photo courtesy of l. d. frenzel.)_] these figures compare favorably with reports in the literature as summarized by mech (1970). in five areas studied, lone wolves made up from 24 to 60 percent of the observations of population units, and from 8 to 28 percent of the wolves seen. in our study area during 1948 to 1953, lone wolves constituted 43 percent of the observations and 15 percent of the wolves (stenlund 1955). the average size of the population units observed during our study (total number of wolves seen divided by the number of observations) was 4.2, which is significantly larger (95 percent level) than the average seen in this area (2.8) from 1948 to 1953. this is also larger than that reported from any other area of comparable size (table 6). _table 6.--mean sizes of wolf population units reported from various areas_ ---------+------------+--------+------------+---------+-------------- | | |mean size of| largest | authority area |observations| wolves | population |pack size|calculated from | | | unit | | ---------+------------+--------+------------+---------+-------------- _number_ _number_ alaska 310 1,041 3.4 12 kelly 1954 alaska 1,268 4,823 3.8 21 r. a. rausch[13] lapland 118 311 2.5 12 pulliainen 1965 e. finland 460 984 2.1 12 pulliainen 1965 minnesota 112 318 2.8 12 stenlund 1955 minnesota 77 323 4.2 13 present study ---------------------------------------------------------------------footnotes: [13] r. a. rausch. personal correspondence to l. d. mech, 1967. the largest pack seen in our study area included 13 members, and there apparently were at least two such packs. although larger packs than this have been reported, any group containing more than 8 to 10 members is unusually large (mech 1970). wolf sociology is a complex subject and is still not well understood, so the following detailed observations of the associations between our radiotagged wolves and others are given. associations are defined as relationships in which two or more wolves relate in a close, positive manner. as mentioned earlier, 1051 may or may not have been associated with other wolves when he was captured. however, although this animal was observed 55 times throughout winter and spring, only twice was he seen associating with another wolf. probably the same individual was involved each time, because the location was about the same (the vicinity of the juncture of aitkin, carlton, and st. louis counties). the first occasion was on april 3. wolf 1051 in the previous week had moved 46 miles straight line distance from the northeast. he was then observed lying peacefully within 15 feet of another wolf near a freshly killed deer. the very proximity of the two animals implied a positive relationship. on april 7, 10 and 14, 1051 was seen 1 mile, 10 miles, and 8 miles from the kill and was alone each time. however, on april 17, 1051 was back in the general vicinity of the kill, and he and another wolf were resting on an open hillside about 100 feet from each other. as we descended for a closer look, the smaller animal arose and headed to the larger, presumably 1051 because he had not been disturbed by the aircraft. the larger wolf did not arise for several seconds, but eventually followed the other into the woods. no tail raising or other expressive posturing was seen in either wolf. one week later 1051 was 26 miles northwest of the kill traveling alone. wolf 1053 was never seen less than 80 yards from another wolf, and there was no evidence that she ever associated with a conspecific. even when she was seen 80 yards from the other wolf, both were resting, and when the strange wolf left, 1053 made no attempt to accompany or follow it. no. 1055 apparently had been traveling with another wolf when caught on january 5, and tracks showed that the individual had remained near her until we arrived to handle her. tracks found on january 7 and 10 suggested that 1055 was with another animal, but that animal was not seen during any of the six times 1055 was observed through february 1. however, from february 5 to 19, 1055 was with another wolf on eight of the 12 times she was seen. the two animals were observed resting, traveling, hunting, and feeding together. on february 20, and thereafter, 1055 was alone all 14 times she was seen. it is possible that 1055's associate was killed between february 19 and 20. about march 6, a 63-pound male wolf pup was found dead (by mr. charles wick, usda forest service) within about 50 feet of a highway and less than a mile from where 1055 and her associate were seen on february 19. because of the snow conditions, it was judged that the wolf had been killed (probably by an automobile) sometime in february. wolf 1057, whose foot froze during capture, was a member of a pack of 10 to 13 wolves, and was seen with the pack on january 13 and 18. after that she was usually found alone, although on at least five occasions she was with one or more wolves: _no. of_ _period_ _observations_ _associations_ jan. 13 1 10 other wolves jan. 14-17 1 none jan. 18 1 10 or 11 other wolves jan. 19-29 2 none jan. 30 1 1 other wolf jan. 31 to feb. 2 2 none feb. 3-4 2 2 other wolves feb. 5 1 1 other wolf feb. 6-13 6 none feb. 14 1 3 other wolves feb. 15-22 5 none feb. 23 1 10 to 13 other wolves feb. 24 to apr. 24 6 none february 23 she was with the pack at a kill in her usual area, and although the pack left that night, 1057 remained near the kill the next day. presumably this animal would have traveled with pack if she could have. no. 1059 was part of a pack that included three to five members (fig. 26). from january 25, the first time she was observed after release, through april 2, the animal was seen 19 times with two other wolves, eight times with at least three others, and eight times with four others. she was never seen alone until april 17; both times after this when she was seen, may 9 and 21, 1059 was also alone. some insight into the fluctuating size of this pack was obtained on february 27 when the five animals were followed for 2 hours. during that time two members (one of which was larger than the other) often lagged behind the other three by as much as a mile. these two romped and played considerably, with one carrying a stick or a bone part of the time. eventually they caught up again to the other three. the behavior of the two lagging wolves would be consistent with the hypothesis that they were either pups or a courting pair of adults. in either case, they seemed to be an actual part of the pack even though they temporarily traveled separately. [illustration: _figure 26.--one of the radiotagged wolves was a member of this pack of five. (photo courtesy of l. d. mech.)_] the fact that 1059 was observed traveling alone three times from april 17 to may 21 may be further evidence that the pack had a den in the area at that time. the presence of a den allows individual pack members to venture off singly and return each day to a known social center, as murie (1944) observed, so they do not need to travel with each other to maintain social bonds. wolves in our area breed during the latter half of february (see below), and the young should be born in the latter half of april. since dens are prepared a few weeks in advance (young 1944), pack members might be expected to begin traveling singly in mid-april. some information on social relations within our radiotagged pack of five was also obtained. one of the members could often be distinguished from the others by its reddish cast and this individual appeared to be the pack leader or alpha male (schenkel 1947). in urinating, this animal lifted his leg, a position seen almost exclusively in males. except for only two temporary occasions, this animal always headed the pack, which usually traveled single file. the second wolf in line generally was noticeably small, possible a female, and the third wolf was twice identified as 1059 on the basis of sightings of her collar. the leader often gained a lead on the other wolves, especially during a chase (see below), much as reported for a lead wolf on isle royale (mech 1966a). upon returning to the lagging members of the pack, this animal usually held his tail vertically, an expression of social dominance (schenkel 1947). on two occasions he led chases against strange wolves and demonstrated the highest motivation (see below). the leader was also the most active in his reactions when scent posts were encountered. because the function of scent-marking behavior is still unknown, it is important that detailed descriptions of the natural behavior of free-ranging wolves around scent posts be made available (fig. 27). thus the following excerpt from field notes by mech dated february 27, 1969, is presented: [illustration: _figure 27.--feces, urine, and scratching in a conspicuous spot indicate a wolf "scent post." (photo courtesy of l. d. mech.)_] "when they [the three wolves] came to a small frozen pond, where the wolf trail [which they had been following] branched and there were some packed down areas, they became quite excited [fig. 28]. this was especially true of the reddish wolf. he nosed several spots, and scratched around them. usually his tail was vertical. he defecated at one spot, and right afterwards another wolf did. after about 2 minutes that pack went on. [illustration: _figure 28.--a pack of wolves investigating a scent post. the raised tails indicate their excitement. (photo courtesy of l. d. mech.)_] "about 15 minutes later the 2 'satellite' wolves arrived at this spot, hesitated, nosed around but continued on after less than a minute. "the three wolves meanwhile came to a junction of 2 logging roads. there they nosed around, scratched, and acted much as described above. again the reddish wolf was most active and had its tail up. "when the last 2 wolves came to this spot, they nosed around, ran back and forth, and 1 defecated. they then headed on a different branch of the trail than the first 3 had gone on just 10 minutes before. "the first 3 wolves meanwhile were running along a logging road but eventually they circled and one other than the reddish one headed across a swamp toward the last 2. then the reddish one and the other followed this one, and they met the last 2 on a ridge. there was the usual tail wagging, then all headed off together in a new direction. they passed the first scent post again and there was some nosing by the reddish wolf but little hesitation. "when they traveled, one wolf lagged behind by 150 yards. the wolf just ahead of it had its tail vertical part of the time, as did the reddish leader. "soon the pack came upon another area packed with wolf tracks on a pond. there they followed every little trail, nose to the ground, wagged tails, grouped together often, chased each other, rolled over, etc. for 6 minutes. the reddish animal had tail up most of the time. "the wolves continued on, and we left them about 1 mile s.w. of the s.w. arm of bald eagle lake [at 6:05 p.m.]." unfortunately it was not known whether the trails that the wolves were following were their own or those made by other wolves. significant aspects of the above observation are (1) the spirited initiative of the leader, (2) the amount of time spent in scratching, urinating, and defecating, (3) the decision of the last two wolves to take a different route from that of the first three even though their goal seemed to be to catch up to the first three, and (4) the fact that the scent posts were located at trail junctions. in the last regard, we often noted from the ground that wolves urinated at the junction of newly formed human trails heading perpendicularly from roads they were following. copulation in wolves was only observed once during our study, on february 19, 1969. two members of a group of four were seen coupled for 2 minutes on kekekabic lake. on isle royale, which is at the same latitude, copulations were witnessed on february 21, 24 and 27 (mech 1966a). on april 17, a den west of big moose lake known to have been used at least intermittently for 13 years was seen from the air to have fresh activity of some kind in the snow in front of it, and on april 24 we saw a wolf at the mound. a few days later, two local human residents unaware of our interests approached this den and looked in. an adult wolf, presumably the bitch, leaped over their heads and fled the area. the men then dug up the den and removed six pups whose eyes had not yet opened. intraspecific intolerance and indifference instances of chasing or attack by a pack of wolves on conspecifics not a part of their group have been described by murie (1944) and mech (1966a). observations of such behavior are important in trying to determine conclusively whether or not wolves are territorial. pimlott _et al._ (1969, p. 75) wrote "it still is not clear, however, whether or not their use of range should be defined as territorial." mech (1970) summarized the available evidence for territoriality in wolves and postulated that it may be spatiotemporal such that packs might avoid each other at any particular point in time but over a long period might cover the same area at different times. a number of our observations are pertinent to this question, for we have evidence of both, tolerance and intolerance between population units of wolves. two direct cases of intolerance were observed, both involving the radiotagged pack and other wolves within the usual range of the pack. following is a direct quote from the field notes of mech: "feb. 7, 1969--about 11:30 a.m.--aerial and visual--1059 and 2 other wolves traveling overland about halfway between heart l. and august l. (r10w-t61 n. sect. 17 center). they were traveling quickly and intently along a fresh wolf trail, with a lighter reddish individual in the lead. the other 2 animals were darker colored, and one of them was smaller than the other. one of them must have been 1059. "we soon found that about half a mile ahead of the pack was a dark wolf hurrying away from the three. this animal often looked back and ran whenever it encountered good running conditions. it soon became obvious that the pack of 3 was chasing this individual. because it [the lone wolf] often broke its own trail, the pack gradually gained on this animal. the single wolf flushed a deer which ran when the wolf was about 75 feet away and floundered in the snow, but the wolf continued hurrying on by. "although the deer ran only about 50 yards and stopped, the pack of 3 also hurried on by. the single wolf flushed another deer, ignored it, and continued by, as did the pack of 3. the chase continued for 2 miles as we watched, into the n.e. corner of sect. 18 and then into the n. central part of sect. 8, and the pack got to within 150 yards of the single wolf. "however, at this point, the 2 darker members of the pack had fallen about 100 yards behind the lead one. the lead animal stopped and waited for them, as it had done a few times before. it then turned around and headed back to these animals. when they met, the reddish animal's tail was held vertically and there was much tail wagging by all for about 1 minute. then all animals lay down for a minute and then went up on a knoll. there was much activity and 'playing' on the knoll. (12:10 p.m.) "the single wolf continued running and looking back for at least another mile. we left at 12:21 p.m. "at 4:07 p.m. we saw a single wolf running across a small lake and looking behind it about 8 miles n.w. of these animals. the creature behaved the same as the one being chased today, and we wondered whether it could be the same animal." on february 18, 1969, ream made a similar observation, as follows (quoted from his field notes): "got visual sighting on 1059 with 3 other wolves at 11:55 about a mile west of omaday lake and they were running along fairly fast on a trail. when we circled a second time we saw 2 wolves curled up sleeping on a knoll ahead (south) of the running pack. we then realized the running wolves were on the trail of the sleeping wolves and when the pack of 4 with 'red' in the lead was about 50 yards from the knoll the 2 sleeping wolves jumped up and charged away in the opposite direction full tilt, and split and went in 2 directions. when the pack reached the knoll they started off on the trail of the wolf that headed n.e. and then changed and went after the one that headed s.w. the reddish wolf was in the lead and really picked up the pace. although the reddish wolf seemed to gain on the chased one 3 or 4 times, the pack as a whole couldn't catch up, even though the single was breaking trail. the reddish wolf, after gaining, always stopped and waited for the others or went back to find them. they chased this wolf for 2-1/2 to 3 miles, all the way down to highway 1 at a point 3.0 miles from the lab [kawishiwi field station, u.s. forest service]. there was a dense patch, 10-15 acres, of woods just before highway 1 and we lost sight of the chased wolf for a while and also the 4 when they entered it, but shortly we found that the chased one had somehow doubled back and was heading n.e. again. the pack was apparently confused for at one point 3 of them were wandering back and forth on highway 1, apparently looking for the trail of the chased wolf. two of these paralleled the highway for a couple hundred yards and then stopped on top of a hill, apparently resting. during this chase both the single wolf and the pack chased up deer from their route of travel and didn't seem to pay much attention to them, even though some were really floundering in the deep snow. we finally stopped watching all of this at 1:30 p.m. and proceeded on our rounds." on february 21 we also saw a single wolf running and looking behind several times on ojibway lake. even when it saw a fisherman on the lake within 1/8 mile, it continued across to the opposite shore seeming most intent on avoiding whatever was on its trail. presumably it had also been chased by a pack. the cases of tolerance or indifference that we witnessed between wolves involved our lone animals. on january 27, 1051 was at a kill he had made the day before, and another wolf was sitting within 100 feet looking toward the carcass. eventually the unidentified wolf left without approaching any closer. a lone wolf was also seen near 1053 in the general vicinity of a moose carcass, which probably both were feeding on at different times. three such observations were made, on february 10, 15, and 18; and on february 21 another wolf was also seen near 1053 some 2.5 miles away from the moose carcass. in all cases, the two animals were 80 to 200 yards apart in open country and must have been aware of each other's presence. hunting, killing, and feeding behavior the primary prey of most wolves in our study area is the white-tailed deer (fig. 29), but some moose (fig. 30) are also killed. we have examined the remains of six moose that were eaten by wolves, two of which were killed by them (fig. 31). one was found on february 25, 1967, on gillis lake and the other on march 7, 1969, on twinkle lake. these locations are within 3 miles of each other, suggesting that a wolf pack in that area may be more accustomed to preying on moose than other packs. the other four moose carcasses were found in other parts of the study area, but circumstances were such that the causes of death of those animals could not be determined. a discussion of the details of wolf-moose relations in our study area must await the collection of additional data. [illustration: _figure 29.--the main prey of wolves in northern minnesota is the white-tailed deer. (photo courtesy of l. d. mech.)_] [illustration: _figure 30.--moose are also killed by wolves. (photo courtesy of allan taylor.)_] [illustration: _figure 31.--only a few wolf-killed moose were located during the study. (photo courtesy of laurence pringle.)_] the remains of 93 wolf-killed deer, and 49 probable wolf-kills, were examined for age, sex, and condition and were compared with a sample of 433 hunter-killed deer from the same general area. the wolf-killed deer were generally much older than the hunter-kills and had a significantly higher percentage of jaw and limb abnormalities (see mech and frenzel, page 35). until recently the only observations of wolves hunting deer were those reported by stenlund (1955) for northern minnesota. he described two reports of actual observations and two reports of interpretations of tracks in the snow, all successful hunts. since that time several descriptions of successful and unsuccessful hunts have also been published (mech 1966b, rutter and pimlott 1968, pimlott _et al._ 1969, mech 1970). nevertheless, many more observations must be made before generalizations can be formed. during the present study we were able to witness a number of hunts from the air and piece together others based on tracks. the following descriptions are quoted from the field notes of mech: "26 january 1967. about 3/4 mile n.e. of alice lake. "jack burgess [pilot] and i were following a pack of 8 wolves, when at 4:15 they veered from their former line of travel, about 30°. they were then about 200 yards from 2 deer. they began wagging their tails when about 175 yards from the deer. one deer, on the edge of a steep bank, was lying, but one was standing about 75 yards n. of it in open hardwoods. the wolves continued toward the latter deer. "this deer remained standing in the same place until the wolves approached to within about 100 feet of it. the lead wolf stopped, when that distance from the deer, and the others caught up but also stopped when within about 25 feet behind the lead wolf. by this time the deer, whose body was facing away from the wolves, had its head turned back over its shoulder toward the wolves. the wolves and the deer remained absolutely still while staring at each other, 100 feet apart, for 1-2 minutes, while we made several circles. "suddenly the deer bolted, and instantly the wolves pursued. i am fairly certain that it was the deer that bolted first, but could be mistaken. the action was almost simultaneous. the deer headed toward the other deer near the top of the high bank. this animal had been lying but had arisen when the wolves were about 150 yards away. "the lead wolf followed in the deer's trail, but the others cut toward the bank. this flushed the second deer (near the edge of the bank), which ran down the bank. meanwhile when the first deer reached the edge of the bank, it headed due w. along the top of it. only the lead wolf pursued this animal. the other deer had headed down the bank to the s.e., and at least a few of the wolves followed it. "we could not watch both deer, so we continued following the first. the deer had no trouble in snowdrifts, but the wolf was hindered by them. the wolf followed the deer for about 200 yards along the top of the bank, and then gave up after losing ground. the wolf had run a total distance of about 250-275 yards. he then lay down and rested. "we noticed at least 3 wolves stopped part way down the bank in the trail of the second deer. however, we did not see the remaining wolves or the second deer. "eventually (after about 5 minutes), these wolves joined the first, and all rested. at 4:25 p.m., one wolf started toward a third deer, which had been lying under a tree while the former chase took place. the deer was about 150 yards from where the wolves rested, and it had stood before the wolf started toward it. we could not see whether the deer or wolf bolted first, but suddenly both animals were bounding away. the wolf chased the deer about 125 yards and gave up after losing ground. the other wolves followed slowly in its trail, and all assembled and rested. the deer continued running for at least 1/4-mile." "27 february 1969. 2 miles n. of august lake. "1059's pack of 5 was heading n.e. at 4:10 p.m. when they got to within 100 yards of 2 standing deer. the deer had been standing alertly in a shallow draw, and when at least 2 wolves got to within 100 yards, they fled. the wolves began running after them. "the deer were in snow up to their bellies and had to hesitate slightly at each bound. but they ran fast. we could only see one wolf very much [of the time]. it was also having a difficult time in the snow, and after a total run of about 250 yards (100 to the deer's original location and 150 after the deer), the wolf lay on the snow and rested about 10 minutes. the deer ran only about 200 yards more and stood alertly for the next 20 minutes at least. the wolves then went on. "27 march 1969. about 2 miles s.e. of central lakes, minnesota. "at 3:00 p.m. while we were following wolf 1051 by aircraft in above location, we saw a deer running very quickly on top of the crusted snow and then stand and watch its backtrail. about 1-1/2 minutes later we saw 1051 running along the same route. we did not see when the deer fled again, but saw it running about 100 yards from the wolf and doubling back paralleling its original route. when the wolf got near the approximate doubling-back point, he lay down and rested for about 5 minutes. the deer continued fleeing for about 350 yards, stopped, and for several minutes faced its backtrail. the wolf finally continued on in his original direction, giving up the chase. "at 4:30 p.m.--1-1/2 miles s. of central lakes, minnesota--wolf 1051 had come to within 100 yards of [four-lane] highway 53 and was hesitant to approach it. several cars were going by in both directions. thus the wolf headed s. parallel with the highway about 150 yards e. of it. "suddenly two deer, which we had noticed s. of the wolf earlier, fled across the highway. the wolf soon got to the point where they crossed, hesitated about a minute and then ran across. no cars came at that time. "we could not always see the deer or the wolf when w. of the road because there were several patches of evergreens. the wolf did head straight w. after crossing the road. then about 250 yards w. of this point we saw a deer come out onto an old woods road which lay in a n.w.-s.e. axis. the deer ran n.w. on the road and then we saw the wolf where the deer had come out onto the road. while the deer ran n.w., the wolf cut into the woods to his right, n.e. we could not see it then but presumed it was running n.w. paralleling the road. "after the deer had run about 50 yards up the road, it also headed n.e. into the evergreens. within a few seconds it fled right back out and started s.e. down the road. the wolf was about 50 feet behind it and began gaining. "when the deer got back to where the wolf had headed into the woods from the road before, it also headed n.e. into the woods. the wolf was then about 20 feet away and the deer was headed n. around in a circle with the wolf closing in on the outside. the wolf did not emerge from the evergreens for at least 15 minutes, nor did we see the deer, so i presume the wolf killed the deer. [but see entry for april 1.] "1 april 1969. dan frenzel and i searched the area described on march 27 for 1 hour and found no sign of a kill. old wolf tracks were seen, but only a single wandering track. no concentration such as usually seen at kills. best conclusion is that 1051 did _not_ kill the deer where seen from the air march 27." we also saw 1055 and her associate actually kill a deer, on february 6, 1969, but we did not realize what was going on and it happened so fast that we only saw a wolf rushing and biting at the front end of the downed animal. the chase had to have lasted only a few seconds. in addition to the above direct observations, we also were able to piece together from tracks in the snow the chase and successful encounter between a single wolf and a deer in two instances. in the first case, on january 25, 1967 (11:50 a.m.), we arrived at the scene (near grub lake, just n. of snowbank lake) within an hour of the encounter, and the wolf was still feeding on the deer, which had been a 2-1/2-year-old female. mech examined the area from the ground and made the following observations: "the deer had come s.w. down the middle of the lake at a fast walk, turned around, backtracked a few yards and headed to the n.w. shore of the lake. meanwhile a wolf had come at a trot along the deer's track, but it had cut to the n.w. shore about 50 yards n.e. of where the deer had. when still on the ice about 15 feet from shore, the wolf began running as evidenced by his long bounds. he continued running inland about 50 feet from shore toward the deer. the deer had walked inland from the shore and may have stood there about 25 feet from shore. suddenly it had bounded away. the bounding wolf track was in the same trail as the deer's for about 25 yards but then it paralleled the deer's about 5 feet away on the inland side. after about 125 yards from where the deer flushed, the deer was pulled down. it was _not_ on its side but rather had sunk into the snow in more-or-less of an upright position. "apparently the deer had just about reached the shore when the wolf noticed it, and it detected the wolf. at this time the wolf must have been up the shore about 50 yards where his tracks first showed he began bounding. there was no sign that the wolf had spotted the deer on the lake and had tried to cut it off from shore by running inland along the shore and then waiting for the deer to come inland. once the wolf had begun bounding, he continued until he pulled the deer down.... sign showed that the deer dropped within about 20 feet of where she had begun bleeding." the second case involved a 5-1/2-year-old buck, no. m-28, which had arthritis of his right hind foot and probably had defective gait (see mech and frenzel p. 35). the attack took place on basswood lake on february 2, 1967, and excerpts from field notes by mech follow: "a single wolf had killed this deer after chasing, following, or tracking the deer about 3.75 miles. the deer's last 350 yards was a fast walk--the tracks were one in front of the other and about 2 feet apart, and there was no leaping or bounding. same with the wolf--a fast trot. "where the tracks came together, the deer apparently had fallen, but there was no blood. from there, the deer dragged its feet or the wolf for about 25 feet and then went down again. the wolf circled the deer, and for the next 150 feet, the 2 animals had fought or scuffled and then the deer had gone down where we found it. "the 4-mile persistence of this wolf--whether tracking, following, or chasing the deer--is remarkable [compared with most chases] and makes me believe the wolf had good reason to believe it could kill the deer." our observations of wounds on fresh kills confirm the following description by stenlund (1955, p. 31) of the location and manner of attack of wolves on deer: "no evidence of hamstringing of deer was found on freshly killed carcasses, although the possibility does exist. usually deer are run down from behind, the wolf or wolves biting at the hind flanks and abdomen, or at the hind flanks and head region simultaneously." on each kill, all the flesh and much of the skin and bones were eaten, at least during the winters of 1966-67 and 1967-68. this was also true during december 1968 and much of january 1969. however, during february and march 1969 when an unusual accumulation of snow had built up, most of the kills were only partly eaten (see mech _et al._, page 51). in previous years deer freshly killed by single wolves were sometimes found with only a few pounds of flesh or viscera missing. however, in each case the carcasses were almost completely cleaned up within a few days, often by packs to which the single wolves may have belonged (mech 1970). usually the first parts of a carcass to be eaten are the hams and part of the viscera from the coelomic cavity. in one case where a wolf was interrupted while feeding it was apparent that the animal had been stripping the omental fat from the carcass. this may be the wolf's favorite part of a deer, for the stomach of one wolf that we examined in january 1967 contained nothing but such fat. the average consumption and kill rate of deer by wolves has not yet been determined, but we have some information bearing on the subject. because our data were obtained during a winter of unusually deep snow, and it was obvious that wolves were killing more deer than they could eat at the moment (see mech _et al._, page 51), our figures should be considered much higher than average. however, they should be useful in that they probably represent the maximum kill rate not only throughout the year but also throughout a period of many years. by observing each of our radiotagged wolves whenever possible and noting whether or not it was feeding on a kill, we learned that our wolves generally remained close to their kills for periods of from 1 to 7 days, depending on how recently they had eaten (fig. 32). thus, when a wolf was found at a new location each day, the assumption could be made that the animal did not currently have a kill. [illustration: _figure 32.--periods spent by radiotagged wolves and their associates feeding on kills judged to be their own. this does not include periods when they were known to be feeding on carrion._] we assumed that wolves found at fresh kills (fig. 33) had made them unless there was evidence to the contrary as with 1053, the scavenger. when a wolf was found at one location for several consecutive days but could not be observed, we assumed it was feeding on a kill, since whenever wolves were observed remaining in the same location for several days they were seen feeding. thus a range of possible number of kills per wolf was determined, with the lower limit being the known minimum and the upper limit the possible maximum. when more than one wolf fed on a kill, as with the pack, the figures were calculated on a per-wolf basis. [illustration: _figure 33.--radiotagged wolf (upper left) found at kill (lower right). (photo courtesy of l. d. frenzel.)_] in this way we obtained data on a total of 468 wolf-days and found a total kill of 35 to 48 deer (table 7). this averages out to a kill rate of one deer per 10 to 14 days per wolf. the figure varied considerably among individuals--1051 had the highest rate of one kill per 6.3 to 7.2 days, and each wolf in 1059's pack had the lowest rate (except for 1053, the scavenger) of one deer per 14.0 to 18.0 days. it is significant that the pack of five wolves had a lower kill rate per wolf than did single wolves and pairs. this is explainable because the ability of wolves to kill deer during early 1969 was much greater than usual (see mech _et al._, p. 51). thus single wolves probably could kill deer just as easily as could packs, but they did not need to share them. this differs markedly from the situation on isle royale, where lone wolves usually feed only on moose remains left by packs (mech 1966a, jordan _et al._ 1967). that lone wolves had more of a food surplus than those in the pack is confirmed by the figures on the average number of days that the various wolves fed on kills (table 7). wolf 1051 spent an average of only 2.2 to 2.4 days feeding at each of his kills, whereas 1059's pack of five spent an average of 5.8 to 7.5 wolf-days at each kill. further confirmation is found in the fact that even when most wolves were leaving their kills partly uneaten, a pack of 8 to 10 wolves (probably that to which 1057 belonged) was seen completely devouring a kill. _table 7.--kill rate of deer by radiotagged wolves and their associates_ #: _number_ ------------------------------------------------------------------------- wolf-days wolf wolf-days wolf-days wolf-days feeding # wolves dates of data kills per kill[14] feeding per kill ------------------------------------------------------------------------- # # # mean # # mean # 1051 1 nov. 26 to 101 14-16 6.3-7.2 33-40 2.2-2.4 apr. 3 1053[15] 1 dec. 14 to 75 2-3 25.0-37.5 9-18 4.5-6.0 mar. 27 1055 1-2 jan. 9 to 61 4-9 6.7-15.0 13-25 2.8-3.3 mar. 14 1057 1-13 jan. 24 to 51 5-7 7.3-10.2 25-33 4.7-5.0 feb. 28 1059 5 jan. 25 to 180 10-13 14.0-18.0 75 5.8-7.5 mar. 14 -------------------------------------------------------------------------summary 22 nov. 27 to 468 35-48 [16]9.8-13.4 145-181 [17]3.8-4.1 apr. 3 before 142 7-9 [18]15.7-20.3 39-56 5.1-5.6 feb. 1 after 326 28-39 8.4-11.6 106-125 3.2-3.8 jan. 31 -------------------------------------------------------------------------footnotes: [14] kill rate per wolf. [15] figures for this animal are so low because she was basically a scavenger. [16] average kill rate per wolf for all radiotagged wolves and their associates, derived by dividing total number of wolf-days by total number of kills. [17] average number of days that each wolf spent at each kill, derived by dividing total number of wolf-days spent feeding by the total number of kills. [18] this figure probably is the closest to the actual kill rate during most winters. therefore it is probable that the kill rate per wolf for members of the pack of five is much closer to the usual average winter kill rate. it can still be considered higher than the usual winter rate, however, because this pack also was leaving some of its kills partly uneaten. a reasonable approximation of the average kill rate during most winters would be the rate found for our radiotagged wolves before february 1, because the relations among the wolves, the deer, and the snow during that period were not unlike those of most winters. the average kill rate per wolf before february 1 was estimated at one deer per 15.7 to 20.3 days. after this period, the rate increased to about one deer per 8.4 to 11.6 days, and an estimated 50 percent of the available food was left uneaten (see mech _et al._, page 51). this implies that the kill rate during february and march was about twice as high as usual. on this basis, the usual kill rate would be estimated at one deer per 16.8 to 23.2 days, which checks well with the rate found before february (one deer per 15.7 to 20.3 days). thus we feel that an estimated kill rate of about one deer per 18 days per wolf is a close approximation of the average kill rate for most winters. this is about 50 percent less than the kill rate of one deer per 4 days estimated by stenlund (1955) for two packs of three wolves (one deer per 12 days per wolf). however, it compares favorably with the actual kill rate of one deer per wolf per 17.6 days found for a pack of eight wolves in ontario.[19] once the average rate of kill is known, the average food consumption per wolf can be calculated. the average deer (considering both fawns and adults) from the superior national forest during winter weighs about 113 pounds (calculated from erickson _et al._ 1961), and an arbitrary 13 pounds can be deducted from this for inedible portions. this leaves 100 pounds of deer per wolf per 18 days, or 5.6 pounds per wolf per day. this figure is much less than the 10 to 14 pounds estimated consumption rate for wolves feeding on moose on isle royale (mech 1966a). however, much variation can be expected in an animal whose physiology must be adapted to a feast-or-famine existence. wolves can be maintained in captivity on 2.5 pounds of meat per day, and large active dogs (_canis familiaris_) require 3.7 pounds per day, so it is likely that the minimum daily requirement for wolves in the wild is about 4.0 pounds per day (mech 1970). this figure agrees well with the estimated consumption rate for our study area. footnotes: [19] _kolenosky, g. b. wolf movements, activities and predation impact on a wintering deer population in east-central ontario. (manuscript in preparation for publication.)_ relative population density censusing wolves in a 1.5-million-acre study area is a difficult task, and we have no direct information on which to base a population estimate. however, some deductions can be made about the relative population densities in our study area between the period 1948 to 1953 and the period of the present study, 1967 to 1969. r. a. rausch (1967a) hypothesized that the frequency of large packs is higher when population density is high, and presented evidence supporting this idea. on this assumption, a comparison of pack-size distributions between various periods can indicate relative population densities between periods. the advantage of this method is that it eliminates the usual type of year-to-year biases in wolf censuses such as might result from differences in precise census route, type of aircraft, skill of observers, and other conditions. only a difference that would cause a bias in the _size_ of the packs seen would be of importance. therefore, we tested the difference in size distributions of population units between the 1948-53 study period and the present period (table 1), using a kolmogorov-smirnov two-sample test (siegel 1956). the average "pack" size in the earlier years was 2.8, compared with 4.2 at present; thus pack sizes are significantly larger at present (95 percent level). this indicates that the population density from 1967 to 1969 may have been higher than from 1948 to 1953. this apparent change may be attributable to a reduction in snaring, trapping, and aerial hunting that took place between the two periods as a result of changes in state game regulations. a similar comparison between our observations from 1967 and those from 1968-69 (table 1) shows no significant difference between these years, so it appears that the density of wolves in our area has remained about the same over the period of three winters. this agrees with the results of several other studies summarized by mech (1970) in which wolf populations unaffected by man have been found to remain relatively stable from year to year. discussion and conclusions the movements, behavior, and ecology of the wolves in our study area during winter are variable, and are influenced considerably by snow conditions. this may explain the fact that in late february 1969 wolves 1051, 1053, and 1055 suddenly extended their travels and range (fig. f-34 and table 4). however, increased travel may have resulted from other factors. for one thing, the wolves apparently did not need to spend so much time hunting as before. because of the deep snow, the ability of wolves to capture deer increased, and the animals had a surplus of food. perhaps under such conditions wolves may use more of their energy for traveling than for hunting. [illustration: _figure 34.--net weekly (straight-line) distances traveled by three radiotagged wolves._] in this respect it is interesting that 1051 moved right out of his area and traveled into country that presumably was unknown to him. wolves 1053 and 1055 each ventured into an area that was almost devoid of deer and that even had few moose in it. without sufficient fat reserves in all these animals, it would seem disadvantageous for them to have made these travels. evidently wolves can obtain enough food in much smaller areas than these three animals used after february. both 1059's pack of five and 1057 lived in relatively small areas throughout the winter and seemed to survive well. before late february, 1051, 1053, and 1055 did also. thus some factor other than food must have influenced the movements of these three animals from late february through april. the fact that the increased movement began during the breeding season makes one suspect a relationship between the two. one possibility is that the factors increasing the hormonal flow associated with breeding in adults stimulate a hormone output in immature or subordinate individuals that causes an increase in their movements. an alternative is that the breeding behavior of resident packs involves the beginning of, or an increase in, aggression toward neighboring nonmembers. this might force the lone animals to shift about over large areas in avoidance of such aggression. whatever the cause of the changes in movements of these animals, the fact that the pack used a much smaller area than any of the lone wolves may be of central importance in trying to understand the organization of the wolf population. the following pieces of information are also pertinent to such an understanding: (1) the pack, which can be presumed to include a breeding pair (mech 1970), chased other wolves in its area; (2) the lone wolves, which apparently did not breed, were tolerant of, or indifferent to, other lone wolves in their areas; (3) the ranges of the lone wolves overlapped considerably (fig. 35); (4) the lone wolves seemed to avoid certain large areas that one might logically think would have been visited by them (fig. 35); and (5) packs of wolves were sometimes observed in these large areas (fig. 35). [illustration: _figure 35.--locations of all radiotagged wolves and unmarked packs observed during winter 1968-69, except dispersal of 1051 out of the study area. only selected lakes shown._] from the above information it can be hypothesized that the wolf population consists basically of groups of breeding packs defending territories of limited size, with lone wolves and other nonbreeding population units that are tolerant of each other shifting about in much larger nonexclusive areas among these territories. the information from isle royale (mech 1966a, jordan _et al._ 1967) is consistent with this idea, but the area of that island (210 square miles) is too small to allow untested extrapolations to be made about spacing in much larger wolf populations. data from algonquin park, ontario (pimlott _et al._ 1969) also strongly suggest this hypothesis. however, the packs studied there could not be identified with certainty, and little information was obtained about nonbreeding population units. to test the proposed hypothesis with certainty, a larger number of identifiable breeding and nonbreeding population units from the same general area must be followed during at least one winter. this will be the main objective of our next study. summary during the winters of 1966-67, 1967-68, and 1968-69, aerial observations of timber wolves (_canis lupus_) were made in the superior national forest in northeastern minnesota, where the primary prey is white-tailed deer (_odocoileus virginianus_). in 480 hours of flying during the study, 77 sightings involving 323 wolves were made. in addition, during 1968-69, five radiotagged wolves and their associates were tracked via receivers in aircraft for a total of 570 "wolf-days." visual observations were made during 65 percent of the times the wolves were located from december through april. the average size of each population unit (including single wolves, pairs, and packs) observed was 4.2, although packs of as many as 13 wolves were sighted. radiotagged wolves spent most of their daylight hours resting during winter, and when traveling, hunting or feeding during the day, tended to do so before 11:00 a.m. and after 3:00 p.m. considerable variation was discovered in the movement patterns of individual wolves, with straight line distances between consecutive daily locations ranging from 0.0 to 12.8 miles, and between weekly locations, 0.0 to 49.0 miles. a pack of five wolves used a range about 43 square miles in extent, whereas lone wolves covered areas many times this size. one animal in an apparent dispersal was tracked a straight line distance of 129 miles between extreme points. a reddish male wolf was the leader of the pack of five and led two observed chases after alien wolves in the pack's territory. this animal was also most active during scent marking by the pack. lone wolves were apparently indifferent to other wolves, and thus exclusive areas, or territories, were not observed among lone wolves. hunts involving a total of seven deer were observed and described, and two successful attacks on deer were interpreted from tracks in the snow. wolves generally consumed all the flesh and much of the hair and bones from kills, except during february and march 1969 when extreme snow conditions increased the vulnerability of deer to an unusual degree. at that time kills were found that were partly or totally uneaten. the kill rate by radiotagged wolves and associates during the winter of 1968-69, based on 468 wolf-days of data, varied from one deer per 6.3 days to one per 37.5 days per wolf, with the average being one deer per 10 to 13 days. the rate was much lower per wolf for members of the pack of five than for lone wolves, and much lower before february 1, 1969, than after. the average rate of kill during more usual winters was estimated to be about one deer per 18 days. this is a consumption rate of about 5.6 pounds of deer per wolf per day. indirect evidence based on comparisons of pack-size distributions for different periods indicates that the wolf density in the study area may have increased since 1953, but that it has remained the same from 1967 to 1969. on the basis of data presented in this paper, the following hypothesis about the organization of the wolf population studied is proposed: the wolf population consists basically of groups of breeding packs defending territories of limited size, with lone wolves and other nonbreeding population units, tolerant of each other, shifting about in much larger nonexclusive areas among these territories. acknowledgments this study was supported by macalester college, the u.s. bureau of sport fisheries and wildlife, the usda forest service, the minnesota department of conservation, and the new york zoological society. special thanks are due the following for their help and cooperation with this project: mr. j. o. wernham, former supervisor, mr. l. t. magnus, wildlife biologist, numerous district rangers, and other supporting personnel of the superior national forest, mr. j. t. morgan, north central forest experiment station; and mr. s. e. jorgensen and mr. c. e. faulkner, u.s. bureau of sport fisheries and wildlife. drs. c. t. cushwa, l. f. ohmann, catherine ream, and d. g. schneider aided in the field work. mr. w. w. cochran provided advice and suggestions on the radiotracking technique, dr. u. s. seal furnished the drugs and the advice on their use with wolves, and mr. r. himes contributed significantly in the wolf trapping. mr. l. ringham, ontario department of lands and forests, granted permission for research personnel to radiotrack wolves crossing into quetico park, canada. numerous students from macalester college also contributed to the field effort. thanks are also due pilots robert hodge, pat magie, ken bellos, don murray, jack burgess, and several others, who along with pilot-biologist john winship, expertly flew the aircraft used in the study. this report was reviewed by the following biologists: mr. g. b. kolenosky, dr. p. a. jordan, mr. m. h. stenlund, and dr. d. l. allen. mr. wallace c. dayton, miss elizabeth dayton, and the quetico-superior foundation, all of minneapolis, generously contributed funds to support mech during the preparation of the paper. literature cited burkholder, b. l. 1959. movements and behavior of a wolf pack in alaska. j. wildl. manage. 23: 1-11. erickson, a. b., gunvalson, v. e., stenlund, m. h., burcalow, d. w., and blankenship, l. h. 1961. the white-tailed deer of minnesota. minn. dep. conserv. tech. bull. 5, 64 p. fuller, w. a., and novakowski, n. s. 1955. wolf control operations, wood buffalo national park, 1951-1952. can. wildl. serv., wildl. manage. bull. ser. 1, no. 11, 23 p. goldman, e. a. 1944. the wolves of north america, part ii. classification of wolves, p. 389-636. washington, d. c.: the amer. wildl. inst. jordan, p. a., shelton, p. c., and allen, d. l. 1967. numbers, turnover, and social structure of the isle royale wolf population. amer. zool. 7: 233-252. kelly, m. w. 1954. observations afield on alaskan wolves. alaska sci. conf. proc. 5: 35 (and mimeo). kolenosky, g. b., and johnston, d. h. 1967. radio-tracking timber wolves in ontario. amer. zool. 7: 289-303. mech, l. d. 1966a. the wolves of isle royale. u. s. nat. park serv. fauna ser. 7. 210 p. mech, l. d. 1966b. hunting behavior of timber wolves in minnesota. j. mammal. 47: 347-348. mech, l. d. 1970. the wolf: the ecology and behavior of an endangered species. 389 p. new york: natural history press, doubleday. mech, l. d., kuechle, v. b., warner, d. w., and tester, j. r. 1965. a collar for attaching radio transmitters to rabbits, hares, and raccoons. j. wildl. manage. 29: 898-902. mohr, c. o. 1947. table of equivalent populations of north american small mammals. amer. midl. nat. 37: 223-249. murie, a. 1944. the wolves of mount mckinley, u. s. nat. park serv. fauna ser. 5, 238 p. nellis, c. h. 1968. some methods for capturing coyotes alive. j. wildl. manage. 32: 402-405. ohmann, l. f., and ream, r. r. 1969 vegetation studies in the bwca--a brief report on plant communities. naturalist 20(1): 20-29. olson, sigurd f. 1938a. organization and range of the pack. ecology 19: 168-170. olson, sigurd f. 1938b. a study in predatory relationship with particular reference to the wolf. sci. mon. 46: 323-336. pimlott, d. h., shannon, j. a., and kolenosky, g. b. 1969. the ecology of the timber wolf in algonquin provincial park. ont. dep. lands and forests res. rep. (wildlife) 87, 94 p. pulliainen, e. 1965. studies of the wolf (_canis lupus_ l.) in finland. ann. zool. fenn. 2: 215-259. rausch, r. a. 1967. some aspects of the population ecology of wolves, alaska. amer. zool. 7: 253-265. rutter, r. j., and pimlott, d. h. 1968. the world of the wolf. 202 p. philadelphia and n. y.: j. b. lippincott co. schenkel, r. 1947. expression studies of wolves. behaviour 1: 81-129. (translation from german by agnes klasson.) seal, u. s., and erickson, a. w. 1969. phencyclidine hydrochloride immobilization of the carnivora and other mammals. fed. (symp. lab. anim. anesthes.) proc. 28: 1410-1419. siegel, s. 1956. non-parametric statistics for the behavioral sciences. 312 p. new york: mcgraw-hill. stenlund, m. h. 1955. a field study of the timber wolf (_canis lupus_) on the superior national forest, minnesota. minn. dep. conserv. tech. bull. 4, 55 p. young, s. p. 1944. the wolves of north america, part i. 385 p. washington, d. c.: the amer. wildl. inst. an analysis of the age, sex, and condition of deer killed by wolves in northeastern minnesota l. david mech and l. d. frenzel, jr. the selective effect of predation on prey populations is of significance in studies of evolution and population dynamics. selective predation can be an important agent in the process of natural selection, and it influences the extent to which predators limit the numbers of their prey. one of the predators most commonly chosen for investigating the selective effect upon prey is the wolf (_canis lupus_). because animals preyed upon by wolves generally are large, their remains can be more easily located and examined. it already has been established that in most areas wolves kill primarily young, old, and other inferior members of such prey populations as dall sheep (_ovis dalli_), moose (_alces alces_), caribou (_rangifer tarandus_), bison (_bison bison_), and musk-oxen (_ovibos moschatus_); evidence for this generalization has been summarized by mech (1970). however, only recently has it been shown that this generalization may extend to predation on the smallest hoofed prey of the wolf in north america, the white-tailed deer (_odocoileus virginianus_). pimlott _et al._ (1969) demonstrated a difference between the age structure of 331 deer killed by wolves during winter in algonquin park, ontario, and 275 deer assumed to represent the actual population in the same area. whereas only 13 percent of the deer from the population at large were estimated to be more than 5 years old, 58 percent of the wolf-kills were in this age category. we employed a similar analysis for deer killed by wolves in northeastern minnesota, but used a more refined aging technique and included comparisons of the age and sex structures of various subsamples of wolf-kills. whereas the ontario research involved a prey population unlimited by man, our work was carried out on both a hunted population and on one relatively unhunted. further comparisons were made between deer killed during periods of normal snow conditions and those taken during unusually high snow accumulations. the incidence of various abnormalities in wolf-killed deer was also compared with that in hunter-killed animals. the study was carried out in the superior national forest in northern st. louis, lake, and cook counties of northeastern minnesota (fig. 1), in conjunction with other aspects of wolf research (see mech _et al._ p. 1). [illustration: _figure 1.--the study area showing locations where wolf-killed and hunter-killed deer were taken. line arbitrarily separates the hunted area from the wilderness area._] methods the investigation began in february 1966 and continued through march 1969; the basic objective was to examine as many wolf-killed deer as possible and compare their ages, sex, and condition with a large sample of deer from the population at large in the same area. wolf-kills were examined only during december through march when they could be found from the air. aircraft ranging in size from an aeronca champ to a cessna 206 were used to fly over frozen lakes at altitudes up to 2,000 feet to locate wolves (fig. 2), wolf tracks, or kills (fig. 3). we often discovered kills by tracking a wolf pack. [illustration: _figure 2.--wolves were located from the air, usually on frozen lakes. (photo courtesy of l. d. mech.)_] [illustration: _figure 3.--wolf-kills were easily spotted from aircraft. (photo courtesy of l. d. mech.)_] during the winter of 1968-69 this method of finding kills was supplemented by radiotracking five wolves and their associates via aircraft (see mech _et al._, p. 1). the latter technique resulted in increased discovery of inland kills. a deer carcass was judged killed by wolves if the death had been recent, if tracks or other sign indicated that wolves had fed upon it, and if no other possible cause of death was discovered. carcasses fed on by wolves but not clearly identifiable as kills were labeled "probable" wolf-kills. although the cause of death of the specimens in this latter category could not be determined with certainty, there was no reason to believe other agents were involved. in addition to the wolf-kills examined by project personnel, data and lower jaws from deer judged killed by wolves were contributed by other biologists, game wardens, forest rangers, and others whose competence was known. nevertheless, if certain identification of carcasses as wolf-kills was not possible, the data were relegated to the "probable" wolf-kill category. whenever possible, kills discovered from the air were examined on the ground (fig. 4). often only skeletal parts remained, but soft parts were also examined when available. femur marrow, heart, lungs, liver, kidneys, reproductive tracts, and omenta were usually inspected in the field for fat, parasites, and abnormalities, and the degree of subcutaneous back fat was also noted. hoofs and lower legs were checked, and those showing pathological conditions or abnormalities were collected and examined by the veterinary diagnostic laboratory of the university of minnesota. all lower jaws found were collected, aged, and examined for dental abnormalities and pathological conditions. [illustration: _figure 4.--as many wolf-killed deer as possible were examined from the ground. (photo courtesy of l. d. mech.)_] in november 1967 and 1968 hunter-check stations were operated on the study area (fig. 5), and deer bagged by hunters were field-checked for age (severinghaus 1949) and hoof abnormalities. as many lower jaws as possible were collected from field-checked deer and other deer killed in the area for age determination and examination for abnormal dentition. [illustration: _figure 5.--information about hunter-killed deer in the study area was obtained through hunter-check stations. (photo courtesy of l. d. frenzel.)_] an assumption was made that the age structure and incidence of abnormalities in the sample of hunter-killed deer would be _reasonably representative_ of those in the population at large, an assumption also implicit in a similar comparison made by pimlott _et al._ (1969). in this respect, the following statements by maguire and severinghaus (1954, p. 109) about deer in new york state are pertinent: "it may be concluded that, considering the open season as a whole, wariness does not significantly distort the age composition of the [deer] kill in relation to that of the corresponding wild population, except possibly for buck seasons of only 1 or 2 days duration.... a reliable appraisal of the age composition of the kill by hunting may be obtained through the operation of roadside checking stations." however, in critically reviewing the present paper severinghaus stated that in states such as minnesota, with fewer hunters and higher hunter success rates, age compositions of deer from checking stations may not be the same as those of wild populations. reviewers peek and downing also made similar comments. nevertheless, for our comparison with wolf-killed deer it is not necessary that the hunter-kill age structure be exactly representative of the age structure of the actual deer population. all that is required is that there be reasonable agreement between the two. the hunting regulations in our study area allow a 9-day period of taking deer of any age or sex, and a single hunter may legally shoot as many deer as he and his party or associates have permits for. thus there is no reason for selective hunting, and we feel confident that the age structure of the hunter-kill in our study area does basically represent that of the deer herd at large. two laboratory techniques were used for determining the ages of deer from the lower jaws or mandibles--a tooth replacement and wear technique (severinghaus 1949) and an incisor-sectioning method (gilbert 1966). the tooth-wear technique requires only the molariform teeth but it is more subjective and inaccurate, particularly in older deer (ryel _et al._ 1961). incisor sectioning requires only incisors and appears to be much more accurate. however, because the incisors had been lost from many of the wolf-kills, and because the tooth-wear technique was used at checking stations, both methods were applied in the laboratory. mr. david w. kuehn (1970) sectioned and aged the incisors. fortunately there was a sufficiently large sample of mandibles with molariform teeth and incisors from both wolf-killed and hunter-killed deer to enable us to devise a table showing the actual ages (based on incisor-sectioning) of each of the jaws assigned to various tooth-wear classes. this table was then used to distribute the ages of specimens that contained only molariform teeth. for example, because it was found that 37 percent of the jaws aged 4-1/2 years old by tooth wear were actually 5-1/2 years old, we assigned 37 percent of the incisorless jaws aged 4-1/2 by tooth wear to the 5-1/2-year category. similarly, another conversion chart comparing field age determinations of hunter-killed deer with ages based on incisor sectioning of the same jaws was employed to distribute the ages of field-aged, hunter-killed deer for which jaws or incisors could not be collected. results we flew a total of 480 hours during this and related research, mainly during january through march 1967 and december 1968 through march 1969; about one-third of this time was devoted primarily to searching for kills. jaws were examined from 93 wolf-kills and 49 probable wolf-kills. [illustration: _figure 6.--all hunter-killed deer examined were checked for age. (photo courtesy of l. d. frenzel.)_] hunter-check stations yielded information from 335 deer (fig. 6), and data on 98 additional hunter-killed deer were contributed by other hunters. incisors were collected from 82 of 214 hunter-killed deer checked that were older than yearlings; comparisons were then made between ages of the deer based on incisor sectioning and those based on field checks using the wear method. similarly, incisors were sectioned from 195 wolf-killed and hunter-killed deer older than yearlings that had been aged by the tooth-wear method in the laboratory, so that these two methods could be compared (kuehn 1970). (note: incisor-sectioning is unnecessary for fawns and yearlings because animals of these ages can be aged objectively by the progress of tooth replacement.) because age or sex distributions might differ in the various subsamples of deer examined during this study, these parameters were compared in subsamples of both wolf-kills and hunter-kills (table 1). no significant differences were found in the age or sex structures between the known wolf-kills and "probable" wolf-kills, so these subsamples were pooled and considered wolf-kills for all subsequent comparisons. three significant differences in sex ratio were found among the subsamples of wolf-kills: (1) wolves killed more female fawns than male fawns, but more male adults than female adults (table 2); (2) more of the adults killed in the hunted area were females, while in the wilderness more males were taken (table 3); and (3) after january 1969, when snow was unusually deep, 57 percent of the deer killed were females, compared with only 38 percent before this date. _table 1.--results of statistical comparisons between various samples of deer kills from northeastern minnesota_ %: _percent_ ------:-----------:--:------:------------:--------------------:----------- : : : : : results of : : : : : : comparisons: : sample: : :sample: :--------------------: direction size :sample :vs: size :sample : [20]age :[21]sex : of :description: : :description :structures: ratios : difference ------:-----------:--:------:------------:----------:---------:----------- wolf-kills:[22] wolf-kills:[22] 93 known 49 probable nonsig.[23] nonsig. - 42 jan.-mar. 83 dec. 1968 nonsig. nonsig. - 1967 mar. 1969 66 male 61 female nonsig. - - 50 wilderness 92 hunted area nonsig. nonsig. - area 41 adult, 64 adult, - sig., more wilderness hunted area 99% females in hunted area 96 lakes[24] 32 inland nonsig.[25] nonsig. - 66 before 77 after nonsig.[26] sig., more females feb. 1969 jan. 1969 95% after jan. 105 adults 22 fawns - sig., more female 95% fawns hunter-kills: hunter-kills: 110 field aged, 225 field aged, nonsig. nonsig. - 1967 1968 335 field aged 98 lab. aged nonsig. nonsig. -132 lab. aged, 79 lab. aged, nonsig. - - males females 89 field aged, 246 field aged, - sig., more male fawns adults 95% adults --------------------------------------------------------------------------433 hunter-kills 142 wolf-kills sig., - older deer 99% in wolf-kill 321 hunter-kills 118 wolf-kills sig., - older deer excluding excluding 99% in wolf-kill fawns fawns --------------------------------------------------------------------------footnotes: [20] kolmogorov-smirnov two-sample test (siegel 1956). [21] z test (downie and heath 1959). [22] because test showed no significant differences in age or sex structure between sample of known wolf-kills and probable wolf-kills, these were combined for all subsequent tests and the pooled sample considered "wolf-kills." [23] at 95 percent level or greater. (note: lack of a significant difference does _not_ prove that no difference exists. rather, it means only that the available evidence does not allow the positive conclusion that a difference does exist.) [24] wolf-kills found on lakes were compared with those located inland because of the possibility that kills on lakes may not be representative of kills in general. [25] sample too small for test, but no apparent difference. [26] no significant difference in entire age structures. however, when the percentage of yearlings is compared between the two groups, the difference is almost significant at the 95 percent level. _table 2.--sex ratios of hunter-killed deer and wolf-killed deer from northeastern minnesota_ -------:--------------------------:------------------------ age : hunter-killed deer : wolf-killed deer -------:--------------------------:------------------------ number percent percent number percent percent male female male female fawns 108 50 50 22 41 59 adults 315 68 32 105 54 46 -----------------------------------------------------------in the comparisons of the subsamples of hunter-kills, the only statistically significant difference found was that the adult subsample had a higher proportion of males than the fawn subsample. no significant difference was found in the age structures of the subsamples, so these were all pooled into a sample of 433 hunter-kills for comparison with the wolf-kills. for the same reason, the entire sample of 142 wolf-killed deer was used for a comparison with the hunter-killed sample. _table 3.--sex ratios of wolf-killed deer from wilderness areas and from hunted areas_ #: _number_ %: _percent_ -------:-------------------:------------------:---------------- age : wilderness area : hunted area : total -------:-------------------:------------------:---------------- # % % # % % # % % male female male female male female fawns 4 0 100 18 50 50 22 41 59 adults 41 71 29 64 44 56 105 56 44 ---------------------------------------------------------------wolf-killed deer in our sample, with an average age of 4.7 years, were significantly older (99 percent level) than hunter-killed deer, with an average age of 2.6 years. for example, deer 5 years of age and older made up 48 percent of the wolf-kills but only 10 percent of the hunter-kills (table 4). the oldest hunter-killed deer in our sample was 9-1/2 years old, but the oldest wolf-killed deer was 14-1/2 (fig. 7). [illustration: _figure 7.--comparison between the age structures of deer killed by wolves, deer killed by hunters, and a theoretical population from the same general area of northeastern minnesota_.] because of a possible bias against fawns in the method of collecting data from wolf-kills (to be discussed later), the age structure of the sample of wolf-kills excluding fawns was tested against that of the sample of hunter-kills excluding fawns. the result once again was a highly significant difference between these two age structures (table 1). as an additional test of the degree to which the age structure of the wolf-killed deer might differ from that of the actual population, we compared our wolf-kill age structure with the age structure of a hypothetical deer population. this was considered advisable just in case the hunter-kill data were poorly representative of the age structure of the actual deer herd. several hypothetical age structures were constructed and compared according to advice from downing.[27] in all cases, the comparisons produced the same basic results as the tests with the hunter-killed sample. an example of one comparison is given in figure 7. a further result obtained by aging the wolf-killed deer pertained to the young individuals killed. the deciduous first incisors of fawns and the deciduous premolars of yearlings are usually replaced with permanent teeth by december (severinghaus 1949). of 24 wolf-killed fawns examined, however, three (13 percent) taken during january, february, and march had not yet replaced their deciduous first incisors. of the 13 yearlings found during this same period, nine (70 percent) had failed to replace their deciduous premolars, and two (15 percent) had just replaced them (one deer killed in february and one killed in march). footnotes: [27] _r. l. downing. personal correspondence to l. d. mech, october 2, 1969_. _table 4.--age and sex distribution of deer killed by wolves and hunters in northeastern minnesota_ -------:-------------------------------:------------------------------ : wolf-killed deer : hunter-killed deer age :---------------------------:---:---------------------------:--(years): number of: : : number of: : :males females unknown total: % :males females unknown total: % -------:---------------------------:---:---------------------------:--fawns 9 13 2 24 17 54 54 4 112 26 1+ 5 7 1 13 9 63 26 1 90 21 2+ 3 8 5 16 11 42 19 2 63 15 3+ 2 4 2 8 6 47 16 1 64 15 4+ 6 3 4 13 9 32 22 1 55 13 5+ 12 9 - 21 15 15 12 1 28 6 6+ 9 2 1 12 8 3 - - 3 - 7+ 12 4 - 16 11 7 4 - 11 3 8+ 4 2 - 6 4 5 1 - 6 1 9+ 4 2 - 6 4 1 - - 1 - 10+ - 3 - 3 2 - - - - - 11+ - 1 - 1 } - - - - - 12+ - - - -} 4 - - - - - 13+ - 1 - 1 } - - - - - 14+ - 2 - 2 } - - - - -total 66 61 15 142 100 269 154 10 433 100 ----------------------------------------------------------------------mandibles from the 142 wolf-killed deer and 259 hunter-killed deer were examined closely for abnormal dentition (table 5, figs. 8-10) (mech _et al._ 1970) and pathological conditions (table 6), and the lower limbs of 75 wolf-kills and 126 hunter-kills were also checked for abnormalities and pathology (table 7, fig. 11). statistical comparison showed that the incidence of each condition was significantly higher in the sample from wolf-killed deer (table 8). jaw necrosis found in our specimens was similar to that described by murie (1944) for dall sheep and mech (1966a) for moose. generally animals with this condition are old, and ours were no exception. [illustration: _figure 8.--deciduous first premolar (arrow), usually not present in deer, was found in specimen m-31._] [illustration: _figure 9.--a permanent first premolar (arrow) was discovered in m-8._] [illustration: _figure 10.--an extra set of fourth premolars (arrows) occurred in specimens m-96._] [illustration: _figure 11.--the jaws and legs of kills were inspected closely for abnormalities. (photo courtesy of l. d. frenzel.)_] _table 5.--abnormalities in the mandibular dentition of deer from the superior national forest, minnesota_ --------:---:-------:--------:-------:-------------------------------specimen: : :cause of:side of: number :sex:age[28]: death :jaw[29]: abnormality --------:---:-------:--------:-------:------------------------------- _years_ m-8 f 3+ wolves right p_1 present (fig. 9) left normal; no p_1 present outside or inside jaw m-31 f _17 mon._ wolves both deciduous p_1 present (fig. 8) and permanent p_1 present inside left ramus; right side not examined internally m-45 m _4+_ wolves right p_2 rotated 90° left p_2 absent m-52 m 4+ wolves right p_2 absent left normal m-96 f _2+_ hunters right 2 permanent p_4s present; both crooked in orientation (fig. 10) left p_2 diagonal; p_3 normal; p_4 below gumline, pointed posteriorly and wedged against m_1; appears to have pushed out original p_4 (fig. 10) m-117 m 5+ hunters right third column of m_3 reduced m-191 m 4+ wolves right third column of m_3 absent although rudimentary root present left third column of m_3 much reduced, peg-like, and almost separate m-225 - 4+ wolves right p_2 absent left p_2 situated diagonally m-234 f 5+ wolves right third column of m_3 reduced m-254 m 2+ hunters right p_2 slightly crooked in orientation left p_2 slanting posteriorly and crowding p_3 m-272 m 5+ hunters right third column of m_3 reduced, peg-like, and almost separate left third column of m_3 peg-like and separated from second column by 4 mm. m-296 f 5+ wolves right normal left extra permanent p_4 crowding original p_4; much like m-96 m-369 m 3+ hunters right permanent p_2 still not emerged but appears to be wedged against root of p_3 --------:---:-------:--------:-------:-------------------------------footnotes: [28] based on incisor sectioning method of gilbert (1966) except that _underlined_ figures are based on tooth replacement or wear (severinghaus 1949). [29] where only one side is listed, the other was not available. _table 6.--pathological conditions in the lower jaws of deer killed by wolves or hunters[30]_ --------:---:------:--------:-----------:----------------------------specimen: : :cause of:approximate: number :sex: age : death : date of : condition : : : : death : --------:---:------:--------:-----------:---------------------------- _years_ m-70 m 6-1/2 wolves feb. 1968 lump in left side of mandible near m_1 and m_2 m-192 m 7-1/2 wolves jan. 1969 large lump in left diastema apparently from healed fracture m-206 m 8-1/2 wolves jan. 1969 light necrosis around base of teeth m-218 m 3-1/2 wolves feb. 1969 large lump in left diastema apparently from healed fracture m-228 f 11-1/2 wolves mar. 1969 heavy necrosis around molars and extending into bone; half of each m_3 destroyed, both roots and crown m-236 f 14-1/2 wolves feb. 1969 light necrosis around base of teeth m-402 f 10-1/2 hunters nov. 1968 heavy necrosis and lumps on both sides of mandible --------:---:------:--------:-----------:----------------------------footnotes: [30] not including dental abnormalities, which are described in table 5. the following organs were excised from wolf-killed deer and examined grossly in the field for parasites and abnormalities (fig. 12): lungs (six animals, normal); heart (seven animals, normal); liver (four animals, one small unidentified tapeworm cyst). twin fetuses were found in each of two adult does examined. twelve deer were checked for body fat in one or all of the following areas: back (subcutaneous), kidneys, heart, omenta. of these animals, seven had large amounts of fat, but five were almost depleted of fat from these stores. these five were all killed in february or march 1969; three were fawns, and two were yearlings that had not yet shed their deciduous premolars. of 69 animals examined for femur marrow condition, two had fat-depleted marrow. one was a fawn killed in march 1969 that had not shed its deciduous first incisors, and the other was a 5-1/2-year-old buck killed in february 1966. a fawn and a yearling that had died in february 1969 from unknown causes also had fat-depleted, marrow. these animals might have been killed by wolves, for wolves had fed on them. however, they could have died from malnutrition and been eaten as carrion. _table 7.--pathological conditions in the lower limbs of deer killed by wolves or hunters_ --------:---:-----:------:------------------------------------------- : : :cause : specimen:sex: age : of : condition number : : :death : --------:---:-----:------:------------------------------------------- _years_ m-28 m 5-1/2 wolves right hind foot: "old healed ankylosis of the pastern joint ... a spontaneously healed bacterial arthritis with the destroyed joint cavity filled in by solid bone. this deer probably had defective gait"[31] (fig. 14). m-29 f 5-1/2 wolves front foot: "a 3×4×5 cm. fibrous mass in the subcutis about the digital flexor tendon on the volar surface of the metacarpus. the surface was denuded, ulcerated, and superficially infected by surface bacteria.... probably did detract from the animal's speed of flight"[31] (fig. 15). m-37 f 7-1/2 wolves hind foot: "probable that the lesion was at one time an active bacterial bone marrow infection that had eventually fistulated to the skin.... regional tendons and their sheaths were also present among this inflammation and scarring, and it would be fair to assume that the animal's agility was impaired to some extent."[31] m-115 m 4-1/2 hunter right front hoof: broken at tip. m-196 f 4-1/2 wolves left front foot: "two severe transverse lacerations on the volar surface. each was approximately 4 cm. in length. one was located at the margin of the heel, and the other was located several cm. proximad. the more proximal wound had severed the flexon tendons, and the consequent uselessness of the limb was suggested by the splayed toes, the unmarred hoof wall and unworn soles"[32] (fig. 16). m-227 m 9-1/2 wolves left hind leg: "a diffuse swelling of the distal metatarsal bone, the surface of which was studded with small osteophytic spicules. the major flexor and extensor tendons were forced to assume a convex course over the summits of the dorsal and plantar surfaces of the defect, but the tendon sheaths were clean and the normal wear on soles of the involved toes suggested that functional deficit and pain were probably minimal ... quite certainly a callus from previous fracture"[32] (fig. 17). --------:---:-----:------:-------------------------------------------1 footnotes: [31] d. m. barnes. personal correspondence to l. d. mech, april 11, 1967. [32] d. m. barnes. undated laboratory report transmitted to l. d. mech in 1969. discussion and conclusions it has been established that wolves hunting dall sheep (murie 1944), caribou (crisler 1956), moose (mech 1966a), and other species usually have a low percentage of success. in the case of a pack of 15 wolves hunting moose on isle royale during winter, only 4.6 percent of all the moose detected by the pack were killed; considering only the moose that the wolves caught up to or held at bay, the kill rate was 7.6 percent (mech 1966a). what little evidence there is about wolves hunting deer indicates that the success rate is also low with this prey species, at least in winter. the senior author has now observed a total of 14 deer being chased by wolves in northeastern minnesota, mostly by packs of five, seven or eight wolves (mech 1966b, and see mech _et al._, p. 1). in only one case (6.7 percent) did the wolves (a pair) succeed in catching their prey. low hunting success rates imply that the circumstances influencing hunts are seldom favorable enough, or the prey animals encountered are seldom vulnerable enough for the wolves to succeed. when the evidence cited earlier that most wolf-killed animals are inferior members of their populations is considered, the most cogent explanation for the low hunting success of wolves is that relatively few prey animals are vulnerable. _table 8.--incidence of various abnormalities and pathological conditions in wolf-killed deer compared with that in hunter-killed deer_ #: _number_ %: _percent_ ---------------------:----------------:----------------:------------ : wolf-kills : hunter-kills : :------:---------:------:---------: level of condition : deer : deer : deer : deer : significance : in : with : in : with : :sample:condition:sample:condition: ---------------------:------:---------:------:---------:------------ # # % # # % % dental abnormalities 142 8 5.6 259 5 1.9 [34]90 jaw necrosis, lumps, 142 6 4.2 259 1 0.4 [34]95 or fractures[33] pathology of lower 75 5 6.7 126 1 0.8 95 limbs ---------------------:------:---------:------:---------:------------footnotes: [33] two mandibles from wolf-killed deer had large lumps from healed fractures in the region of the diastemas. [34] if all dental and jaw abnormalities are pooled, the difference between the incidence in the wolf-kill sample (9.8 percent) and that in the hunter-kill (2.3 percent) is significant at the 99 percent level. [illustration: _figure 12.--when internal organs were present in kills, they were examined in the field. (photo courtesy of l. d. mech.)_] age structure our data strongly indicate that in northeastern minnesota wolves prey much more heavily on the older members of the deer population, at least during winter (fig. 7). substantial vulnerability to wolves seems to begin at about the age of 5 years (fig. 13), because the percentage of wolf-killed deer in each year class increases from 9 percent for 4-1/2-year-old animals to 15 percent for 5-1/2-year-olds (table 4). indeed, 48 percent of the wolf-kills were aged 5-1/2 and over, which compares favorably with the ontario figure of 58 percent for these age classes (pimlott _et al._ 1969). [illustration: _figure 13.--relative rates of predation on deer of various ages, based on comparisons of the ages of wolf-killed deer with those of a theoretical population (dashed line) and those of the hunter-killed population. see figure 7._] these figures assume added significance when compared with a sample of deer killed by hunters in the same general area (fig. 1). only 10 percent of the hunter-killed deer were 5-1/2 years old or older, and the percent killed in each year class dropped off suddenly from 13 percent aged 4-1/2 to 6 percent aged 5-1/2. if the age structure of the hunter-kill sample is reasonably representative of the age structure of the population at large, the wolf-kill data show that wolf predation in our study area during winter has a definite selective effect on the deer population. there is no direct way of knowing that the age structure of the hunter-killed deer represents the age structure of the deer population at large. however, sampling hunter-kills is the most practical means available for gaining an index to the age structure of the existing herd. further, there are three indirect pieces of evidence indicating that the hunter-kill sample represents the actual age structure of the population, just as maguire and severinghaus (1954) found in new york. first, our sample has the basic theoretical form expected of a stable deer herd; i.e., the youngest year class contained the most members, and each older cohort included fewer (fig. 7). second, the age structure of our sample has the same form as most other deer age structures from widely diverse areas, (ontario, pimlott _et al._ 1969; southern minnesota, erickson _et al._ 1961; massachusetts, shaw 1951). third, there is no reason to believe that in our area rifle hunting is especially selective for any particular age classes. in talking with large numbers of hunters, we have learned that most shoot at any and all deer they happen to see. even if the age structure of the hunter-kill sample did not approximate that of the actual herd, the comparison of the wolf-kill with the theoretical population dictates the same conclusion: the rate of kill of older deer by wolves was several times greater than that of younger deer, excluding fawns (fig. 13). in any case, if the actual deer population in our study area had an age structure similar to that of our sample of wolf-kills (which would be the only age structure that would contradict our conclusion), its numbers would be declining by orders of magnitude each year, and there would now be only a remnant population. such obviously is not the case. the only other question that might arise from a comparison of the age structure of our wolf-killed deer with that of the hunter-killed deer concerns the area from which each sample was taken. fifty of our wolf-kills came from a region almost inaccessible to hunters (fig. 1). however, the other 92 came from the same general area as the hunter-kills. nevertheless, there was no statistically significant difference in age structure between the wolf-kills from the wilderness versus those from the hunted area (table 1). this fact also suggests that the human hunting in the area is relatively light and has little effect on the age structure of the deer population in the area. wolves may also be taking a disproportionately high number of fawns, although our data do not show this. nevertheless, there may be a bias against fawns in our method. it is not unusual to discover the remains of a wolf-killed deer so completely eaten that there is no indication left of the animal's age. because fawns often are only about half the size of adult deer, and their skeletons have not yet completely ossified, the chances are better that fawns will be more completely eaten. pimlott _et al._ (1969) also recognized this possible bias, although their data did indicate that wolves were killing a higher percentage of fawns than occurred in the population. our study does support the other conclusion of pimlott _et al._ (1969), based on a study of 331 kills, that wolf predation on deer during winter shows a definite selection for older animals. it does not agree with the tentative conclusion of stenlund (1955) that wolves in the superior national forest do not prey disproportionately on old deer. however, stenlund's conclusion was based on 36 kills and on the assumption that only deer at least 7 years old were "old." deer 5 years old and older composed 33 percent of stenlund's sample, a figure considerably higher than the 10 percent in these age classes in our hunter-kill sample (table 4). thus stenlund's data do not contradict our conclusion. the age of 5 years seems to be the beginning of the period of vulnerability for adult deer. although 5 years might not seem especially old, there are two aspects of significance concerning deer of this age and older. first, they are in the second half of the life span for most members of the species, and their alertness and ability to bolt quickly away might be expected to decline. it is of interest in this regard that klein and olson (1960, p. 87) believed 5 years of age to be "the upper limit of physiological efficiency" of black-tailed deer (_odocoileus hemionus_) in alaska. second, up to the age of at least 4-1/2 years, and perhaps beyond, the apparent weight-load-on-track of deer increases with age (kelsall 1969). thus older deer would sink farther into the snow than younger ones, and their escape might be slowed and hindered more. for further discussion of the effect of snow on the vulnerability of deer, see mech _et al._ (p. 51). sex ratio statistical tests comparing a number of subsamples of both wolf-killed deer and hunter-killed deer showed a series of significantly different sex ratios (tables 1-3). the ratio of males to females in the fawn cohort of the hunter-kill, which is probably the most representative of the actual fawn sex ratio, was even (table 2). with wolf-kills, however, a significantly higher percentage of females was taken in the fawn subsample (59 percent) than in the adult subsample (46 percent). these results compare favorably with those of stenlund (1955), who found that from 1948 to 1953 in the same area as the present study 68 percent of 19 sexable fawn wolf-kills were females and 44 percent of 63 sexable adult wolf-kills were females. if the sex ratio of fawns began even, and more females than males were killed by wolves, then a higher proportion of males would be left in the adult population, unless some other mortality factor kills more male fawns. thus it is not surprising that in the wilderness area, where little or no hunting is done, the sex ratio of wolf-kills in the adult cohort is significantly heavy toward males (71 percent: 29 percent). this was also true of the wolf-kills in algonquin provincial park, where males made up 57 percent of the total sexable wolf-kill (pimlott _et al._ 1969). the latter figure may even have been higher if calculated for adults alone, for a preponderance of female fawns in the algonquin park data (such as occurred in our and stenlund's samples) would tend to obscure the preponderance of males in the adult sample. the adult subsample of hunter-kills also contained a higher percentage of males (66 percent : 34 percent). although this might also reflect the influence of wolf predation on female fawns, it probably is more a result of the greater movement of bucks during the hunting season, which overlaps with the rutting season. even the sex ratio of adult deer killed in wolf-free areas shows a preponderance of males (erickson _et al._ 1961). however, it appears that the higher harvest of bucks by human hunters does markedly affect the sex ratio of the deer population in the hunted area, for the wolf-kill of adults in that area contained a significantly higher percentage of does (56 percent) than did the wolf-kill of adults in the wilderness area (29 percent). evidently the hunter harvest is not heavy enough to affect the age structure of the deer population to any marked degree, for no significant difference in age structure was found between the wolf-kill in the hunted area and that in the wilderness area (table 1). this does not conflict with the conclusion that hunting affects the sex ratio of the deer herd, because it would take much less to influence a population characteristic having two classes (sex) than one having 14 (age). one additional difference in the sex ratio was found between two other subsamples of the wolf-kill--that is, the wolf-kill before and after an unusually high snow accumulation, which reached its peak about february 1, 1969 (table 1). of a total of 77 animals killed before this snow condition occurred (including those from previous years), 38 percent were females. of 44 animals killed after the heavy accumulation, 57 percent were females. one possible explanation for this is that females may normally be less vulnerable to wolf predation, for kelsall (1969) has shown that they probably have a lighter weight-load-on-track than males. thus when snow conditions changed greatly, making deer generally much more vulnerable to wolves (see mech _et al._, p. 35), a preponderance of does suddenly might have become available. there is some evidence that does may be generally less vulnerable under most conditions, for all seven of our wolf-killed deer over 10 years old were females, and the oldest was over 14. condition of wolf-killed deer because the data show that wolves in our study area tend to kill a disproportionate number of older deer, it is not surprising to discover that wolves also tend to capture a disproportionate number of individuals with abnormalities and pathological conditions (table 8). the explanation for such selection is obvious in regard to the abnormalities of the lower limbs (figs. 14-17): deer with injured or abnormal limbs simply cannot run as fast or as agilely as normal animals (table 7). our observations show that deer usually depend on their alertness and speed to escape approaching wolves (mech 1966b, mech _et al._, p. 1). any trait or condition that tended to interfere with either alertness or speed would decrease an individual's chance of escape. it is more difficult to explain how dental abnormalities or pathological conditions of the mandible (figs. 8-10) would predispose an individual to wolf predation. however, in the case of dental abnormalities the genetic or environmental conditions that caused the abnormality might also have caused some other trait that increased the animal's vulnerability. or the abnormal condition itself may have caused a further, more critical, disruption of the animal's physiology or behavior, which in turn predisposed it to wolf predation. the finding of several wolf-kills with poor fat stores could indicate that primary or secondary malnutrition was a factor in the animals' deaths. however, it would take a statistical comparison between the fat stores of the deer at large and those of the wolf-kills to establish this. the discovery that 13 percent of the fawns and 84 percent of the yearlings killed during january, february, and march had not yet shed their deciduous incisors and premolars, respectively, also fits well with the rest of our information. evidently some unusual factor had caused the delay in tooth development and replacement. one possibility is that the animals were born in august or september, much later than normal. although most deer in minnesota are born in may and june, there are records of births in july and august. in addition, a fetus 181 to 200 days old was found in a doe killed on september 26 (erickson _et al._ 1961). an alternate explanation for the delay in tooth replacement is that the animals were suffering from malnutrition or nutrient deficiency. severinghaus[35] has evidence that yearling bucks that have not replaced their deciduous premolars during november, and thus are aged at 17 months (severinghaus 1949), generally have shorter, narrower antlers and fewer points than 18-and 19-month-old individuals. degree of antler development in turn is considered related to nutritional state (latham 1950). thus it is reasonable to conclude that animals behind in tooth development and replacement, whether this is caused by age or diet, are physiologically inferior. most of the abnormal conditions discussed above pertain to the skeletal parts of wolf-kills. if the soft parts of a large number of kills could be examined thoroughly, one might discover a much higher incidence of diseases and other pathological conditions. in conclusion, our data on both age and condition of wolf-killed deer show that at least during winter, wolves in our study area usually do not kill just any deer they discover, although they do try to. evidently, most deer can usually escape wolf predation. the most frequent exceptions are those 5-1/2 years old and older, those born late, those suffering from poor nutrition, those with abnormalities or pathological conditions, and possibly fawns. the above conclusions parallel those of murie (1944), crisler (1956), mech (1966a), and pimlott _et al._ (1969) for wolves preying on dall sheep, caribou, moose, and deer respectively, and further substantiate the claim by mech (1970) that they can be extended to wolves preying on most, if not all, species of large mammals under most conditions. it is also apparent from the data presented above that deer over 5 years of age and those with abnormalities of the jaw or lower limbs represent such a small percentage of the total population that they are seldom taken by human hunters. in this respect, competition between timber wolves and human hunters appears to be minimal in the study area. footnotes: [35] _c. w. severinghaus. unpublished data_. [illustration: _figure 14.--arthritis in right hind foot of specimen m-28. (photo courtesy of university of minnesota veterinary diagnostic laboratory.)_] [illustration: _figure 15.--infection and fibrous mass in a front foot of specimen m-29. (photo courtesy of university of minnesota veterinary diagnostic laboratory.)_] [illustration: _figure 16.--injury to left front foot of specimen m-196. (photo courtesy of l. d. mech)._] [illustration: _figure 17.--healed fracture of left hind leg of specimen m-227. (photo courtesy of university of minnesota veterinary diagnostic laboratory.)_] summary white-tailed deer (_odocoileus virginianus_) killed by wolves (_canis lupus_) during winter in a relatively unhunted wilderness area and in an immediately adjacent hunted area of minnesota were compared with deer killed by hunters in the same general area, and with a hypothetical population. deer killed by wolves were significantly older. statistical comparisons also showed the following: (1) hunters generally killed an even sex ratio of fawns, and a disproportionate number of adult bucks, (2) wolves took a higher percentage of female fawns than female adults, a disproportionate number of bucks in the wilderness area, and a higher percentage of does in the hunted area. the latter fact evidently reflects the higher hunter success on males in the hunted area. significantly higher incidences of abnormalities and pathological conditions of both mandibles and lower limbs were found in wolf-killed deer than in hunter-killed deer, and these conditions are described. it is concluded that wolf predation on white-tailed deer in the study area during winter generally is selective in that it tends to remove members of the prey population that are old, debilitated, or abnormal. apparently these classes of deer represent such a small percentage of the population that they are seldom taken by human hunters. acknowledgments this study was supported by macalester college, the new york zoological society, the minnesota department of conservation, the usda forest service, and the u.s. bureau of sport fisheries and wildlife. pilots robert hodge, pat magie, john winship, jack burgess, don murray, and walt neumann aided substantially in obtaining jaws from wolf-killed deer. students from the macalester college biology department and personnel of the usda forest service and the minnesota department of conservation helped secure mandibles from both wolf-killed and hunter-killed deer. the interest of mr. john e. peninger and of many deer hunters in contributing the jaws is also greatly acknowledged. mr. david w. kuehn sectioned the incisors of the deer jaws and determined their ages. dr. donald m. barnes of the university of minnesota veterinary diagnostic laboratory examined the abnormal lower limbs, described their pathology, and provided photos of specimens used herein. mr. wallace c. dayton and miss elizabeth dayton and the quetico-superior foundation, all of minneapolis, financed mech during the preparation of this paper. the following individuals read the manuscript and offered many helpful suggestions: mr. r. l. downing, mr. c. w. severinghaus, mr. j. m. peek, dr. c. t. cushwa, mr. m. h. stenlund, and dr. r. r. ream. literature cited crisler, lois. 1956. observations of wolves hunting caribou. j. mammal. 37: 337-346. downie, n. m., and heath, r. w. 1959. basic statistical methods. 289 p. new york: harper and bros. erickson, a. b., gunvalson, v. e., stenlund, m. h., burcalow, d. w., and blankenship, l. h. 1961. the white-tailed deer of minnesota. minn. dep. conserv. tech. bull. 5, 64 p. gilbert, f. f. 1966. aging white-tailed deer by annuli in the cementum of the first incisor. j. wildl. manage. 30: 200-202. kelsall, j. p. 1969. structural adaptations of moose and deer for snow. j. mammal. 50: 302-310. klein, d. r., and olson, s. t. 1960. natural mortality patterns of deer in southeast alaska. j. wildl. manage. 24: 80-88. kuehn, d. w. 1970. an evaluation of the wear method as a criterion for aging white-tailed deer. m.s. thesis., univ. minn. latham, r. m. 1950. pennsylvania's deer problem. penn. game news, spec. issue 1. (cited from: allen, d. l. 1962. our wildlife legacy.) maguire, h. f., and severinghaus, c. w. 1954. wariness as an influence on age composition of white-tailed deer killed by hunters. n. y. fish and game j. 1: 98-109. mech, l. d. 1966a. the wolves of isle royale. u.s. nat. park serv. fauna ser. 7, 210 p. mech, l. d. 1966b. hunting behavior of timber wolves in minnesota. j. mammal. 47: 347-348. mech, l. d. 1970. the wolf: the ecology and behavior of an endangered species. 389 p. new york: natural history press, doubleday. mech, l. d., frenzel, l. d., jr., karns, p. d., and kuehn, d. w. 1970. mandibular dental anomalies in white-tailed deer from minnesota. j. mammal. 51: 804-806. murie, a. 1944. the wolves of mount mckinley. u.s. nat. park serv. fauna ser. 5, 238 p. pimlott, d. h., shannon, j. a., and kolenosky, g. b. 1969. the ecology of the timber wolf in algonquin provincial park. ont. dep. lands and forests res. rep. (wildl.) 87, 92 p. ryel, l. a., fay, l. d., and van etten, r. c. 1961. validity of age determination in michigan deer. mich. acad. sci., art, and letters 46: 289-316. severinghaus, c. w. 1949. tooth development and wear as criteria of age in white-tailed deer. j. wildl. manage. 13: 195-216. severinghaus, c. w. 1955. p. r. rep. w-28-r-9: job 1a, april 13, 1955. shaw, s. p. 1951. the effect of insufficient harvests on an island deer herd. n.e. wildl. conf. (mimeo). siegel, s. 1956. non-parametric statistics for the behavioral sciences. 312 p. new york: mcgraw-hill. stenlund, m. h. 1955. a field study of the timber wolf (_canis lupus_) on the superior national forest, minnesota. minn. dep. conserv. tech. bull. 4, 55 p. the effect of snow conditions on the vulnerability of white-tailed deer to wolf predation l. david mech, l. d. frenzel, jr., and p. d. karns wolves (_canis lupus_) and deer (_odocoileus virginianus_) having evolved together, no doubt have become adapted to contending with each other's physical abilities. thus it is not surprising to learn that deer which succumb to wolf predation are generally weaker, older, or abnormal compared with the total deer population (pimlott _et al._ 1969, also see mech and frenzel, p. 35). however, the structural and behavioral adaptations of both species must have evolved under environmental conditions that are average or usual; otherwise, an adjustment of wolf to deer populations, and vice versa, could not have been maintained over long periods. this implies that extreme or unusual conditions might sometimes occur, to which either the wolf or the deer is poorly adapted. one of the most important environmental factors that can influence the interactions of wolves and deer is snow. the total fall, depth on the ground, and the density are all aspects of snow that may vary considerably and affect the ability of wolves to capture deer. recent studies of wolves and deer in northeastern minnesota (see mech _et al._, p. 1, also mech and frenzel, p. 35) afforded us opportunities to investigate the relationships between snow and the interactions of wolves and deer. methods two principal methods of study were used in this investigation. the first involved recording the snow depth and support quality ("penetrability") in feet and tenths of feet (verme 1968). snow measurements were taken during the winters of 1966-67, 1967-68, and 1968-69, in which large differences in snow conditions existed. ten such measurements were made weekly near isabella, minnesota, in an open aspen (_populus tremuloides_) stand away from influences that might have caused drifting or other unusual snow conditions; the measurements were averaged. penetrability was determined with verme's snow-compaction gauge--a 3-foot piece of 1-1/8-inch (outside diameter) copper tube filled with lead to total 3 pounds, which gives a weight per area of 211 gm./cm.^2. to obtain a measurement, the pipe is held vertically with its lower end just flush with the snow, and then is released. the depth to which it sinks is considered the penetrability of the snowpack by a walking deer. although the snow conditions measured at isabella are not representative of the entire study area, year-to-year comparison in the isabella area should also apply generally throughout the region. the second technique used in this study was observing the movements of wolves and deer. this was usually done from low-flying aircraft, and was facilitated by the use of radiotracking, as described by mech _et al._ (p. 1). close inspection of wolf-killed deer was made from the ground (mech and frenzel, p. 35). results and observations snow measurements for each winter are shown in figures 1 through 3. the winter of 1968-69 was the most extreme of the three in terms of accumulated snow, and was generally regarded as having one of the heaviest snowfalls and accumulations on record for the study area. snow depth on the level near isabella reached 3.9 feet at one time, and from january 3 to april 4 it exceeded 2.4 feet. the highest snow level reached during 1966-67 was 2.4 feet, and the highest level reached during 1967-68 was 1.4 feet. in the vicinity of ely, some 30 miles from isabella, the 1968-69 peak accumulation was 39 inches, the highest accumulation since 1948-49 when records were first kept.[36] thus we consider the winters of 1966-67 and 1967-68 to be within the normal range for the study area, and the 1968-69 winter as being most unusual (fig. 4). [illustration: _figure 1.--snow depth and penetrability by deer and wolves near isabella, minnesota, 1966-67._] [illustration: _figure 2.--snow depth and penetrability by deer and wolves near isabella, minnesota, 1967-68._] [illustration: _figure 3.--snow depth and penetrability by deer and wolves near isabella, minnesota, 1968-69._] the snow penetrability in 1966-67 remained high throughout january, february, and march. during the following winter, penetrability fluctuated more, but even at its greatest, it was relatively unimportant to deer because the total snow depth was so low. during 1968-69, however, penetrability was a very important aspect of snow condition. it was so high during late january and early february, when snow accumulation was also at its peak, that a walking deer would be expected to sink in 2.5 to 3.5 feet. snow penetrability then decreased through february and march to a point where a walking deer would sink in approximately 0.6 foot on march 21. however, because snow accumulation remained so high through february and march, the lower penetrability during late february and march still afforded no relief to running deer, because they must exert forces several times as great as when walking. on the contrary, the low penetrability (which is an indirect measure of density) could be expected to hinder a running deer in deep snow, for it would cause much more resistance. [illustration: _figure 4.--during the winter of 1968-69, the snow was unusually deep in the study area. (photo courtesy of l. d. frenzel.)_] deer movements, like snow conditions, varied greatly during the three winters of the study. during the first two winters, deer were generally found singly and in groups of two to six, often around the shores of lakes but also scattered about inland. in late january and february 1967, running deer were observed sinking deeply into snow, but their movements still did not seem to be hindered, no doubt because of the high penetrability (low density) of the snow that year (fig. 1). however, during late january, february, and march of 1969 the deer were much more concentrated, mostly in conifer swamps, along southwest-facing slopes, or on lakes. although groups of two or three animals could be found in scattered inland "pockets" throughout the winter, groups of five or six were not uncommon on lakes during january. the tendency to concentrate continued to increase, and on february 6, as many as 11 deer were observed on one lake; by march 13, group size had increased to as high as 22 deer in the same area. throughout february and march, heavy concentrations of deer tracks covered most wilderness lakes, further evidencing much greater use of shorelines than had occurred in the two previous winters (fig. 5). no doubt deer tended to concentrate on lakes because travel inland became so difficult. on january 28, two deer were seen plowing through snow up to their necks. although the snow began settling in february, and the penetrability decreased, by late february running deer still plunged chest-deep and had to hesitate at every bound. these conditions persisted until about march 26, by which time a surface crust strong enough to hold a running deer had formed. [illustration: _figure 5.--under unusually deep snow conditions, deer used lake shores heavily. (photo courtesy of l. d. mech.)_] in considering wolf mobility in snow, two types of movement must be recognized: the trot used during general travel, and the bounding used while chasing prey. the trot is an easy gait of about 5 m.p.h. on firm footing (mech 1970), and can be continued for hours at a time. during periods of deep snow and high penetrability, most wolf travel is on frozen waterways, roads, snowmobile trails, and animal trails, including the wolves' own pathways, which become well packed with frequent use (fig. 6, 7a, b). such travel was observed during each of the three winters of this study. [illustration: _figure 6.--wolves travel single file in deep snow. (photo courtesy of l. d. mech.)_] [illustration: _figure 7.--(a) a single wolf must break his own trail through the snow. (photo courtesy of l. d. frenzel.) (b) regular use by a pack keeps trails open. (photo courtesy of l. d. mech.)_] the second type of wolf movement affected by snow is the leaping and bounding associated with chasing prey. the shallower angle of the wolf's bound (fig. 8) (compared with that of the deer) often causes the wolf to flounder in snow that presents little hinderance to deer (mech 1970). such was the case in january and february 1967 in our study area. during 1967-68 no observations of wolves chasing deer were made by the authors, but reports by other field workers indicated that running conditions were similar to those of 1967. [illustration: _figure 8.--wolves run at a shallow angle, thus hindering them in deep snow. (photo courtesy of d. h. pimlott.)_] during the winter of 1968-69, wolves also bogged down a great deal in snow when chasing deer. however, after january 1969 the snow was so deep that deer were floundering even more than wolves in many cases. the fact that wolves could run in the trail broken by deer probably also gave the wolves an advantage under the conditions that severely restricted deer movements. the above observations of snow conditions, deer movements, and wolf movements during the three winters of the study are in accord with observations made on the differences in the ability of the wolves to capture deer during the same period. two indices support the conclusion that wolves had a much easier time catching deer during february and march 1969 than earlier in the winter and in the two previous winters: (1) the degree of utilization of wolf-killed deer, and (2) the kill rate of radiotagged wolves. during the winters of 1966-67 and 1967-68, and in december and early january 1968-69, most wolf-killed deer found had been thoroughly eaten, and the bones--if present at all--were well chewed and scattered at each kill (fig. 9). all skin and flesh from the skull were eaten, and the mandible was usually separated from the skull. during late february and early march 1967, few fresh kills were even found, and wolves were returning several times to old kills that had been cleaned up many days before. [illustration: _figure 9.--usually the remains of a wolf kill are well chewed and scattered before the wolves abandon them. (photo courtesy of l. d. mech.)_] [illustration: _figure 10.--during a period of especially deep snow, wolves abandoned many kills before pulling apart the skeletons. (photo courtesy of l. d. mech.)_] however, in late january 1969 a substantial change began taking place. the skeletons of most kills found were almost intact, the flesh having been eaten from around the bones (fig. 10). appreciably more skin was usually left on the carcass, especially on the side lying on the snow, and the neck and head were generally intact. this was true even of fawns, which in the past often were almost completely consumed. in several cases, only about half of the flesh had been eaten from the carcasses. on february 2, 1969, four deer recently killed by wolves were found along a 1-1/2-mile stretch of birch lake and nearby polaris lake (minnesota-ontario border). one large doe was completely uneaten and remained so for at least 24 hours after discovery from the air. further, one fawn had only a few pounds of flesh eaten, a yearling doe was half eaten, and another fawn was about 75 percent eaten. hazardous landing conditions during this period severely limited the number of carcasses that could be examined from the ground, but on february 6 a yearling doe was discovered that had only about 5 to 10 pounds of flesh eaten, and on february 8 an adult doe was found that was completely intact except for wounds. in past winters some kills had been located that had been only partly eaten, but in each case the carcasses were soon revisited and cleaned up (mech 1970). this was often not the case in 1969. for the rest of the winter most of the deer killed by wolves in our study area were not as completely consumed as in previous winters. pimlott _et al._ (1969) found a similar relationship between the severity of the winter and the degree to which wolf-killed deer were utilized. correlated with the above information was the kill history of our radiotagged wolves (mech _et al._, p. 1). from december 1968 through january 1969 no. 1051 had killed three or possibly four deer, and generally had spent 6 or 7 days feeding on each. however, throughout most of february this animal visited a new deer carcass (which presumably he killed) every 3 days, and he spent only 1 or 2 days at each. in two cases two new carcasses were found in the immediate vicinity of this animal during the same day, and in each case the wolf spent only 1 day in the area. a second wolf (1053) which had spent most of december and january scavenging on the remains of both deer and moose (_alces alces_) that had died long before, made her first known kill of a deer on january 31, 1969. the kill rate of the other three radiotagged wolves also increased, although the data for them are less complete. the average kill rate for all radiotagged wolves and their associates was one deer per wolf per 16 to 20 days before february 1, and one per 8 to 12 days after february 1 (see mech _et al._, p. 1). footnotes: [36] _m. h. stenlund. personal correspondence to l. d. mech, oct. 10, 1969._ discussion and conclusions under usual snow conditions throughout most of the range of the white-tailed deer, healthy vigorous individuals can probably escape most attacks by wolves. observations by mech (1966), rutter and pimlott (1968), and mech _et al._ (p. 1) indicate that a high percentage of attempts by wolves to kill deer during winter are unsuccessful. this is further implied by the figures of pimlott _et al._ (1969) and mech and frenzel (p. 35) showing that at least during winter wolves tend to kill a disproportionate number of old deer as well as those with various abnormalities and pathological conditions. however, during a winter with extremely deep snow, the usual relationships seem to change somewhat. fewer deer are able to escape wolves, and a surplus is killed. this means that some individuals not vulnerable under the usual snow conditions become vulnerable during extreme conditions. there are two main possible reasons for this, the effect of the extreme weather conditions on the health and vigor of the deer, and the physical effect of the snow on the escapability of the deer. in regard to the first possibility, there was limited evidence that during february and march 1969 some fawns and yearlings in our study area were losing their fat stores. two of three yearlings, and both fawns intact enough for examination during this period lacked back fat, and the marrow in one of six fawn femurs was partly fat depleted. nevertheless, the third yearling inspected still had back fat, and a 3-1/2-year-old doe had heavy omental, renal, heart, and back fat during the same period. thus, although an abnormal decline in the physical condition of some deer in the late winter might partly account for the increased kill by wolves during february and march 1969, the effect of snow on the escapability of the deer probably was also involved. the key difference in snow conditions between the two periods--(1) the winters of 1966-67, 1967-68, and december-january 1968-69, and (2) february and march 1969--was the heavy, persisting accumulation of snow during the latter period, combined with the increasing density of the snow. as our observations show, this greatly hindered the movements of deer fleeing from wolves. under more usual conditions, a running deer might sink through the snow to the ground and thus obtain a firm footing from which to spring again. in discussing wolf-caribou relations in snow, kelsall (1968, p. 249) stated the following: "while caribou (_rangifer tarandus_) will sink into snow even deeper than wolves, their longer legs permit them to run efficiently where a wolf will bog down. nasimovich (1955) considered that roe deer and sika deer could be taken by wolves when snow was not more than 30 cm. (11.8 inches) in depth. at depths above that their pursuit becomes difficult or fruitless." however, it appears that when snow becomes extremely deep, wolves then gain the advantage. with 22 to 48 inches or more of snow to plow through, a deer would have trouble even touching a firm foundation. according to kelsall (1969), deer measure only 20 to 24 inches from hoof tip to chest, with legs extended. it is true that wolves stand even shorter than deer and so might be expected to flounder even more. however, this is where another factor becomes important, the "weight-load-on-track" or total weight per area of track. as kelsall (1969) has pointed out, the mean weight-load-on-track for deer is extremely difficult to measure directly, because the actual under-surface of the deer's foot slants vertically, and a much greater area may be used to support an animal in snow than on a hard surface. this probably explains the discrepancy between kelsall's measurements and work done by verme (1968) in michigan. according to kelsall, deer weight-load-on-track (hoof only) varies between 431 and 1,124 gm./cm.^2. however, verme stated that his compaction gauge (with a weight load of about 211 gm./cm.^2, described earlier in this paper) sank in virtually the same amount in snow as did deer. under the snow conditions in our study area, we found that the same type of compaction gauge generally penetrated to a depth within a half inch of that to which deer were sinking. on this basis, it seems reasonable to suggest that a deer in snow is supported by more of its foot than just the hoof, and that the actual weight-load-on-track of deer in snow is about 211 gm./cm.^2. for wolves, this measure varies from 89 to 103 gm./cm.^2 (foromozov 1946). this means that for the same amount of force applied during running, a wolf would have twice as much support as a deer. it also means that in deep snow a walking wolf generally is much less restricted than a walking deer. late in february 1969, for example, when deer were seriously limited in their ability to travel, wolves were able to travel widely (mech _et al._, p. 1). even though wolves have much greater support than deer, when running they still sink into the snow almost as much as deer under most conditions, probably because both run with such force that snow usually offers little support. nevertheless, with extremely deep snow, the difference in support factor between wolves and deer could become critical, and this is probably what happened during february and march 1969. with deer seriously restrained by the deep snow, even a slight advantage in favor of the wolf could increase hunting success. a high snow density during that period would accentuate this advantage. this is because until the snow becomes dense enough to hold a running deer, each increase in density would further the advantage of the wolf, which would require only half the density to support it, while it would hinder the deer. one result of the extreme snow conditions of early 1969 was that deer tended to gravitate to lakes, where snow was shallow and footing was firm. initially upon disturbance by human beings, and probably by wolves, these deer usually headed inland, but it is apparent from a number of kills examined that when pressed hard by wolves inland, deer headed out onto lakes where possible. apparently they could run there with better footing. however, frozen lakes also provide wolves with good running conditions, and even seem to give them an advantage (rutter and pimlott 1968, mech 1970), so many of these deer were killed (fig. 11). stenlund (1955, p. 44) reported as follows on years of low snowfall, the opposite condition, which demonstrated the same relationship between snow depth and kills on lakes: "the winters of 1951-52 and 1952-53 were abnormally mild with little early snow. as a result, few wolf-killed deer appeared on the lakes and most deer attempted to outrun wolves in the woods." [illustration: _figure 11.--on frozen lakes, wolves often seem to have the advantage over deer, such as in this case where the wolf (center) has just killed a deer and is trying to discourage a raven from joining him in the feed. (photo courtesy of l. d. frenzel_.)] thus it appears that extreme snow conditions in our study area increase the vulnerability of deer to wolf predation in three ways: (1) by causing a decline in the health and nutritional state of some members of the deer population; (2) by hindering the escapability of the deer; and (3) by causing deer to congregate on frozen lakes where wolves have the advantage in running. summary during the winters of 1966-67, 1967-68, and 1968-69, the interactions of wolves (_canis lupus_) and white-tailed deer (_odocoileus virginianus_) were observed in northeastern minnesota from aircraft. snow depth and supporting ability were also measured during these winters, and the ability of wolves to capture deer was compared for a period of usual snow conditions versus a period of extreme snow conditions. it was found that during february and march 1969, when snow remained from 2.5 to 3.9 feet deep and failed to support running deer, wolves were able to capture deer more easily. this was evidenced by kills that were left partly or completely uneaten, and by a higher rate of predation by radiotagged wolves and their associates. although both wolves and deer floundered in the extremely deep snow, the relatively lighter weight-load-on-track of wolves evidently gave them a greater advantage than under the usual snow conditions, when wolves were observed floundering more than deer. this factor, plus a decline in the health and vigor of some segments of the deer population and a tendency for deer to congregate on frozen lakes, where wolves have an advantage, help explain the increased vulnerability of deer to wolf predation during the winters of deep snow. acknowledgments this study was supported by macalester college, the minnesota department of conservation, the usda forest service, the u.s. bureau of sport fisheries and wildlife, and the new york zoological society. pilots john winship, pat magie, jack burgess, and don murray flew the observation planes during radiotracking. miss elizabeth dayton, mr. wallace c. dayton, and the quetico-superior foundation, all of minneapolis, financed mech during the writing of this report. thanks are also due l. j. verme, j. p. kelsall, and j. m. peek for their helpful reviews. literature cited foromozov, a. n. 1946. the snow cover as an environment factor and its importance in the life of mammals and birds. (moskovskoe obshchestvo ispytatelei priroda) materialy k poznaniyu fauny i flory sssr, otdel. zool. n. 5 (xx). (translation from russian published by boreal institute, univ. alberta, edmonton, alberta.) kelsall, j. p. 1968. the caribou. can. wildl. serv. monog. 3, 340 p. kelsall, j. p. 1969. structural adaptations of moose and deer for snow. j. mammal. 50: 302-310. mech, l. d. 1966. hunting behavior of wolves in minnesota. j. mammal. 47: 347-348. mech, l. d. 1970. the wolf: the ecology and behavior of an endangered species. 389 p. new york: natural history press, doubleday. nasimovich, a. a. 1955. the role of the regime of snow cover in the life of ungulates in the u.s.s.r. moskva, akademiya nauk sssr. 403 p. pimlott, d. h., shannon, j. a., and kolenosky, g. b. 1969. the ecology of the timber wolf in algonquin provincial park. out. dep. lands and forests res. rep. (wildl.) 87, 92 p. rutter, r. j., and pimlott, d. h. 1968. the world of the wolf. 202 p. philadelphia and new york: j. b. lippincott co. stenlund, m. h. 1955. a field study of the timber wolf (_canis lupus_) on the superior national forest, minnesota. minn. conserv. dep. tech. bull. 4, 55 p. verme, l. j. 1968. an index of winter severity for northern deer. j. wildl. manage. 32: 566-574. the possible occurrence of the great plains wolf in northeastern minnesota l. david mech and l. d. frenzel, jr. the timber wolf (_canis lupus_) of northeastern minnesota occupies an area within the range given by goldman (1944) for the eastern timber wolf (_c. l. lycaon_ schreber). however, this area is within 150 miles of the eastern edge of the former range of the great plains wolf (_c. l. nubilus_ say), and there is some question as to whether the minnesota wolf is really an intergrade between these two subspecies. writing of _nubilus_, goldman (1944, p. 444) stated: "specimens from eastern minnesota and michigan seem more properly referable to _lycaon_, but relationship to _nubilus_ is shown in somewhat intermediate characters." in describing _lycaon_ as basically a gray wolf, goldman made no mention of the occurrence of black or white color phases in that subspecies. however, in discussing _nubilus_, goldman (1944, p. 442) wrote the following: "many color variations are presented. individuals may be nearly white at any season, except for a sprinkling of black hairs over the back, a small, narrow, but conspicuous, black patch over the tail gland, and a more or less distinctly black tip. black individuals may occur in the same litter with those normally colored." goldman also referred to _nubilus_ as "now probably extinct." [illustration: _figure 1.--a few wolves observed in the study area were jet black. (photo courtesy of l. d. mech.)_] in the eastern part of the range of _lycaon_, color phases other than gray appear to be rare as rutter and pimlott (1969, p. 188) attest: "the uniformity of the color of timber wolves in many areas is evidenced by the work in algonquin park, in ontario. there, over the past eight years, dozens of packs have been observed from the air. however, we have never been able to discriminate between any of them on the basis of the color variation of individual animals." thus it seems significant to report on incidences of black and white color phases in wolves that we have observed in northeastern minnesota during some 480 hours of flying associated with wolf research (mech _et al._, p. 1). the observations took place in the superior national forest, in northern cook, lake, and st. louis counties during the winters of 1966-67, 1967-68, and 1968-69. a total of 309 sightings were made of wolves that could be classified by color; of these, 11 (3.6 percent) were jet black (fig. 1) and two (0.6 percent) were creamish white, with the cream color the most intense on the back. no doubt some of the grays, and perhaps the blacks and whites, were repeated observations, but the figures should provide a reasonable approximation of the incidence of these color phases in this area. all black or white animals except one were observed with gray wolves (table 1 and fig. 2). a number of black wolves, and a few white wolves, have been seen by other observers, all in the three counties listed earlier. to gain some idea of the past incidence of these color phases in the same general area, we asked conservation officers robert hodge, robert jacobsen, and frank baltich of the ely, minnesota, area about the numbers of each phase that they took before 1960. they reported killing an approximate total of 580 wolves, of which four were black and three were white or creamish white. _table 1.--observations of wolves of black and white color phases_ +--------------+-------------------------+--------------------------+ | date | location | color combinations | | | | within each pack | +--------------+-------------------------+--------------------------+ |feb. 24, 1967 t64n-r8w-s1 vera lake 3 grays; 1 black; 1 white| |mar. 4, 1967 t63n-r9w-s27 lake two 3 grays; 2 blacks | |dec. 18, 1968 t63n-r8w-s35 lake insula 2 grays; 2 blacks[37] | |jan. 17, 1969 t65n-r8w-s27 carp lake 1 gray; 1 white | |feb. 1, 1969 t63n-r8w-s13 lake insula 4 blacks; 2 grays[38] | |feb. 5, 1969 t63n-r8w-s8 benezie lake 1 black | |feb. 6, 1969 t63n-r10w-s33 clear lake 3 grays; 1 black | +--------------+-------------------------+--------------------------+ footnotes: [37] these animals were near the shore of the lake, so others may have been inland where they could not be seen. [38] this group might well have been the same as that seen on dec. 18, 1968. [illustration: _figure 2.--a pack of four blacks with two grays (first and third). (photo courtesy of john winship.)_] because black and white color phases have rarely if ever been reported for _lycaon_, yet were well known for _nubilus_, it is not unreasonable to conclude that the race of wolves now occupying northeastern minnesota does show strong _nubilus_ influence. goldman examined the skulls only of 10 minnesota specimens assignable to _lycaon_ and only one referable to _nubilus_. because wolves in the known range of _nubilus_ are thought to be extinct, and because the animals in northeastern minnesota are legally unprotected and subject to a control program, it seems highly desirable that the question of their taxonomy be studied intensively while specimens are still available. acknowledgments this study was supported by macalester college, the new york zoological society, the minnesota department of conservation, the u.s. bureau of sport fisheries and wildlife, and the usda forest service. mr. wallace c. dayton and miss elizabeth dayton, and the quetico-superior foundation, all of minneapolis, financed mech during the preparation of this paper. we would also like to thank dr. j. l. paradiso, dr. h. l. gunderson, and mr. m. h. stenlund for reviewing this manuscript. literature cited goldman, e. a. 1944. the wolves of north america, part ii. classification of wolves. p. 389-636. washington, d.c.: the amer. wildl. inst. pimlott, d. h., shannon, j. a., and kolenosky, g. b. 1969. the ecology of the timber wolf in algonquin provincial park. ont. dep. lands and forests res. pap. (wildl.) 87, 94 p. some recent research papers of the north central forest experiment station tree improvement opportunities in the north-central states related to economic trends, a problem analysis, by david h. dawson and john a. pitcher. usda forest serv. res. pap. nc-40, 30 p., illus. 1970. relation between the national fire danger spread component and fire activity in the lake states, by donald a. haines, william a. main, and von j. johnson. usda forest serv. res. pap. nc-41, 8 p., illus. 1970. thinning and fertilizing red pine to increase growth and cone production, by john h. cooley. usda forest serv. res. pap. nc-42, 8 p., illus. 1970. the impact of estimation errors on evaluations of timber production opportunities, by dennis l. schweitzer. usda forest serv. res. pap. nc-43, 18 p., illus. 1970. user evaluation of campgrounds on two michigan national forests, by robert c. lucas. usda forest serv. res. pap. nc-44, 15 p., illus. 1970. system identification principles in studies of forest dynamics, by rolfe a. leary. usda forest serv. res. pap. nc-45, 38 p., illus. 1970. skiing in the great lakes state: the industry and the skier, by william a. leuschner. usda forest serv. res. pap. nc-46, 42 p., illus. 1970. proceedings of the ninth lake states forest tree improvement conference, august 22-23, 1969. usda forest serv. res. pap. nc-47, 34 p. 1970. a water curtain for controlling experimental forest fires, by von j. johnson. usda forest serv. res. pap. nc-48, 7 p., illus. 1970. wildness ecology: a method of sampling and summarizing data for plant community classification, by lewis f. ohmann and robert r. ream. usda forest serv. res. pap. nc-49, 14 p., illus. 1970. about the forest service.... as our nation grows, people expect and need more from their forests--more wood; more water, fish, and wildlife; more recreation and natural beauty; more special forest products and forage. the forest service of the u.s. department of agriculture helps to fulfill these expectations and needs through three major activities: [illustration] · conducting forest and range research at over 75 locations ranging from puerto rico to alaska to hawaii. · participating with all state forestry agencies in cooperative programs to protect, improve, and wisely use our country's 395 million acres of state, local, and private forest lands. · managing and protecting the 187-million acre national forest system. the forest service does this by encouraging use of the new knowledge that research scientists develop; by setting an example in managing, under sustained yield, the national forests and grasslands for multiple use purposes; and by cooperating with all states and with private citizens in their efforts to achieve better management, protection, and use of forest resources. traditionally, forest service people have been active members of the communities and towns in which they live and work. they strive to secure for all, continuous benefits from the country's forest resources. for more than 60 years, the forest service has been serving the nation as a leading natural resource conservation agency. * * * * * transcriber's notes this is a compilation of four separate reports, each having their own table and figure numbers. i have retained the original table and figure numbers due to all the references made to them within the text. however i did reindex the footnotes for the complete compilation. i made minor punctuation corrections, modified the table formats, moved some illustrations, and made the following typo corrections: table of contents: changed "occurence" to "occurrence". originally: the possible occurence of the great plains wolf in northeastern minnesota page 5: added missing parenthesis after "individuals". originally: the same color (with the exception of a few black or white individuals (see mech and frenzel, page 60) page 27, deleted repeated word "the". originally: when still on the the ice about 15 feet from shore, page 34, literature cited: changed "vegetatation" to "vegetation". originally: ohmann, l. f., and ream, r. r. 1969 vegetatation studies in the bwca page 37: changed "repreductive" to "reproductive". originally: lungs, liver, kidneys, repreductive tracts page 40: changed "wildnerness" to "wilderness". originally: while in the wildnerness more males were taken page 41: changed "decidous" to "deciduous". originally: the deciduous first incisors of fawns and the decidous page 42: changed "end" to "and". originally: from wolf-killed deer end examined grossly in the field page 42, figure 9: changed "discoverd" to "discovered". originally: a permanent first premolar (arrow) was discoverd in m-8. page 47: changed "wildnerness" to "wilderness". originally: not surprising that in the wildnerness area page 57, footnote 36: deleted duplicate "to". originally: personal correspondence to to l. d. mech, oct. 10, 1969. page 58: changed "diffference" to "difference". originally: nevertheless, with extremely deep snow, the diffference page 59, literature cited: changed "roll" to "role". originally: nasimovich, a. a. 1955. the roll of the regime of snow practical forestry in the pacific northwest protecting existing forests and growing new ones, from the standpoint of the public and that of the lumberman, with an outline of technical methods. by e. t. allen forester for the western forestry & conservation association (formerly u. s. district forester for oregon, washington and alaska) issued by the western forestry & conservation association office of the forester 421 yeon building, portland, oregon. 1911 preface what this book is about and why the object of this booklet is to present the elementary principles of forest conservation as they apply on the pacific coast from montana to california. there is a keen and growing interest in this subject. citizens of the western states are beginning to realize that the forest is a community resource and that its wasteful destruction injures their welfare. lumbermen are coming to regard timber land not as a mine to be worked out and abandoned, but as a possible source of perpetual industry. they find little available information, however, as to how these theories can be reduced to actual practice. the western forestry and conservation association believes it can render no more practical service than by being the first to outline for public use definite workable methods of forest management applicable to western conditions. a publication of this length can give little more than an outline, but attempt has been made either to answer the most obvious questions which suggest themselves to timber owners interested in forest preservation or to guide the latter in finding their own answers. only the most reliable conservative information has been drawn on, much of it having been collected by the government. while the booklet is intended to be of use chiefly to forest owners, a chapter on the advantage to the community of a proper state forest policy is included, also a chapter on tree growing by farmers. the first presents the economic relation of forest preservation to public welfare, with its problems of fire prevention, taxation and reforestation; for the use of writers, legislators, voters, or others desiring to investigate this subject of growing public concern. it is based upon the conclusions of the best unprejudiced authorities who have approached these problems from the public standpoint. in the technical chapters on forest management and its possibilities, the author accepts full responsibility for conclusions drawn except when otherwise noted. to the forest service, however, is entitled the credit for collecting practically all the growth and yield figures upon which these conclusions are based. especial acknowledgement is due to mr. j. f. kümmel for information on tree planting. in concluding this preface, the author regrets that the booklet which it introduces was necessarily written hurriedly, a page or two at a time, at odd hours taken from the work of a busy office. for this reason its style and management leaves much to be desired, but it has been thought better to make the information it contains immediately available than to await a doubtful opportunity to rewrite it. contents preface what this book is about, and why. introduction what we have in the west. what we are doing with it. does it pay? chapter i. forestry and the public importance of forests as a community resource. wealth their manufacture brings to all industries. value as source of tax revenue. our interest as consumers. real issue not property protection but conditions of life for all. particularly favorable natural forest conditions on pacific coast. present policy of waste. fire loss. idleness of deforested land. action we must take. fire prevention. reforestation. tax reform. public responsibility. essentials of needed state policy. duty of the average citizen. chapter ii. forestry and the lumberman economic principles governing forest production. supply and demand. lumberman must consider. both profit of forestry and popular demand for its practice. consumer must pay for growing timber. attitude of state will become more encouraging. how all this affects the lumberman. should plan for meeting the situation. circumstances that determine profit. who can afford to reforest cut-over land? chapter iii. forestry and the forest technical and practical problems. elementary principles of forest growth. fundamental systems of management. nature as a model. logging to insure another crop. natural and artificial reproduction. details of management for each western species. seeding and planting. costs and carrying charges. rate of growth. probable financial returns. hardwood experiments. chapter iv. forestry and the fire hazard the slashing menace. brush piling. slash burning. fire lines. spark arrestors. patrol. associate effort. young growth as a fire guard. chapter v. forestry and the farmer cutting methods on the wooded farm. best use of poor forest land. the handling of fire in clearing. planting on treeless farms. species most promising for fuel and improvement material. windbreaks to prevent evaporation of soil moisture. methods and cost of tree growing. appendix tax reforms to permit reforestation. opinions of expert authorities. the western forestry and conservation association. its organization and objects. introduction where we stand today what we have _the five states of montana, idaho, washington, oregon and california contain half the merchantable timber in the united states today--a fact of startling economic significance._ it means first of all that here is an existing resource of incalculable local and national value. it means also that here lies the most promising field of production for all time. the wonderful density and extent of our western forests are not accidental, but result because climatic and other conditions are the most favorable in the world for forest growth. in just the degree that they excel forests elsewhere is it easier to make them continue to do so. what we are doing with it _on the other hand, forest fires in montana, idaho, washington, oregon and california destroy annually, on an average, timber which if used instead of destroyed would bring forty million dollars to their inhabitants, idleness of burned and cut-over land represents a direct loss almost as great._ these are actual money losses to the community. so is the failure of revenue through the destruction of a tax resource. equally important, and hardly less direct, is the injury to agricultural and industrial productiveness which depends upon a sustained supply of wood and water. does it pay? practically all this loss is unnecessary. other countries have stopped the forest fire evil. other countries have found a way to make forest land continue to grow forest. consequently we can. it is clearly only a question of whether it is worth while. let us consider this question, not only in its relation to posterity or to the lumberman, but from the standpoint of the average citizen of the west today. chapter i forestry and the public timber means pay checks _forest wealth is community wealth._ the public's interest in it is affected very little by the passage of timber lands into private ownership, for all the owner can get out of them is the stumpage value. the people get everything else. our forests earn nothing except by being cut and shipped to the markets of the world. of the price received for them usually much less than a fifth is received by the owner. nearly all goes to pay for labor and supplies here at home. _even now, when the western lumber industry is insignificant compared to what it will be soon, it brings over $125,000,000 a year into these five states._ this immense revenue flows through every artery of labor, commerce and agriculture; in the open farming countries as well as in the timbered districts. it is shared alike by laborer, farmer, merchant, artisan and professional man. it is their greatest source of income, for lumber is the chief product which, being sold elsewhere, actually brings in outside money. that it is essential to the prosperity of every citizen to have this contribution to his livelihood continue requires no argument. from the manufacturing point of view alone, our forest resources are as important to everyone of us as to the lumberman, and in many ways more so, for if they are exhausted he can move or change his business; while the dependent industries cannot. but our welfare is at stake in a dozen other ways also. our interest as consumers every person who uses wood, whether to build, fence, burn, box his goods, or timber his mine, is directly interested in a cheap and plentiful supply of timber. _every acre burned, every cut-over acre lying idle, raises the price for him without furnishing any revenue with which to help pay it. every acre saved from fire, every acre of young growth, lowers it for him and puts money in circulation besides._ similarly, the cost to the consumer of most articles of every day necessity is directly affected by the connection of forest material with their production. wood and water are almost as essential to mining as are, hence influence the price of metals. in the form of fuel, buildings, or boxes, if not as an actual constituent of the product itself, wood supply bears a like relation to almost every industry. every reduction of the lumber traffic which helps support our railroads, or of their supply of poles, ties and car material, tends to raise the cost of our groceries and other rail-transported commodities. school lands most of our western states have immense areas of forested grant lands, the sale of timber from which supports the public schools and other state institutions. destruction of this asset is a direct blow to these institutions which can be only partially met by increased taxation. the farmer has the most at stake in the case of western agriculture, the relation to the forest is fundamental and inseparable. enough has been said to show that because of its importance as a sustaining industry lumber manufacture is a prodigious factor in creating a market for farm products, also that the cost of all articles used by the farmer is cheapened by forest preservation. _but back of this lies the all-important dependence of western agriculture upon irrigation. we must save the forests that store the waters._ of particular significance to the farmer, too, is the tremendous importance of forests as a source of tax revenue to help support state and county government. the cost of government is growing as our population grows. taxable property grows mainly in the cities. elsewhere we confront the problem of diminishing timber to tax and consequent heavier and heavier burden on farm property. _it will be a bad situation for the farmer if the timber is all destroyed and he has to pay all the taxes, as well as a higher price for his buildings, fences and fruit boxes. every acre of timber burned or wasted hastens this day._ the conservation thus suggested does not mean non-use of ripe timber, but does mean protecting it from useless waste and destruction, and replacing it by reforestation when it is used. conditions of life the real issue involved lack of space forbids recounting many other ways in which the forest question touches the average citizen. it enters into our prospects of development, our investment values and our insurance rates. like the keystone of an arch, or the link of a chain, forests cannot be destroyed without the collapse of the entire fabric. their preservation is not primarily a property question, but a principle of public economy, dealing with one of the elements of human existence and progress. _failure to treat it as such means harder conditions of life, a handicap of industry; not only for our children, but for us as well._ it all sums up to this: on every acre of western forest destroyed by fire, or that fails to grow where it might grow, _we, the citizens of the west who are not lumbermen, bear fully eighty per cent of the direct loss_ and sustain serious further injury to our general safety and profit. how we throw away millions notwithstanding the above facts, we allow $40,000,000 which we and our families should share to vanish every year, leaving nothing more enduring than a pall of smoke from canada to the mexican line. the great area thus denuded uselessly, with that which produced public wealth through lumber manufacture, _together having been capable of affording a community resource of $165,000,000_, are abandoned to lie idle and a menace to remaining timber. it is exactly as though the owner of a 165-acre orchard should destroy forty acres wantonly and also abandon the rest, unfenced, uncultivated and uncared for. the one waste is as unnecessary as the other. our pacific coast forests owe their unparalleled productiveness to a peculiarly fortunate combination of climate and rapid growing species unknown elsewhere. nowhere else is forest reproduction so swift and certain. nowhere can it be secured with so little effort and expense. a little forethought in cutting methods and protection of the cut-over area from recurring fires, and an early second crop is assured. saw timber can be grown in forty to seventy-five years; ties, mine timber and piles in less. how we might make immense profit instead. it is reasonable to suppose that, although the quality may be inferior to that of the old forest removed now, timber scarcity will make a second cut in sixty years equally profitable per acre. therefore, if the area denuded annually at present were encouraged to reforest and protected, it should at the end of that period again yield $165,000,000 to the community. each year's growth at present would be worth a sixtieth of that sum, or $2,750,000. _if given any chance to do so, the area deforested in only ten years would actually earn the people of our five western forest states $27,500,000 a year._ almost nothing is being done to make it do so. as the result of the same popular neglect, this annual loss of nearly twenty-eight millions of dollars is added to that of forty millions caused by destruction of merchantable timber by fire, and the injury to tax revenue, water supply and countless dependent industries still remain to be reckoned. and to this sacrifice of wealth we add that of scores of human lives, incredible suffering, and the wiping out of homes and villages by forest fires. plain words for our present policy let us draw a parallel: if riot or invasion should sweep our pacific coast states, killing unprotected settlers, plundering banks and treasuries of $40,000,000 of the people's savings and business capital, and by destroying the producing power of commercial enterprise reduce the community's income by twenty-eight millions more, the catastrophe would startle the world. if this stupendous disaster should threaten to recur the following year and every year thereafter indefinitely, annually taking $67,000,000 from the earnings of the people, diminishing their invested wealth and paralyzing their industries, the situation would be unbearable. it would dominate the minds of men, women and children. all else would be forgotten in their preparation for defense. _forest fire destruction is a danger in every way as real and immediate as riot or invasion, equally measurable in losses to us today and more far reaching in effect upon future prosperity. although less sensational, it demands no less prompt action._ the action we must take the foregoing facts prove that our present forest policy is unprofitable to the state and its citizens. what, then, is the remedy? at first thought it may seem that the responsibility for this lies with the man who controls the land, the timber owner and lumberman. he does have his part to play, which is discussed elsewhere in this booklet. but he will not, indeed cannot, do so until the rest of us play ours. the community must not only coöperate, but in some directions must act first, because from the beginning the lumberman is governed by many conditions which are fixed by the people. it is for the people to make these conditions reasonably favorable so that he will have neither excuse nor incentive for failing to conform to them. in this coöperation the people should not be expected to grant privileges which are not for their own advantage also. nor should they hesitate to coöperate if it is to their advantage, merely because it is also a help to the lumberman. it is natural that the public should disincline to assume any further burden to enrich the timber owner. were this the sale object of forest protection it would be fair to leave it to him. but it is the height of bad economy to obstruct or refuse to help him in handling forest resources to our best advantage. whether he gains or loses is merely incidental to us, but whether we gain or lose is of very great importance. first step is to stop forest fires obviously reduction of the forest fire hazard is the most urgent problem. not only is fire the greatest destroyer of existing forests, but it also discourages investment in reforestation. the public has a right to expect the lumberman to adopt every safeguard against it in his operations. nevertheless, the first step to encourage him in this is to reduce the appalling carelessness with fire in which the people of the west are the worst offenders in the world today. forest fires are almost always unnecessary. they usually result from a neglect of consideration for injury and distress to others which is not shown by the american people in any other connection. the traveler or resident in forest regions simply fails to realize that his own welfare and that of countless others requires the same precaution not to let fire escape, and the same activity in extinguishing fires he discovers, that are accorded as a matter of course in cities and towns. in reality they are more important. a san francisco can burn down and it is soon replaced. insurance and capital come to the rescue, labor is employed, and business is resumed. _but when the forest burns, industry dies and labor is driven away empty handed._ it is a big price to pay for neglecting the slight effort required to prevent it. fairly good fire laws are on our statute books. presumably they were intended to prevent fires. yet almost every forest community sees fire after fire set through ignorance, carelessness or purpose, and so far from punishing the offenders accords them every privilege of business and society. in cities, however insignificant the damage, arson leads to the penitentiary. a forest fire may destroy millions and the cause not even be investigated. if, aggravated by a particularly inexcusable case of malice or carelessness, some property holder (seldom the people) secures an arrest, acquittal is practically certain because the community considers the matter none of its business. then the value of the fire law is at an end in that region. certainly we cannot expect the timber owner to protect our forest interests until we ourselves respect and at least attempt to enforce our forest laws. patrol service absolutely essential but necessary as is better public sentiment, we must also have practical machinery for enforcing the laws and for stopping the fires that do start. just as a city is safeguarded best by an organized fire department, so the forest can be protected effectively only by trained men who know the work. and the man who prevents the most fires is the man who is looking for them, not the man who goes after the fire is under way. theodore roosevelt says: "i hold as first among the tasks before the states and the nation in their respective shares in forest conservation the organization of efficient fire patrols and the enactment of good fire laws on the part of the states." the national conservation commission reports: "each state within whose boundaries forest fires are working grave injury, and that means every forest state, must face the fact squarely that to keep down forest fires needs not merely a law upon the statute books, but an effective force of men actually on the ground to patrol against fire." we all know that few disastrous fires start under conditions which prevent their control. usually they spring from some of the many small, apparently innocent fires which burn unnoticed until wind and hot weather fan them into action. it is far cheaper to put them out in the incipient stage than to fight them later, perhaps unsuccessfully until after great damage has been done. and if fighting is necessary, it is of the highest importance to have it led by competent, experienced men. moments count, and bad judgment is expensive. most western states already have laws regulating the use of fire for clearing during the dry season. to accomplish this with safety and without hardship requires fire wardens to issue permits and help with the burning if necessary. public knowledge that there is someone to enforce the law tends to restrain the dangerous class. still more useful is the service of fire wardens in agitating the fire question and keeping before forest residents the advantage of their coöperation. co-operation with private owners desirable in fire patrol, especially, the state and the lumberman must work together. it is reasonable that the timber owner should contribute to the protection of his property. he also has peculiar facilities for getting the work done well and cheaply. as a rule he is willing to do his part. in 1910 the washington forest fire association and other timber owners in that state paid out $300,000 for patrol and other fire work. the coeur d'alene, clearwater, potlatch and pend d'oreille timber protective associations spent over $200,000 in idaho. oregon timbermen spent approximately $130,000. figures are not available for montana and california, but probably the same proportion holds. thorough support by the state is necessary to make private work effective. the men employed must have official authority to enforce the law. the dangerous element does not respect a movement which nominally represents only the property owner. the people in general do not aid it as much as they do one in which they also share. therefore, it is necessary to have state facilities for coöperating in the organization, authorization and supervision of all forest patrols. liberal appropriation a good investment but to stop here is like attempting to protect a city from fire merely by giving its factory owners the right to maintain watchmen. we want to provide for the greatest possible advantage to the people through the timber owner's desire to protect his own property, but any forest policy which ends with this is hopelessly weak. we cannot afford to leave any matter of public welfare wholly to the wisdom and philanthropy of private enterprise. if we expect our paramount interest in forest and water resources to be looked out for properly, we must pay for it just as we do for all other protection we get through organized government. nor should we forget that the timber owner helps us again in this, for he pays taxes as well as the cost of his private patrol. there are also many regions where timber values do not warrant patrol, but where the safety of other property, and of life, demand both patrol and fire fighting. here the state owes its citizens protection. moreover, one of the weakest points in our present system everywhere is lack of police authority to apprehend violators of the fire laws. the private warden cannot successfully arrest or prosecute offenders, and everybody knows it. most fires start through violation of law. to prevent them the law must be respected, and to accomplish this there must be state officers who can and will apprehend offenders without fear or favor. any western state can well afford to spend $100,000 a year for a forest fire service which will prevent a loss of fifty times that sum. the cost is imperceptible by the citizen, his benefit immediate. _forest protection is the cheapest form of prosperity insurance a timbered state can buy._ reforestation although it does not pay to burn up our forests, it does pay to use them. _the faster we can replace them with new ones, the quicker this profit can be made with safety._ forest land is community capital. to let it lie idle is as wasteful as destruction. and we must also remember that the day is coming when our forested streams must do a hundred times their present duty, and when the lumber consumer's question may not be "what must i pay for a board?" but "can i get a board at all?" we must have new forests coming as the old ones go. the federal government is practicing forestry in the lands controlled by the forest service. _why should the states not do the same thing with their school and tax deed lands? intelligent care of timbered school land, selling the timber only under regulations which will insure reforestation, would realize as much today and in the long run pay a thousand per cent in dividends for the education of our children and our children's children._ further than this, there should be legislation to permit the state to solidify its forest lands by exchange, when advisable, and to authorize the purchase of cut-over lands. the eventual profit in this is certain to be great, and nothing will do more to interest the public and private owners in reforestation. it is the history or all countries that forests are peculiarly profitable state property, especially when, as is the case with us, it can be acquired cheaply. it is a sound and well-proved policy that it is well for the state to own lands which are not adapted for permanent individual development. forest lands constitute the ideal class, not only because the state is in the best position to keep up their usefulness to the community, but also because they will earn perpetual revenue far greater than they could bring through taxation. they will pay back the cost and interest, become increasingly valuable, and still pay dividends. it is even more important that reforestation be secured on private lands, because their area is greater than that owned by state and government. with the encouragement which could be given the owner without any undeserved concession, conditions would warrant him in securing it. we have reached that stage in our development. the exhaustion of timber in the country at large, the increase of consumption, and our peculiar natural advantages, have combined to promise adequate financial return. and the lumberman does not want to go out of business unless he has to. obstacles to private effort to insure a second crop the lumberman has to lose more or less money when he cuts the first. his methods must be more expensive and he must forego present profits on trees he leaves. if he plants, the outlay is considerable. but let us suppose he is willing to do all this, not because he is a philanthropist but because he wants more trees to run his mill some day. it is a comparatively simple matter to get his second crop started. american forestry has solved this problem fairly well. it is also easy to calculate in most cases, beginning with the sale value of cut-over land, using safe estimate of the next yield and the time required to mature it, and setting a conservative future stumpage value, that growing timber ought to be a profitable investment. if that were all, we could leave the lumberman alone and count on him to perpetuate our forests because it will pay him to do so. but the whole calculation, consequently the public's interest as well as his, is upset by two factors--the danger that his investment will burn up and the practical certainty that taxes will eat up all profit before the harvest. if he figures on fire protection at his own expense against the hazard as it now exists, and the tax burden on cut-over land which is indicated at present, his engagement in forest growing will be negligible from the point of view of public welfare. in some cases he may hold the land awhile, in few can he afford to protect it, in still fewer is he justified in actually doing anything to insure reforestation. if a man proposes to build a factory or railroad in a community the inhabitants usually encourage him. they do not refuse him fire protection in the first place and then, if his plant burns down, threaten to burn it again and keep up full taxation on the vacant land. they offer every fair inducement to get the industry and keep it flourishing. they expect it to pay its just share of taxation, but want it to continue to do so as long as possible. tax new crop when harvested it has been shown that the first obstacle to reforestation of private land can be removed only by supporting a fire patrol and creating public sentiment which will reduce the number of fires. the second is even more wholly in the hands of the people, for by the system of taxation they impose they decide _whether it shall continue an earning power and a tax source forever or be abandoned to become a desert_; non-producing, non-taxable, and a menace to stream-flow. whether its owner has made money on the original crop has no bearing on the result, nor has his being rich or poor, resident or alien. cutover land presents a distinct problem to him. he will and should pay a full tax on its earning power, which will be demonstrated when he successfully brings another crop to maturity. but he cannot carry an investment for fifty years or more without return, with a risk of total loss by fire up to the last moment, at a cost which would bring him better profit in some other business. these facts are recognized by all students of forestry. the following authorities hold no brief for the lumberman. they approached the subject solely from the side of the people: theodore roosevelt: "second only to good fire laws is the enactment of tax laws which will permit the perpetuation of existing forests by use." national conservation commission: "present tax laws prevent reforestation of cut-over land and the perpetuation of existing forests by use. an annual tax upon the land itself, exclusive of the timber, and a tax upon the timber when cut is well adapted to actual conditions of forest investment and is practicable and certain. it would insure a permanent revenue from the forest in the aggregate far greater than is now collected, and yet be less burdensome upon the state and upon the owner. it is better from every side that forest land should yield a moderate tax permanently than that it should yield an excessive revenue temporarily, and then cease to yield at all." h. s. graves, chief forester for the u. s.: "private owners do not practice forestry for one or more of three reasons: 1. the risk of fire. 2. burdensome taxation. 3. low prices of products." professor fairchild, tax expert, yale university: "forestry must come some time, and its early coming is a thing greatly to be desired. we can hardly hope to see the general practice of forestry as long as the present methods of taxation continue. with regard to its effect on revenue, there is little to be feared from the tax on yield. it is equitable and certain. _if a tax at once equitable and dependable is guaranteed, the business of forestry will not need to ask special favors._" crying need for definite state policy to accomplish these reforms will take law-making and law-enforcing. however well we study existing conditions and legislate upon the premises they furnish, success depends upon competent application of the laws and their improvement as conditions change. it is a bitter reproof to us of the west that eastern states, with forest and water resources insignificant compared to ours, have gone so much farther in securing the services of trained men to study these questions and to guard both private and public interests. the very first step should be to get competent trained state foresters who will devise wise measures, protect us from unwise ones, and educate lumbermen and public alike to the common need of action. we pay cheerfully for every other kind of public service, for geologists, veterinarians, insurance commissioners, barber examiners, and what not. but the two things we must have--wood and water--we leave pretty much to take care of themselves, and they aren't doing it and never will. _the essentials of a wise state forest policy, based not on theory but on successful experience elsewhere, are as cheap as they are simple._ where tried they have never been abandoned. if they pay elsewhere, can we afford not to try? following is the framework of a code demanded by the situation in every western state. some already approach it, but none goes far enough: essentials of effective state forest code 1. a state board of forestry selected with the single view of insuring the most competent expert judgment on the matters with which it deals. in other words, the board should not be political, but appointment by the governor should be restricted to responsible representatives nominated by the interests most familiar with forest management, such as state forest schools, lumbermen's associations, forest fire associations, conservation associations and the resident federal forest service. 2. a trained state forester, wholly independent of politics. executive ability and practical forest knowledge should be considered essential, also scientific training. he should have one or more assistants of his own appointing. 3. a liberally supported forest fire service, in which the state forester has ample latitude in coöperation, financial and otherwise, with all other agencies in the same work. 4. a systematic study of forest conditions to afford basis of both intelligent administration and desirable further legislation. 5. a system for active general popular education, with specific advice to individuals in proper forest management. 6. application of forestry principles to the management of state-owned forest lands and the purchase of cut or burned over land better suited for state than for private forestry. this is to furnish educative examples of conservative management as well as to maintain state revenue and proper forest conditions. 7. improvement and strict enforcement of laws against fire and trespass, with penalty for neglect to enforce them by any officer who is paid to do so. 8. encouragement of reforestation by assessing deforested land annually on land value only, deferring taxation of forest growth until its cutting furnishes income with which to meet the tax. 9. thorough study of the subject of taxing standing timber, to the end of securing a system which, by insuring a fair revenue without enforcing bad forest management, will result in the greatest community good. do it now _you, the average citizen of the west, are responsible for the present situation and for its remedy._ merely to agree that it is unfortunate, and virtuously to condemn firebugs, careless lumbermen and indifferent legislators, does not relieve you of the responsibility. neither will it protect you from the consequences. on the other hand, the firebug will not fire if he knows it will not be tolerated. the lumberman will adopt protective methods if you encourage him. the legislator is glad to help in any way his constituents suggest. _they are all only waiting for a word from you, whose welfare is really at stake and from whom the word should come._ if any other principle of public safety--say suppression of fraud, burglary or murder--was being so generally ignored, what would you do? would you not look up the laws of the state and find a way of letting everyone connected with their enforcement know that you expected them to be enforced? if you found laws or appropriations inadequate, would you not see to it that every representative in the legislature knew his constituents demanded improvement? the legislator or public official is anxious to comply with the people's wishes, but he must know what the people want. it is essential to _let him know_ that you want a progressive and liberally supported state policy that will save our immense forest wealth from needless destruction. chapter ii forestry and the lumberman the underlying principles the lumber industry is undergoing a process of reorganization which reaches to its very foundations. it is so deep-seated as to be almost imperceptible from outward evidence, but is of profound significance to the owner of timber land and to the public. hitherto lumbering in the united states has consisted chiefly of manufacturing and selling. the raw material has occupied no consistent place in the equation. the value it has had in fixing the price of the finished product has been merely in its relation to transportation. intrinsically it has been accorded no value. this situation continued just as long as there was practically free government timber to be had by opening it up. it continues now only relatively, however. transportation must always remain a great factor; the timber owner is still obliged temporarily to meet his obligations by means determined under the old basis. nevertheless, the moment it became impossible to get timber to manufacture without assuming the costs of producing, such as fire protection, taxation and interest, began an era of inevitable natural regulation. from that time on timber began to assume a value which, although affected by transportation facilities, must eventually be fixed chiefly by the cost of growing other timber to compete with it. timber is worth the cost of growing it in other words, the value of anything is what it costs to produce it, whether it is a tree or a box of apples. that we found our timber orchard growing when we came to this country does not change this law. it was suspended temporarily while any individual could profit by the growth produced without cost, but began to operate again when he could no longer do so. we are now in a transition period of adjustment. the important thing to remember is that this will not continue until the entire output has actually borne the full cost of production, for before then investments in standing timber will have been regulated by the same influence. it is true that at present the cost of lumber to the consumer is not fixed absolutely even by the cost of manufacturing and selling it, and that on the contrary it fluctuates greatly with the willingness of the consumer to buy. but this, except within limits, is not a sound working out of the law of supply and demand. it is an incident to the unsound basis of production which still prevails. so long as a very large portion of our standing timber has not cost the owner much in either price, protection, taxes and interest, some of it will be put on the market at a low price in order to carry a milling business through a depressed period, to realize money, or for other exigency reasons. so may a wheat grower lose money on one or two years' crops. but if in the long run the world refuses to pay for wheat what it costs to grow it, wheat will not be grown. the real question is whether or not the world needs forests enough to pay for them. demand will continue it is evident, from the history of older countries, that it does. while consumption per capita will undoubtedly decrease, population is growing. substitution will be necessary, but will not supplant wood for a multitude of purposes. much has been said about the use of steel, concrete and like materials in building. the building trades only use 60 per cent of our lumber today, without considering fuel. it is unlikely that the reduction of this percentage will very much more than offset the growth in volume of the reduced percentage due to increased population. fifty years ago there was scarcely a lumber user west of the mississippi river. we know the settlements, mines, railroads and cities that have developed since to use lumber. it is a poor westerner who doubts that the next fifty years will see a far greater development. _and the panama canal is coming, with the certain result of making our fast-producing forests able to compete successfully with eastern and european forest crops grown with less natural advantage._ moreover, we now use three and a half times as much wood a year as our forests produce. _consequently the demand might even fall off three and a half times and still consume the product._ and the forest producing area diminishes constantly. little as we now consider the possibilities of food famine, history shows that nations rapidly increase to the limit of their agricultural production or beyond, and we must reckon not only on our own increase but also upon immigration from, and export to, nations whose pressure upon their production exceeds ours. it is certain that land now considered too remote, rough and poor for agriculture will be put to that use. we know that other countries do not to any considerable extent devote land to forest that will grow food crops at all well. adjustment only question of time consequently it is safe to assume that within reasonable limits the consumer will be glad to pay the cost of growing timber when he is obliged to do so. it is also to be expected that the community will desire to maintain a resource which employs labor, pays taxes, and conserves stream flow. therefore, the price of lumber will be governed, as the price of every staple commodity is governed, by a cost of production including reasonable profit by those engaged in the several stages of the process. that it will include the growing of new timber on a sound, profitable basis is proved by the history of other countries which have undergone the same regulation. this, after all, is the strongest argument with which to answer the skeptic who, on premises and judgment of his own, doubts the above conclusions. we need not claim greater prophetic ability, but have only to make the undeniable assertion that hindsight is better than foresight. nothing demonstrates economic laws so irrefutably as experience. less than 29 per cent of the land area of the united states is occupied by forests today, including swamps, burns and much land which will be devoted to agriculture. germany, where great economy of material is practiced, where wooden buildings are far fewer, where, indeed, the per capita consumption is only a seventh of ours, keeps _26 per cent_ of her land area under the most expensive forest management _and finds the profit constantly increasing_. she is increasing her production and importing heavily from countries where lumber is cheap, like the united states, yet the net returns per acre from the forests of baden rose from $2.38 in 1880 to $5.08 in 1902. this was due hugely, of course, to improvement of management. in france lands which only fifty years ago could not be sold for $4 an acre now bring an annual revenue of $3. in 1903 the town forest of winterthur, switzerland, brought net receipts of $11.69 an acre. these are fair examples in countries where the influence tending toward less use of wood have been working for a very long time. they show such influences do not result in refusal to pay the cost of growing all the wood that can be grown. wood consumption in european countries is increasing at a rate of from 1-1/2 to 2 per cent a year. in other words, the consumers are actually willing to pay for more wood than they have found necessary, and are warranting the growers in adopting still more expensive methods to increase the output. nor has forest growing proved to be possible only by the state or government. in germany 46.5 per cent of the forest area is owned privately, in austria 61 per cent, in france 65 per cent, in norway 70 per cent. while it is true that the european private owner has better tax and fire conditions, it must also be remembered that the value of the land on which he makes the growing crop yield a good dividend is about ten times as high as it now is in the united states. the prospective grower of new timber in the american west can expect equal profit here at some time. his chief concern is whether its foreshadowing influences are sufficiently strong at present. to determine this he must consider the probable attitude of the public and of the lumbermen themselves. what it means to the consumer to the consumer the principles previously outlined mean that the price of lumber will rise somewhat. indeed, he must expect that, regardless of the production factor, for the timber owner cannot pay taxes, prevent fire, and keep his money tied up, all for a considerable period, and still sell the material as cheap as he could before these expenses accrued. it also means that if the consumer fails to recognize and concede these principles it will be at his own sacrifice. too low prices now merely mean too high prices in the early future, for they will not permit protection, economy or reforestation. he must eventually, and not far hence, pay the total cost of production. it is urgently to his interest not to add to this by preventing production and thus permitting the owner of the timber already produced to speculate on the approaching shortage. the danger of this can be illustrated by a comparison. suppose three-quarters of the apple growers of the country, either through ignorance of the principles of their industry or through shortage of money with which to pay their debts, should be forced for a considerable period to accept a price for their crop so low that after paying current bills they were obliged to neglect their orchards absolutely, without plowing, fencing or spraying. suppose further that the public should also destroy a large portion of the orchards, as the forests are by fire, and also overtax the land so as to complete the discouragement. clearly apples would immediately go up. a few growers would doubtless escape absolute destruction and these, as long as their orchards lasted, would demand a price overbalancing many times the saving the consumer made temporarily while he was destroying the industry. everyone concerned would be worse off than if prices had remained just high enough to maintain an adequate supply. it is improbable, however, that the consumer will ever voluntarily pay more than he has to, even if it is to his ultimate advantage. the most that can be hoped is that as the public at large comes to understand the situation, it will not support him in the claim that injustice is being done by the rises he is forced to meet as conditions adjust themselves. his reluctance will retard, but not stop, the progress of good forest management. states will take a hand on the other hand, it is reasonable to suppose that the people of the timber-producing states will gradually come to see that their interest, as well as that of the lumberman, is to be furthered by placing the industry on a sound basis. selling more lumber than they consume, they will not rejoice over low prices any more than a wheat state does over the fall of wheat because it uses some flour, but they will be equally unable to exert much stiffening influence on the price. consequently they will probably attempt to sustain the industry by increasing production. but in this attempt they will consider immediate community advantage first, future community advantage next, and the lumberman's advantage only as it is incidental. and such measures as they endorse they are likely to enforce by law. we see, then, that two forces are making for the better handling of our forest resources; the economic necessity of the public and the business advantage of the owner. both demand the maximum production. obviously, since their aims are identical, each has to gain from earnest coöperation. neither can succeed alone, for the owner cannot go far against hostile laws or sentiment, and the public cannot accomplish half as much by compulsion as by encouraging the owner. but the great danger to each lies in mutual distrust, which defers the establishment of effective coöperation. lumberman must show good faith the primary and all-important moral which all this points out to the lumberman is that his position under coming conditions will be largely what he makes it by his own attitude. with the rapidity with which he gets into a position where his voice is listened to as unselfish and authoritative on the conservation subject, will his influence on the new conditions be measured. therefore, he must study the subject. he must be able to support good laws and oppose bad laws with facts and arguments which will stand scrutiny. above all, he must show faith by practicing what he preaches so far as he is able. he must show conclusively the injustice of the public suspicion from which he suffers. conservative forest management has three essentials: protection, utilization and reproduction. the last particularly depends on the first. the timber owner cannot protect adequately alone. before he can expect much public help, however, he must show his willingness to do his share, for the state will not assume the whole burden. the progressive members of the industry have shown it already, and the result is evident in the commencement of the states to help. their help will increase in the proportion that private effort spreads. presumably it will be the same with reforestation. with the fire hazard lessened there will remain the obstacle of overtaxation on property returning no income with which to meet it. the public will doubtless soon see that this is bad for the community, but will hesitate to forego present revenue in order to reap greater future revenue until convinced that the owner will actually reforest if given the chance. even if no actual desire to take advantage is ascribed, there may be fear that he will make no active effort to start and protect the second crop, but will merely continue the course of least expense in the hope that a new forest will establish itself, with little to lose if it fails. before he will receive the encouragement he deserves, he must prove his good faith. the surest way to do this is to begin actual work now, where he can without certainty of failure. unfortunately, this is often impossible, but he can at least study and experiment so he can argue convincingly that mutual success will follow reasonable encouragement. circumstances determine profit let us assume, then, that it is best for the lumberman to start the practice of forestry for the purpose of strengthening his position and getting the most favorable conditions possible for its general adoption and continuance. how much does he depend upon success in this? obviously, early public favor will hasten and add to the security of forest growing as a business, but is it absolutely essential? do existing conditions and inevitable future conditions, regardless of public intelligence, furnish premises upon which we can calculate certain profit in some degree? this depends upon the circumstances of the individual investor. without an expectation of more favorable fire and tax influences, reforestation cannot be universally recommended as a business proposition. many timber owners are not warranted in undertaking it. not enough are warranted in doing so to insure the future timber supply upon which public welfare depends. nevertheless, there are conditions under which it is a good investment. it is even probable that for those who are well situated, the very obstacles which deter others will be advantageous through reducing competition. _this fact is of peculiar significance to the public, for if the latter fails to stimulate reforestation generally it will play directly into the hands of the few who are independent of encouragement_. it is customary, in speculating upon the profits of a second timber crop, to attempt to reduce it to a financial calculation based upon estimated yield, estimated future values and estimated carrying charges. these considerations are important, but their importance is largely in proportion to the financial weakness of the prospective timber grower. we revert again to the practical certainty that unless reforestation is general, the exhaustion of virgin timber will be followed by a shortage, and that the man who has a second crop at that time can obtain a price which will reimburse his carrying charges be they high or low. the cost of overcoming present obstacles will be shifted to the consumer. the possibility of such an investment is determined largely by ability to maintain a protective system with economy and to bear the expense of this and of heavy taxation during the period of no return. in short, the weakness of the ordinary financial calculation upon existing conditions is that it attempts to estimate future stumpage values without knowledge of the true factor which will determine them. this factor is not the probable rise of existing stumpage while it continues to exist, but is the extent of the new-grown supply which will follow it provided existing conditions remain unchanged. it is inconsistent to figure the cost upon almost prohibitive present conditions without also recognizing that such conditions, if continued, will completely change the influences which now determine the market. who can afford to reforest now on the other hand, timber owners have by no means equal opportunity to take advantage of this fact. the productive capacity of their land varies, their taxes vary, the extent and location of their holdings affects the expense of protection against fire, and they have not the same facilities for financing a long term investment. it is the balance of these factors that determine their opportunity. assuming rate of timber growth to be equal, present fire and tax conditions classify them in relative advantage about as follows: 1. owners of large holdings of virgin timber who can meet carrying charges by occasional sales at a profit over their purchase price, but will not sell much more than is necessary because all they can afford to hold is advancing in value. such owners have more or less land deforested by fire or their own milling operations, and will incline to sell only stumpage without land. this land is not easily realized upon at present, and for the speculative reason stated, they will continue in business long enough to grow a new crop on it. the larger their holdings, the greater the certainty of this and the cheaper, relatively, the cost of protection. moreover, concerns dealing with large and long term investments can consider a lower interest rate. 2. owners with less facility for making an actual profit through growing timber, but desiring to maintain a milling business. even if the cost of growing approaches or equals the value of the crop, they will be able to count on continued manufacturing profit. (both of the above classes face a possibility of so heavy a tax on their virgin timber in some instances that they will be obliged to cut it and go out of business. this is unlikely to occur generally, however, for tax reform is almost inevitable, and it would have a compensatory effect of enhancing the value of the second crop.) 3. owners whose holdings are not large enough to keep them in business until a second crop matures but are advantageously located. second growth need not be mature to have a value. as the present supply diminishes, available coming supply will gain a high expectation value which can be realized upon. the profit it offers will be largely determined by its proximity to market and especially by its proximity to established mills which see their own supply running short and have failed, through inability or lack of foresight, to engage in reforestation themselves. it will also be affected by tax and fire charges, and the latter, especially, will be largely a matter of location. 4. the owner with no peculiar advantages, who can only set the general certainty of a market for second growth against his ability to carry a costly and uncertain investment for an indeterminate time. of course a first consideration in most cases is the comparative profits of other possible investments or, in other words, the exact interest demanded as satisfactory. individuals are in by no means the same position in this respect by either inclination, opportunity or talent. where one might be safer with his money in timber, another could make more by manufacturing. generally speaking, however, conservative judgment leads to the conclusion that the present attitude of the public warrants the first of the above four classes of owners in undertaking inexpensive reforestation where the land has little sale value for other purposes and where the growth and fire factors are reasonably favorable. the second class can also undertake it to advantage on much the same basis, but having less capacity for meeting the carrying charge, requires still more favorable conditions. the third class must have the maximum advantage of every kind. it must calculate closely on the factors of cost and profit indicated by present conditions. in most cases the risk will be too great for prudence, and in nearly all financial ability will be lacking. the fourth class cannot even consider it until the public's attitude changes. better day for all is near on the other hand, it is reasonable to suppose that publicly-imposed obstacles will decrease. it will become apparent that their persistence is bad economy. fires will grow fewer and the state will aid in patrol. reforestation in itself is a method of fire prevention when it places a green young growth on a fire-inviting tract of sun-dried litter and weeds. taxation will be deferred. as the country develops interest rates will fall; making it easier to carry forest investments and harder to gain more through other investments. the state itself will engage more and more in forestry, with the result of making its principles understood and endorsed. stumpage values will increase. immature timber will have a sale value, lessening the term of investment. gradually the business will get on a sound production basis, better for the consumer, better for the state supported by a forest income, and more profitable for the grower. instead of capitalizing bad management and the sacrifice of the consumer, which in effect it does now by forcing the prospective grower to calculate on covering unnecessary cost in the price received, it will capitalize the earning power of forest land. while final adjustment on this basis is still in the future, it is by no means entirely dependent upon popular foresight. the process is going on constantly, whether we know it or not. the sun is still behind the horizon, but the day is sure. many western timber owners are still in too dim a light to make their footsteps certain; others have a high vantage ground where dawn already lights the path. chapter iii forestry and the forest elementary principles of forest growth whether the lumberman's judgment of economic influences leads him to be optimistic or otherwise as to the profit of forestry in general, he is most interested in the particular forest with which he has to deal. he can neither accept nor dismiss the proposition intelligently, much less put his ideas into actual practice, without knowing something of the capability of his land to respond to his effort. "what methods are best, what will they cost, and what will be the result?" are questions which arise at the very outset. they lead at once into the domain of technical forestry. with us forestry has not been practiced long enough to furnish demonstrated examples with which to answer such questions. we can, however, profit by experience gained elsewhere, for the laws which govern tree life are as universal as those which govern the life of men and animals. in dealing with new species and new environments we have no great difficulty in judging their future from their past, which lies written plainly for those who care to study it. while to some extent trees require elements obtainable only from the soil, they are more independent in this respect than most other forms of vegetation. soil influences forest trees mainly by its physical character, especially as this determines the moisture contents. very little nourishment is actually taken out of the soil for, as someone has said, wood is nothing but air solidified by sunshine. a tree's immense and complicated foliage system is the laboratory with which it effects this transformation. since air exists everywhere and the chemical quality of the soil is comparatively unimportant, the requirements of different species for light, heat and moisture are what mainly determine their distribution and habits of growth. and since heat and moisture are largely climatic factors and fairly uniform in given localities, it follows that the demand of a species upon light may practically fix its habits and possibilities in those localities. the very great variance of species in light requirement accounts to a large extent for the composition of most primeval forests. it is of peculiar importance in the management of forests by man because he cannot control it as he may be able to control some of the other agencies which affected the primeval forest, such as fire or seed supply. selection forests it would be unprofitable to discuss here all the many methods of forest management which have proved to be best, technically, for given species and combinations of species. where market and transportation facilities are highly favorable, as in europe, the timber owner can adopt the method which will bring the best results, but here he has no such choice. he can but bear in mind certain fundamental principles, uniformly applicable to large areas for considerable periods of time. roughly, however, our western forests can be classified by their adaptability to the two directly opposite systems, known as clean cutting and selection cutting, of which almost all methods are modifications. a selection forest is one in which all ages of trees exist, from seedling to maturity. it is the natural growth of species which are tolerant of shade. in a natural state, undisturbed by cutting, it maintains much the same aspect continuously, for as the oldest trees die, their place is taken by younger ones. obviously such a forest must be composed of species, whether one or several, which can grow beneath its own shade. the understories of varying ages are as dense as their light requirements and the density of the overwood permit. the common hardwood forests of the east illustrate one type of the natural selection forest. on the pacific slope an example is afforded by hemlock, either practically pure or mixed with white fir, but probably the most typical is the ordinary western yellow pine under certain conditions. at its best this tree composes a forest so dense that all young growth is shaded out, but everyone is familiar with the frequent opener stand containing all ages. the younger trees are often called blackjack. even-aged forests on the other hand, trees extremely intolerant of shade occur only in what the forester calls even-aged forests. being unable to start in the darkness of an existing stand of any considerable density, they must seize opportunities to recover openings. the douglas fir of the northwest, more commonly called red or yellow fir, is an excellent illustration. in the interior states this species reproduces under cover to some extent, because there is a stronger light average throughout the year and because the stand is not so dense. in the typical douglas fir forests of oregon and washington, discussed in this booklet, it never does so. while hemlock, cedar and white fir undergrowth may be abundant, douglas fir seedlings are seldom seen except in burns, slashings, roads, or open spots in the woods. and the fir trees composing the dominant stand are of nearly the same age. how, then, did this even-aged fir forest begin? close scrutiny will practically always find the answer in fragments of charred wood. long ago another similar forest occupied the ground until lightning or an indian's fire started a new cycle. possibly recurring burns swept the area many times before wind-blown seeds began to start advance groups of fir, which, when fifteen or twenty years old, themselves fruited and filled the blanks between them. perhaps destruction was not so complete and surviving trees made the process a swifter one. except in the very oldest forests, where remains of the original stand have entirely rotted away, the history in either case may be read in ancient snags and fallen logs. suppose, however, that fire had not come to aid the fir in perpetuating itself? this, too, we can answer from the signs today. every northwestern woodsman knows tracts of varying size (usually small because fire has been almost universal) covered with big old hemlock, white fir and cedar, with here and there a dying giant fir, perhaps, but mainly showing fir occupancy only by rotting stumps and logs. no sign of fire is seen. when this fir forest was approaching middle age, the shade bearing species began to appear beneath it. as the firs began to crowd themselves out, the later comers shot up with the increased light and filled the open places. at last the even-aged fir forest was completely transformed into a selection forest of other trees, which will remain until some accident again gives fir a chance if any survives near enough to reach the spot with seed. douglas fir is not the only western tree which usually grows in even-aged stands. lodgepole pine has the same habit, often supplanting yellow pine after fire or logging. western white pine is perhaps more tolerant than douglas fir, hence more likely to hold its own without artificial aid, but is also more certain to compete successfully if it has such aid. the same is true of tamarack. nature as a model we thus see that if economic reasons suggest it, we may use the selection system as a basis for artificially managing the shade bearing species such as hemlock, white fir, cedar, spruce, and even western yellow pine. we may cut the largest and oldest trees and still have a well started second crop. if there is not much young growth to leave, even a little is valuable. it may be decidedly best to leave medium sized trees, which otherwise we would cut, because they are still growing rapidly. on the other hand, we see that this method would not be of any advantage at all in insuring a second crop of douglas fir, for there is no young growth of this species to protect. the small and medium sized trees, instead of being immature, are merely stunted specimens of the same age as their larger brothers and unlikely to gain in size if left. selection cutting here would save for future use only such understory of shade-bearing species as may exist. unless this is an object, the best plan is to cut clean and get all we can. if we leave any fir at all it is for the purpose of reseeding, not to secure better utilization of the trees themselves, and whether we do so depends, theoretically at least, upon whether it is better than artificial seeding or planting. in short, selection cutting harvests the ripest trees of a perpetual forest, while clean cutting destroys the forest in order to start an entirely new and more rapid growing one. clean cutting is therefore necessary as well as natural in dealing with intolerant trees. but it does not follow that the selection system, although natural to tolerant species, is the only one adaptable to them. while the one class demands light, the other does not demand shade. it is merely capable of enduring it. indeed, except for the greater susceptibility of some species to extreme heat and dryness when very young, as a rule shade bearing trees grow much better if they do have ample light supply. consequently clean cutting may be the best system for these also under certain economic conditions. besides its influence upon the occurrence of species in the forest, light practically governs the physical form of the individual tree. if grown in an opening and not artificially pruned, a tree will have a conical trunk and living branches almost down to the ground. the denser and consequently darker the forest, the more cylindrical the trunk, the smaller the crown of branches and the greater the clear length. the individual tree has no object in assuming a desirable commercial form and does so only when deprived of side light by numerous neighbors. then it sacrifices diameter growth to height growth in reaching for the top light necessary for its life. at the same time the lower branches are killed by shade and drop off, the scars being healed and eventually buried. the pin knots near the center of a big clear log are the remains of branches which when living were at the top of the young tree. this is why, if it is to produce good timber, any forest must be dense enough to cover the ground throughout the early part of its life at least. when we see an excellent clear stand of mature douglas fir, for example, we may know that it consists of the comparatively few survivors of a close sapling growth in which the weak were gradually killed out after serving their office of pruning and forcing the vigorous. had only the trees we now see been on the ground they would be worthless except for firewood. for the same reason artificial forest planting must be thick, although the fillers or nurse trees may be of inferior species if not of so rapid growth as to gain the mastery. nature teaches many lessons which we must recognize in artificial management or fail, but she is no more the best grower of forest crops than she is of agricultural crops. we have to study natural methods of forest perpetuation to see how they may be improved upon as much as to adopt them as models. as a rule the virgin forest is exceedingly wasteful of ground. the possibilities under intelligent care are not indicated by nature's average, but by her accidental best, and usually they far exceed even this. a fair comparison is that of scientific farming with unsystematic gleaning from wild and untended fields. the foregoing general principles of forest growth have been purposely outlined very briefly so as to serve as a mere introduction to their application or modification in concrete cases. management of specific types douglas fir (_pseudotsuga taxifolia_) compared with most important commercial trees, the northwestern douglas fir is remarkably easy to reproduce. it is an abundant seeder, grows very rapidly, and inhabits a region with every climatic advantage. in the typical fir districts of oregon and washington deforested land which escapes recurring fire is usually restocked naturally and with astonishing rapidity. the exceptions to this rule are where the destruction of seed trees has been wide and absolute, where already established competing species are not removed with the original forest, and where the surviving fir is too old to seed. the two latter conditions are most prevalent near the coast, where the wet climate not only tends to protect slashings from fire and thus preserve the undergrowth of shade bearing species which escapes logging, but has also prevented the accidental destruction in the past of the original fir stand by fire. in considering these natural results as they bear upon proposed methods, we find actual destruction of seed supply the easiest to avoid. if the original stand contains suitable seed trees we can protect a sufficient number of them. if not, or if it is less expensive, we can secure seed elsewhere. more frequent difficulty will lie in determining whether the reproduction of fir should be the sole effort, or whether it should not be sacrificed, if necessary, in order to utilize an existing start toward a second crop of other species. this is of peculiar and early importance, for it usually also decides the question of protecting the slashing from fire. if the present stand is nearly pure fir, or if other species are represented almost wholly by merchantable trees, there will be no young growth worth saving. a new crop must be started from seed, and since fir is the quickest and easiest to grow, as well as probably the most valuable, it should be given every encouragement. _slash burning and its exceptions._ in most cases this requires burning the ground after logging, not only to reduce the future fire risk but also to provide a suitable seedbed. fir much prefers mineral soil to start in, as is easily seen from the far greater frequency of seedlings on road grades than on adjacent undisturbed ground covered with humus and rotten wood. hemlock has no such fastidiousness, even preferring rotten wood as a seedbed. to protect the slashing from fire, therefore, both preserves the most unfavorable conditions for fir and subjects it to unnecessary competition by its rival. hemlock seedlings already established, seeds lying on the ground, and surrounding or surviving trees which may scatter more seed, are all encouraged to shade and stifle the struggling fir seedlings already handicapped by dislike for their situation. on the other hand, a large proportion of what we now consider typically fir forest has a vigorous ground cover of hemlock and cedar which may become merchantable many years before an entirely new fir crop can be grown. the presumably greater value of the latter may be consumed by the heavier carrying charge before returns are available. certainly if the promise of profit from other species and the difficulty of establishing fir both reach the extreme, protection of the growth already started is the best forestry if it is practicable. moreover, there may be considerable young growth of other species under conditions which do not preclude satisfactory additional reseeding by fir. when the owner is in position to plan far into the future, like the government or state, he may seek a temporary compromise, although expecting eventually to secure pure fir. in such a case it may often be best to utilize a first new crop of hemlock, but on harvesting this a few decades hence to burn clean and start the next rotation with fir only. _conditions vary methods._ between conditions clearly suggesting one course or another, all gradations will present themselves and no written rule can be given for determining the dividing line. much depends upon future relative values of species, upon which the owner will have his own opinion. more depends upon the character of existing young growth and consequent adaptability to changed conditions after logging. even a very thick stand of young hemlock is unlikely to produce much if the overwood has been very dense, for much of it may be so old and stunted by shade that sudden advent of strong light will result merely in distorted worthless branch growth or in killing it outright. occasional vigorous young trees just under present merchantable size are of doubtful value because they are likely to blow down. the most promising class of undergrowth found in fir forests of the northwest is where there has been sufficient light to produce a fairly thick stand of young hemlock or cedar from five to fifty feet high. if the undergrowth from which any second crop may develop is insufficient to be worth much consideration, and reseeding must be depended upon entirely, there may still be a question as to species. if ample natural supply of fir seed can be expected, slash burning is indicated. but if not and the owner is not prepared to undertake the expense of artificial seeding, while at the same time there is a promising natural hemlock supply, burning has no object except the reduction of future fire risk. it may even retard hemlock reproduction, both by destroying part of the seed supply and by encouraging the growth of brakes on the area. the question here is a really financial one. the cost of planting fir under these conditions may be more than reimbursed by the resultant more valuable and rapid growing crop. the owner must do his own conjecturing as to future comparative values of the species. so far we have discussed slash burning only in its sylvicultural relation, finding that it encourages douglas fir reproduction and is consequently advisable in northwestern douglas fir types unless there is an exceptionally promising second growth already started. the balance will be further in its favor, in doubtful cases, because of the protective feature. this is discussed more fully in another chapter, but it is well to recall here that immunity from recurring fire is the first essential of profitable reforestation. to secure second growth by treatment which threatens its destruction later is bad management unless the original saving is ample to cover subsequent greater cost of protection. this is seldom the case. _how to reseed the area._ dismissing the exceptions noted, and returning to our rule that another crop of douglas fir is usually the best secured by following nature--cutting practically clean, burning the ground and starting a new even-aged stand--we have still to consider means of getting this stand started. we may depend upon natural reseeding from trees preserved for the purpose or from the surrounding forest, or we may resort to planting. what are the comparative advantages of these two methods and the circumstances governing choice between them? hitherto, students of the subject have inclined to favor natural reproduction. the very general second growth on deforested land where no aid has been given indicates that excellent results will follow slight assistance. red fir fruits frequently and profusely, and the seeds carry well in the wind. burns have been known to restock fully from seed blown from forested hills a mile or more away. moreover, while planting always involves initial expense, sometimes much may be done to insure natural seeding with little or no actual outlay. there is danger, however, that in many instances this economy will be more apparent than real if it is effected by actually leaving much value in seed trees. abroad and in the east there is comparatively little loss in leaving even a fourth or fifth of the original stand to furnish seed. the individual trees left may be good seeders, although small. little capital is tied up in them and they may be utilized later to equal advantage. a mature fir forest of the pacific coast may have no small fruiting trees at all, and if left such are likely to be knocked down in logging. to leave 20 per cent of the large trees standing would sometimes tie up 20,000 feet to the acre, worth $40 or $50. age and windfall may cause loss equal to stumpage increase; moreover, they can never be utilized without the same expense for roads and machinery that is necessary in the original logging. the second crop will not be allowed to reach a size requiring such equipment. in considering possible windfall loss, not the normal wind but the possible maximum storm within the entire life of the second crop must be reckoned with. it is probably safe to say of mature pacific coast fir that leaving enough merchantable timber on a cutting area for adequate seeding costs more than to use it and restock. restocking can be done for $2 to $10 an acre, which would leave a decided margin for profit on the seed trees. and if we undertake to reduce this balance by leaving very few seed trees, we decrease the certainty of successful reproduction and increase the danger of entire failure through windfall or accidental destruction when we burn the slashing. it cannot be denied, however, that fire after planting would result in complete loss, while seed trees might restock the area again and again after such accidents. _natural reproduction._ on the other hand, natural reproduction does not always require the leaving of merchantable timber on the cutting area. frequently there are enough crooked or conky trees to serve the purpose. these defects are not directly transmissible through seed to the offspring, although conk is infectious and the young crop should be protected by the removal of the diseased parents after it is well started. again, seeding from adjacent timber can often be relied upon. this is a question of economy in logging operations, lay of the ground, prevailing wind direction, fertility of the stand and other local considerations. a valley with healthy fir woods on either side is likely to seed up promptly even if a half mile wide. so is a flat at the leeward foot of a hill timbered on the summit where the wind strikes. a cutting on a ridge is correspondingly unlikely to restock. theoretically if a tract of timber were large enough, it could be opened up by logging operations which, instead of proceeding steadily from one edge, might skip every other landing or so until the most remote portion was reached after a few years, and then work back again, cleaning up the neglected portions after they had seeded the first openings. the same effect sometimes results from actual accidental practice. it is apparent that rules cannot be laid down for general application. generally speaking, a logger interested in fir reforestation should study his ground to see if naturally, or, with inexpensive aid, the cut-over area will not reseed from the sides and from the cull trees he will leave uncut. if not, he may leave a few merchantable seed bearing trees provided the soil is such as to make them deep-rooted and wind-firm. groups are better than single trees because less likely to be blown down and easier to protect from the slashing fire. more should be left toward the windward edge. but before tieing up any considerable sum in merchantable trees he should consider the cost and safety of supplementing any shortage of natural supply by artificial seeding. western hemlock (_tsuga heterophylla_) since hemlock is so frequently associated with douglas fir, the principles governing its reproduction and its relative promise as a second crop have necessarily been largely covered in the preceding discussion of fir. the following remarks are merely additional. we have seen that the perpetuation of hemlock is advisable only where fir reproduction is difficult to obtain or will be at too great a sacrifice of valuable existing hemlock. the first of these conditions is confined chiefly to pure hemlock stands and to coast regions where the fir is often too old to seed well. the second may exist on the coast or in certain moist interior regions where there is a heavy hemlock undergrowth. in either case natural hemlock reproduction will be counted upon, both because it is practically certain to occur and because if it were not certain and artificial aid were necessary, we would abandon hemlock entirely and devote our efforts to fir. in short, discussion of hemlock as a second crop need not include systematic attempts to seed the ground but may be confined to protection of what we have to begin with. in a straight hemlock proposition, the protection question may differ considerably from that involved by deciding between fir and hemlock. in the latter case, because of the assistance of fire to fir, the growth already on the ground must have considerable value to warrant foregoing the several advantages of slash burning. in the former, slash burning has no object except to reduce future risk. the inference is that a much less promising stock of young growth is worth protecting. while this is true, there is danger of overestimating its value, especially if care is not taken in logging. it has been remarked that suppressed misshapen hemlock is not apt to make a healthy growth, that windfall is a peril, and that if the previous shade has been heavy, sudden opening to sunlight may be fatal. it should also be remembered that even slightly injured young hemlock is worthless, for it is almost certain to be attacked by borers. anything which deadens a small portion of the bark like axe blazes, fire scorch, or scars from strap leads, is dangerous. hemlock is more liable than fir to general defects like black streak, borers, fungous disease and mistletoe, therefore investment in reforestation needs the maximum safeguard against them. in many instances better results may be obtained from a new healthy seedling stand following a purifying fire, even at some loss of time, than from well started young growth which is unhealthy and likely not only to fail itself but also to infect any seedlings which may come in among it. consequently if the slashing is not large, and reproduction from the sides may be counted on, the above considerations, coupled with the reduction of future fire risk, may suggest slash burning just as in the case of fir. the remarks apply particularly if it is considered necessary to log as clean as possible. with a good, healthy start toward a new forest, however, it will usually be best to keep fire out, for the material saved will warrant greater expense in protection during the growing period. representative tracts, both on the coast and in the cascades, have been studied which showed that, with care in lumbering, enough good young hemlock too small for logs or skids could be saved after present-day logging of a heavy mixed fir and hemlock stand to produce in fifty years 11,000 or 12,000 feet of timber over 14 inches in diameter. this would not be wholly additional to the second crop of seedlings which might be produced if these trees were not preserved, for the ground and light they use would be denied to the seedlings, but undoubtedly the yield would be greater than could be secured if they were destroyed. this means that under similar conditions we may go still further and actually apply the selection system, especially if the original stand is nearly pure hemlock. so far we have discussed areas left by present-day logging methods. suppose, however, the owner of a good tract of hemlock, having decided that conditions do not warrant trying to get fir, is willing to modify his methods for the sake of better hemlock returns at some future cutting. he would probably do best to take out only the mature trees, leaving everything which is still growing with fair rapidity. greater light will stimulate these immensely as well as encourage further seeding of the ground. the few merchantable trees he spares, together with those now unmerchantable, will, in perhaps twenty years, make another excellent crop. by leaving a fairly dense stand he prevents the windfall danger which threatens the survivors of too vigorous cutting, and also prevents them from assuming the branchy form of trees which receive too much side light. the fire danger is much reduced by resultant shading of the ground and slightly by the lesser cover of debris. in short, he makes the most economical use of the ground, and the capital represented by the trees he spares is well invested. to sum up, hemlock lends itself to almost every form of management. determination as to which is most advisable is governed by its extremely variable manner of occurrence and by the local promise offered by associate species. the foregoing discussion can only serve as suggestive when considering given conditions. western cedar (_thuya plicata_) except for small swamp and river bottom areas, where the land is likely to be more valuable for agriculture than for forest culture, pure cedar stands are not common. therefore it is as a component of mixed stands that cedar is likely to become a problem in conservative management. to some extent it presents a peculiar question by being taken out alone for special purposes, such as poles and bolts, independent of ordinary logging of sawtimber. western cedar is a typically shade-bearing tree and also endures much ground moisture. its occurrence as an under story and in swamps does not indicate that it always requires such conditions, however, but more often means merely that they protected it from competition or from destruction by fire. charred remains of very large, fine cedar are often found on comparatively dry slopes where fire has resulted in complete occupation by fir at present. cedar's failure to reappear there after removal is probably because its thin bark and shallow roots allowed its destruction by a fire which was survived by some better protected fir seed trees. nevertheless, cedar must be classified as a moisture-loving species and occupies dry soils only in coast or mountain localities where there is a compensating heavy rainfall. reproduction and management of western cedar have not been sufficiently studied to warrant very positive conclusions. this neglect is probably due to a wide belief that in spite of its present commercial importance, its place in the future forest will be small. it most commonly occurs with other trees in heavy stands, which make the preservation of any young cedar difficult because of the destructiveness of logging. being of comparatively slow growth, also persistent in retaining branches when grown in the light, it is not as promising for artificial reproduction as douglas fir or white pine. to let it become old enough for good shingle material will be too expensive to pay, for roofing is one of the wood products easiest to substitute for. while cedar is adapted for poles, posts and other underground use, less decay-resisting species can be made equally durable by chemical treatment. in other words, as a second crop it is probably below other species in ease of establishment, rapidity and quantity, and will not have sufficient peculiar value to compensate for consequent less economical use of the ground. there may be exceptions to this rule. good young cedar in forests which are to be handled under the selection system should be carefully protected. it can always be utilized and may bring revenue before anything else can be cut. for the same reason it has been suggested for planting with fir and white pine, either simultaneously as a small proportion or later in blank spaces where the others fail. under such conditions the main stand will not be modified and the cedar will afford a valuable adjunct. sitka spruce (_picea sitchensis_) although found in the moister mountain regions, this exceedingly valuable tree seldom occurs to a commercially important extent except along the coast, where it is common on swales and fertile benches and in river bottoms often forms pure stands of great density. yields of 100,000 feet an acre are not unusual and the trees are very large. it is also common, although of small size, in swamps. this spruce reproduces readily in openings, whether made by fire or cutting. unthrifty specimens may be found under shade, but considerable light is necessary for successful development. even then, height growth in youth averages slower than that of fir or hemlock. the leader shoot is likely to die, so that hardly more than 25 per cent of the young trees establish a regular form of growth before a height of 20 or 30 feet is reached. after this stage spruce grows uniformly and rapidly, still somewhat slower than fir in height but exceeding it in diameter. the branches are slow to die, however, so that the tree remains bushy for most of its length until it reaches 60 or 80 feet in height, and even afterward a dense stand is required to clear it. in many pure spruce forests the larger trees have been able to withstand the pruning influences and remain limby, while the smaller ones, being pushed in height growth to reach sufficient light for survival, have cleared themselves with remarkable rapidity. the natural occurrence of sitka spruce, except in alaska, is probably limited chiefly to situations where it escapes competition, in youth at least, with the more hardy and rapid-growing species. it has the greatest advantage over these on river bottoms and flats where there is a dense growth of deciduous brush and where the soil is very wet in spring. in considering it as a possible second crop, the same competition must be remembered. whether seeding is natural or artificial, the extent to which it will hold its own with any considerable quantity of other species is doubtful. if such are present and the situation is adapted to them, any expensive effort to get spruce merely by modifying methods of logging or handling the slash is certainly likely to be disappointing. under the conditions mentioned as peculiarly favorable for spruce, gradual natural restocking may be expected if some seed supply is preserved, but since the growth is rather slow and a thin stand will remain limby, it may pay to hasten returns by supplementary artificial planting. some authorities question the financial practicability of this on the ground that since spruce is of slower growth it will pay better to use the ground for fir, but the latter is unlikely to be true of bottom land. after summing all its advantages, the peculiar merits of spruce for certain purposes should be weighed, for sufficiently higher stumpage value will compensate for delay in harvesting the crop. moreover, sitka spruce has not been as thoroughly studied by foresters as the more prominent western trees, and while the foregoing notes represent general present opinion, further figures on rate of height growth may be more encouraging. there is no doubt that diameter increase is rapid from the start. most of the disadvantages mentioned also decrease toward the southern limit of the spruce range, the growth on the oregon coast being rapid. western yellow pine (_pinus ponderosa_) in this species we have the important western conifer which most often permits the selection system of management. with certain exceptions in which the entire stand is mature, the object of conservative logging should be to remove trees past the age of rapid growth and foster those that remain for a later cut. when comprising the entire stand, or at least clearly dominating it, with all ages fairly evenly represented, successful in reproduction, and not so dense as to present mechanical difficulties, it is ideally adapted to this form of management. the important underlying principle is that, since for a period of its life the normal individual tree increases in wood production and then declines, it is bad economy to cut it while it is still growing rapidly or to allow it, after slowing down, to occupy ground which might be used by a tree still in the vigor of production. for example, if at 100 years old it contains 500 board feet, it has averaged an addition of 5 feet, a year throughout its life. if at 125 years old it contains but 560 feet, the average increment will be but 4-1/2 feet a year. it will not give equal return for the soil, moisture and light it monopolizes during these 25 years. at the same time, probably there are young trees nearby which hitherto have averaged below the maximum, but if released from its competition will forge ahead for a period at the end of which they will give a greater annual return than if cut at present. it would be as bad economy to cut these today as to spare the over-mature tree. in short, the production of the forest is not only sustained, but actually increased, by removing the oldest trees at just the proper time; and is decreased by taking out young trees either not yet at the natural age of greatest mean annual increment or capable of artificial stimulation by thinning. by studying the relation of age to production in the particular locality, the proportion of different age classes, and also finding the approximate average diameter which corresponds to the age at which he desires to cut, the professional forester can make a very accurate selection of the trees which can be removed to best advantage at present and also fix the time and yield of the next cutting. fortunately, however, commercial and silvicultural considerations accidentally coincide so nearly under average yellow pine conditions as to make certain rough rules which can be laid down entirely consistent with logging methods now in practice. diameter is far from exact indication of age, for the location of the forest and the situation of the individual tree, especially as it affects the relation between height and diameter growth, are potent factors, but as a rule merchantability for saw-material is not far from maturity. in a great majority of cases the approximate minimum diameter for cutting which would be fixed by it forester would be somewhere between 16 and 30 inches, but say it were 18 inches, for example, it would not arbitrarily apply throughout the stand. most trees with yellow, smooth bark and small heavy-limbed tops, perhaps partially dead, are mature regardless of their size. if small, they have been crowded or stunted and may as well be cut. trees with large, healthy crowns composed of many comparatively small branches, and with rough dark bark showing no flat scaling, are sure to be growing rapidly, even if quite large. they are also less desired by the lumberman, who often calls them black pine or black jack, so may often be spared, without much sacrifice, for seed trees or in order to continue their rapid wood production. the seed tree problem in such a pine forest and under such a system as has been described is comparatively simple, for there are likely to be enough young trees of fruiting age left to fill up the blanks between existing seedlings. the density of the latter determines to a large extent the number and location of seed trees necessary, but there should always be two to four to the acre, even if this requires leaving some that would otherwise be logged. under this system recurring cuts may be made at periods of perhaps 30 or 40 years, taking out each time the trees which have passed the minimum diameter since the last previous cut. it is obvious, however, that if the process is to continue indefinitely, protection must be absolute. destruction of young growth will stop the rotation at the time the surviving older material is harvested. at each cut the brush should be disposed of with this end in view. if the stand is very thin it may not add much to the danger of fire and, especially if reproduction is difficult and requires shelter, may best be left spread on the ground at some distance from remaining trees. otherwise, and this is the rule, it should be piled and usually burned. in this process and in logging every effort should be made to protect existing young growth from injury. ground fires should be prevented now and always hereafter. so far, however, we have been considering how to make the most of a stand of many ages, due to constant reproduction permitted by the light supply in a fairly open forest. on the other hand, yellow pine sometimes produces a mature stand so heavy that there is little young growth beneath it, or even a thin old stand with either little reproduction or an invasion of lodge-pole pine. such conditions are usually due to fire at some period. in the first of these cases, usually the dense stand has resulted from a fire which destroyed its predecessor not so completely as to remove the seed supply, but sufficiently to afford light for a more uniformly dense crop of seedlings than would occur in the normal forest. these have been thinned out as the stand grew old, but never to a degree which allowed much reproduction beneath them. the natural cycle will be begun again in time, for toward the end of the life of this unusually heavy stand, seedlings will begin to appear gradually as individual old trees die and admit more and more light. the other exceptions described are due to more recent ground fires which have destroyed only the less hardy young growth and perhaps also encouraged the lodge pole which, within its range, is always quick to take burned ground. the same result is almost sure to follow the "indian" method of forest protection sometimes advocated, which consists of purposely running ground fires frequently in order to prevent accumulation of sufficient debris to make an accidental fire fatal to timber of commercial size. while such immunity may be secured, and perhaps without sacrifice in stands so heavy as to have no reproduction or when the latter has already been destroyed, it is obviously at the expense of young growth if any exists. the counter argument that a small proportion escaping will be sufficient for the second crop is fallacious, because good timber will not be produced from these scattering seedlings subjected to strong light by later logging. other means are necessary if the forest is to be reproduced. this brings us to the possible management of yellow pine as an even-aged forest. thoughtful foresters are beginning to suspect that while the "indian" system of fire protection will usually be fatal if ordinary logging practice is followed, it may serve as an adjunct to a system which, if carefully applied, will be better than selection cutting for some of our pine areas. this plan is suggested where there is little young growth worth protecting and consists of depending upon seed trees almost entirely for reproduction, protecting carefully until the resultant even-aged second growth is large enough to stand blight fire, and then burning periodically at such a season and with such safeguards as will prevent the fire from being injuriously severe. not only are there many existing forests where absence of small trees will permit clean cutting without sacrifice, but the same condition is likely to occur eventually in stands following selective logging if the second cut is long delayed. although a good representation of all ages under the diameter limit remains, the density of this may become too great to allow further reproduction, and in time the dominant trees will shade out all smaller growth. to allow this purposely, choosing heavy cuts at intervals long enough to mature the crop from seed rather than frequent light cuts of a constantly replenishing stand, thus reducing the necessity of fire prevention, is the aim of those who favor clean cutting as the most practicable system. they assume that additional investment in seed trees, or planting to insure prompt starting of a new crop after cutting, will be unnecessary or at least offset by the smaller fire charge and greater economy of logging. theoretically, such practice with a species adapted to the selective method is uneconomical, for the ground is not fully utilized. accidental open places in the stand are not occupied by young trees which would otherwise fill them. time is lost by not starting the second crop until after logging, for were there no fire previously there would be considerable seedling growth which, although perhaps dormant because of shade, would begin to amount to something much quicker than that supplied by seed trees afterward. nor is the system feasible where there is much fir or other species less fire-resisting than pine. it is dangerous in practice except where there is very little combustible matter on the ground and fire is generally easy of control, and exceedingly dangerous to advocate because serves as a pretext and example for indiscriminate carelessness with fire under all conditions. finally, the alleged immunity of pine from injury by ground fires is exaggerated. as a matter of fact, while the whole stand is seldom perceptibly hurt, the immediate or gradual death of a good tree here and there thins the stand very considerably in a few years and it is such a thinning process in the past which makes many pine tracts bear but 5,000 feet to the acre where otherwise they would yield two or three times as much. scorching also retards the growth of trees not actually injured otherwise. the technical objections given above may sometimes be offset by practical advantages and the system is likely to receive expert approval for certain conditions provided it is not used as a cloak without taking sincere steps to replace the destroyed second growth by adequate seed trees or artificial seeding. the latter danger may easily warrant public alarm manifested by restrictive laws. universal ground burning of green timber will distinctly reduce the prospect of unassisted natural reforestation on the great area of potential timber land in which, as a resource, regardless of ownership, the public is vitally interested. under present conditions at least, a large proportion of this is likely to be logged without any view to a future crop. it is questionable whether any state should, or will, legally approve ground burning except under stipulation of proper management thereafter. unfortunately, it is necessary, in concluding this discussion of yellow pine, to admit that while an attempt has been made to outline the methods which will insure a second crop, the promise of satisfactory financial return is more doubtful than that offered by some other species. compared with the typical coast trees, such as douglas fir, spruce and hemlock, the growth is slow and the yield small. the chief circumstances in its favor are low land values, lesser fire risk, cheapness and certainty of reproduction and excellent market prospects. less investment compensates somewhat for longer rotation and smaller yield. low taxation, however, is an absolute essential. western white pine (_p. monlicola_) although as a distinct forest type this valuable tree is limited chiefly to idaho, it occurs occasionally in mixture or small tracts over a wide range, and no reason appears why its commercial importance should not be extended by planting on cut-over lands. its high value, rapid growth and heavy yield make it a particularly promising species for growing under forestry principles. its chief requirements for success are fairly good moist land, access by the seed to mineral soil and ample light for the young seedlings. except that it is more fastidious as to soil, white pine usually demands about the same treatment as that prescribed for douglas fir, including clean cutting, slash burning and establishing a new even-aged stand by seed trees or artificial restocking. under favorable conditions the stand is nearly even-aged, with little undergrowth except of undesirable species. what small pine may exist is seldom thrifty enough to be worth saving, so the best thing is to clean off the ground for the double purpose of removing weed trees and favoring valuable reproduction. like that of fir, the natural rotation of white pine forests seems to have been accomplished often by the aid of fire, and where not given this aid it suffers from lack of suitable seed-bed and from the competition of other species already established. individual seed trees left in logging are not successful because of shallow root system and almost certain windfall. replacement must be by seeding or planting, or by leaving small tracts of pine surrounded by cleared fire lines to protect them when the slashing is burned. the size and distance apart of these must be determined by their situation and exposure to wind, considering both the danger of windfall and the carrying of seed. especially in younger growths, the quantity of merchantable material tied up in this way is not so great as is sometimes necessary in the case of red fir, where single seed trees may contain several thousand board feet. on the other hand, stumpage value may be high. for this reason artificial replacement may often be more profitable, especially where there is reasonable safety against recurring fire. a thing to be borne in mind is that white pine seems to reach a healthier and better development when mixed with a small proportion of other species, such as cedar, tamarack, spruce, lodgepole pine and douglas fir, so there is no object in trying to produce an absolutely pure stand. some authorities think that 60 per cent of pine, with the rest helping to prune it, is an ideal mixture. lodgepole pine (_p. murrayana_) present interest in private reproduction of this species hardly warrants treating it at length in this publication, although unquestionably it will eventually occupy a higher place in the market than at present and its readiness to seize burned land in many regions will make it a factor whether desired or not. where yellow pine will grow, the problem is most likely to be to discourage lodgepole competition. in strictly lodgepole territory, however, it may be the only promise of a new forest. generally speaking, an even-aged growth should be induced by clean cutting if the entire crop can be utilized. slash burning in such cases is desirable. the chief difficulty is in providing seed supply, for either individual seed trees or small groups are almost certain to be blown down. experiments so far indicate that heavy strips must be spared, chosen to afford the least present loss and safeguarded by fire lines. in some lodgepole stands, especially where only certain sizes are marketable, the cutting practically amounts to thinning. here obviously the effort should be to prevent over-thinning and to remove debris with the least damage to the remaining stand. piling and burning is essential. sugar pine (_p. lambertiana_) this extremely valuable pine, commercially limited to the oregon and california mountains, is fastidious in its choice of conditions. not a frequent or prolific seed bearer, it still insists on a moist loose seed-bed and prefers the natural forest floor to burned-over land. it cannot stand drought when young and except on cool northern slopes seedlings may be killed or stunted by exposure to full sunlight. on the contrary it demands more and more light as it grows older and will be suppressed or killed if unable to secure it. under natural conditions it perpetuates itself best by filling open places in the forest. for the above reasons, sugar pine is naturally a component of mixed forests and it is doubtful whether it will be successfully grown as a pure stand. unfortunately, also, logging methods which are both the simplest and most favorable to the reproduction of its associates may be discouraging to sugar pine reproduction. nevertheless, its value warrants strong efforts to favor it and is an argument, where considerable young sugar pine exists, against either clean cutting or the use of fire. the forest service, for which authority much of the above discussion of this species was taken, offers the following general outline for management in california: "since the forests in which sugar and yellow pine occur vary greatly in composition, the method of treatment must also vary. for this the forest types already distinguished may form a basis. "on the lower portion of the sugar pine-yellow pine type, where sugar pine forms but a small proportion of the stand, only the yellow pine should be considered for the future forest. all merchantable sugar pine may therefore be removed. it will be necessary to leave only a few seed trees of yellow pine to restock the ground, although usually it will be a wiser policy to leave a fair stand, since this can be removed as a second cutting when reproduction is established. this procedure would also hold for areas on which yellow pine occurs in nearly pure stands. in these localities dense stands of second-growth yellow pine occur. it will often be profitable, where there is a market at hand, to thin these stands when they are about 30 years old, removing the suppressed trees for mine props. trees 6, 8 and 10 inches and up are used for this purpose, and sell for from 5 to 6 cents a running foot. "on the upper portion of the sugar pine-yellow pine type, where both species have about an equal representation in the stand, seed trees of each should be left, wherever practicable, in the proportion of two sugar pines to one yellow pine." in the fir belt, where sugar pine and fir are the principal species, the fir should be cut clean wherever possible and sugar pine should be relied upon for the future forest. "on all lands, the douglas spruce, white fir and incense cedar should be cut whenever possible, and chutes, skidways and bridges should be constructed from the two last named species." the following specific instructions are issued for marking timber on national forest sales in the sugar pine-yellow pine type: "owing to the large size of the trees, marking in this type of forest should be done with special care, since a slight mistake involves a comparatively large amount of timber. "on nearly all of the lands included in this type the ground is now but partly and insufficiently stocked with young timber, the areas of forest are constantly becoming more accessible to markets, and there is every indication of a strong future demand at greatly increased prices. on nearly every tract, a second cut can be made within thirty years. all marking under present sales should be done strictly with reference to two points: "1. stocking the cut-over land as fully as possible with sugar and yellow pine. "2. securing a second cut within thirty years. "all cutting should be done under the 'selection system,' which requires a careful choice of the individual trees to be removed. fixed diameter limits and the leaving of any specified number of seed trees per acre can be very largely disregarded. "the condition of every sugar and yellow pine on the sale area should be studied closely to determine whether that tree will be merchantable thirty years hence, by which time a second cut is probable. as a rule the trees which will remain merchantable for another thirty years should be left. suppressed and crowded trees which cannot develop should be removed. under this system of marking, ordinarily about one-half of the present stand of merchantable pine would be left uncut. will it pay? "on areas where practically all of the pine is over-matured and would be cut under the rule given above, a sufficient stand must be left to reseed thoroughly the cut-over land. this requires not less than four full seed-bearing trees, at least 25 inches in diameter, per acre. the strongest and thriftiest trees available should be selected for this purpose, but not less than the number specified must be left even if every tree will be a total loss before a second cut is possible. "extensive areas of pine timber which are not yet fully mature should be excluded from the sale. on patches or small areas of immature pine, which it is not practicable to exclude from the sale, cutting should be very light, limited to one-third or less of the largest trees, or omitted altogether. "no attempt to discriminate sharply between sugar and yellow pine should be made, as both trees are almost equally desirable. where a choice is necessary, sugar pine should be favored on moist situations, as in canyons, moist pockets, or benches and on northerly exposures. yellow pine should be favored on dry situations, including exposed ridges and southern exposures. "fir and incense cedar should be marked, as a rule, to as low a diameter as these trees are merchantable in order to reduce the proportion of these species in coming reproduction. it is essential, however, that no large openings be made in the present stand since the exposed ground is in danger of reverting to chaparral or of becoming so dry from evaporation that no reproduction will follow cutting. where the stand of pine is insufficient to reseed thoroughly and protect the cut-over area, enough sound, thrifty fir and cedar should be left to form a fairly even cover with openings less than a quarter of an acre in size.'" the under current of all opinion upon sugar pine up to date is that reproduction will not be very successful unless enough growth to shelter the seedlings remains after logging. where the fire risk permits, the same end may be furthered by leaving the tops scattered on the ground. little experimenting has been done in planting sugar pine, but there are many indications that except where conditions strongly favor natural reproduction it will be resorted to eventually if any particular attempt is made to get this species. leaving large seed trees is not only expensive, but rather uncertain, because heavy seed years are several years apart and squirrels consume a large portion of an ordinary crop. transplants which have received nursery shelter until past the greatest danger of drying out should prove most successful on heavily-cut south slopes. redwood (_sequoia sempervirens_) although probably the most rapid-growing of all american commercial trees and also of high market standing, redwood has been little studied by foresters. the layman is still more confused by its many peculiarities. growing to a size of 20 feet in diameter and 350 feet high, reaching an age of well over 1,000 years and seldom reproducing by means of seed, it is not surprising that it was long regarded as ill-adapted to second crop management. although observing that suckers sprout from the stumps with great rapidity, the lumberman generally regarded these mushroom growths as abnormal and temporary, and believed his virgin timber to be the finally-vanishing remnant of a prehistoric species unsuited to present-day conditions. it was next discovered that the suckering habit is no new one, indeed that the majority of the present stand, however old, began as sprouts from roots or stumps of its predecessors. this is evident from the circular arrangement of several trees around the spot where their parent stood. these old sprouts were of very slow growth, for they were shaded by a forest of extreme density. as seedlings they could have neither germinated nor grown, but as suckers they were kept alive by the parent until light supply became available through their increasing height or through thinning of the forest. under such conditions centuries were required to produce large trees. the owner of today, by cutting down the old stand, gives the suckers conditions hitherto unknown to the redwood. the vigor and susceptibility to the aid of light, which originally was necessary in the sprout growth to perpetuate the species at all, now respond to entire freedom and light in an astonishing manner. even after severe slashing fires char the stumps, the latter throw out clusters of sprouts which grow several feet a year. logging works 30 or 40 years old have come up to trees nearly 100 feet high. naturally such timber has a heavy percentage of sapwood and is soft and brittle, but it is already suitable for piling, box lumber and like purposes and improves constantly. since reproduction by seed does not enter into the problem, financial possibilities depend almost wholly on the nature of the original stand. there are many types of redwood forest, pure and mixed, flat and slope. if the old trees are few to the acre, the sprout clusters will be so far apart that excess of side light will produce clumps of swell-butted, short limby trees, of little use for lumber; that is, unless there is also a seedling growth of fir or other species to fill the blanks and bring up the density. where such a nurse growth is to be counted on, or where the redwood trees are small and close together, ideal conditions for a certain, rapid and well formed second crop exist. the thinner the original redwood stand, the greater the effort necessary at the time of logging to obtain the required density. the leaving of seed trees of other species, with as many as possible small trees of both redwood and other species and the maximum protection of all from fire, should then be the means employed. on some tracts the proportion of redwood will not warrant this effort; on some it is not even required. the question of whether it pays to hold redwood land is therefore almost wholly local, but when conditions are favorable it can be answered affirmatively, because of the extremely rapid growth, with less doubt than of almost any other species. there is some tendency to over-production of sprouts by redwood stumps. removal of the excess with an ax, saving those closest to the ground and not over-thinning to the extent of reducing the density conducive to height growth and shedding of low branches, improves the chances of those remaining. seeding and planting seed supply it has been shown in a previous chapter that the owner of deforested land who desires to secure a second crop may find it necessary or cheaper to adopt artificial measures wholly or in part instead of depending upon natural reproduction. these measures may be of two kinds--direct seeding, in which the seed is sown where the trees are to stand permanently, and the planting of trees grown in nurseries. whether artificial reforestation is accomplished by means of sowing seed or planting trees, the first requisite is a supply of tree seed of the desired species and of good quality. unfortunately for the timber owner who wishes to enter upon extensive seeding operations, the business of collecting and preparing forest tree seed for market has received but little attention from old-established seed firms, and it is not always possible to purchase the species and quantity desired. moreover, the prices charged are often excessive. in the pacific northwest, however, the demand for seed of douglas fir and sitka spruce has led to the establishment of a considerable trade in these species, and at reasonable prices, so that where these species are to be used, or only small quantities of other species, the timber owner will probably find it to his advantage to purchase the seed rather than to attempt collecting it himself. douglas fir seed is quoted at $1.40 to $2.00 per pound and sitka spruce seed at $2.25 to $3.00. in purchasing seed it is common practice to specify that it shall be of the new crop, because tree seed kept in ordinary storage loses its vitality materially. when properly stored in air-tight receptacles, however, as is now done by some seed dealers, it will retain its germinative power for several years with only slight depreciation. moreover, fresh seed, if improperly treated, may be of very poor quality, so that the age of the seed is of little value in the determination of its worth and the only sure method of ascertaining this is by means of germination or cutting tests. the latter method is the quickest and most simple and consists of cutting open a number of the seeds and ascertaining the per cent whose kernel is sound, plump and moist. seed of good average quality should contain not more than 25-30 per cent of infertile seed. when seed cannot be purchased, it is necessary to collect. since no species of coniferous trees bear abundant crops of seed each year and often several seasons will elapse between good crops, it is necessary to gather sufficient seed when the supply is abundant to provide for succeeding years when the crop is apt to be a failure. the seed ripens in the fall, usually during august or september, and the cones should be collected at that time. pines require two years in which to mature the seed; that is, the cones are not fully formed and the seed ripe until the second fall after the fertilization of the flowers in the spring. most of the other important conifers ripen their seed in the fall of the same season. shortly after the seed is ripe, the cones open and allow it to disseminate, consequently they must be gathered before this occurs. the cones are gathered either by climbing the trees and cutting them off from the branches, by picking from the tops of felled trees, or by robbing squirrels' hoards. where squirrels are abundant in the forest, the last method is the cheapest. climbing trees is practiced only where the trees are small. when this method is employed, the workmen should be equipped with linemen's belts and climbers. picking from felled trees is readily carried on except where dense underbrush interferes, as is the case in the ordinary douglas fir forest. trees growing in the open, with large crowns extending down the greater part of the bole, bear cones more abundantly than trees in dense forests, and for this reason collecting from scattered open growths can be done more cheaply than on logging areas. often large quantities of cones can be purchased from settlers who will collect and deliver them at central points at a stipulated price. when this method is employed, however, frequent examination of the cones should be made to ascertain that they contain the full number of seed, for often opened cones from which a part or all of the seed has been disseminated will be offered for sale. insect larvæ also often destroy a large proportion of the seed, particularly when the crop is light and care should be taken that the cones purchased are not infested. the prices paid for cones vary from 25 cents to 50 cents per sack for the larger cones, like yellow and white pine, and 50 cents to $1.00 for douglas fir and spruce, depending upon the abundance of the crop. after the cones are gathered the seed must be extracted and cleaned. where climatic conditions in the fall of the year will permit air-drying, the cones may be spread out on sheets or blankets where they will be exposed to the sun and wind. under this treatment they will open in from 3 to 6 days, depending upon the weather and the species. where bad weather will interfere with air-drying, the cones must be dried undercover by artificial heat. this is the method usually employed by professional seed collectors, and where large quantities of cones are to be treated each year special dry houses are constructed and fitted with elaborate drying apparatus. the work can be done most cheaply with such an establishment, but for the ordinary timber owner who expects to collect seed only occasionally, a makeshift dry-house which will answer the purpose can be fitted up inexpensively in any unused building. the essential features are shelves or trays 4 feet wide arranged around the walls of the room, one above the other and separated about 8 inches apart, and a heating stove placed in the center of the room. the shelves may be made of burlap stretched tight, or, better still, of wire screening of 1-1/2 inch or 3/4-inch mesh. after being subjected to a temperature not exceeding 110° fahr. for from 24 to 48 hours, the cones will open, allowing the seed to fall out when shaken or pounded. the seed when separated from the cones is then mixed with a coarse gravel in about the proportion of 4 to 1 and churned to remove the wings. finally, all foreign matter is removed by screening and hollow seed blown out by passing it through an ordinary fanning mill. seeding versus planting the selection of the method of reforestation to employ, whether direct seeding or planting, depends primarily upon the character of the area to be restocked. direct seeding is usually considerably cheaper when the results are satisfactory, but only on the more favorable sites where moisture and soil conditions are right is there any assurance of success. even in such cases partial or total destruction of the seed often results from birds and rodents. in exposed situations where the soil is shallow, or where because of climatic conditions soil dries out several inches deep during the growing season, the seed may not germinate at all, or the young seedlings may be killed before they have time to send their roots down to the permanent moisture level. in such situations, planting is the only reliable method. if the plant material is of the proper kind and the work well done, satisfactory results are almost certain to follow. direct seeding is a much more rapid method than planting, and where extensive areas are to be restocked within a short period and seed is abundant, the work can be completed quickly. on the other hand, this method is wasteful of seed because a large proportion fails to germinate and the young seedlings often succumb to adverse conditions, so that where seed is scarce or its cost high, planting is the more practical method. because planting is the most reliable method it has been the one most largely employed in extensive operations, both here and in most european counties, but thorough tests are now being made of direct seeding and under proper conditions it promises to be fairly satisfactory. the douglas fir region west of the cascade mountains offers the most favorable conditions for direct seeding and except on badly exposed south slopes, or where the growth of brush is exceedingly dense, it is believed this method will prove a satisfactory one for the timber owner to employ. in the yellow pine regions conditions are not so satisfactory for direct seeding, since this tree occurs largely in a region of deficient rainfall. however, natural reproduction is abundant throughout many portions of this type, and it is probable that direct seeding will prove fairly successful if the proper methods are employed and if forest conditions have not been too greatly disturbed. that some method of successfully employing direct seeding with yellow pine be found is greatly to be desired, since yellow pine seedlings do not withstand transplanting well, but there is need for careful experimentation before extensive seeding operations in this type by private timber owners would be justifiable. western white pine, it is believed, will be easy to reproduce in most of its native situations by direct seeding, though the greater scarcity of its seed and the fact that it will be more subject to destruction by birds and rodents because of its larger size may make planting the more practical method. trees for planting can either be purchased from commercial nurserymen or grown in nurseries established for that purpose near the planting site. when only a few thousand trees are needed it is cheaper to purchase them, but when extensive operations are contemplated, covering hundreds of acres in which millions of trees will be needed, it is far preferable for the owner to grow the trees in his own nursery. some initial outlay for the establishment of the nursery will be necessary and a practical nurseryman should be employed, but the saving in the cost of the trees will fully compensate for these. one, two and three year old trees, the latter once transplanted, are usually employed in planting, the older trees being used for the less favorable sites. in planting they are placed in rows equidistant apart, the spacing varying from 4 to 12 feet, with a general average of about 6 feet. the work may be done either in the fall after growth has ceased or in the spring before growth commences. the cost of planting, of course, will vary greatly with the age of the trees, the number planted per acre and the accessibility and character of the planting site. with young trees and wide spacing, the cost may be as low as $6.00 per acre, while in more unfavorable situations where older plants are used and planting is more laborious it may be as high as $16.00. a fair average, however, for those areas which a timber owner would be most likely to plant up is about $8.00 to $10.00 per acre. in direct seeding, several different methods may be employed, such as broadcasting over the entire area with or without previous preparation of the soil, sowing in strips, or sowing in seed spots; but observation and experiment have shown that it is necessary for seed such as douglas fir, yellow pine and western white pine to come in close contact with the mineral soil in order that it may germinate and the seedlings live; consequently only those methods should be used which will accomplish this. where the area has been burned over previous to sowing and the mineral soil laid bare, broadcast seeding may be employed. where the ground will permit the use of a harrow good results are obtainable by scarifying the soil in strips about 10 feet apart and sowing the seed in these strips. on unburned areas covered with a dense growth of fern, salal, moss, grass, or other plants, this covering must be removed by the seed spot method. this consists in removing the ground cover with a grub hoe or mattock in spots of varying diameter (6 inches to 3 feet) and of various distances apart (6 to 15 feet), and sowing the seed in these spots. the advantages of this method are that a minimum amount of seed is used; the ground can be prepared and the seed covered to whatever extent is desirable, and the soil pressed down. this method is believed to be the one best suited to the greatest variety of sites. the amount of seed used per acre will, of course, vary with the species and the method used, and the quality of the seed. the following table indicates the approximate quantity of seed of good average quality required per acre for three different methods, the average cost when collected in fairly large quantities, and the number of seed per pound: no. pounds required per acre. no. seed cost per broadcast, seedspots species. per lb. pound. entire area. strips. 6' apart. douglas fir 42,000 $1.50 2 3 1/2 1 1/2 3/4 yellow pine 8,000 .50 10 12 2 2-1/2 1-1/2 2 western white pine 14,000 .75 6 8 1-1/2 1-3/4 1 1-1/2 the total cost, too, will vary widely, not only because of the different quantities of seed used but also because of the great extent to which the methods are varied to suit the conditions occurring upon the area. simple broadcasting without any preparation or treatment of the soil will not exceed 20 cents to 25 cents per acre for labor; harrowing and sowing in strips, 85 cents to $1.10 per acre, and sowing in seedspots, $2.00 to $5.00 per acre. upon this basis the total cost per acre will approximate the figures given in the table below: broadcast over seedspots, species. entire area. strips. 6' apart. douglas fir $3.20-4.75 $1.00-2.60 $2.75-6.00 yellow pine 5.20-6.25 1.85-2.35 2.75-6.00 western white pine 4.70-6.25 2.00-2.40 2.75-6.00 rate of growth and probable returns of all factors in calculating the financial possibilities of second forest crops, the growth to be expected is the easiest to determine with fair accuracy. future stumpage value, tax burden and fire risk are all subject to uncertain influences, but the approximate yield of a given species under given natural conditions will be the same in the future that it is now. to predict it requires only study of existing stands without being misled by the influence of conditions which will not be repeated. on the other hand, an immense amount of misinformation is circulated because of superficial observation. enthusiasts discovering individual trees which have made prodigious growth, or even fairly extensive stands on fertile soil with heavy rainfall, will compute sawlog yields at 40 or 50 years which are much too optimistic for general application. others, remembering some stand they have seen in unfavorable localities, or noting shade-suppressed trees which will not be paralleled after the virgin forest is removed, are unduly discouraged. it is most essential that yield tables be made by trained observers who know how to reach the true average, and that the figures either actually come from the region to which they are to be applied or are accompanied by a systematic analysis of climatic and other conditions which permits intelligent comparison. in calculating another yield on cut-over land, the system for an even-aged new growth, such as will follow clean cutting of douglas fir, for example, is quite different from that necessary if the cutting amounts only to selection of the merchantable trees and leaves a fair stand of smaller ones. in the latter case, yield tables based on average acreage production are of little use because so much depends upon the character of the stand which remains on the tract in question. here the basis must be the rate of growth of the average individual tree. an estimate by the number in each present diameter class may be made of the trees which will escape logging, showing, let us say for example, about five trees of each diameter from 6 to 12 inches, or thirty-five in all which are over 6 inches. if the growth study indicates that in 20 years there will have been added 6 inches in diameter we can estimate a crop of five trees each of classes extending from 12 to 18 inches. actually the process will not be so simple, for the different aged trees will not grow with equal rapidity, and several other factors must be reckoned with, but the general principle is to apply rate of growth knowledge to the material on hand, and study of this material is essential. for predicting even-aged crops resulting from entire restocking, the acquisition of necessary basic information is as difficult, or more so, but its application is far simpler. that the ground will be fully stocked by natural or artificial means must be assumed, but we can also assume that the result will be influenced only by normal locality conditions and not by accidental condition of the present forest. therefore we use a yield table and not a growth table. this can be made by actual measurement of existing second growth stands of different ages, which proves not only the growth rate but also the number of trees which the natural shade-thinning process results in at different periods of the forest life. the chief danger of inaccuracy in such information lies in basing it on insufficient measurements or in applying it where soil or moisture conditions are greatly different. the latter error can be guarded against, however, by use of growth figures taken in conjunction with it. for example, if a yield table showing 25,000 feet to the acre at 50 years from seed is accompanied by one showing that the average stand it represents is 125 high at 50 years and its average 50-year-tree is 14 inches in diameter, little investigation is necessary to determine whether in any given locality the growth falls far above or below that. an attempt to reproduce here any considerable number of growth and yield tables would be of doubtful use without more space than is allowed to explain how they are made and used. there are many technicalities, both mathematical and silvicultural, and unfortunately most of the available figures for the northwest, obtained by the forest service, have not been generalized enough for wide popular value. this is particularly true of yield tables which necessarily require assuming standards of merchantability. while the best western white pine table assumes that by the time a new crop is cut 7-inch white pine will be salable, the best fir table was worked upon a 12-inch diameter basis. obviously this would show an unfairly greater yield of a pine forest containing trees between 7 and 12 inches and be very misleading in calculating financial results at the same age and stumpage rates; yet without the original data there is no way of reducing both tables to the same basis. as an example, however, to indicate how the financial possibilities of second growth can be arrived at if a systematic study is made, let us take the douglas fir figures referred to. douglas fir these are exceedingly reliable. measurements were taken by the forest service of practically pure fir on about 400 areas in thirty-five different age stands from 10 to 140 years old, ranging along the western cascade foothills from the canadian line to central oregon. since reforestation investment is likely to be confined mainly to the more promising opportunities, only such growth was measured as gave an average representation of the better class of the two should all the general territory covered be graded in two quality classes of all around ability to produce forests. on the other hand, care was taken not to represent the maximum of the better class, data being taken only from permanent forest land and not from rich potential agricultural land which might show unfairly rapid forest growth. the average areas were actually measured and the number, age, form, diameter growth, height growth, board foot contents, etc., of all the trees on them were accurately determined. trees 12 inches in diameter 4-1/2 feet from the ground were considered merchantable, and it was assumed they could be used to 8 inches in the top. from this data were prepared tables and diagrams showing the average development of trees and stands under fairly favorable conditions in the region west of the cascades. this gave the following yield per acre: age of stand. feet, b. m. age of stand. feet, b. m. 40 12,400 90 70,200 50 28,000 100 79,800 60 41,000 110 90,300 70 51,700 120 101,500 80 61,100 130 113,000 let us see how these figures can be used in answering the primary question of the prospective timber-grower: "will it pay to hold my cut-over land for a second crop?" obviously no certain answer can be printed here, not only because no uniform stumpage prices or carrying charges can be predicted but also because individuals may differ as to what profit is necessary to make the investment "pay," so it will be necessary to analyze the situation so each may select the premises which suit his own case and judgment. the investment made by the holder of cut-over land is of two kinds; that represented by the land which otherwise he might sell, putting the proceeds at work in some other business, and the annual carrying charges which otherwise he might also invest differently. the sum obtainable by investing the money available by sale after logging, adding to it yearly the sum required for fire prevention and taxes, and compounding both at a satisfactory interest for the entire period, is practically the cost of holding the tract for any given number of years. by calculating this cost upon a basis of one acre, and dividing it by the yield board measure which the same period will produce, the cost per thousand feet of growing a second crop is arrived at. against this may be set the gross return from the same expected yield at any given stumpage rate. the yield at the end of a 50-year investment will not be that of a 50-year forest, however, for although the carrying cost begins at once, the new forest requires a few years to become established. no exact figure can be set for this, for some seed will sprout the first year and some blank spaces may persist several years, but in the tables to follow five years has been allowed for an average. consequently, instead of calculating on a 28 m yield as the return at the end of 50 years, as indicated in the yield table on the preceding page, the 45-year yield of 20-1/2 m is used, and similarly for the other periods of 60, 70 and 80 years. these four rotations only will be considered here, for in less than 50 years second growth will probably be too small to be cut at the highest profit, while after 80 years the investment compounds so heavily as to make it improbable that increasing stumpage values will compensate. three interest rates have been used in the first table to follow: 4, 5 and 6 per cent, compound. forest calculations at lower rates are often seen, but it is not believed that less than 5 per cent will be satisfactory to private owners and many will insist on 6 per cent. the fair standard is what the owner can make in other business today, and since he can reinvest his income in the same business, it is reasonable to figure at a compound rate. a few examples are given to show how similar calculations may be made with any set of investment and stumpage factors which appeal to individual judgment. the second table, prepared from the first, shows at a glance the price that must be received for douglas fir to make it pay either 5 or 6 per cent compound interest under a range of sixty different conditions of original investment and annual cost. it should be borne in mind that, although present land value is made a charge, the value of the land at the time of harvest is not considered. this value is certain to increase greatly in the long periods involved. taxation charges will be against it as well as against the timber. indeed much land is now held without any regard to possible second growth. it should be assumed therefore that any profit in forest investment shown will be _increased_ by the sum obtainable for the land at the end of the same period. cost per m of growing cost per m of growing douglas fir resulting douglas fir resulting from every $1 per acre from every 1 cent per acre originally invested. of annual carrying charge. --------at the end of-------- --------at the end of-------- 50 60 70 80 50 60 70 80 years. years. years. years. years. years. years. years. at 4% $ .35 $ .30 $ .33 $ .41 $ .074 $ .068 $ .078 $ .098 at 5% .56 .53 .65 .88 .102 .101 .126 .172 at 6% .90 .94 1.27 1.87 .142 .152 .208 .309 example 1: with land worth $2.50 an acre at present, and an estimated carrying charge of 3 cents a year for protection and 20 cents per taxes, what stumpage price for a 50-year crop will pay 5 per cent compound interest? 6 per cent? 5% 6% 2-1/2 x .56 = $1.40 2-1/2 x .90 = $2.25 23 x .102 = 2.35 23 x .142 = 3.27 ---- ---- $3.75 $5.52 example 2: with land worth $5 an acre at present, and stumpage estimated to reach $7.00 in 60 years, what is the maximum annual carrying charge per acre which can be paid during this period and permit a 5 per cent return? a 6 per cent return? 5% 6% gross return = $7.00 gross return = $7.00 5 x .53 = 2.65 5 x .94 = 4.70 ---- ---- $4.35/.101 = 43c $2.30/.152 = 15c example 3: assuming that stumpage will be worth $6.00 in 50 years, and that public enlightenment will keep the annual fire and tax charge from exceeding 20 cents, what price obtainable for cut-over land today, made to earn 5 per cent compound interest in some other business, is as profitable as keeping the land for a second crop? if other business would earn 6 per cent? 5% 6% gross return = $6.00 gross return = $6.00 20 x .102 = 2.04 20 x .142 = 2.84 ---- ---- $3.06/.56 = $7.07 $3.16/.90 = $3.51 future stumpage prices necessary to make douglas fir second crop pay either 5 or 6% compound interest on investment. maximum original investment $7.50 an acre. maximum annual carrying charge 30c an acre. ------------cost per m feet---------- taxes and 50 year 60 year 70 year 80 year original protection rotation rotation rotation rotation investment paid yearly (20.5 m (35 m. (46.6 m (56.5 m per acre. per acre. per a.) per a.) per a.) per a.) (cents) 10 $2.40 $2.35 $2.90 $3.90 | | 15 2.95 2.85 3.50 4.80 | $2.50 < 20 3.45 3.35 4.15 5.65 | | 25 3.95 3.85 4.75 6.50 | 30 4.45 4.35 5.40 7.35 | | 10 3.80 3.65 4.50 6.10 5% | | 15 4.35 4.20 5.15 6.95 compound < 5.00 < 20 4.85 4.70 5.75 7.80 interest | | 25 5.35 5.20 6.40 8.70 | 30 5.85 5.70 7.05 9.55 | | 10 5.20 5.00 6.15 8.30 | | 15 5.75 5.50 6.75 9.20 | 7.50 < 20 6.25 6.00 7.40 10.05 | | 25 6.75 6.50 8.00 10.00 30 7.25 7.00 8.65 11.75 10 3.65 3.85 5.25 7.75 | | 15 4.40 4.65 6.30 9.30 | 2.50 < 20 5.10 5.40 7.35 10.85 | | 25 5.80 6.15 8.35 12.35 | 30 6.50 6.90 9.40 13.90 | | 10 5.90 6.20 8.45 12.45 6% | | 15 6.65 7.80 9.45 14.00 compound < 5.00 < 20 7.35 7.75 10.50 15.50 interest | | 25 8.05 8.50 11.55 17.05 | 30 8.75 9.25 12.60 18.60 | | 10 8.15 8.55 11.60 17.10 | | 15 8.90 9.35 12.65 18.65 | 7.50 < 20 9.60 10.10 13.70 20.20 | | 25 10.30 10.85 14.70 21.75 30 11.00 11.60 15.75 23.30 these tables bring out a number of very interesting primary facts: 1. the rate of interest demanded of the investment is one of the most important factors. this is because such long terms are involved. the charges compound with prodigious rapidity toward the last. in any other business paying 6 per cent, compound, the maximum investment per acre given in the preceding table, that of a land value of $7.50 and a 30-cent annual charge for 80 years, would earn $1,317. a 75-year forest then harvestable should have 56-1/2 m to the acre, but this would have to bring over $25 per m to pay as well. on the other hand, the same deposits earning 4 per cent would only amount to $338 in the same period which would be equaled by timber at $6 per m. 2. for similar reasons, the length of time before cutting has much to do with profit or loss. the compounding of carrying charges eventually outstrips the production of material to a degree which can be offset only by the most rapid rise of stumpage values. 3. the greater the investment, the more marked the above effect and consequently the tendency to market an inferior product. a 60-year rotation is indicated by a majority of the conditions shown. 4. a comparatively slight increase in annual tax or fire charges may make the difference between profit and loss. roughly, stumpage must bring $1 per m more to compensate for each 10 cents an acre for taxes at 5 per cent or for 7 cents at 6 per cent. 5. if the land is salable for $5 an acre or more it cannot be made to pay 6 per cent compound interest under the most favorable conditions, unless the stumpage received exceeds $6. at $5 stumpage and with reasonable taxation it will pay 5 per cent if it escapes fire. 6. thirty cents an acre is apparently about the maximum annual carrying charge which will permit a 6 per cent profit, even with very high stumpage prices. consequently, while present taxes on cut-over land are seldom prohibitive, there must be reasonable certainty that excessive increase will not occur. the carrying charges shown in the second table cover both fire protection and taxes, as by reading the 15-cent line to include a 10-cent tax and a 5-cent fire patrol. the investment charge may be used to represent sale value only, or sale value plus any expense incurred at time of logging in order to secure reproduction, such as leaving salable material in seed trees, or planting. if desired, any owner may make a similar calculation on any other valuation better fitting his own situation. the table is not intended for universal use but merely as an illustration of how forest calculations may be made. white pine too much space would be required to give a similar table for all western species, even were as good yield figures available. roughly speaking, however, western white pine, under conditions thoroughly favorable to it, may be expected to make as good a yield as douglas fir, and the above fir table will not be far off for it. a probably higher stumpage value should offset any lesser production. hemlock western hemlock is of somewhat, but not much, slower growth when coming in on open land as an even-aged stand. no yield table based on the same merchantable standards as the fir table quoted has been prepared, but the following is fairly safe to include all trees 14 inches in diameter used to 12 inches in the top: at 50 years, 2 m per acre; at 60 years, 22 m; at 70 years, 33 m; at 80 years, 40 m. the absence of a 40-year figure, and the sudden jump between 50 and 60 years, is because very few hemlock trees reach 14 inches at 50 years, but a large number of 12 and 13-inch trees pass into that class during the ten years following. any yield figures for an even-aged forest show a similar jump at the point where the stand as a whole reaches the determined minimum merchantable size. for the same reason these hemlock figures are not very far less promising than those given for fir, for at corresponding ages the latter include 12 and 13-inch trees and all trees are considered merchantable to a top diameter of 8 inches. spruce since no systematic study of sitka spruce second growth has been made, it can only be predicted from knowledge of its habits that while in favorable situation it will yield as heavily as douglas fir, in other localities its growth in early life is slower and less regular, making it less likely to produce a good crop before the carrying charges become burdensome. if this proves true, taxation rates and land values will be extremely important factors, offset to some degree by a smaller fire hazard and the probability of high stumpage. redwood for redwood we also lack good figures for any considerable range of conditions and ages, for redwood growth which followed burns does not exist and there are no very old cuttings. government studies on the northern california coast prove conclusively, however, that this is our most rapid growing native commercial tree. in thirty years, in fair soil, it will produce a tree of 16 inches diameter, 80 feet high, and some existing 45-year stands run 20 to 30 inches on the stump and about 100 feet high. reckoning 14-inch trees as merchantable, to be used to 10 inches in the tops, a 25 to 30-year second growth after logging near crescent city was found to have 2-1/2 m feet to the acre and the future increase should be very rapid. there is little question of the profit of growing redwood, provided the difficulties described elsewhere of getting a dense crop started are overcome. profitable thinnings in addition to the yield of saw timber to be expected when the second crop reaches manufacturing size, there will be a market in many cases for material obtained by thinning. it is perfectly fair to compound for the remainder of the rotation any net profit so obtained and to set it against the carrying charges. in many cases it will go far to turn an apparently losing investment into a very profitable one. moreover, the proper thinning of growing stands not only utilizes material which would otherwise die and be lost before the main harvest, but actually improves the quality of the first yield. in obtaining the figures previously quoted the forest service found that the average douglas fir stand at 40 years contains 410 living trees, most of them between 6 and 15 inches in diameter. at 60 years there are but 265 trees, 145 having died and decayed in the 20-year interval which were suitable for ties or other small timber products. the remaining trees would have been improved by thinning to prevent this loss, for the greatest diameter growth is made when the stand is open, and the ideal is to have just the density which will get the greatest wood production and still result in proper pruning and clearing of the trees. commenting along this line mr. t. t. munger, who conducted the investigation, says: "that thinnings are silviculturally practicable and financially profitable in the pacific northwest has been demonstrated. in the vicinity of cottage grove, oregon, many fully stocked even-aged douglas fir stands now about 50 years old, most of them forming a part of ranches. many of these stands have been cut over in the last 10 years and all the material then large enough for piling or mine timber cut out. this removed about 20 per cent of the stand. at the present time many of these same stands now contain much material valuable for small piles, ties and mine timber, yet the crown canopy is as dense and the trees as close and fine quality as though no cutting had ever been done in the stand. in fact, some of the 50-year old stands have already been cut over a second time, and each time with decided profit to the owner and no damage to the forest. from one 10-acre block of second growth now 50 years old, situated 7 miles from the railroad, already 32,000 feet of mining timber and about 100 50-foot piles have been taken out, yet the stand is now in good condition, and in a few years more of the smaller trees can be removed without infringing on the yield of the final crop. the material from these thinnings was worth at the railroad about $80 per acre." conclusions throughout the preceding pages on the financial promise of timber-growing in the west, the attempt has been not to give conclusions but to state certain known facts regarding tree growth and indicate how these may be used in arriving at conclusions based largely upon the conditions and judgment of the individual owner. in many cases they will do little more than suggest further investigation necessary. the western forestry & conservation association and, doubtless, the district foresters for the forest service, will be glad to discuss such work and assist if possible. there are, however, several conservative deductions to be made: 1. the pacific coast states contain large areas having species and climatic conditions peculiarly favorable for forest-growing as a business. the rapidity and quantity of yield insure profit under conditions which would be prohibitive elsewhere. 2. in many cases, perhaps in most, a second crop can be started with little initial expense. 3. there is much land of no value for any other purpose. 4. even if the owner does not care to hold his land long enough for another crop, or if he is prevented from doing so at some future time by excessive taxation or other prohibition, its disposal value will be greater if it bears young forest growth than if it does not. 5. stumpage values are certain to advance greatly and their advance will be governed largely by these factors: a. speculative influence necessarily accompanying the lessening of the nation's and the world's timber supply. b. the carrying charges of fire prevention and taxation imposed by the community upon virgin timber, which, since they represent an investment which must be recouped, will either be added in the long run to the price of stumpage exactly in the measure of their severity and so transferred to the consumer, or result in rapid cutting and consequently raise the speculative value of that which escapes cutting. (this the consumer will pay also.) c. the quantity of new timber grown. 6. it is probable that future demand for timber will reimburse the cost of growing it, be this cost high or low _within reasonable limits_. 7. this does not mean, however, that the timberland owner will or can generally engage in the business when the cost is excessive. while he could probably make a good profit eventually, such an investment is too heavy and prolonged to be inviting; besides there is the possibility of entire loss by fire. he will naturally compare it with other investments having less disadvantages. for example, since conditions which discourage the growing of new competing forests tend for this very reason to enhance the value of existing forests, he might invest further in the latter instead, with equal ultimate profit and with easier access to his money at any time. 8. consequently the growing of timber is promising to the private owner only when the investment can be borne easily. since it has three forms--land value, fire protection, and taxation--all must be moderate or, if one or more is high, the rest must be low. 9. with the fire hazard great at present, and taxation so uncertain as to require allowing for its being excessive, the initial investment must be insignificant. 10. this confines it to land of low sale value and precludes much expense to insure the second crop. 11. to secure the perpetuation of forests on the scale essential to public welfare, the public must provide the private owner better fire protection and an equitable taxation system. _or else it must purchase sufficient cut-over land and engage in forestry itself, bearing the cost and taking the risk._ 12. nevertheless there are several practical exceptions to the somewhat unfavorable situation theoretically outlined above: (a) many owners are warranted in holding cut-over land for some time, if not indefinitely, because of the upward trend of land values generally. unless clearly most useful for agriculture, such land will be made more valuable by a growth of young timber. however indefinite the profit of encouraging this growth and protecting it from fire may be if the present sale value and taxes are computed against such outlay, _the two latter charges are being carried anyway_ and are the most important ones. merely that it cannot be proved that they can be more than offset is no reason for not trying to compensate as far as possible at slight further expense. while this may not often permit any great effort to reforest, it will usually warrant protection of the natural new growth that will follow if given a chance. (b) many owners would prefer to have their milling business continue indefinitely. if such have or can purchase virgin timber to carry them 50 years or more they may do well to grow a log supply to come into use at that time, even if they would not do so merely as a stumpage investment. (c) it is highly probable that history will repeat itself in the united states, especially in the pacific coast states where every other condition is so favorable to making forestry a great benefit to the community, and that fire and tax discouragements will be removed as soon as the public realizes the situation. the owner who anticipates this and gets his crop started first will be the first to profit from it, and since it is the compounding toward the latter end of the rotation which now appears serious, the chances are that he will not have a heavy burden before relief of this kind arrives. (d) every owner of virgin timber which he expects to hold uncut for 10 years or more should consider reforestation of adjacent cut-over land in the light of fire protection also. it is the inflammable, sun-dried, brake-covered openings, yearly increasing in extent, which constitute his greatest fire menace. the conversion of these into green young growth, too dense for fern and salal and destructible only by the hottest crown fires, is the best protection he can give mature timber surrounded by them. some additional expense for a few years to accomplish this will usually be cheaper and safer than the patrol otherwise required for an indefinite period. (e) advance in value of the land itself, realizable when the second crop is cut, will in many cases be great enough to make an otherwise unpromising reforestation investment profitable. hardwood experiments in the foregoing pages consideration has been given to the growing of native coniferous species only. there is a field, however, yet to be entered into by the timber grower in the pacific northwest, which gives promise of good returns. this is the growing of eastern hardwoods. as is well known, the supply of native hardwoods in this region is deficient and those occurring are of poor quality. the demand for staple hardwoods is constant, and at present can be filled only through importation from the east. moreover, the manufacturing industry in the pacific northwest is as yet only in its infancy, and as this industry becomes of greater importance in the future, the demand for hardwood lumber is bound to increase. this increase in demand, coupled with the rapidly diminishing supply in the east, seems certain to create a condition under which it will be profitable to grow hardwoods commercially. that eastern species will thrive under forest conditions in this region has not, of course, been demonstrated, but the great variety of species planted successfully as shade trees in towns and cities, and in many instances by settlers in the mountains and farming districts, together with the marked success of various fruits introduced here, would tend to indicate their adaptability to the climate. in many respects the climate along the coast of oregon and washington is similar to that found throughout the great hardwood region of the southern appalachian mountains. of the many species occurring in the east, several appear preëminently suited to experimentation because of their particular value in the trade and rapid growth. hickory is one of the most valuable of eastern woods, and the supply remaining is probably least of all the important species. it is largely used in the vehicle industry, and because of the fact that the trade can use trees of small size, and even prefers "second growth" hickory to the more mature form, a crop can be grown within a comparatively short time. shagbark or pignut are probably the best species to plant. red oak is another species for which there is a large demand, and while it does not equal the white oak in value, its more rapid growth makes it a more desirable species to grow. the increasing scarcity of white oak has brought about the substitution of red oak for many purposes for which the more superior variety was formerly used exclusively. black walnut is a wood highly prized in furniture manufacture, and this, coupled with its rapid growth, places it among the first rank of hardwood trees. chestnut, white ash, tulip, poplar and black cherry are other species whose value for various purposes suggests the possible advisability of their introduction. much that has been said in the chapter concerning the methods of establishing coniferous woods applies equally well to hardwoods. those species, however, whose seeds are in the form of nuts, such as hickories, black walnut, chestnuts, and oaks, are particularly adapted to propagation by direct seeding. other species, such as ash, tulip, poplar, and black cherry, whose seeds are small, are better grown for one year in nurseries before transplanting into the field. where plantations are started by planting the nuts directly in the field, the cost will be moderate. the nuts can be obtained in any quantity from eastern seed dealers, and their cost, together with the labor of planting them, should not exceed $4 per acre. where the area planted is level and free from underbrush, preliminary plowing and harrowing, while adding $1.50 to $2 to the cost per acre, will add much to the success of the plantation. cultivation during the early years of the life of the trees will also result in increased growth. chapter iv forestry and the fire hazard the slashing menace the function of fire as an aid to reproduction of the forest in some instances has been discussed in a preceding chapter. the protection question is of even greater importance, for whether we consider mature timber or reforestation, no forest management is worth while if the investment is to burn up. it can be divided broadly under two heads, reduction of risk due to operative methods and general protection. whichever we consider, the interest of every lumberman is at stake. the fire question affects him in many ways beside the danger of direct loss. the sale value of timber in any region is increased by knowledge that progressive protective methods prevail among those operating there. nothing more effectively removes public carelessness with fire, or lack of helpful sympathy with the lumber industry in general, than evidence that the lumberman himself is devoting every effort to safeguarding instead of wasting this great public resource. of operative methods reducing fire risk, one of the most important is disposal of logging debris. the deliberate accumulation of immensely inflammable material, almost always where extremely likely to be ignited, is a form of actually inviting disaster practiced by no property holders except lumbermen. nowhere is it carried to such an extreme as in the west, where the refuse left on the ground is of so great volume as to preclude human control if it is once fired at a dry time, and where accidental fire is often more of a certainty than a liability. of late, however, the more progressive lumbermen of the fir region have adopted the practice of firing their slashings annually at a time when the surrounding woods will not burn, and the pine men of idaho and montana have quite widely endorsed brush piling. idaho has a piling law. oregon already has a slash burning law which is partially observed. the greatest objection to such a law is that neither reforestation nor economical protection indicates the same practice in different types of forest and it is extremely difficult to make the law both flexible and effective. more will be accomplished by voluntary adoption of the method best suited to each condition. brush piling in the more open pine stands of the interior, where both logging debris and original combustible ground cover are small, slashings threaten the adjacent timber less than in denser forests, but are of peculiar danger to the valuable young growth usually left on the area itself. as we have seen in a previous chapter on western yellow pine, reproduction in dry localities may require scattering the brush over the ground and keeping fire out, and there may be abnormally dense stands suggesting clean slash burning, but as a rule brush piling is the best course. in view of the importance of this subject the following extracts are taken from a circular issued by the forest service: "_advantages of brush burning_ "the greatest advantage of brush burning is the protection it gives against fire. in many cases brush burning is the only practicable safeguard against fire. after the average lumbering operation the ground is covered with slash, scattered about or piled, just as the swampers have left it. this, in the dry season, is a veritable fire trap. probably 90 per cent of all uncontrolled cuttings are burnt over, which retards the second crop at least from fifty to one hundred years and perhaps permanently changes the composition of the forest. fires may be set by loggers while still at work on the area or several years after by lightning, campers, or locomotives. by piling the brush and burning it in wet weather, or in snow, when there is no danger of the fire spreading, all inflammable material is removed, and the second growth can come up without serious risk of being destroyed. even where only part of the brush is burned and the rest is piled, as when the piles in open places, along ridges, streams, or laid off lines are burned, very much is gained in case of fire, since these cleared lanes form bases from which a fire may be fought. "besides lessening the danger from fire, brush burning has certain minor advantages. when the brush on the ground is removed it is much easier for rangers and others to ride or walk through the forest. this may be very important in case of a fire or in rounding up cattle. it is also much easier to cut and handle ties, cordwood, or other timber which may later be taken from the cut-over areas if the slash is out of the way. by piling and burning the green brush as it is cut from the trees by the swampers, as is now being done in minnesota and parts of montana, the ground is cleared and skidding is made easier and cheaper. again, careful piling and burning of brush improves the appearance of the forest. there is nothing much more unsightly than a recently cutover area where no attempt has been made to dispose of tops and lops. near towns or resorts and along roads or streams frequented by tourists this point should be carefully considered, but as a general rule the utility of the forest should not be sacrificed for beauty. "_disadvantages of burning_ "the disadvantages of burning brush are many and, with the one exception of protection from fire, far outweigh the advantages. if protection can be had in some other way, as with more efficient patrol service or more stringent laws, the practice should in many cases be abandoned. in many places, especially in the yellow pine type, the best, and often the only, reproduction comes up under a fallen treetop or other brush. where there is little of the old stand left, the straggling open top protects the seedlings from the direct heat of the sun. yet brush not only protects the seedlings from the sun but, what is more important, the leaves and broken twigs form a cover which retards evaporation of moisture from the soil. over the greater part of the west the soil dries out very rapidly during the dry season, and this serious retards or even prevents the growth of seedlings. even in the moister regions, such as that of the engelmann spruce type, it is very necessary to conserve the moisture in the soil after logging to prevent the remaining trees from being killed through lack of soil moisture. a third reason why seedlings so often come up only under the down treetops is that they are protected from stock. next to drought, sheep are perhaps the most serious menace to reproduction, and though it would be best to keep all stock off the area for several years after logging, in many cases this is not practicable, and on many areas the leaving of the tops on the ground is the only way to protect reproduction from injury. "in many places after the timber has been cut off gullies and washes start in the old wheel ruts, log slides, etc., and these and other forms of erosion can best be prevented by leaving the brush on the ground, either laid in the incipient washes or scattered over the soil that is likely to wash. brush burning destroys the valuable soil cover, and on the spots where the piles are burned the soil is loosened, which renders it even more liable to erosion. "it is well known that where the forest is burned each year the soil becomes poorer and poorer, because nitrogen, the chief fertilizing ingredient of the soil, is given off in the smoke, and only the mineral elements go back to the soil in the ashes. and, what is more injurious, the humus--i. e., the decomposed vegetable matter in the top soil--is destroyed. in burning brush after logging all the fertilizing and humus-forming leaves and twigs are destroyed just when most needed, for another good crop or leaves cannot be expected for many years. "the added cost, both to the lumberman and to the government, is another argument against brush burning. the cost of piling brush has varied all the way from 15 cents to $1 or more per thousand, with an average or 40 or 50 cents, while the cost or burning may be from 5 cents to 25 cents per thousand, averaging about 15 cents. by abandoning the practice of brush piling this 60 cents a thousand will not be entirely saved, as is claimed by some, for the brush will still have to be lopped and disposed of in some other way, which will cost, it is estimated, at least half as much as piling and burning. but even a saving of 25 or 30 cents a thousand is a strong argument against the practice. "thus, from a silvicultural viewpoint, the disadvantages of brush burning far outweigh its advantages. yet, as a general policy, it seems unwise, until other methods have proved their efficiency, to abandon brush piling and burning to any great extent at present. the fire danger is a known quality, and, though it is being reduced each year, it is still a menace. therefore changes from the present practice should be made with caution. brush piling and burning is certainly not advisable in all cases, and extensive experiments should be made to determine what is the best method of brush disposal for the different types and conditions. "_brush piling and burning_ "the cost of piling varies with the cost of labor, the methods of logging, the type, the topography, the kind of trees cut, and the time of the year it is done. a few figures will illustrate this variation. in the yellow pine type in montana an addition to the swampers' wages of 15 cents a thousand would, it is said, enable them to pile the brush, as they have to handle it anyway. usually, however, the piling is done by a separate crew. much of the work is thus duplicated. in yellow pine in the southwest, brush piling costs from 45 to 50 cents, while in montana it can be done for 25 cents. one operator in lodgepole in montana says it is cheaper for him to pile than not to, because he can get his skidding done so much cheaper, yet on other operations it has cost from 50 cents to $1 a thousand, depending on how thoroughly it is cleaned up. in the sugar pine type of california the cost of piling averages from 25 to 35 cents, while the cost in the douglas fir type, in montana and idaho, averages about 40 cents, and in engelmann spruce type the cost is only about 25 cents a thousand. it is certain, however, that the cost of piling will everywhere be materially reduced when the operators begin to look on piling as part of the swampers' regular work and not as an entirely separate job. "dry brush should never be burned during the dry season, unless absolutely necessary for the suppression of an insect invasion. green brush in some places may be burned at any time, but as a rule it is unsafe to burn it in dry weather. the best time to burn brush is in the fall, just after the first snowfall. then the piles are dry, and there is no danger that the fire will get beyond control. brush may also be burned at the beginning of or during the rainy season, when the ground is damp enough to prevent the fire from spreading, and the brush dry enough to burn readily. "the cost of brush burning varies like the cost of piling. it varies even more in the same localities, with weather conditions and methods of piling. brush that can be burned for 10 or 15 cents a thousand at a favorable time, as just after the first snow, will cost five or ten times as much to burn in dry weather, or when the piles are very wet. brush can be burned more easily the first fall after cutting than it can the second year, when many of the leaves have fallen off. brush burning has been done for 13 cents a thousand in lodgepole, in the medicine bow national forest, while it has cost 22 cents in similar timber in the yellowstone, and estimates of 40 cents a thousand have been made for it in the rockies. it is generally admitted that brush can be most economically burned by the same people who pile it. recently several contracts have been made in which the purchaser of the timber is required to pile and burn the brush under the direction of forest officers, as has been the practice in the minnesota forest for some time. this will lighten the total cost, and when the weather allows the brush to be burned, as logging proceeds, the cost of burning will be offset by the subsequent reduction in the cost of skidding. "_piling without burning_ "brush piled properly, even though it is not burned, is a great protection to the forest. inflammable material is removed from among the living trees, and should a fire occur it would be much easier to fight. this is especially true where reproduction is dense. where openings are scarce piles should be made in the most open places, and may be larger than those made to be burned." slash burning in many regions, especially in western oregon and washington, logging debris is too great to make piling practicable. but except for the damper localities close to the pacific, the danger from these immense accumulations is all the more excessive and, as we have seen elsewhere, their removal is often desirable in order to further reforestation by desirable species. here the only course is to burn the slashing clean. this is a dangerous process unless every safeguard is employed. burning must be at a time in spring or fall when the slashing is dry enough but the surrounding woods are not. spring burning is theoretically preferable, for it leaves less inflammable material during the fire season. the first fire is also easier to control then, because repeated experiments may be made, as the slashing dries, until just the right conditions exist. on the other hand, it is dangerous if there are many old stumps and logs in which fire may smoulder to make trouble later. the exponents or fall burning also argue that with care they can be ready to fire a very dry slashing safely at the beginning of a rainstorm. spring burning seems to have the most advocates, but it is doubtful whether any rule for all localities and conditions can be given with confidence. frequently failure at one season leads to postponement until the next. in either case the slashing can be given the advantage of the greatest dryness with safety if it is surrounded by a cleared fire line from which to work. firing should be against the wind and if the wind changes suddenly the opposite edge should be back fired. previous cutting of all dead trees and snags over 25 feet high is urgently recommended. the camp crew should be held in readiness, well provided with tools, as insurance against accidental escape. its probable restriction of insect breeding is a point of slash burning likely to receive much future study. it is well known that most forest-injuring insects prefer dying trees to vigorous ones; also that the existence of an abnormal amount of such material tends to abnormal breeding and consequent serious attack of vigorous timber when the dead material becomes too dry to be inviting. it is by no means impossible that the supposed immunity of douglas fir from insect injury may be largely due to the almost universal destruction by fire of logging debris which would otherwise afford ideal breeding places. fire lines the division of mature forest into compartments separated by fire lines is seldom practicable in this country. nevertheless slashings, deadenings and similar fire traps can very often be profitably confined by the cleaning of strips which will not only stop or retard the progress of a moderate fire but also facilitate patrol, fire fighting or back firing. on favorable ground, where some choice is offered, much may be done by falling timber inward so as to leave few tops near the uncut timber and by the location of skidroads. so far as practicable fire lines should be on the tops of ridges, for, being slower to go downhill than up, fire is more easily discouraged just as it reaches a crest. bottoms of gulches are next in strategic value, and midslopes least. safeguarding equipment the most fruitful source of fires is spark-emitting locomotives and logging engines. much data has been collected showing that with oil at a reasonable price its use is economical from a labor-saving point of view as well as from that of safety. it reduces expense for watchmen, patrol, fuel cutting, firebox cleaning and firing. and since it is an absolute prevention, while all other measures merely seek to minimize the risk, it is probable that even where the cost of the oil more than balances these savings it will save in the long run by averting a costly fire. where the use of oil cannot be considered, spark arresters are essential. the argument that they prevent draft is not worth attention. it is greatly exaggerated by engineers and firemen prejudiced against innovation or too inattentive to keep their fires up properly and consequently unnecessarily dependent on occasional forced draft. the slight disadvantage involved by the modern improved arrester is not to be compared with the importance of the safety acquired. in addition to spark arresters, which may fail or be out of order, logging engines using fuel other than oil should be provided with a constant tank or barrel supply of six to twelve barrels of water and 100 feet of hose with proper pumping attachment. with this a spark fire can be promptly soaked out beyond danger of invisible smouldering in rotten wood or duff. when conditions are dangerous, careful loggers send a man back to each donkey-setting between supper and bedtime to look for possible fires that were not seen when the crew left. many keep a watchman on the rounds all night. railroad rights of way can usually be kept cleaned and burned at a cost far less than that of otherwise frequent shutdowns of the entire camp to fight fire or rebuild bridges, to say nothing of loss of timber. patrol the best way to prevent fire is to prevent it. putting out fires already started is better than letting them burn, but as the real foundation of a protective system it is about like lowering a lifeboat after the ship has struck. only by patrol can the incipient spark or camp fire be extinguished before it becomes a forest fire that has to be fought, taking hours or days instead of minutes. one patrolman can stop 100 incipient fires easier than 100 men can stop one big fire. fires in the forest may never be wholly averted, but patrol will prevent them from becoming "forest fires." this is why the progressive lumberman no longer waits till forced to layoff his crew to fight, spending in a day or two a patrolman's salary for a season, shutting down his road and mill for lack of logs, and perhaps in spite of all losing several thousand dollars' worth of timber and equipment. it is also why the progressive non-operating owner no longer considers fire loss the act of god, to be reckoned as an investment risk of several per cent. the man who does not patrol his timber nowadays is like a millman who hires no watchman, has no hose or sprinkler equipment, and carries no insurance. he _may_ escape loss, but by not making a reasonable effort to insure against it he takes a course practically unknown with other forms of property. modern fire patrol is systematic. trained and organized men have definite duties. tools, assistance and supplies are available at known points and without delay. trails and look out stations, often supplemented by telephone lines, give the greatest efficiency with the least number of men. above all, the system is based on the fact that results are most truly measured not by the number of fires extinguished but by the absence of fire at all. settlers, campers and lumbermen are visited, cautioned and converted. in short, the patrolman has a certain area in which to improve public sentiment. his success in this is worth more than efficiency in fighting fires due to lack of such success. a system devoted to mere fire fighting to be adequate must grow larger as time goes on. one devoted to preventing fire may be reduced, as time makes it successful. the cost of efficient patrol varies so directly with the risk that it is almost constant as an insurance investment. where prevalence of fire, difficulty of handling it, etc., make the cost per acre comparatively high, there is equivalent certainty of greater loss if this sum is not spent. where the owner is warranted in believing his risk small it costs but a trifle to provide sufficient patrol to insure against it. one to 3 cents an acre is spent in the great majority of successful patrols in ordinary seasons. associate effort one of the first lessons learned from the establishment of private patrol in the west was that both efficiency and economy are obtained by co-operation between owners. obviously if one patrolman can cover the holdings of several, it is foolish for each to hire a man. if a fire threatens several tracts, it is better to share the expense of labor hired to put it out. the same is true of building trails, buying tool supplies, etc. this has led to the forming of associations which at a minimum cost to each member accomplish the many tasks of finding suitable men, having them authorized by the state, supervising and supplying them, paying emergency expense, opening trails, etc. each member pays his share upon the acreage he represents. these associations offer other important advantages besides the mere cheapening of work. they are admirably adapted to modifying the cost to fit the season. beginning in spring with an assessment to cover putting the whole territory under the essentials of supervision and patrol, they can add men just as required by the progress of dry weather and reduce again in the fall. men can be centralized at danger points better than through individual effort. exceedingly important is the means they afford of bringing in the non-resident owner, the small owner who is not warranted in employing anyone alone, and the non-progressive owner who would otherwise do nothing but is ashamed to stay out of a general movement. no tract can be safely considered as an independent unit. _no protection confined to it alone is as good insurance as the removal of risk from the district within which it lies._ fire is no respecter of section lines. there is always danger of unusual weather in which it may travel a long distance. it is far better to secure the maximum general safety in the locality than to have guarded tracts alternating with fire traps. moreover attention to individual tracts does not improve surrounding conditions, and the latter may easily become so bad as to make the cost of individual patrol, as well as the risk, far overbalance any financial disadvantage at present through co-operation. again, the public is far more likely to take kindly to the enforcement of fire laws by an association than to the action of an individual owner against whom some prejudice may exist. associations greatly simplify co-operation with state and government in fire work and tend to bring about appropriations for the purpose. they enable uniform and concentrated effort to improve sentiment and legislation. this booklet and the other work done by the western forestry & conservation association was made possible by the existence of the local organizations it represents. their independent local and state effect has been marked. the bad fire season of 1910 was a supreme test of the associations of the pacific northwest. they kept the bad fires in their immense territory down to a number which can be counted on the fingers and their losses were comparatively insignificant. yet under the weather conditions which existed the thousands of fires they extinguished would certainly otherwise have swept the country and caused a disaster probably unparalleled in american history. reforestation as a fire preventative however progressive the preventive policies adopted, the race between them and the increasing sources of hazard resembles that between armor plate and ordnance in the construction of battleships. while for a given population engaged in pursuits endangering the forests the risk lessens, the total activity increases at a rate which makes the smaller proportionate risk as great in actual measure. this is particularly true of the growth of slashing areas. the virgin forest becomes more and more and checkered by burned and cut-over deadenings, veritable fire-traps open to sun and wind, and, especially west of the cascades, usually covered by inflammable debris, brush or dead ferns. each year brings nearer the time when, unless something is done, such will constitute the majority of once forested land and the uncut timber will remain like islands in expanses of extreme danger. next to cultivation, which but a small percentage will receive, the safest insurance against recurring fires in these cut-over areas is a thrifty young second growth. it shades the ground, keeps out annual vegetation that furnishes fuel when dead, and will itself carry none but such furious crown-fires as would be practically unknown were there no openings for them to gain headway in. this is less true of pine, but the very best protection which can be given a tract of merchantable fir is a strip of 10 to 50-year second growth surrounding it. whether regarded from the owner's standpoint or that of the public, reforestation should be considered as a protective measure of extreme importance. actual expenditure to obtain it may easily be profitable for this reason alone, for once established it will decrease the cost of patrol thereafter. were all cut-over land in the northwest immediately restocked, the fire hazard would be enormously reduced. chapter v forestry and the farmer cutting methods if there is anyone for whom the practice of forestry is practical and profitable, it is the farmer who owns the timber he uses for fuel or other purposes. his supply of the most suitable material is almost always limited and in any case his method of using it is practically certain to influence his permanent labor expenses. nevertheless, especially in well-timbered regions, cutting is apt to be with but two considerations--the quickest clearing of land or the easiest immediate fulfillment of some need for tree products--and the passage of a few years brings realization that this early thoughtlessness must be paid for at a high price. in the first place almost all timber of a commercial species has real and increasing value. if it is young, this value is increasing doubly because of growth. varying greatly, of course, young timber in the pacific northwest very often adds from 500 to 1,000 board feet to the acre annually. this annual gain is taking place even if the timber has not reached merchantable size, being like coin deposited in a toy bank which does not open until full. and this is true whether the ultimate use may be for fuel, poles, or salable material like tie or saw timber. too much land is cleared of young growth, merely because such clearing is easy, which is of such low value for tilling or even pasture that its use for these purposes does not pay as well in the long run as would its use for growing timber, especially when the investment of clearing is considered. the resulting expanse of charred stumps and logs, producing little but ferns, is a small farm asset at best. the timber it would grow may eventually be a large asset. and the labor of clearing applied to a smaller tract of good land is sure to bring greater returns. an illustration is furnished by two tracts near the end of a recently completed railroad in western washington. twenty years ago a settler slashed a large area of presumably worthless sapling fir adjoining his tillable bottom land, set fire to it, piled and burned the remaining poles, "seeded down" a pasture, and enclosed it by an expensive cedar rail fence. the pasture, never useful except in early spring, grew up to ferns, and was finally abandoned. even the fence was moved. the settler on the next claim left his part of the same sapling growth to grow and this year sold the timber alone for $1,000 to a tie mill which came into the neighborhood with the railroad. the moral of this does not apply to cutting alone, but argues equally for preventing fire in second growth. it is also poor economy, if mature timber exists, to cut rapidly growing young timber for fuel because it is nearer the house or easier to cut. the former has become stationary in production, while the latter, if left, is earning money by growing in quantity and quality. if young timber must be used, and the land is not worth actually clearing for cultivation or pasture, it is usually far better to thin out the poorest trees, thus leaving the remainder stimulated to a more rapid growth, which will soon replace those removed, than to begin on the edge and take everything. there is no reason why a certain poor-soiled timbered portion of the average claim should not be considered as a permanent wood lot, to be treated with the same interest and pride in making it produce the greatest quantity of forest products for sale or use that the owner accords his fields. with this point of view established and consequent study given the subject, it will also be easier to decide how large this portion should be. in many cases the result will be abandonment of the idea that all forest growth is an enemy, to be destroyed on general principles without calculating what actual profit there is in destruction. another point often overlooked in the pacific northwest, because of our local tendency to consider the forest only as something to struggle against, is the exactly opposite influence of properly placed tree growth upon sale values if the prospective buyer is from the east or from our own cities or tree-less regions. such are attracted strongly by the grove-like effect of a few trees left around the house. their desire for this is as strongly ingrained as the average local resident's desire for a completely free outlook to mark his victory over unfriendly nature. the appeal a place makes to a buyer as a pleasant home has frequently as important an influence on his decision as its purely practical merits. his judgment of the latter, however, is also affected by his earlier environment. if he has lived where farming land is open, evidences of the labor of clearing are discouraging. the untouched forest, being totally beyond his capacity to estimate the labor its removal entails, repels him less than stumps, logs, desolate burnings and like detailed evidences of the work which lies before him. this is another reason why the clearing of clearly fertile land may be better business than the half-clearing of land perhaps best suited for forest growth anyway. again, not fully realizing the plentifulness of forest products in the new locality, he may actually overestimate the value of an attractive piece of forest land showing evidence of the thoughtful care suggested in a preceding paragraph. use of fire above all, it pays the settler in wooded regions to be careful with fire. properly directed and confined, fire is necessary in clearing land. but there is no profit in allowing uncontrolled fire to spread from the actual clearing to create a snarl of dead, decaying and falling trees and underbrush. it is usually harder to extend the clearing into such ground than into green timber. this added work later is many times that necessary to safeguard the burning in the first place. in every case that fire ever escaped from clearing operations, the cause was either thoughtlessness or unwillingness to perform certain work. because it is easier to burn a slashing than to pile and burn; or when a ground burn is desirable, because it is easier to take chances than to clear a fire line around the area and have a force of men present; because burning at a dry, dangerous time will be cleaner and thus save work after the fire; inexperience, coupled with unwillingness to take advice from the experienced--these and like reasons are responsible for the destruction of lives and property worth over and over again the sum that was saved by the attempted economy. and, although this does not save others, the person responsible also usually loses instead of gaining. without deprecating in the least the importance of agricultural development or of lightening the useful and not easy task of the settler, it is still terribly true that the agricultural industry and the settler suffer an annual loss through the destruction of improvements, crops and stock by fires from careless clearing that is far greater financially than the saving in clearing cost which was the cause. in other words, agricultural development is retarded instead of advanced by its present careless use of fire. planting for fuel and timber great as are the timber resources of the pacific northwest, there are extensive regions in central and eastern oregon and washington where timber is a scarcity, and wood for fuel and farm repair purposes for settlers and ranchers can be obtained only at heavy cost. in such situations it will be a paying investment for the farmer to set out a small plantation simply to produce his own wood for fuel, fence posts and other purposes. it is true that some time must elapse before plantations begin to be productive, but by choosing rapid-growing species and planting closely, the thinnings which will be necessary in a few years, even though the trees be small, will do for the woodpile. trees which grow rapidly and at the same time produce good wood are, of course, preferable. if they also sprout from the stump, a little care will maintain the supply indefinitely. the choice of species for a woodlot must be governed to a great extent by the location. many portions of the treeless areas in this region are situated at a high altitude where the climatic conditions are severe and frosts are common throughout every month of the year. in such locations only the most hardy trees will succeed. other areas are deficient in moisture, and where this deficiency is so great as to prohibit the growing of agricultural crops by dry farming it is useless to attempt growing trees without irrigation. probably the tree most commonly planted in treeless regions has been some species of cottonwood. lombardy poplar and balm of gilead have been great favorites. cottonwood grows rapidly and is hardy against frost, but requires a never-failing supply of water within five to twenty feet of the surface. because of its demands for moisture it will not grow on uplands, but thrives along water courses or where there is plentiful supply of moisture below the surface. its fuel value is not high, though the quantity of its wood production compensates for its poor quality, nor does it make good fence posts. where quick growth is the main consideration, however, it is a good tree to plant. the varieties known as norway and carolina poplar are the best. green ash and hackberry are also hardy against both cold and moisture, but of slow growth. their wood is durable in contact with the soil, making them suitable for fence posts. where it succeeds black locust combines many of the desirable qualities to the highest degree. it is a rapid grower, makes excellent fence posts and has high fuel value. it is not as hardy against frost as cottonwood and ash, and while it has been planted successfully in sheltered locations on high plateaus, its success where frosts occur during the summer months is problematical. a closely related species, honey locust, is more frost-hardy but less desirable in other respects, though an excellent tree nevertheless. other fairly hardy and drought-resistant trees are osage orange and russian mulberry. their value for fuel and fence posts is high, but they will not succeed in the most severe situations. box elder is hardy and has been widely planted, but it is of low fuel value and short lived. in favorable localities at low altitudes, where moisture is abundant either through natural precipitation or from irrigation, the number of species which are adapted to woodlot planting is largely increased. black walnut, black cherry and hardy catalpa are probably the most valuable of these. the latter, however, is sensitive to early and late frosts. windbreaks the planting of windbreaks and shelter belts around dwellings and fields is of prime importance to the settler in an open country. nothing adds more to the comfort of the dweller than a belt of timber about the home to protect it from the wind. orchards need windbreaks to save them from injury in a wind-swept country, and gardens are more successful when surrounded by trees. one of the most important functions of the windbreak, however, is the saving of soil moisture within the protected area, for it is a well established fact that evaporation takes place more rapidly when there is a movement of the atmosphere than when it is calm. it is safe to say that a windbreak is effective in preventing evaporation for a distance equal to ten to fifteen times its height. some species, because of the form of their crowns and their rapid growth, are more effective for windbreaks than others. since more coniferous trees retain their foliage throughout the entire year, they afford protection in winter as well as in summer. such species as western yellow, scotch and austrian pine grow rapidly, are hardy, and serve the purpose well. in regions of abundant moisture douglas fir or norway and sitka spruce are unequaled. european larch has also been very successful in many regions, but, unlike most conifers, it sheds its leaves in winter. where a windbreak is to consist of a single row only, it should be of a densely growing type that branches close to the ground. for low breaks of this character the russian mulberry and osage orange are excellent. trees for woodlot or windbreak planting can be purchased from commercial nurserymen or grown by the farmer. many growers of orchard trees, particularly in the states in the middle west, do a large business in forest tree seedlings. since the transportation charges are often high, and since most farmers can give the attention and labor necessary to raising the trees themselves without inconvenience or extra expense, it is often desirable for them to do so. the forest service of the u. s. department of agriculture has issued several publications containing full directions for the establishment of nurseries, and these can be obtained from the superintendent of public documents, washington, d. c., free or at a nominal cost.[*] [footnote *: reprint from yearbook, dept. of agr., 1905, "how to grow young trees for forest planting." bulletin no. 29, "the forest nursery." planting leaflets for almost all important forest trees.] planting may be done in the spring or fall, the latter being often preferable in regions where a dry season occurs early in the summer. for plantations of broadleaf species, one-year-old seedlings are best suited, while coniferous species should be two to three years old. the chief points to remember in setting out the trees are not to allow the roots, particularly of coniferous trees, to dry out; to dig the holes large enough to enable the roots to take a normal position without doubling up, and to pack the soil firmly around them. where planting is done on open ground, it is highly advantageous to plow and harrow the soil before setting out the trees in order to preserve the moisture and kill weeds and sod. willows, cottonwoods and other poplars are very easily propagated from cuttings. cuttings should be of strong, healthy wood of the previous season's growth which ripened well and did not shrivel during the winter. a good length is 8 to 12 inches, with the upper cut just above a bud. they may be made when wanted and planted with a spade, or if the ground is mellow they can be merely shoved into the soil until only one bud is above the surface and then tramped. the spacing of the trees is a question largely of utility, with some variation for different species. in general, however, close planting is advisable in treeless regions, since an artificial forest must stand in a dense mass if it is to succeed in the struggle against native vegetation, wind, sunshine, frost and dry weather. a single tree or row unprotected by associates has a poorer chance. cultivation is the best method of conserving soil moisture. to obtain the best results plantations should be cultivated, if possible, at least during the first few years. the less care the trees are to have, the thicker they should be set in order that they will be close enough to establish forest conditions of shade, litter and underbrush. thinnings can then be made as they grow and need more room. the material thus obtained will provide an early supply of fuel, stakes and posts. a spacing of 4x4 feet is common, but this does not allow for cultivation. for this reason 2x8 feet is preferable. shelter belts should be planted closely in order to give protection quickly. cost the cost of planting is not great. broadleaf seedlings will cost from $1 to $6 per thousand at the nursery, coniferous plants $2.50 to $10. if grown at home the cost will be greatly reduced. the preparation of the soil by plowing and harrowing should not exceed $2 per acre, and planting from $2.50 to $5 per thousand, according to the species, the method used and the condition of the soil. appendix tax reform to permit reforestation loss in idle land it is of the very highest importance to have that part of our constantly increasing area of cut and burned over forest land which is not more valuable for agriculture put to its only useful purpose--the growing of another forest crop. if this is done it will continue to be a source of tax revenue, to employ labor and support industry, to supply our forest needs, to bring revenue into the state, and to protect our streams. otherwise it will become a desert, non-taxable, non-productive, a fire menace, and in every way worse than a dead loss to the state in which it exists and to the country at large. in the one way it will be of use to every citizen, whatever his occupation; in the other it will be a burden upon every citizen. the realness and directness of this problem in the pacific northwest is seldom realized. our deforested areas are great and growing, but of even more peculiar significance is our unparalleled opportunity for making them quickly profitable to the community. forest growth is more rapid and certain than elsewhere. a heavy crop may be had again in from 40 to 60 years. it will hardly be of the quality of that now being cut, but considering the shortage then to prevail should bring fully as much wealth into the state from its manufacture, the majority to be circulated as payment for supplies and labor. since, therefore, our denuded land should in 60 years or less bring in again as much as it has already, its idleness costs us each year a sixtieth or more of that immense sum, amounting to a great many millions of dollars annually. to this loss is added the loss of tax revenue which the new crop would yield, with countless indirect injuries. the owner's compulsory attitude for this situation our system of taxation is chiefly responsible. the owner may or may not hold the land for a time under the present system, in the hope of selling it or of tax reform, but he will seldom if ever take any steps to insure reforesting, because to do so is too likely to be at an actual loss. whether he has made money on the original crop has no bearing; nor has his being rich or poor, resident or alien. his cut-over land presents a distinct problem to him. in the first place, its sale value represents an investment. he may sell and reinvest the money in any business which looks inviting--perhaps in standing timber. presumably he can get ordinary business returns, 6 per cent or more, and continue to reinvest these returns. therefore if he leaves this money in forest land for 50 years without return, for every dollar so tied up he must get $18.42 at the end of that period if he is to make 6 per cent on the investment. and this applies not only to the present value of the land, but also to any added expense he incurs in modifying his cutting methods, or in replanting, in order to insure reforestation. if both together amount to $5 an acre, he must net $92.10 at the end of his 50 years in order to make 6 per cent. so far no complaint can be made. but if the land is to produce a second crop it cannot be left to take care of itself, as it might were it being held for speculative purposes only. it must be protected from fire and trespass. and since the interest and principal invested will amount to so much for so long a period and be totally lost in case of destruction, the protection must be adequate, practically amounting to insurance. the annual cost will vary greatly according to locality, class of timber, and the enforcement of fire laws, but will be from 1 cent at the minimum to 15 cents at the maximum in bad seasons. if all cost of protection and administration is placed at only 5 cents annually, for the sake of illustration, this represents another investment constantly increasing and compounding, which, at the end of 50 years at 6 per cent, will amount to $14.51 an acre. consequently, adding that to his original investment which will have become $92.10, he must net $106.61 to make his 6 per cent. how taxes enter the problem let us now consider the influence of taxation. we have assumed the land to be valuable for forest growing only, and in calling his investment $5 an acre included some cost of insuring reforestation. place this at $2 and leave a land value of $3, to be fully taxed at 30 mills for both state and county purposes, which is perhaps a fair average. this represents the third form of his investment, or 9 cents an acre invested annually and left unavailable for 50 years, and will amount at the end of that time, at 6 per cent, to $26.13. he has now to clear $132.74 an acre, besides being always in danger of total or partial loss from fire, _and during all this time has to have the money, made in some other way, to meet all the annual payments._ but no injustice appears, for he has been taxed on an equal basis with other producers. if his acre yields 20,000 feet (the maximum to expect), worth $7 a thousand, he has made his 6 per cent, the community has gained a resource, and everyone is satisfied. his land has been taxed fairly and as he now has a crop to sell he can afford to pay a tax on it also. if it is taxed at 3 per cent, or $4.20 an acre, county and state will altogether have received from him the same tax revenue they collect from other forms of property and industry of like value and profit, and received also the other benefits of forest production and of his expenditure of wages for protection. but this is just what cannot legally be done under our present tax system. _by failure to recognize that the growth produced is a crop, distinct from the land, grown at the owner's effort and expense, and returning no revenue until ripe, the law now compels the repeated annual taxation of the owner's effort to an extent very likely to amount to confiscation._ it has been seen that even under the fair system outlined in the preceding paragraph, forest growing is not more than ordinarily inviting and involves considerable risk and capital. yet it assumed only a fair annual tax on the land. under our present system, logically carried out, here is what would happen: the first year the tax would be the same. the second year a fiftieth of the total fifty-year crop, which we have assumed worth about $140, or $2.80, would be added to the land; therefore not $3, but $5.80, will bear the 30-mill levy, and not 9 cents, but 17 cents, actual tax will be paid. the third year the tax will be 25 cents an acre; at the twenty-fifth year it will be over $2 an acre. we have seen that even a 9-cent tax amounted to an investment of over $26 an acre in order to produce the crop. the continual increase of this according to growth would make the investment run into many hundreds of dollars if the same interest is calculated, and in any case would make reforestation _financially impossible_. in actual practice, the increased valuation would probably not be made by the assessor in the manner just described. instead of determining the rate of growth scientifically and applying it annually, he now makes an ocular reappraisement at considerable intervals. in most cases there is no increased value, for the land does not reforest but is continually reburned. where it accidentally does reforest, he makes a rough calculation of the value of the second growth, based upon no particular system and seldom alike in different counties. but the principle remains the same and the result differs only in degree. with the most lenient valuation at 10 or 15-year intervals, the addition of material which makes growing forests so different from our stationary mature forests of today is bound, under our present system, to have confiscatory effect. the land owner, so far from being encouraged to establish and protect a new forest, is actually penalized, for he must assume that its expectation value will be taxed annually, perhaps on an exorbitant basis, as soon as it becomes apparent. if only the value _added each year_, $2.80 in our illustration, were taxed annually, there would be no injustice. the tax would then, in the case cited, be 9 cents the first year and 17 cents every year thereafter. but this cannot be calculated with sufficient accuracy upon our present knowledge of forest growth and under conditions varying with every trace or acre. our example, with its several arbitrary factors of growth, tax rate, interest rate, and future stumpage price, was merely for the purpose of illustration. furthermore, such a solution would still be illegal under our present laws. requirements reform must meet these facts are recognized by all students of forestry and taxation. in all countries where forests are grown the general property tax has been abandoned. disinterested authorities of every class, approaching the subject only from the public's point of view and holding no brief for the timberland owner, unite in saying emphatically that its application to growing forests will retard or prevent forestry in our country. these authorities include statesmen like roosevelt and our most prominent governors and senators; expert authorities on taxation generally, like state, national, and international tax conferences and professors of economics in the leading universities; forestry authorities like graves, pinchot and state foresters; and all the many associations and congresses devoted to such subjects. these authorities all agree that the forest crop should not be taxed till harvested, but differ somewhat as to the degree to which the public need of reforestation warrants deferring part or all of the land tax also. this association, after careful study of the subject, including european methods, the experiments made by several of our states, and the plans proposed by many others, believes the following objects should be sought: 1. greater permanent revenue to state and country than is possible under the present system of destroying the taxable source. 2. sustention of present revenue to the highest degree compatible with permanence. 3. assurance that the owner will do his fair part to make the land productive. 4. assurance to the owner in return that future action by the community will not confiscate all profit resulting from his effort. 5. division of risk, so both owner and community will seek highest production and safety from fire. 6. demonstrable justice to all concerned, rather than subsidy which, while doubtless warrantable to secure the public good, affords less precise basis of legislation at the present time. 7. simplicity in adoption and operation. a suggested solution these requirements can be met by legislation, following constitutional amendment where necessary, providing that where the owner of cut or burned-over land will contract with the state to insure reforestation and protection for a specified term of years, the state shall notify the county assessor that the land is separated for taxation purposes from any forest growth thereon. the land may continue to pay a fair dependable tax, but the crop shall not be taxed until harvested. to the end that cutting of standing timber shall be conducted so as to place the land in the best condition for reforesting, uncut forest land should be subject to examination and similar contract, and the separate classification for taxation should take effect within a year after the timber is removed in compliance with the contract. this would mean that when the owner of deforested land chiefly valuable to the community for forest production agrees to make it produce, he shall be taxed not on his effort but upon the results of his effort, and then exactly as other producers are taxed upon their results. he may pay tax upon his land, as other land owners do, upon its actual value, but without this value being enhanced for taxation purposes by reason of any crop thereon. comparison with present system in results the community would get no less tax revenue, but presumably more, than it does under the present system. in either case the owner will really pay annually only upon the land value, not upon the growth; the only difference being that under the proposed system he would not be asked to, while under the present system _either there will be no growth to tax, or, if there is, he cannot afford to pay and the land will revert_. it must be borne in mind that while cut-over land is actually being held under the present system, it has seldom grown anything yet. no expense has been incurred to establish a crop, accidental growth is almost always destroyed by fire because it does not pay to protect it, and if it is not so destroyed it has not yet been accorded the expectation value which the assessor will be obliged to recognize in the early future if he really observes the present law. the inevitable tendency of the present system is continuance to pay on the land with speculative value for purposes other than forestry but _abandonment of land valuable only for forestry, with destruction of the forest growth in either case_, by purpose or negligence, because it means added cost of holding with no possibility of profit. since the owner cannot be compelled to grow timber to be taxed at his net loss, no timber tax at all will be received by the community and its annual land tax will be confined to land worth holding without timber for purposes other than timber growing. under the proposed system, the latter class would pay the same annual tax, the annual tax revenue from strictly forest land would be greater, and in addition to both would be the future yield tax upon the crop. an objection met a possible superficial criticism may be that, leaving the land out of consideration, the proposed yield tax at a personal property valuation of the crop means that but one year's tax is to be paid upon the timber. the fallacy of this, however, will be seen when it is remembered that it is a crop, having been produced from nothing by the owner, since his acquisition of the land and while he was paying taxes upon his land upon its value for productive purposes throughout the entire period just as any other crop grower loes. _it is not unearned speculative increment._ to tax it annually is exactly equivalent to taxing an agricultural crop 50 times during its growing period. the proposed plan does tax the annual production fully, although not until the crop is produced, for taxing its full value when grown is the same as taxing each year the increment added since the preceding year. if it is worth $150 an acre, after 50 years from seed, a 3 per cent yield tax would be $4.50. each year since the first must have produced a fiftieth of the ultimate value, or $3, and had this been taxed at 3 per cent, or 9 cents, the same aggregate revenue of $4.50 would have resulted. to also tax annually the value of proceeding years' production, like taxing a wheat crop twice a week, is exactly the confiscatory prohibition of forest growing which we should seek to avoid. when the essential difference of the two systems is grasped--that the _crop is distinct from the land and the latter is still fully taxed_--it will be seen that but one tax upon the crop, at the rate other property pays, is all that is just and all that can possibly be paid in a competitive commercial business. the case is not analogous with our present system of taxing mature timber, in which land and timber together are assumed to constitute inseparable realty, _stationary in production_ and increasing only speculatively in value, therefore the comparison with one year's taxation under our present system has no weight. from the owner's standpoint nor does the proposed system by any means either subsidize the forest grower or assure him a profit. it merely puts on a basis similar to that of other enterprises a business more greatly handicapped by long-deferred returns, risk of loss, uncertainty of future prices, and continued current expense without current revenue. only escape from fire and high future stumpage prices will permit profit at best. otherwise, since the tax is definite and not upon income, the forest grower will pay the community for the honor of providing it a resource at his own expense. it is believed, however, that a more fortunate outcome is sufficiently promised in this region of rapid growth if we remove the single fatal handicap of uncertain confiscatory taxation. views of expert authorities theodore roosevelt: second only in importance to good fire laws well enforced is the enactment of tax laws which will permit the perpetuation of existing forests by use. gifford pinchot: land bearing forests should be taxed annually on the land value alone, and the timber crop should be taxed when cut, so private forestry may be encouraged. north american conservation conference, washington, d. c.: believing that excessive taxation on standing timber privately owned is a potent cause of forest destruction by increasing the cost of maintaining growing forests, we agree in the wisdom and justice of separating the taxation of timber land from the taxation of timber growing upon it, and adjusting both in such manner as to encourage forest conservation and forest growing. the private owners of land unsuited to agriculture, once forested and now impoverished or denuded, should be encouraged by practical instruction, adjustment of taxation, and in other proper ways, to undertake the reforesting thereof. gifford pinchot, robert bacon, james r. garfield, commissioners representing the united states. sydney fisher, clifford sifton, henri s. boland, commissioners representing the dominion of canada. romulu escobar, miguel a. de quevedo, carlos sellerier, commissioners representing the republic of mexico. e. h. outerbridge, commissioner representing the colony of newfoundland. fred. r. fairchild, professor of economics, yale university, member international tax conference: probably nothing more effectually discourages investment than uncertainty as to future costs. and whatever may be said of the present system of taxation, there can be no question of its arbitrariness and uncertainty. if to all the other risks of forestry we add uncertainty as to what the taxes are going to be, we cannot blame investors for some hesitation in embarking on an enterprise which may have to pay taxes fifty years before the returns come in. and more than this; the investor cannot safely base his calculations on the continuance of the present lenient administration of the property tax. as has been shown, the tendency today is toward a stricter enforcement of the law and a heavier burden of taxation. state constitutions stand today in the way of many plans for reform in state and local taxation. the movement toward their amendment is growing as part of the general programme of tax reform. the real problem of forest taxation is in connection with the future of our timber lands rather than with their past. the preservation of the forests is a matter of the utmost importance. so far our forests have been exploited with little or no regard for the future. but the present methods cannot last much longer. forestry must come some time, and its early coming is a thing greatly to be desired. and whenever we are ready to seriously undertake it we will find our present methods of taxation a severe handicap. strictly enforced, according to the letter of the law, the annual tax on the full value of the land and standing timber is almost sure to result in excessive taxation, and the timber owner cannot count on the continuance of the present lenient enforcement of the law. even if the tax might not be excessive, its uncertainty would be a serious obstacle to investment. we can hardly hope to see the general practice of forestry as long as the present methods of taxation continue. to be equitable, taxation of timber lands like taxation of anything else should be based on income or earning power. with regard to its effect on revenue, there is little to be feared from the tax on yield. eventually, revenue will be increased by a method of taxation which does not prevent the development of forestry. forests paying a moderate tax are better than waste lands abandoned and paying no tax at all. the tax on yield has many decided advantages. it avoids the evils of the general property tax. it is equitable and certain. it is in harmony with the peculiarities of the business of forestry, and will be a distinct encouragement to the practice of forestry. its adoption by the states would remove one obstacle to the perpetuation of the nation's forest resources. national conservation commission, appointed by the president of the united states: it is far better that forest land should pay a moderate tax permanently than that it should pay an excessive revenue temporarily and then cease to pay at all. we tax our forests under the general property tax, a method of taxation abandoned long ago by every other great nation. in some regions of great importance for timber supply, and in individual cases in all regions, the taxation of forest lands has been excessive and has led to waste by forcing the destructive logging of mature forests, as well as through the abandonment of cut-over lands for taxes. that this has not been even more general is due to under-assessment, to lax administration of the law, but to no virtue in the law itself. already taxes upon forest lands are being increased by the strict enforcement of the tax laws. even where this has not yet been done, the fear that it will be done is a bar to the practice of forestry. we should so adjust taxation that cut-over lands can be held for a second crop. we should recognize that it costs to grow timber as well as to log and saw it. from now on the relation of taxation to the permanent usefulness of the forest will be vital. present tax laws prevent reforestation on cut-over lands and the perpetuation of existing forests by use. united states forest service: it is evident that the old method of taxing forest property, as well as other property, at its supposedly full value will, as the value of timber increases and is recognized, put a premium on premature and reckless cutting, and will hinder any effort to reforest cut-over lands. no business man will engage in an undertaking where the returns are so long deferred and the risks are uninsurable unless he can estimate the probable expenses and a reasonably large profit. that the forests themselves, irrespective of their ability to stand taxation, are of great value to the communities in which they are located, for water protection, lumber supply, and scenery in resort regions is undoubted. the fundamental difficulty is that the tax should be in proportion to yield or income and not in proportion to the market value of the land and standing timber. economists are substantially agreed that this principle is applicable to the taxation of all kinds of property with certain exceptions. where there is a reasonably certain annual yield or income the market value is theoretically dependent upon it. a woodlot or forest, however, usually in this country has no annual yield. it is unjust to require the owner to carry the full annual burden of taxes, risk and protection in every year for the chance of a yield once in fifty years, and it is impossible for the owner to do it, for the taxes with compound interest would confiscate his entire capital. international tax conference, held at toronto: _resolved_, that it is within the legitimate province of tax laws to encourage the growth of forests in order to protect watersheds and insure a future supply of timber; and legislation, or constitution amendment where necessary, is recommended for these purposes. american forest congress, washington, d. c.: _resolved_, that we earnestly commend to all state authorities... reducing the burden of taxation on lands held for forest reproduction in order that persons and corporations may be induced to put in practice the principles of forest conservation. pennsylvania department of forestry: tax assessors have differing ideas of value and their assessments vary widely. the only remedy for the forest owner is to appeal from the assessment to the county commissioners, and, if here unsuccessful, to the county court, a matter involving both time and expense and frequently more costly than the differences in taxes to be gained; _but at the same time_ the fact is well recognized that forested land is both unequally and unfairly taxed. h. s. graves, chief forester for the united states: the forest areas now owned chiefly by lumber companies will cease to be devastated as soon as fires are stopped. they will not, however, be handled to any large extent with a view of future production until the taxes are placed on a fair basis. filibert roth, professor of forestry, university of michigan, state fire warden of michigan (speaking of frequent local attitude toward non-resident owner): though, in truth, these resident people often make their living from the tax money of the non-resident, and though the latter contributes toward every rod of road and every schoolhouse built, and other improvement, yet he is treated as if he were a wrongdoer, is taxed unmercifully, and, in addition, a trespass on his land or forest is excused and it is almost impossible in many places to get conviction. if the state and local people had treated the owners of timber honestly and had spent a reasonable part of the taxes in giving the protection which the owner had a right to expect under the constitution, there would still be more than half of our pinery lands covered by forest. forestry is no "sugar trust baby," as so many are trying to make it out. forests can pay taxes as well as any other property. forestry is like any other honest business, it cannot stand confiscation. suppose you have a twenty-acre lot of sugar beets and the assessor would hang around until the beets are ripe and then figure: "the land is good; i assess it at $75 per acre, and the crop is worth $75 more, so that this property will stand at $150." what would you say? but the assessor who assesses the timber as part of the real estate and assesses the same crop of timber year after year does precisely this thing. he assesses land and crop for the owner of a woodlot and forest, while for all other farmers he assesses only the land. let the state pass a few simple laws; provide for the protection of forest property as we provide for other property; prevent confiscation under the guise of taxation; stop forcing its poor tax lands on the market, and go ahead with a good example on its own lands, and instead of holding them in a waste land condition protect them and grow timber. a. t. hadley, president yale university: we have it in our power to make intelligent forestry by individuals more profitable. the margin between business that succeeds and business that fails is a narrow one, and by just covering that margin by _differences in tax laws_, by differences in protective laws, by laws for the prevention of fires, we can make profitable an industry which the public needs, but which today is unprofitable. james o. davidson, governor of wisconsin: it is to be hoped that laws will be passed encouraging owners to cut timber conservatively under forestry regulations, rather than oblige them to cut as quickly as possible to escape the injustice of taxation. professor f. g. miller, university of washington: next to fire the most serious handicap to the progress of forestry is our unjust method of forest taxation. laying as we do a yearly tax on both the growing crop and the land, the burden of taxation makes the holding of land for a second crop prohibitive as far as the private owner is concerned. the farmer pays a yearly tax on his land, and a tax on his crop each time he harvests one. this is usually annually. however, if through drought, insect invasion or other misfortune he loses his crop, he is not called upon to pay a tax upon it. senator reed smoot, of utah, chairman section of forests, national conservation commission: one of the urgent tasks before the states is the immediate passage of tax laws which will enable the private owner to protect and keep productive under forest those lands suitable only for forest growth. in our discussion in committee meeting there was a question raised by a member present as to this recommendation, claiming that it would encourage great monopolies in securing larger holdings of timber, if an annual tax was not required on the timber itself. i have studied this question in foreign lands, particularly in germany and switzerland, and i find that the result has been exactly the opposite. it is a short-sighted policy which invites, through excessive taxation, the destruction of the only crop which steep mountain lands will produce profitably. taxes on forest land should be levied on the crop when cut, not on the basis of a general property tax--that unsound method of taxation long abandoned by every other great nation. governor newton c. blanchard, of louisiana: under the present tax laws of many of the states large assessments are put on timber lands, and this is forcing timber holders--the owners of the sawmills--to cut off that timber too rapidly. at least it is having much effect that way. give them the encouragement to hold back and not force their product upon the markets, and then exempt, by a system of wise tax laws, cut-over lands devoted to purposes of reforestation. maryland state board of forestry: the present method is to assess woodlands under the general property tax, making the assessment high where the timber is valuable and placing it low where the timber has been cut off. there is in the operation of this system a tendency to cut off the timber before it reaches maturity to avoid the high rate of taxation. a premium is placed on forest destruction and a penalty on forest conservation. the growth of timber is slow and under present stumpage prices and rates of taxation there are comparatively few cases where the sale value of the crop equals the cost of growing it, if a fair rental for the land is considered. it is true that most of the forests are on lands that could not be used for anything else, but it is not fair to expect the landowner to produce timber which is a public necessity, the use of which is only less universal than food crops, at a financial sacrifice. increasing prices and better forest management are relieving the situation to some extent, but the most effective, as well as the most equitable way, is through a change or modification of present tax laws. professor edwin r. a. seligman, columbia university: the general property tax as actually administered is beyond all doubt one of the worst taxes known in the civilized world. because of its attempt to tax intangible as well as tangible things, it sins against the cardinal rules of uniformity, of equality, and of universality of taxation. professor alfred akerman, georgia university: one reason why it (the general property tax) is so outrageous in practice is that it is wrong in theory. the mere possession of property may or may not be an index to the ability of the owner to pay tax. it all depends on whether the property brings income. allen hollis, secretary society for protection of new hampshire forests: taxation today, in my opinion, is the greatest menace to forest preservation. one principle is absolutely sound--we all know it, and what we have to do is to make everybody else know it--and that is, that the annual taxation on a crop which is constantly increasing in value each year means confiscation of that property. it is submitted here that no single factor bears so definitely upon the future of our forests as this constitutional requirement of equality in taxation. as a business proposition, no one can afford to hold woodlands and pay annually 2 per cent upon their actual value, increased each year by growth and advancing prices, during the fifty to one hundred years necessary for maturing the crop. charles lathrop pack, director american forestry association: while the nation and the state are working to devise ways and means of conserving our forest resources, we are at the same time, in a real sense, taxing our timber to death. our present tax laws prevent reforestation on cut-over lands and the perpetuation of existing forests by proper use and economic cutting. state of michigan forestry commission (extracts from report to governor): the system of taxation should be modified so as to stimulate timber production instead of repressing it. there is no logical, moral or political reason why a crop of growing trees should be included in the assessment, in addition to the actual value of the land, that does not apply with equal force and reason to farm lands which are continuously cropped with grains, root crops or hay. the uncertainty of realizing upon a tree crop is very much like the uncertainty of a given farm's producing its crop in full. the only difference is that the forest crop is subjected to the vicissitudes and chances of a long series of years, while the farm crops are subject only to the vicissitudes of about one year. many of the crops are only subject to the accidents of five or six months. in the present stage of forestry in this country, what is most imperatively required is such a treatment of the subject of taxation of forested lands as will induce private owners to retain their forests until ripe to the harvest and to reforest denuded lands. this would apply to those having lands suitable for such purpose, or others who might purchase lands suitable therefor, who, under the present diverse, and oftentimes inequitable, practice of assessments, cannot be induced to make investments of that character. report of society for protection of new hampshire forests, ex-governor frank w. rollins, president: the law of new hampshire requires that all property shall be taxed equally, according to its value, a law constantly and necessarily violated by assessors of forest property throughout the state. its strict application even for a short period would go far to rid the state of its standing timber. the reason for this is that timber is a growing crop--the only crop taxed more than once, and if taxed annually at its full value the cost to the owner of holding the property would be so excessive as to require its hasty disposal. assessors everywhere feel instinctively the inherent injustice of taxing a growing crop at a high annual rate, and violate the law and their oaths of office with impunity. the result is there are as many systems of forest taxation in the state as there are assessors, and glaring inequalities exist, not only between neighboring towns, but also in some instances between different parts of the same town. the unequally high rate placed upon the timber of non-residents is wholly iniquitous. new hampshire state grange, committee on agriculture: many of the towns in our state invite the misuse of forests by overtaxation. this should be guarded against. by reasonable thrift we can produce a constant wood and timber supply beyond our own need, and with it conserve the usefulness of our streams for water supply, navigation and power, and at the same time increase the value of our farms. e. m. griffith, state forester of wisconsin: the present method of taxing timberlands is hostile to the forestry interests of the state, as a single timber crop is taxed heavily and repeatedly, and the owners are forced by our present laws to cut their mature timber in order to escape inequitable taxation, to sacrifice their young growth, and to disregard conservative methods of forest management. taxes are unfortunately a very valid reason in many sections of the state for not practicing forestry. many town assessors seem to feel that they must tax the timberland owner, especially the non-resident owner, as heavily as possible, and naturally in self-defense the owner is forced to cut his timber and so reduce the taxes to a reasonable amount. then, when it is too late, the towns find that they have "killed the goose that laid the golden egg." however, the loss of the taxes on the timber is but a drop in the bucket compared to the irreparable damage to many communities from losing the industries which depended upon the forests for their raw material. to appreciate this one only needs to visit towns in which the sawmills have shut down on account of lack of timber. of late years the end of the timber has been largely hastened on account of the excessive taxes placed upon it. the whole system of forest taxation in this country is wrong, for it puts a premium on forest destruction. ralph c. hawley, instructor in forestry, yale university: a system of taxation which discriminates against timber, one of the chief natural resources of the commonwealth, is to be condemned. kentucky state department of agriculture report: when a rise in the valuation of other than forest property becomes necessary because of the greater development of the resources of the region, the valuation of forest property should be increased with great caution in order that the forest lands may be held to advantage for the production of future timber crops. a timber crop is marketed only after the young growing timber has been held for a long term of years, during which time the forest has been yielding only a very slight revenue, if any, to the owner. if the valuation of the forest or its rates of taxation goes beyond a comparatively low limit, the holding of forest land for a second crop of timber is impracticable or nearly prohibitive. this condition has prevailed in many other states where now the problem of taxation is a difficult one to solve. alfred gaskill, state forester for new jersey: the present practices favor and encourage the untimely or wasteful use of standing forests, discourage the propagation of others, and tend to hasten the time when the country shall be forced to face a wood famine. it would be impossible to apply the european system here with anything like the exactness that attaches to it in the old countries, because we have not the means of knowing the true worth of forest soil or of forest crops, but the principle is applicable anywhere. even in the hands of non-expert assessors it gives a fairer basis of valuation than our present method, and in the long run will insure larger returns. j. e. frost, tax commissioner of washington: the state's system of taxation is obsolete, and only 13 civilized communities in the world have such an out-of-date system. the state is confined by the constitution to property tax, well known as a primitive system, utterly incapable of coping with modern business. it can be remedied only by recognizing the different classes of taxable property. dr. francis l. mcvey, university president and tax expert: under the old plan of valuing annually the property it was difficult to secure an appraisement that was satisfactory to anybody and, what was more, as the years went by the local governments found their assessed values decreasing and the burden of government materially increasing with the decline in amount of standing timber. the annual taxation of the land upon which the timber stands meets this difficulty, while the taxation of the product at the time of harvesting provides a plan that is fair both to the local government and to the owner of timber. colorado conservation commission: _resolved_, that it is the sense of the colorado conservation commission that the governor and legislators should submit to the people at as early a date as possible an amendment to the constitution, exempting from taxation lands devoted solely to the growth and culture of new timber, and if such amendment is adopted, the same to be followed by suitable legislation. oregon state conservation commission: constitutional amendment and legislation should be invoked to permit a low fixed tax on cut-over land during the period of no return to the owner, the state to be compensated by a tax on the crop when cut. obviously this inducement should be offered only to those holders of cut-over land who will reciprocate by furthering the object sought. the result of such a system would be not only perpetuation of the forest and its attendant industries and payroll, but also a far greater tax return than the present one of encouraging potential forest land to become worthless and non-taxable. legislature of minnesota: "sec. 17 a. laws may be enacted exempting lands from taxation for the purpose of encouraging and promoting the planting, cultivation and protection of useful forest trees thereon." this is the text of an act amending the minnesota constitution passed by the legislature. washington conservation association, walla, walla: _whereas_, the question of holding cut-over forest land for a second crop is of paramount importance to the state, and _whereas_, this is made impossible on the part of private owners by our present method of forest taxation, whereby the owner is obliged to pay an annual tax on the land as well as an annually repeated tax on the same growing crop, therefore be it _resolved_, that this convention favors such remedial legislation as will encourage reforestation of privately owned lands, and be it further _resolved_, that it is the sense of this convention that as applied to reforestation such remedial legislation can be secured by a plan which will levy an annual tax on the land and an income tax on the forest crop only when the crop is harvested. first national conservation congress, seattle: resolved, that we urge the adoption of a system of taxation under which woodlands will pay a moderate annual land tax and the timber will be taxed only when cut. the western forestry and conservation association the western forestry and conservation association has no individual membership, but consists of and represents all organized agencies for forest protection in the states of montana, idaho, washington, oregon and california. following is article iv of its constitution: "any association formed for the purpose of organized effort in the protection of forests from fire and for the reforestation and conservation of the forest resources of the states represented shall be eligible for membership. any organization admitted to membership shall be entitled to two votes in the meetings of this association. the chief forest officer of each of the five states embraced, and of each district of the united states forest service embraced, shall be honorary members." the allied organizations are at present fifteen in number: the oregon forest fire, oregon conservation, north willamette forest fire, coos county fire patrol, northwest oregon forest fire, klamath lake counties forest fire, polk-yamhill forest fire, lincoln-benton forest fire, north idaho forestry, washington forest fire, washington conservation, inland forest fire, potlatch timber protective, clearwater timber protective, pend d'oreille timber protective, coeur d'alene timber protective and northern montana forestry association. the purpose of the western forestry & conservation association is to promote forest fire prevention, conservative forest management, reforesting of cut-over lands not more valuable for agriculture, improvement in taxation systems, preservation of stream flow, and all other things comprehended by forest conservation. its meetings enable representatives of the allied associations and of state and government to exchange ideas and devise ways and means for carrying on these movements in harmony along practical and effective lines. it also affords means of collecting and distributing information from these several sources. it believes in the use of every legitimate means of publicity and education to interest lumbermen, legislators and public, not only in paving the way for future advance, but also in such actual, workable, conservation measures as can be put into practice immediately. to this end, believing action speaks louder than words, it practices what it preaches. while fully recognizing the great value and necessity of associations devoted entirely to propaganda, it sees also a need of reducing theory to a sound business basis. either as associations or through their members the forest protective associations it represents spent about $700,000 in 1910 for patrol and fire fighting to protect the forests of the west. they safeguarded millions of acres of timber, put out many thousand fires, and saved forest resources worth billions of dollars to the community. as a result of their effort the losses in idaho, washington and oregon were kept down to about a quarter of 1 per cent of the privately-owned timber in these states, and this notwithstanding that it was one of the worst fire years in american history. while they unite in the western forestry and conservation association, and levy a special assessment to support its work, the local organizations are wholly independent in their actual forest fire work. their systems vary slightly, but the majority follow the general plan outlined on pages 100-103 of this booklet. one of the primary objects and ambitions of the association is to extend this effort until all the timber owners in the five states do their part and every acre of private forest land is brought under a highly trained and organized service. if the states themselves lend aid and backing this can be made the most efficient fire service in existence, as the most magnificent body of standing timber in the world deserves. the association also employs a trained forester to assist its members who control timber to install and maintain improved methods of protection, cutting and reforestation. in this way it not only helps those who will to really accomplish the end in view, but by publishing such material as is contained in this booklet makes the experiments serve as object lessons to others. perhaps the most unique function of the association is to furnish the only common meeting ground and clearing house for the many public and private agencies for forest protection. at its meetings federal and state officials, representatives of public conservation associations and timber owners join on equal footing, without controversy over rights or authority, in discussing practical details of how to accomplish the best results together under conditions as they exist. every man present is there because he wants to do his part, with his own hands or money, to preserve the forests of the west. he knows what he is talking about and the others are glad to hear him. the result is a mutual understanding and coöperation along practical lines which is of immense benefit to the public whose welfare depends largely upon these agencies that really control its forest resources. https://archive.org/details/principalspecies00snowrich transcriber's note: text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). text that was in bold face or small capitals was converted to all upper case. the original page numbers are enclosed in square brackets (example: [p023]) to facilitate the use of the index. [illustration: live oak (_quercus virginiana_), louisiana.] the principal species of wood: their characteristic properties. by charles henry snow, c.e., sc.d., dean of the school of applied science, new york university; member of the american society of civil engineers, etc. first edition. first thousand. new york: john wiley & sons. london: chapman & hall, limited. 1903. copyright, 1903, by charles henry snow. robert drummond, printer, new york. preface. the following is a brief untechnical presentation of general features characterizing economically important species of wood. it is the result of notes originally brought together from many already existing sources and later augmented, and verified so far as possible for the present use, by personal observation. the work of preparation has not been as simple as the result would indicate, and although great care has been taken to check each fact, errors do no doubt exist, although it is not believed that there are important ones. engineers while writing upon woods have, save exceptionally, emphasized strength beyond most other properties. other works for expert foresters or botanists are of necessity too special, voluminous, fragmental, or technical for the casual student. some popular books on trees, as distinct from woods, are available. the present form is distinct from these and is intended for those who are not foresters or botanists, but who use woods or desire knowledge of their distinguishing properties. allusions to trees, historical and other references, aside from those directly regarding woods, are made for completeness and in order to mark, distinguish, or separate the species. acknowledgments are particularly due to the publications of the u. s. division of forestry, to prof. sargent's studies as set forth in vol. ix of the tenth u. s. census, to dr. b. e. fernow, to mr. raphael g. zon for suggestions and for technical revision, to the _northwestern lumberman_ and other trade journals, to many dealers, who have been uniform in their courtesy, and incidentally to mr. morris k. jesup, whose magnificent collection of woods at the new york museum of natural history has been available to the writer as to others. these, with other sources of information acknowledged by the writer, and suggested to others, are suitably arranged in the following list. of the 155 illustrations, 138 are original, the drawings having been prepared under the supervision of the writer from actual specimens by mr. irving t. worthly of cornell university and several students of new york university, and the photographs by mr. john hopfengartner, jr., of westchester, new york city. other illustrations are, so far as possible, acknowledged in place. table of contents. part i. _introduction._ page section 1. wood. definitions. "structure." weights. coefficients. uses. botanical and common nomenclatures. general information, etc. 1 part ii. _exogenous series._ section 2. definitions. cellular structure. annual rings. medullary or pith rays. pith cavities. sapwood and heartwood. cross, radial and tangential distinctions. "quarter sawn" surfaces, common and botanical subdivisions, etc. 7 broadleaf or hardwoods. section 3. distribution. distinguishing characteristics. general information, etc. 10 oak (quercus). section 4. distribution. historical. structural and physical properties of wood. commercial divisions. botanical characteristics of trees, etc. 11 _a._ white oak (quercus alba) 13 _b._ cow oak (quercus michauxii) 14 _c._ chestnut oak (quercus prinus) 15 _d._ post oak (quercus minor) 16 _e._ bur oak (quercus macrocarpa) 17 _f._ white oak (quercus garryana) 18 _g._ red oak (quercus rubra) 19 _h._ pin oak (quercus palustris) 20 _i._ spanish oak (quercus digitata) 21 _j._ black oak (quercus velutina) 22 _k._ live oak (quercus virens) 23 _l._ california live oak (quercus agrifolia) 24 _m._ live oak (quercus chrysolepis) 25 _n._ english oak (quercus robur var. pedunculata) 26 ash (fraxinus). section 5. distribution. historical. general properties. commercial divisions. botanical characteristics of trees, etc. 27 _a._ white ash (fraxinus americana) 29 _b._ red ash (fraxinus pubescens) 30 _c._ blue ash (fraxinus quadrangulata) 31 _d._ black ash (fraxinus nigra) 32 _e._ green ash (fraxinus viridis) 33 _f._ oregon ash (fraxinus oregona) 34 elm (ulmus). section 6. distribution. structural and physical properties of wood. uses. landscape value of trees, etc. 35 _a._ white elm (ulmus americana) 36 _b._ cork elm (ulmus racemosa) 37 _c._ slippery elm, red elm (ulmus pubescens) 38 _d._ wing elm (ulmus alata) 39 maple (acer). section 7. distribution. structural and physical properties of wood. uses. maple sugar. botanical characteristics of trees, etc. 40 _a._ sugar maple, hard maple (acer saccharum) 42 _b._ silver maple, soft maple (acer saccharinum) 43 _c._ red maple, swamp maple (acer rubrum) 44 _d._ oregon maple (acer macrophyllum) 45 _e._ boxelder, ash-leaved maple (acer negundo) 46 walnut (juglans). section 8. historical. black walnut in gun stocks. structural and physical properties of woods. burl. white walnut. english walnut. botanical characteristics of trees, etc. 47 _a._ black walnut (juglans nigra) 49 _b._ white walnut, butternut (juglans cinerea) 50 hickory (hicoria). section 9. distribution. structural and physical properties of wood. uses. "second-growth" hickory. pecan. botanical characteristics of trees, etc. 51 _a._ shagbark (hicoria ovata) 52 _b._ pignut (hicoria glabra) 53 _c._ mocker nut (hicoria alba) 54 _d._ pecan (hicoria pecan) 55 chestnut; chinquapin (castanea). section 10. distribution. structural and physical properties of wood. uses. famous trees. nuts. botanical characteristics of trees, etc. 56 _a._ chestnut (castanea dentata) 58 _b._ chinquapin (castanea pumila) 59 beech, ironwood (fagus) (carpinus, ostrya, etc.). section 11. distribution. early uses of beech. structural and physical properties of woods. uses. enumeration of species affording "ironwood." 60 _a._ beech (fagus atropunicea) 62 _b._ ironwood, blue beech (carpinus caroliniana) 63 _c._ ironwood, hop hornbeam (ostrya virginiana) 64 sycamore (platanus). section 12. confusion of names. historical, structural and physical properties of wood. uses. botanical characteristics of trees, etc. 65 _a._ sycamore, buttonball (platanus occidentalis) 66 _b._ california sycamore (platanus racemosa) 67 birch (betula). section 13. distribution. history and uses of bark. structural and physical properties of wood. uses of wood. commercial divisions of wood. botanical characteristics of trees, etc. 68 _a._ white birch (betula populifolia) 70 _b._ paper birch (betula papyrifera) 71 _c._ red birch (betula nigra) 72 _d._ yellow birch (betula lutea) 73 _e._ sweet, cherry birch. (betula lenta) 74 locust; mesquite (robinia, gleditsia, prosopis). section 14. confusion of names. structural and physical properties of wood. uses. structural value of black locust. durability and peculiarities of mesquite. botanical characteristics of trees, etc. 75 _a._ black locust, yellow locust (robinia pseudacacia) 77 _b._ honey locust (gleditsia triacanthos) 78 _c._ mesquite (prosopis juliflora) 79 whitewood or tulip-tree wood; poplar or cottonwood; cucumber-tree wood; basswood (liriodendron), (populus), (magnolia), (tilia). section 15. structural relations. peculiarities and uses of wood. confusion of names. botanical characteristics of trees, etc. 80 _a._ whitewood, tulip-tree or yellow poplar (liriodendron tulipifera) 82 _b._ poplar, large tooth aspen (populus grandidentata) 83 _c._ cottonwood (populus deltoides) 84 _d._ black cottonwood (populus trichocarpa) 85 _e._ cucumber-tree (magnolia acuminata) 86 _f._ basswood, linden (tilia americana) 87 willow (salix). section 16. distribution. historical. properties and uses of wood. botanical characteristics of trees, etc. 88 _a._ black willow (salix nigra) 89 catalpa (catalpa). section 17. structural values. properties of woods. botanical characteristics of trees, etc. 90 _a._ catalpa (catalpa speciosa) 91 _b._ catalpa (catalpa catalpa) 92 sassafras; mulberry (sassafras), (morus). section 18. historical. properties of sassafras wood. properties of mulberry wood. botanical characteristics of trees, etc. 93 _a._ sassafras (sassafras officinale) 94 _b._ mulberry, red mulberry (morus rubra) 95 buckeye; horse chestnut (aesculus). section 19. structural and botanical relationship. localities. properties and uses of wood. 96 _a._ horse chestnut (aesculus hippocastanum) 97 _b._ ohio buckeye (aesculus glabra) 97 _c._ sweet buckeye (aesculus octandra) 98 gum (liquidambar, nyssa). section 20. botanical and structural relationships. general properties and uses of woods. botanical characteristics of trees. 99 _a._ sweet gum (liquidambar styraciflua) 100 _b._ sour gum (nyssa sylvatica) 101 _c._ cotton gum, tupelo (nyssa aquatica) 102 holly; boxwood; lignumvitæ (ilex), (buxus cornus), (guajacum, etc.). section 21. structural and physical properties; also uses of holly, of boxwood, and of lignumvitæ woods. sources. substitutes for boxwood, _i.e._, flowering dogwood, mexican persimmon and rose bay. botanical characteristics of trees, etc. 103 _a._ holly (ilex opaca) 105 _b._ dogwood (cornus florida) 106 _c._ lignumvitæ (guajacum sanctum) 107 laurel (magnolia, rhododendron, arbutus, etc.). section 22. application of name laurel. structural peculiarities and uses of several products. 108 _a._ mountain laurel (umbellularia californica) 109 _b._ madroña (arbutus menziesii) 110 persimmon; osage orange; cherry (diospyros), (maclura), (prunus). section 23. range. structural peculiarities and uses of persimmon wood, of osage orange wood, of cherry wood. 111 _a._ persimmon (diospyros virginiana) 112 _b._ osage orange (maclura aurantiaca) 113 _c._ cherry (prunus serotina) 114 teak; greenheart (tectona), (nectandra). section 24. asiatic teak. african teak. structural peculiarities and uses of teak wood. structural peculiarities and uses of greenheart 115 _a._ teak (tectona grandis) 116 _b._ greenheart (nectandra rodiali) 117 mahogany (swietenia, khaya, soymida, cedrela, etc.). section 25. applications of name mahogany. sources of supply. structural and physical peculiarities. also uses of wood, veneers, spanish cedar, white mahogany 118 _a._ mahogany (swietenia mahagoni) 120 _b._ white mahogany (tabeuia donnell-smithii) 121 _c._ spanish cedar, mexican cedar (cedrela odorata) 122 eucalyptus (eucalyptus). section 26. localities. common names. great size. rapid growth and sanitary properties of trees. structural properties of jarrah, karri and tuart woods. botanical characteristics of trees, etc. 123 _a._ jarrah (eucalyptus marginata) 125 _b._ karri (eucalyptus diversicolor) 126 _c._ tuart (eucalyptus gomphocephala) 127 _d._ blue gum, fever tree (eucalyptus globulus) 128 needleleaf or soft woods. section 27. localities. historical. structural and physical properties. uses. botanical characteristics. general information 129 pine (pinus). section 28. structural and physical properties. uses. botanical characteristics 130 _soft pine._--structural and physical properties. importance. sources of supply, etc. 131 _hard pine._--structural and physical properties. importance. source of supply, etc. 132 _a._ white pine (pinus strobus) 134 _b._ white pine (pinus flexilis) 135 _c._ sugar pine (pinus lambertiana) 136 _d._ white pine (pinus monticola) 137 _e._ georgia, hard, yellow or longleaf pine (pinus palustris) 138 _f._ cuban pine (pinus heterophylla) 139 _g._ shortleaf pine, yellow pine (pinus echinata) 140 _h._ loblolly pine (pinus tæda) 141 _i._ bull pine, yellow pine, western pine (pinus ponderosa) 142 _j._ norway pine, red pine (pinus resinosa) 143 _k._ pitch pine (pinus rigida) 144 _l._ northern pine, scotch pine, dantzic pine (pinus sylvestris) 145 kauri pine (dammara). section 29. descriptive. structural and physical characteristics. "kauri gum," etc. 146 _a._ kauri pine (dammara australis) 147 spruce (picea). section 30. localities. structural and physical peculiarities. commercial divisions. botanical characteristics 148 _a._ black spruce (picea nigra) 150 _b._ red spruce (picea rubens) 150 _c._ white spruce (picea alba) 151 _d._ white spruce (picea engelmanni) 152 _e._ sitka spruce (picea sitchensis) 153 douglas spruce (pseudotsuga). section 31. great size of trees. localities. structural and physical peculiarities of wood. botanical characteristics 154 _a._ douglas or red spruce or fir (pseudotsuga taxifolia) 155 fir (abies). section 32. sources of supply. structural and physical characteristics. confusion of names. botanical characteristics 156 _a._ balsam fir (abies balsamea) 157 _b._ great silver fir (abies grandis) 158 _c._ white fir (abies concolor) 159 _d._ red fir (abies magnifica) 160 _e._ red fir. noble fir (abies nobilis) 161 hemlock (tsuga). section 33. distribution. structural and physical peculiarities of wood. botanical characteristics 162 _a._ hemlock (tsuga canadensis) 163 _b._ western hemlock (tsuga heterophylla) 163 larch; tamarack (larix). section 34. historical. sources. structural and physical peculiarities. botanical characteristics 164 _a._ larch, tamarack (larix americana) 165 _b._ larch, tamarack (larix occidentalis) 166 cedar (cedrus, thuya, chamæcyparis, libocedrus, juniperus). section 35. confusion of names. historical. structural and physical peculiarities of wood. uses. commercial divisions, etc. 167 _a._ red cedar (juniperus virginiana) 169 _b._ juniper (juniperus occidentalis) 170 _c._ white cedar, arborvitæ (thuya occidentalis) 171 _d._ canoe cedar, arborvitæ, giant arborvitæ (thuya plicata) 172 _e._ white cedar (chamæcyparis thyoides) 173 _f._ port orford cedar, lawson cypress (chamaecyparis lawsoniana) 174 _g._ yellow cedar, yellow cypress, sitka cypress (chamæcyparis nootkatensis) 175 _h._ incense cedar (libocedrus decurrens) 176 cypress (cupressus, taxodium). section 36. confusion of names. sources. historical. structural and physical peculiarities. commercial divisions. fungus disease 177 _a._ cypress, bald cypress (taxodium distichum) 179 redwood (sequoia). section 37. locality. peculiarities of trees. structural and physical qualities of wood. uses. mammoth trees 180 _a._ redwood (sequoia sempervirens) 182 _b._ giant redwood (sequoia washingtoniana) 182 part iii. _endogenous series._ section 38. definitions. cellular structure. structural and physical peculiarities of endogenous wood. uses. general information 183 palm (palmaceæ). section 39. localities. structural and physical peculiarities of wood. uses. botanical. characteristics 185 _a._ cabbage palmetto (sabal palmetto) 186 _b._ washington palm (washingtonia filifera) 187 yucca (yucca). section 40. localities. structural and physical peculiarities of wood. uses, etc. 188 _a._ joshua tree, yucca (yucca arborescens) 189 bamboo (bambusæ). section 41. botanical characteristics. structural and physical peculiarities of wood. growth. uses in the orient. possibilities in america, etc. 190 _a._ bamboo (bambusæ vulgaris) 192 list of plates. frontispiece. live oak (quercus virginiana). plate 2. exogenous structure in wood--yearly rings or layers. plate 3. exogenous structure in wood--medullary or pith ray. plate 4. exogenous structure in wood--cross-sections enlarged. plate 5. oak (quercus alba). plate 6. ash (fraxinus americana). plate 7. elm (ulmus americana). plate 8. maple (acer saccharum). plate 9. walnut (juglans). plate 10. hickory (hicoria ovata). plate 11. chestnut (castanea dentata). plate 12. beech (fagus). plate 13. sycamore (platanus occidentalis). plate 14. birch (betula). plate 15. locust (robinia, gleditsia). plate 16. whitewood (liriodendron tulipifera). plate 17. black willow (salix nigra). plate 18. catalpa (catalpa). plate 19. sassafras (sassafras officinale). plate 20. horse chestnut (æsculus hippocastanum). plate 21. sweet gum (liquidambar styraciflua). plate 22. holly, boxwood, lignumvitæ (ilex), (buxus, cornus), (guajacum). plate 23. persimmon, osage orange, cherry (diospyros), (maclura), (prunus). plate 24. teak, greenheart (tectona), (nectandra). plate 25. mahogany (swietenia mahagoni). plate 26. eucalyptus (eucalyptus). plate 27. pine (pinus). plate 28. kauri pine (dammara australis). plate 29. black spruce (picea nigra). plate 30. douglas spruce (pseudotsuga taxifolia). plate 31. hemlock (tsuga). plate 32. larch, tamarack (larix). plate 33. cedar (cedrus, thuya, etc.). plate 34. cypress (cupressus, taxodium). plate 35. redwood (sequoia). plate 36. endogenous structure in wood. plate 37. palm (palmaceæ). plate 38. yucca (yucca). plate 39. bamboo (bambusæ). bibliography. names and localities. "check list of forest trees of the united states, their names and ranges," sudworth. (u. s. forestry bulletin no. 17.) features of trees, botanies. prof. sargent's "silva of north america"; michaux and nuttall's "north american silva"; _apgar's_ "_trees of northern united states_"; publications u. s. forestry division; "_our native trees_," _keeler_; "familiar trees," mathews; "timber trees and forests of north carolina," pinchot & ashe (n. c. geological survey bulletin no. 6); "report on trees and shrubs of massachusetts," emerson; "manual of botany," gray; "plants," coulter; "illustrated flora of u. s.," britton and brown; etc., etc. botanical gazette; guide to trees and shrubs of new england by their leaves, bradley whidder, boston. color, appearance or grain of wood. _jesup collection at museum of natural history, new york city; hough's american woods (sections)._ structural qualities and uses of woods. _"timber," roth (bulletin no. 10, u. s. forestry div.); vol. ix, tenth u. s. census_; _prof. sargent's "catalogue jesup collections"_; _prof j. b. johnson's "materials of construction"_; prof. thurston's "materials of engineering," part i; dr. f. e. kidder's "inspection of materials and workmanship." allusions in numerous publications u. s. forestry division. weights and moduli. _circular no. 15, u. s. forestry division_; prof. j. b. johnson's "materials of construction"; mr. s. p. sharpless' tables for the u. s. census (vol. ix, tenth census; also executive document no. 5, 48th congress, 1st session, and also _sargent's "catalogue jesup collection"_); prof. lanza's "applied mechanics." american species. see foot-notes to species in question. foreign species. _thos. lazlett's "timber and timber trees"_; report on forests of western australia by j. ednie brown; catalogue kew botanical gardens, london; works baron ferd. von mueller; "american lumber in foreign markets" (special consular reports, vol. xi, u. s. state dept.); _stevenson's "trees of commerce"_; also see foot-notes, species in question. general. _"forestry for farmers," fernow_, and other u. s. forestry division publications, vol. ix, tenth u. s. census; _hough's american woods (text)_; the forester; the northwestern lumberman; the (new orleans) lumber trade journal; the new york lumber trade journal; the timber trades journal (london); "lumber trade of u. s." (bureau statistics u. s. treas. dept.); trees in winter, huntington. historical. brockhaus, konversations-lexikon; pliny, etc. medicinal properties. u. s. dispensatory. books particularly useful to beginners are in italics. names are repeated when books could not be particularly classed under one heading. also see foot-notes under subjects in questions. the principal species of wood. introduction. a tree has been defined as a woody plant that produces naturally and in its native place one principal erect stem with a definite crown of foliage. a plant thus attaining to the dignity of a tree is said to be arborescent.[1] there are nearly five hundred distinct species of trees growing in the united states,[2] as well as many others peculiar to other countries, yet the great mass of wood everywhere utilized is derived from comparatively few of them.[3] many woods will be more generally employed as their valuable properties become more familiar or as the supplies of wood now utilized continue to diminish. the same tree is often called by different common names in different places. nearly thirty names are thus applied to the longleaf pine (_pinus palustris_). such confusion can be avoided only by regarding the recognized botanical nomenclature. the botanical name of a plant consists of two principal terms denoting genus and species. quercus, for example, is [p002] the generic name including all species of oak. alba, rubra, and others are specific names denoting the said species. quercus alba and quercus rubra are completed terms. genera are not fixed but differ with authorities, so that the abbreviated name of the botanist responsible for the classification adopted is often added, as quercus alba linn. and ulmus fulva michx. a species is a collection of individuals that might well have sprung from some single root. a genus is a collection of related species. genera are gathered into families. families and genera differ with authorities. a variety includes individuals differing slightly from accepted species. its name when existing is part of the specific name. "quercus robur var. pedunculata" specifies a variety (pedunculata) of "red" or strong (robur) oak (quercus). a variety of one botanist is sometimes a distinct species of another. the size and character of the trunk, and the range, locality, or distribution of the tree, have much to do with the utility of the wood, since large or perfect timbers cannot be derived from species characterized by small or crooked trees, and since wood is always more used if it is widely distributed so as to be easily available.[4] [illustration: fig. 1.--some wood elements.] wood is made up of cell-structures; as, the true fibre, which originates from several cells; the tracheid (tra-ke-id), which originates from one; the vessel, which is a short, wide tube joined vertically end to end with others of its kind; the pith-ray; the resin-duct, and others,--all of which are often popularly referred to as fibres. [p003] the character and the arrangement of cell-structures differ with species. wood is hard, soft, light, heavy, tough, porous, elastic, or otherwise, because of these differences. appearance is affected, and woods may be distinguished from one another, because of this fact.[5] most wood is used in "construction," that is, in mines, railways, houses, and ships, where demand is for size or quantity, and where finish and appearance amount to but little. much wood is used in decoration and furniture, where appearance, appropriateness, and finish are called for; but these woods, although much in evidence, are infinitely less in quantity than those employed in construction. some wood is required for implements, turnery, carvings, and small-piece work, where size is secondary and where qualities such as hardness, fine grain, and uniformity, controllable in small pieces, are primary. some wood is used indirectly, as in the manufacture of paper-pulp, gunpowder, and chemicals. there are also by-products of trees, such as tanbark, turpentine, resin, nuts, and sugar. the weight, strength, and other measurable properties of wood are variable. weight varies from day to day as water is absorbed and evaporated. strength differs with grain, age, moisture, specific gravity, and many other things. two pieces from different portions of the same tree differ from each other. the proportions of sap and heart wood are seldom constant. results from small specimens may differ from those obtained from larger ones.[6] the botanical accuracy of a specimen is not always certain, therefore figures relating to the physical properties of wood should be employed with greater caution than those relating to the more homogeneous metals. many of the experiments conducted to establish statements regarding the physical properties of wood have been defective [p004] in that while the conclusions were correct as applied to the specimens immediately studied, such specimens did not stand for the species at large. the recognition of difficulties, the selection of specimens, the scientific standardizing of methods so that results could be generally utilized, as distinct from the simple manipulation of specimens in testing-machines, have not been exhaustively attempted until recently.[7] the experiments that have been made to determine the strength of woods may be grouped into the four following divisions: (1) experiments conducted by the u. s. division of forestry (dr. b. e. fernow, chief), under the direction of professor j. b. johnson. about forty thousand tests were made, distributed over thirty-one american species, the results, so far as obtained, being undoubtedly the most valuable in existence. the detail considered and methods evolved have in a way reclassed the testing of woods and must influence all future efforts, but results are disappointing in that they have been obtained for so few species, and some of these of commercially secondary importance. these experiments are characterized as follows: completeness and reliability of records. large and small test pieces. moisture conditions standardized at 12% dry weight. samples from representative portions of tree. selection of representative trees. uniformity of methods. large number of individual and total tests. small number of species covered. specific gravity determinations. soil and forest conditions indicated. botanical accuracy assured. these experiments are originally described in circular no. 15 and other publications of the u. s. forestry division, also in "materials of construction," by professor j. b. johnson. (2) experiments conducted for the tenth u. s. census by mr. j. p. sharpless at the watertown (mass.) arsenal upon specimens botanically selected by professor sargent. these experiments are less complete in detail, and averages are based upon infinitely [p005] fewer tests for each species. so far as known most specimens were from butts. nothing is known of moisture conditions save that specimens were "carefully seasoned." tests were upon about twelve hundred specimens divided over four hundred and twelve species, allowing but a small number for each. the series is most valuable in that the species attempted were so numerous as to present an almost complete american series; in that the botanical identity of the specimens was beyond question, and because it gives a general idea of relative values. the results are frequently quoted and appear on the accompanying pages in spaces immediately following those occupied by, or set apart for, "forestry" figures or their alternates. the tests are characterized as follows: botanical accuracy assured. specific gravity determinations. uniformity of methods. limited number of individuals and total tests. large number of species covered. small test pieces only. selection and moisture conditions indefinite. they are originally described in vol. ix, tenth u. s. census; executive document no. 5, forty-eighth congress, first session; in catalogue of the "jesup collection," by professor c. s. sargent, and elsewhere. (3) experiments conducted upon full-sized pieces. the most reliable investigations under this head were either conducted by professor lanza, of the massachusetts institute of technology, or else are noted by him in his work, "applied mechanics" (ed. 1895, pp. 673-711). they are valuable in that specimens were selected on a commercial rather than on a scientific basis. professor lanza claims that such actual pieces are less perfect and show approximately one half the unit strength developed by the more carefully selected smaller specimens. these experiments are characterized as follows: life-sized specimens. miscellaneous selections as if for practical construction. moisture and other data indefinite. (4) all other experiments. many experiments have been made from time to time which, while valuable, are not distinguished by any particular method or principle, such as separate the investigations noted in the preceding articles. data as to selection of specimens, moisture, and other conditions are either incomplete or else absolutely lacking. such tests are referred to as are noted in works of hatfield, trautwein, lazlett, rankine, thurston, and others. some of these series are exceedingly valuable comparatively. professor rankine and mr. lazlett experimented principally upon foreign woods. [p006] the figures established by the united states division of forestry and alluded to in item 1, page 4, appear, so far as they exist, upon the following pages. where they do not exist, the leading spaces set apart for them are left vacant for other insertions as preferred. all coefficients are in pounds per square inch. fractions of pounds in weight and lower figures in coefficients have been omitted as superfluous. it is not always easy to determine the species of living trees, because forms in the forest differ from those in the open, because bark varies with age, and because fruit and leaves of many trees are lacking in the winter. it is easier to tell genus than species--that a tree is an oak, than whether it is a red or a pin oak. experience is required in this connection. trees are divided into two general divisions known as exogens and endogens.[8] [p007] footnotes [footnote 1: fernow, introduction to u. s. forestry bul. no. 17.] [footnote 2: dr. fernow credits 495 trees to united states (introduction to u. s. forestry bul. no. 17); prof. sargent, counting species only and excluding varieties, gives 422 (silva of north america).] [footnote 3: "the principal timbers of commerce in the united states are the species known popularly as pine, fir, oak, hickory, hemlock, ash, poplar, maple, cypress, spruce, cedar, and walnut." ("the lumber trade of the united states," treas. dept., bureau of statistics.)] [footnote 4: fossils show that many species covered wider ranges than at present.] [footnote 5: roth, u. s. forestry bul. no. 10, pp. 64-71. also von schrenk, u. s. dept. agriculture, bureau plant industry bul. no. 14, pp. 12-16.] [footnote 6: only because imperfections are more likely in larger pieces. large and small pieces of equally perfect wood are equally strong. (see publications u. s. forestry div. and j. b. johnson's "materials of construction," p. 462.)] [footnote 7: it should be noted that the selection and preparation of specimens require the exercise of more judgment than the simple testing of specimens, if the conclusions are to be such that they can be generalized from.] [footnote 8: this division coincides with that by which they are separated into dicotyledons and monocotyledons.] [illustration: plate 2. exogenous structure in wood. yearly rings or layers. a section of a longleaf pine tree. a section of oak showing "porous" structure in yearly layers. (natural size.) a section of hard pine showing "solid" structure in layers. (natural size.)] exogenous trees. (_dicotyledons_.) exogenous trees are those the trunks of which are built up by rings or layers, each deposited consecutively upon the outside of the others. a section exhibits first a central point or canal known as a pith-cavity, next and consecutively the annual layers, and finally the bark. the woods of this series are familiar to all. the oaks, pines, and practically all of the merchantable lumbers are among them. the forests are widely distributed, and the species are so numerous as to present an almost infinite range of possibilities. [illustration: fig. 2.--section boxelder, showing pith-cavity at centre.] the young wood of exogenous trees is porous. it permits the passage of sap and is known as sapwood (alburnum). as a layer is enclosed by others and retreats from the surface of the tree, it becomes denser, its canals are filled with gums or tannin, color changes, and the result is heartwood (duramen). this change goes forward rapidly in some trees, such as locusts, so that their sections appear to be almost wholly heartwood; other species require longer time, and sapwood then predominates. heartwood gives stability to the tree, but is not needed in its physiological processes. it is tougher, heavier, stronger, and more valued in construction. sapwood is vitally essential to the life of the tree, but is lighter, weaker, less durable, and less valued in construction. sapwood is pliable, and the sapwoods of several trees are valued for this reason. wood-making varies as it takes place in the springtime and in the summer. consequent differences in the densities [p008] of the deposits serve to mark the limits of the yearly rings. some species, as the oaks and hickories, show pores throughout their spring woods which thus contrast with denser summer growths. others, as southern pines, change sharply, and their spring and summer growths appear as solid bands. in even climates, where seasons are not pronounced, growth is more regular and layers correspondingly less definite.[9] the cellular structure of wood is principally vertical, a fact that explains the ease with which wood is split up and down. beside the vertical, there are horizontal cells, that cross the tree, strengthen and bind the vertical cells, and assist in the life-processes of the tree. these horizontal cells form what are known as medullary or pith-rays and appear as simple lines or glistening plates according to the way in which the wood is cut. woods differ in the size and number of these rays, which are by no means always visible to the eye (see plate 3). [illustration: fig. 3.] woods are easy or difficult to work in proportion as their fibres are arranged in a simple or a complicated manner. this is shown in the figures on plate 4. a knife pressed upon the oak must crush or cut into the fibres themselves, whereas with the pine it finds some natural passage between the cells. wood may be cut so as to develop cross-sections (_c_, fig. 3), radial sections (_r_), or tangential sections (_t_). the respective [p009] markings are in a general way indicated on the boards in the figure. [illustration: plate 3. exogenous structure in wood. medullary or pith ray. actual appearances of pith ray, _pp_. microscopic enlargement of a tangential section of white oak showing large pith ray, _pp_.] [illustration: plate 4. exogenous structure in wood. (cross-sections, enlarged.) two yearly layers of white oak. the larger pores were formed in spring, the smaller ones in summer. the small circles are ends of fibres. a knife pressed upon this surface would crush or cut into the cells. the mass would not split or separate evenly. two yearly layers of white pine. the space in the outer or darker one is a resin-duct; the circles are ends of fibres (tracheids); pith rays are noticeable. a knife pressed upon this surface would find easy passage. the mass would separate easily.] logs are sometimes sawn into quarters and then into pieces crossing and exposing the yearly rings. (see fig. 4.) these "quarter-sawn" surfaces are structurally stronger and better, but are, by reason of waste or small pieces, more costly than others. the pith-rays of some woods, such as oaks, are very prominent when split as they are in "quarter-sawing," and the appearance of such woods is consequently improved.[10] [illustration: fig. 4.] exogenous trees are divided into broad-leaved trees and needle-leaved conifers. the broad, flat leaves of trees such as oaks and chestnuts gave rise to the former term, while the narrow resinous leaves of the pine and hemlock gave rise to the latter. the woods of the former group are usually referred to as hard woods, although some of them are very soft; those of the latter group are referred to as soft woods, although some of them are very hard. most, but not all, of the broadleaf trees are deciduous, that is, they change their foliage every year; and most, but not all, of the needleleaf trees are evergreen, that is, the foliage is persistent. needleleaf trees are also known as conifers, that is, cone-bearers. it is usual to associate the terms broadleaf, deciduous, and hard wood; and likewise the terms needleleaf, conifer, evergreen, and soft wood. while generally correct, this is, as seen, not always so. a better division is into broadleaf trees or woods, and needleleaf conifers. [p010] broadleaf woods. the trees affording these woods are found in natural forests and under cultivation in nearly every portion of the globe. the histories of some of them extend back to very remote periods. their woods were the principal ones in construction until the advent of american soft woods. the oaks, elms, maples, and other so-called hard woods are of this group. broadleaf woods are characterized by complex fibre conditions, absence of resins, and greater weights.[11] they are composed of several kinds of cells and fibres, arranged without the regularity so noticeable in the conifers. cross-sections exhibit numerous, often easily visible pores, arranged in zones or scattered throughout the rings (see plate 2). pith-rays are numerous and more or less conspicuous, save in softer hard woods such as poplar. woods are difficult to work in proportion as they are complicated in structure. the numerous members of the group vary from one another and present an extensive range of properties. trees do not usually afford large pieces. woods for cabinet work, implements, and other fine purposes are from this group. the total requirement is less than for needleleaf woods. the leaves of broadleaf trees are easily distinguished from the resinous, usually evergreen ones of the conifers. most of them are deciduous, that is, shed every season, although some are persistent, that is, "evergreen." "broadleaf," "deciduous," and "hardwood" trees are the same. [p011] footnotes [footnote 9: circular no. 16, u. s. forestry division.] [footnote 10: some woods, as birdseye maple, are well developed by the rotary cut. a revolving log is advanced against a tool which pares a broad thin ribbon suitable for veneered work.] [footnote 11: neither resin-ducts nor resin exists in these woods, save sometimes in buds and leaves.] [illustration: plate 5. white oak (_quercus alba_).] oak. (_quercus_.) the oaks are found on all of the continents of the northern hemisphere, as well as at high altitudes just south of the equator. their woods stand pre-eminent among those of the broadleaf series and have been highly prized from early periods. formerly relied upon for all purposes of house and naval architecture, they did not give way to the so-called "soft woods" for houses, and to iron for vessels, until comparatively recent periods. they were supplanted for the former purposes upon the opening of the soft-wood forests of north america and of the baltic, and for vessels subsequent to the conclusions of the american civil war. the historical importance of oak is founded upon the reputation of the english oak as derived from two trees, quercus robur var. pedunculata and quercus robur var. sessiliflora, usually taken as sub-species of quercus robur.[12] it is said that these trees once formed large forests over northern and central europe. live-oak has always been highly esteemed, but is now very scarce. it is one of the hardest, heaviest, and most durable of constructive woods and was once largely employed in ship-building. the wood of the white oak (_quercus alba_) is at present preferred for most purposes for which oak is now employed, and is one of the most valuable of the american hard woods. oak is tough, durable, easily obtained, liable to warp and check in seasoning, often hard to nail without splitting, susceptible of high polish, and not greatly liable to attack by insects. it contains gallic acid, causing peculiar taste and odor and attacking iron, the solutions staining the wood. experiments[13] indicate that iron fastenings are shortly protected by an insoluble scale of resulting salt, and that the wood, although [p012] darkened, remains practically uninjured. the later oaken vessels were iron-fastened,[14] and cabinet-makers now employ that metal in joining oak. the barks of all species are also so charged with acid as to be used in the tanning of leather. the several kinds of oak are commercially divisible into three general groups, white oak, red or black oak, and live oak.[15] the principal species affording woods under each head are as follows: white oak. white oak (q. alba). cow oak (q. michauxii). chestnut oak (q. prinus). post oak (q. minor). bur oak (q. macrocarpa). pacific post oak (q. garryanna). red or black oak. red oak (q. rubra). pin oak (q. palustris). spanish oak (q. digitata). yellow or black oak (q. velutina). live oak. live oak (q. virginiana). california live oak (q. agrifolia). live oak (q. chrysolepis) [illustration: white oak (_quercus alba_).] [illustration: red oak (_quercus rubra_).] oak trees are characterized by oblong, thin-shelled kernels, protruding from hard scaly cups and called acorns. the foliage is sometimes deciduous and sometimes evergreen. most oaks require many years to reach maturity, but are then long-lived. fifty of the nearly three hundred known species of oak are natives of the united states and canada; all but four become trees under favorable conditions. quercus is from two celtic words, _quer_, signifying fine, and _cuex_, a tree. [p013] [illustration: live oak (_quercus virginiana_).] footnotes [footnote 12: thought by some botanists to be distinct species, namely, quercus pedunculata and quercus sessiliflora.] [footnote 13: havemeyer chemical laboratory, n. y. university.] [footnote 14: communication. mr. chas. h. cramp, president cramp ship-building co., philadelphia.] [footnote 15: this division is also a botanical one based not only on differences in anatomical structure of the wood itself, but on the time required by fruit in attaining maturity, and on persistence of foliage (evergreen or deciduous), etc.] white oak. _quercus alba linn._ nomenclature. white oak (general). stave oak (ark.). locality. widespread, north-central and eastern united states. features of tree. seventy-five to one hundred feet in height. three to six feet in diameter, fine shape and appearance. grayish-white bark. comparatively sweet ovoid oblong acorns in rough shallow cups. rounded lobes or projections to leaves. color, grain, or appearance of wood. heartwood brown with sapwood lighter. annual layers well marked. medullary rays broad and prominent. structural qualities of wood. tough, strong, heavy, hard, liable to check unless seasoned with care. durable in contact with the soil. receives a high polish. representative uses of wood. ship-building, construction, cooperage, cabinet-making, railway ties, fuel, etc. bark is rich in tannin. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 50 (u. s. forestry div.).[16] 46. modulus of elasticity. 2,090,000 (average of 218 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[16] 1,380,000. modulus of rupture. 13,100 (average of 218 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[16] 12,800. remarks. a tree of the first economic importance. the most widely employed of all american oaks. name refers to appearance of bark. the supply diminishing because of value of timber, also the sweetness of nuts cause them to be eaten by animals. [p014] footnote [footnote 16: see page 6.] cow oak. _quercus michauxii nutt._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) cow oak (local and common name). basket oak (ala., miss., la., tex., ark.). swamp white oak (del., ala.). swamp chestnut oak (fla.). locality. southeastern united states, delaware and florida, westward along gulf to texas. also southern indiana and illinois to gulf. best on rich bottoms in arkansas and louisiana. features of tree. seventy-five to one hundred feet in height. three to six feet in diameter, rough, light-gray bark with loose scaly ridges. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light brown, light buff sapwood, conspicuous medullary rays, close-grained. structural qualities of wood. hard, heavy, very strong, tough, durable, easily split. representative uses of wood. construction, agricultural implements, wheel stock. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 46 (u. s. forestry div.).[17] 50. modulus of elasticity. 1,610,000 (average of 256 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[17] 1,370,000. modulus of rupture. 11,500 (average of 256 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[17] 15,800. remarks. the principal white oak of southern states; edible acorns devoured by cattle, whence its name. [p015] footnote [footnote 17: see page 6.] chestnut oak. _quercus prinus linn._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) chestnut oak (local and common name). rock oak (n. y., del., pa.). rock chestnut oak (mass., r. i., pa., del., ala.). tanbark oak (n. c.). swamp chestnut oak (n. c). mountain oak (ala.). locality. maine to georgia, westward intermittently to kentucky and alabama. best development in southern alleghany mountain region. features of tree. seventy-five to eighty feet in height, three or four feet in diameter. leaves resemble those of chestnut. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood dark brown, sapwood lighter, close-grained, medullary rays conspicuous. structural qualities of wood. heavy, tough, hard, strong, and durable in contact with soil. representative uses of wood. largely used for railway ties. bark rich in tannin. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 46. modulus of elasticity. 1,780,000. modulus of rupture. 14,600. remarks. prinus is a greek name applied to a species of oak. [p016] post oak. _quercus minor sargent_, _quercus obtusiloba michx._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) post oak (local and common name). iron oak (del., miss., neb.). box white oak (r. i.). chêne étoilé (quebec). overcup oak (fla.). white oak (ky., ind.). box oak (md.). brash oak (md.). locality. east of rocky mountains--massachusetts to northern florida, westward intermittently to nebraska and gulf states. features of tree. fifty to seventy feet in height, two to three feet in diameter. low shrub in florida. blunt lobes or projections to leaves. leaves clustered at ends of branches. fine tree with rounded top. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light or dark brown with lighter sapwood. close-grained, annual rings well marked. numerous and conspicuous medullary rays. structural qualities of wood. heavy, hard, strong, checks badly in drying. durable in contact with soil. representative uses of wood. largely used, particularly in southwest, for fencing, railway ties, and fuel; also for cooperage, construction, etc. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 50 (u. s. forestry div.).[18] 52. modulus of elasticity. 2,030,000 (average of 49 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[18] 1,180,000. modulus of rupture. 12,300 (average of 49 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[18] 12,900. remarks. most common and widely distributed oak in gulf states west of the mississippi river. obtusiloba, the latin for blunt-lobed, refers to the shapes of the leaves. wood seldom commercially distinguished from white oak. [p017] footnote [footnote 18: see page 6.] bur oak. _quercus macrocarpa michx._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) bur oak (local and common name). overcup oak (r. i., del., pa., miss., la., ill., minn.). mossycup white oak (minn.). mossycup oak (mass., pa., del., miss., la., tex., ark., ill., iowa, neb., kan.). scrub oak (neb., minn.). overcup white oak (vt.). locality. new brunswick, new england, westward intermittently to montana and texas. features of tree. seventy to one hundred and thirty feet in height, five to seven feet in diameter. deep opposite depressions to leaves. mossy, fringed border at top of acorn-cup. corky wings on young branches. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood rich brown, sapwood lighter, close-grained, broad conspicuous medullary rays. structural qualities of wood. heavy, hard, strong, tough, very durable in contact with ground. representative uses of wood. similar to those of quercus alba. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 46.00. modulus of elasticity. 1,320,000. modulus of rupture. 13,900. remarks. extends farthest west and northwest of any other eastern oak. especially recommended for prairie planting. [p018] white oak. _quercus garryana douglas._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) white oak (cal., oreg.). pacific post oak (oreg.). western white oak (oreg.). oregon white oak (cal.). california post oak. locality. pacific coast, british columbia into california. features of tree. sixty to ninety feet high, one and one half to two and one half feet in diameter. a small shrub at high elevations. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light brown or yellow. sapwood lighter, often nearly white. compact structure. distinctly marked annual rings. medullary rays often conspicuous. structural qualities of wood. heavy, strong, hard, tough. representative uses of wood. ship-building, carriages, furniture, indoor decoration, fuel. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 46. modulus of elasticity. 1,150,000. modulus of rupture. 12,400. remarks. locally important. the best substitute for eastern white oak produced on pacific coast. [p019] red oak. _quercus rubra linn._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) red oak (local and common name). black oak (vt., conn., n. y., wis., ia., neb., so. dak., ont.). spanish oak (pa., n. c.). locality. east of rocky mountains, nova scotia to georgia, westward intermittently to nebraska and kansas, best in massachusetts. features of tree. ninety to one hundred feet in height. three to six feet and over in diameter, brownish-gray bark smooth on branches. leaves have sharp-pointed lobes, very large acorns in flat shallow cups. a fine complete tree. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light brown or red, sapwood darker, coarse-grained, well-marked annual rings, medullary rays few but broad. structural qualities of wood. heavy, hard, strong, inclined to check in drying, acid, inferior to white oak. representative uses of wood. works of secondary importance, clapboards, cooperage, fuel. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 45 (u. s. forestry div.).[19] 40. modulus of elasticity. 1,970,000 (average of 57 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[19] 1,600,000. modulus of rupture. 11,400 (average of 57 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[19] 140,000. remarks. grows more rapidly than other oaks. bark used in tanning. [p020] footnote [footnote 19: see page 6.] pin oak. _quercus palustris muenchh._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) pin oak (local and common name). swamp spanish oak (ark., kan.). water oak (r. i., ill.). swamp oak (pa., ohio, kans.). water spanish oak (ark.). locality. minnesota to kansas, eastward intermittently to massachusetts and virginia. features of tree. fifty to eighty feet in height, two to four feet in diameter. full-rounded or pyramidal top, smooth thin bark, numerous small pin-like branches. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood variegated light brown, sapwood nearly white, coarse-grained, medullary rays numerous and conspicuous. structural qualities of wood. heavy, hard, strong, checks badly in seasoning. representative uses of wood. shingles, clapboards, construction, interior finish, cooperage. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 43. modulus of elasticity. 1,500,000. modulus of rupture. 15,400. remarks. palustris, the latin for swampy, refers to favorite location of tree. the numerous slender secondary branches suggesting pins cause tree to be easily recognized, particularly in winter. [p021] spanish oak. _quercus digitata sudworth_, _quercus falcata michx._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) spanish oak (local and common name). red oak (n. c., va., ga., fla., ala., miss., la., ind.). spanish oak (la.). locality. new jersey and florida, westward intermittently to illinois and texas. features of tree. thirty to seventy feet in height, two and one half to four feet in diameter. variable foliage. globular to oblong acorns. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light red, sapwood lighter, coarse-grained, annual layers strongly marked, medullary rays few but conspicuous. structural qualities of wood. hard, heavy, strong, not durable, checks badly in drying. representative uses of wood. somewhat used for cooperage, construction, etc. bark very rich in tannin. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 43. modulus of elasticity. 1,900,000. modulus of rupture. 16,900. remarks. dry barren soils. grows rapidly. [p022] black oak, yellow oak. _quercus velutina lam._ _quercus tinctoria barti._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) black oak, yellow oak (local and common names). yellow bark, yellow-bark oak (r. i., minn.). dyer's oak (tex.). tanbark oak (ill.). spotted oak (mo.). quercitron oak (del., s. c., la., kans., minn.). locality. east of longitude 96 degrees, maine and florida, westward intermittently to minnesota and texas. best in north atlantic states. features of tree. ninety to one hundred and thirty feet in height, three to five feet in diameter. dark gray to black bark, yellow inner bark. acorns have bitter yellow kernels. foliage turns handsomely in autumn. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light reddish brown, sapwood lighter, coarse grain, annual layers strongly marked, thin medullary rays. structural qualities of wood. heavy, hard, strong, liable to check in drying, not tough. representative uses of wood. cooperage, construction, furniture, and decoration. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 45 (u. s. forestry div.).[20] 44. modulus of elasticity. 1,740,000 (average of 40 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[20] 1,470,000. modulus of rupture. 10,800 (average of 40 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[20] 14,800. remarks. yellow inner bark affords yellow dye. [p023] footnote [footnote 20: see page 6.] live oak. _quercus virginiana mill._ _quercus virens ait._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) live oak (va., n. c., s. c., ga., fla., miss., ala., tex., la., calif.). chêne vert (la.). locality. southern states--coast from virginia to florida, westward to texas and lower california, southern mexico, central america, and cuba. best in south atlantic states. features of tree. fifty to sixty feet high, diameter three to six feet. general resemblance to apple-tree. evergreen foliage. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light brown or yellow, sapwood nearly white, close-grained, compact structure, pronounced medullary ray, annual layers often hardly distinguishable. structural qualities of wood. heavy, strong, tough, hard, difficult to work, splits easily. receives high polish, very durable. representative uses of wood. ship-building. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 59. modulus of elasticity. 1,600,000. modulus of rupture. 14,000. remarks. trunk and branches furnish small straight pieces, but principally knees, crooked or compass timbers. virens refers to evergreen foliage. splits so easily that it is better fastened with bolts or trenails than spikes. now scarce, grows rapidly. [p024] california live oak. _quercus agrifolia nee._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) coast live oak (cal.). california live oak (cal.). encena (cal.). evergreen oak (cal.). locality. california. features of tree. forty to seventy-five and occasionally more feet in height, three to six feet in diameter. evergreen foliage, leaves spiked like those of holly. shape resembles that of apple tree. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood creamy white, but darkens on exposure. compact structure, annual layers hardly distinguishable. structural qualities of wood. heavy, hard, but brittle. representative uses of wood. fuel. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 51. modulus of elasticity. 1,350,000. modulus of rupture. 13,200. remarks. agrifolia is from the latin _acer_, sharp, and _folium_, leaf, alluding to the spinous toothed leaves. [p025] live oak. _quercus chrysolepis liebm._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) live oak (cal., oreg.). canyon live oak, black live oak, golden-cup oak (cal.). canyon oak, iron oak, maul oak, valparaiso oak (cal.). locality. west of rocky mountains, canyons, and high elevations. features of tree. fifty to eighty feet in height, three to six feet in diameter. often low shrub. impressive appearance. evergreen foliage. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light brown, sapwood lighter, small pores in wide bands parallel to conspicuous medullary rays. close-grained. structural qualities of wood. hard, heavy, strong, tough, difficult to work. representative uses of wood. implements, wagons, tool-handles. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 52. modulus of elasticity. 1,700,000. modulus of rupture. 18,000. remarks. said to be the most valuable of the california oaks. grows at elevations of 2000 to 5000 feet. highland oak (_quercus wislizeni_) is an evergreen and a pacific coast variety. [p026] english oak. _quercus robur var. pedunculata._ nomenclature. english oak. british oak. common oak. locality. widespread throughout northern and central europe. features of tree. seventy to one hundred feet in height, eight to ten feet in diameter. crooked branches, stalkless leaves, long-stalked acorns. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light brown, darker spots frequent, sapwood lighter. compact structure. structural qualities of wood. hard, tough, strong, durable, difficult to work, liable to warp in seasoning. representative uses of wood. ship-building, beams, cabinet-work, formerly carpentry. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 51 (laslett). modulus of elasticity. 1,170,000 (thurston). modulus of rupture. 10,000 (thurston). remarks. the english, chestnut, durmast, or red oak, q. robur var. sessiliflora, distinguished by long leaf stalks and short acorn stalks, affords practically similar but lower-rated wood. the two varieties supply the british oak of commerce. dantzic, rigi, and some other european oaks take names from port of shipment. rubrus is red, but robur is a noun meaning strength; the adjective robustus means "oaken" or vigorous. [p027] [illustration: plate 6. white ash (_fraxinus americana_).] ash. (_fraxinus_.) ash is widely distributed over the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, and occurs in the tropics, on the island of cuba. the tree has occupied a position second only to that of oak. our teutonic forefathers relied upon its wood for boats and weapons. their ancient faith connects it with the creation of the original man. it is often associated with oak in country proverbs.[21] europeans regard the trees for ornamental purposes, but americans value them for wood. [illustration: white ash (_fraxinus americana_).] ash and oak woods resemble one another in that there are bands of open pores in both woods, but the pith-rays of the ash are thinner and scarcely discernible. ash is coarser, less attractive, easier to work, tough, elastic, and somewhat lighter than oak. it seasons well, but does not last when exposed to the weather. lumbermen separate the woods into white and black ash, the former including the lighter-colored and more desirable pieces. this commercial division is also a botanical one in the north, where the only species of any note are the white ash and black ash (_f. americana_ and _f. nigra_). the southern green ash (_f. lanceolata_) is usually classed as white ash. the trees that grow up after the cutting of the virgin forest afford tougher, more pliable, but not necessarily stronger pieces, known as "second-growth" ash. although not relied upon for out-of-door construction, ash is one of the most important of the cheaper cabinet woods and is used in stairs, furniture, and similar works. [p028] one half of the thirty known species of the genus fraxinus inhabit north america. [p029] footnotes [footnote 21: a tradition, old in pliny's time, is that serpents avoid ash trees; another is that ash is particularly liable to be struck by lightning. (keeler.)] the name ash is also applied to several species of the genus pyrus or sorbus, to which the apple, pear, quince, and some other trees belong. "mountain ash" is either pyrus americana or pyrus sambucifolia. both species, with their bright red berries, are to be classed as shrubs rather than trees; their light, soft, weak, close-grained woods having no economic importance, save perhaps for fuel. the series is partially as follows: pyrus malus (common apple). pyrus coronaria (american crab-apple). pyrus communis (common pear). pyrus vulgaris (common quince). pyrus americana (mountain ash). pyrus sambucifolia (mountain ash). pyrus ancuparia (rowan tree, european mountain ash). the toothache trees, xanthoxylum americana and xanthoxylum clava-herculis (linn.), are known as ash and prickly ash. the gopher wood, cladrastis tinctoria, is yellow ash. these woods are not important. white ash. _fraxinus americana linn._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) white ash (local and common name). ash (ark., ia., wis., ill., mo., minn.). cane ash (ala., miss., la.). american ash (ia.). locality. nova scotia to florida, westward intermittently to minnesota and texas. greatest development in the ohio river basin. features of tree. forty-five to ninety feet in height, occasionally higher. three to four feet in diameter. usually smooth leaves, have whitish under surfaces. gray furrowed bark, long-winged seed. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood reddish brown, usually mottled; sapwood much lighter or nearly white. coarse-grained, compact structure. layers clearly marked by large open ducts. medullary rays obscure. structural qualities of wood. heavy, hard, strong, elastic, becoming brittle with age, not durable in contact with soil. representative uses of wood. agricultural implements, carriages, handles, oars, interior and cheap cabinet-work. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 39 (u. s. forestry div.).[22] 40. modulus of elasticity. 1,640,000 (average of 87 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[22] 1,440,000. modulus of rupture. 10,800 (average of 87 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[22] 12,200. remarks. economically valuable. rapid growers, preferring low, rather moist soil. not apt to form in forests, but found mingled with other varieties. large trees sometimes have large heart-cracks. [p030] footnote [footnote 22: see page 6.] red ash. _fraxinus pennsylvanica marsh._ _fraxinus pubescens lam._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) red ash (local and common name). river ash (r. i., ont.). brown ash (mo.). black ash (n. j.). ash (nebr.). locality. new brunswick to florida, westward intermittently to dakota and alabama. best developed in north atlantic states. features of tree. a small tree, rarely over forty-five feet high, one and one-half feet in diameter. downy-covered young twigs and leaves. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood rich brown, sapwood light brown streaked with yellow, coarse-grained compact structure. structural qualities of wood. heavy, hard, strong, brittle. representative uses of wood. agricultural implements, handles, boats, oars, paper-pulp. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 38. modulus of elasticity. 1,154,000. modulus of rupture. 12,300. remarks. grows on borders of streams and swamps in low ground. often confused with and substituted for the more valuable white ash. pubescens is in allusion to the downy covering of the new twigs (those of white ash usually smooth). pennsylvanica refers to locality in which it is well developed. [p031] blue ash. _fraxinus quadrangulata michx._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) blue ash (mich., ill., ky., mo., ala.). locality. central states, mississippi valley, michigan, and southward, cultivated in pennsylvania. best in low wabash valley. features of tree. fifty to seventy-five feet in height, occasionally higher, one to two feet in diameter. slender. blue properties in inner bark, smooth square twigs. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light yellow, streaked with brown, sapwood lighter, close-grained, compact structure satiny. structural qualities of wood. hard, heavy, brittle, not strong, most durable of ash woods. representative uses of wood. largely used in floorings, carriage-building, pitchfork-and other tool-handles. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 44. modulus of elasticity. 1,100,000. modulus of rupture. 11,500. remarks. has no superior among ash woods. blue ash pitchfork-handles are very fine. prefers limestone formations. inner bark colors water blue, whence name. [p032] black ash. _fraxinus nigra marsh._ _fraxinus sambucifolia lam._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) black ash (local and common name). water ash (w. va., tenn., ind.). swamp ash (vt., r. i., n. y.). brown ash (n. h., tenn.). hoop ash (vt., n. y., del., ohio, ill., ind.). locality. northern and northeastern states--newfoundland to virginia, westward intermittently to manitoba and arkansas. features of tree. seventy to eighty feet in height, one to one and one-half feet in diameter. leaves resemble those of elder. a thin tree. excrescences or knobs frequent on trunk. dark, almost black, winter buds. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood dark brown, sapwood light brown, often nearly white, coarse-grained, compact structure, medullary rays numerous and thin. structural qualities of wood. separates easily in layers, rather soft and heavy, tough, elastic, not strong or durable when exposed. representative uses of wood. largely used for interior finish, fencing, barrel-hoops, cabinet-making, splint baskets, chair-bottoms. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 39. modulus of elasticity. 1,230,000. modulus of rupture. 11,400. remarks. excrescences known as burls; their distorted grain causes them to be prized for veneers. the most northerly of ash-trees; one of the most slender of trees. [p033] green ash. _fraxinus lanceolata borkh._ _fraxinus viridis michx. f._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) green ash (local and common name). blue ash (ark., iowa). white ash (kans., neb.). ash (ark., iowa). swamp ash (fla., ala., tex.). water ash (iowa). locality. east of rocky mountains. vermont and northern florida intermittently to utah and arizona. features of tree. forty to fifty feet in height, one to two feet in diameter. bright green upper and lower surfaces of smooth leaves. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood brownish, sapwood lighter, rather coarse-grained, compact structure. structural qualities. hard, heavy, strong, brittle. representative uses. similar to those of white ash. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 39 (u. s. forestry div.).[23] 44. modulus of elasticity. 2,050,000 (average of 10 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[23] 1,280,000. modulus of rupture. 11,600 (average of 10 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[23] 12,700. remarks. sometimes considered a variety of red ash. [p034] footnote [footnote 23: see page 6.] oregon ash. _fraxinus oregona nutt._ nomenclature. oregon ash (calif., wash., oregon). locality. pacific coast, washington to california. best developed in bottom lands, southwestern oregon. features of tree. fifty to occasionally seventy-five feet in height, one to one and one-half feet in diameter. dark grayish-brown, bark exfoliates in thin scales. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood brown, sap wood lighter, coarse-grained, compact structure, numerous thin medullary rays. structural qualities of wood. rather light, hard, not strong. representative uses of wood. manufacture of furniture, carriage-frames, cooperage, and fuel. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 35. modulus of elasticity. 1,200,000. modulus of rupture. 9400. remarks. one of the valuable deciduous trees of the pacific coast. thrives only on moist soils and in moist climates. [p035] [illustration: plate 7. elm (_ulmus americana_).] elm. (_ulmus_.) the different species of elm are distributed over the cold and temperate portions of the northern hemisphere, save western united states and canada. a high degree of perfection is attained in eastern north america, where trees are greatly prized for their form and appearance. the foliage of the elm is concentrated at the top, and the absence of lower branches causes it to be a good tree to plant near houses or along streets. much of the wood is tough, fibrous, durable, strong, hard, heavy, and, because it is so often cross-grained, difficult to split and work. the large pores of the spring wood arranged in one or several rows mark the annual deposit, while the minute pores of the summer wood arranged in concentric wavy lines are so peculiar as to distinguish this wood from all others. the tall, straight trunks afford pieces of considerable size. elm piles sustain constant and severe shocks for long intervals. the grain arrangement of elm is often very beautiful, so that it is increasingly used for decoration. it is more commonly employed in the construction of cars, wagons, boats, agricultural implements, machinery, and furniture. [illustration: elm (_ulmus americana_).] the shape of the trees is so marked as to cause them to be easily noted. fifteen or sixteen species have been recognized. five are known to exist in the eastern american forests, and all of them furnish good wood of commercial importance. _ulmus_ was the ancient name of the elm. [p036] footnote geo. b. emerson's "trees and shrubs of massachusetts." white elm. _ulmus americana linn._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) white elm (local and common name). water elm (miss., tex., ark., mo., ill., ia., mich., minn., neb.). elm (mass., r. i., conn., n. j., pa., n. c., s. c., ia., wis.). american elm (vt., mass., r. i., n. y., del., pa., n. c., miss., tex., ill., ohio, kans., neb., mich., minn.). locality. east of rocky mountains, newfoundland to florida, westward intermittently to dakota, nebraska, and texas. features of tree. ninety to one hundred feet in height, three to seven feet in diameter. characteristic and beautiful form, smooth buds; leaves, smaller than those of slippery-elm, are rough only when rubbed one way. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light brown, sapwood yellowish white, rather coarse-grained, annual rings clearly marked. structural qualities of wood. strong, tough, fibrous, difficult to split. representative uses of wood. flooring, wheel-stock, cooperage, ship-building, flumes, piles. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 34 (u. s. forestry division.)[24] 40. modulus of elasticity. 1,540,000 (average of 18 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[24] 1,060,000. modulus of rupture. 10,300 (average of 18 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[24] 12,100. remarks. the concentration of foliage at top, together with the form of the tree, renders it valuable in landscape work. it does not cause dense shade. elm and silver-maple trees are among the first to show life in spring. discarded brownish scales then cover ground in vicinity. [p037] footnote [footnote 24: see page 6.] cork elm. _ulmus racemosa thomas._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) cork elm (local and common name). hickory elm (mo., ill., ind., ia.). rock elm (r. i., w. va., ky., mo., ill., wis., ia., mich., nebr.). white elm (ont.). cliff elm (wis.). locality. quebec and vermont, westward intermittently to nebraska and tennessee. best developed in southern ontario and michigan. features of tree. seventy to ninety feet in height, two to three feet in diameter. thick, corky, irregular projections give bark a shaggy appearance and mark the species. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light brown, often tinged with red; sapwood yellowish or greenish white. compact structure, fibres interlaced. structural qualities of wood. heavy, hard, very strong, tough, difficult to split, susceptible of a beautiful polish, elastic. representative uses of wood. heavy agricultural implements, wheel-stocks, railway ties, sills, bridge-timbers, axe-helves, etc. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 45. modulus of elasticity. 2,550,000. modulus of rupture. 15,100. remarks. cork elm is the best of the elm woods. [p038] slippery elm, red elm. _ulmus pubescens walt._ _ulmus fulva michx._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) slippery elm, red elm (local and common name). rock elm (tenn.). redwooded elm (tenn.). moose elm (occasional). locality. ontario and florida, westward intermittently to nebraska and texas. best developed in western states. features of tree. forty-five to sixty feet in height, one to two feet in diameter. characteristic shape, mucilaginous inner bark. buds hairy. leaves, larger than american elm, are rough when rubbed either way. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood dark brown or red, sapwood lighter, compact structure, annual layers marked by rows of large open ducts. heartwood greatly preponderates. structural qualities of wood. heavy, hard, strong, and durable in contact with soil. representative uses of wood. largely used for fence-posts, rails, railway ties, sills, sleigh-runners, and wheel-stocks. mucilaginous bark, employed in medicine. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 43. modulus of elasticity. 1,300,000. modulus of rupture. 12,300. remarks. mucilaginous inner bark renders this species unmistakable. this bark is used in medicine. [p039] wing elm, winged elm. _ulmus alata michx._ nomenclature. wing elm, winged elm (local and common names). wahoo, whahoo (w. va., n. c., s. c., la., tex., ky., mo.). cork elm, corky elm (fla., s.c., tex.). mountain elm, red elm (fla., ark.). elm, witch elm (w. va.). water elm (ala.). small-leaved elm (n. c.). wahoo elm (mo.). locality. southern united states, virginia and florida westward intermittently to southern illinois and texas. features of tree. forty feet or more in height, one to two feet in diameter. corky "wings" on branches. color, appearance, or grain of wood. color brownish, sapwood lighter, close-grained, compact structure. structural qualities of wood. hard, heavy, tough. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 46. modulus of elasticity. 740,000. modulus of rupture. 10,200. remarks. [p040] maple. (_acer_.) the maples grow on all of the continents of the northern hemisphere. nearly one half of the known species belong in china, japan, and the orient. the principal european species (_acer pseudo-platanus_) is the european sycamore.[25] the hard or sugar maple (_acer saccharum_) is one of the principal deciduous trees of north america. maple wood[26] is characterized by its appearance and by its fine compact texture. the first quality is so marked that selected pieces take rank among the most beautiful of cabinet woods; the last is so pronounced as to fit it for carvings and even for type. "birdseye," "blister," and "curly" maples are not from different species, but are the results of fibre distortions, possible in some form in any tree of any species, but peculiarly liable to occur in the maple; birdseye and blister effects for the most part in the hard maples, curly effects in the hard, but generally in the softer, species. the distortions do not occur in all trees, and it is seldom possible to tell whether the woods are thus figured until after the trees have been cut. maple wood shrinks moderately, stands well in protected places, is strong, tough, but not durable when exposed. pores are not arranged in circles, but are scattered irregularly throughout the layers. maple is used for ceiling, flooring, panelling, car and ship construction, shoe-lasts, shoe-pegs, furniture, school supplies, implements, and machinery. sugar is principally, although not exclusively, present in the sap of the sugar maple.[27] the softer species are sometimes [p041] tapped, and sugar is also present in the sap of other trees, such as the butternut and birch. a sugar maple will, on an average, produce about twenty-five gallons of sap, containing a total of about six pounds of sugar, in a season. [illustration: plate 8. sugar maple (_acer saccharum_).] [illustration: "curly" maple wood (_dissection_).] the boxelder (_acer negundo_) is a true maple, remarkable in that it is widely distributed from canada to mexico and from the atlantic to the rocky mountains, on low bottom lands, and at elevations of five thousand and six thousand feet.[28] the trees are beautiful and, like other maples are valued for ornamental purposes. the soft, light wood is not particularly noted, although occasionally used for woodenware, interior finish, and paper-pulp. small quantities of sugar are present in the sap of this tree. [illustration: _a_, box elder. _b_, hard or sugar maple. _c_, soft or red maple. _d_, soft or silver maple.] the maples may be told by their leaves of characteristic shape, but chiefly by their two-seeded fruit or "keys," the two wings of which spread differently in different species. the leaves of some species change in autumn from green to red and other brilliant colors. those of other species change to yellow without trace of red. sixty to seventy species have been distinguished, nine of which occur in north america. [p042] footnotes [footnote 25: see sycamore, page 65.] [footnote 26: these notes apply to the american product.] [footnote 27: vermont, new york, and michigan produce the larger portion of the about fifty million pounds of sugar and three million gallons of syrup annually manufactured in the united states. third annual report of the fisheries, game, and forestry commissioners, new york, 1897, p. 308.] [footnote 28: sargent.] sugar maple, hard maple. _acer saccharum marsh._ _acer saccharinum wang._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) sugar maple, hard maple (local and common names). black maple (fla., ky., n. c.). sugar tree (frequent). rock maple (me., vt., n. h., conn., mass., r. i., n. y., tenn., ill., mich., ia., kans., wis., minn.). locality. best development maine to minnesota; range extends southward to florida and texas. features of tree. seventy to one hundred feet and more in height, one and one-half to four feet in diameter. the fruit or "maple-key" with wings less than right angles ripen in early autumn; one seed-cavity is usually empty. foliage turns to brilliant reds and other colors later. large impressive tree. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood brownish, sapwood lighter, close-grained, compact structure, occasional "curly," "blister," or "birdseye" effects. structural qualities of wood. tough, heavy, hard, strong, susceptible of good polish, wears evenly, not durable when exposed. representative uses of wood. furniture, shoe-lasts, piano-actions, wooden type for showbills, pegs, interior finish, flooring, ship-keels, vehicles, fuel, veneers, rails, etc. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 43. modulus of elasticity. 2,070,000. modulus of rupture. 16,300. remarks. birdseye, blister, and to a less extent curly and landscape effects pronounced in this species. saccharum refers to sugar manufactured from the sap. hard maple is because of hardness of wood. [p043] silver maple, soft maple. _acer saccharinum linn._ _acer dasycarpum ehr._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) silver maple, soft maple (local and common names). swamp maple (w. va., md.). water maple (pa., w. va.). river maple (me., n. h., r. i., w. va., minn.). white maple (me., vt., r. i., n. y., n. j., pa., w. va., n. c, s. c., ga., fla., ala., miss., la., ky., mo., ill., ind., kans., nebr., minn.). locality. new brunswick to florida, westward intermittently to dakota and indian territory. best development in lower ohio river basin. features of tree. forty to ninety feet in height, occasionally higher. three to five feet in diameter. fine shape, sometimes suggests elm. fruit or "maple-key" with long, stiff, more than right-angled wings ripens in early summer. leaves whitish beneath, turn showing yellow, but little or no red, in autumn. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood reddish brown, sapwood ivory-white, fine grain, compact structure. fibres sometimes twisted, waved, or curly. structural qualities of wood. light, brittle, easily worked, moderately strong; receives high polish. not durable when exposed. representative uses of wood. woodenware, turned work, interior decoration, flooring, fuel. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 32. modulus of elasticity. 1,570,000. modulus of rupture. 14,400. remarks. waved, spiral, or curly figure pronounced in this species, very real resemblance to lights and shadows on planed surfaces. small quantities of sugar present in sap, occasionally utilized. [p044] red maple, swamp maple. _acer rubrum linn._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) red maple, swamp maple (local and common names). soft maple (vt., mass., n. y., va., miss., mo., kans., neb., minn.). water maple (miss., la., tex., ky., mo.). white maple (me., n. h.). red flower (n. y.). locality. new brunswick and florida, westward intermittently to dakota and texas. wide range. features of tree. sixty to eighty feet and more in height, two and one-half to four feet in diameter. red twigs and flowers in early spring. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood brown tinged with red, sapwood lighter, close-grained, compact structure. red blossoms, twigs, and stems. leaves turn scarlet in autumn. structural qualities of wood. easily worked, heavy, hard, not strong, elastic, qualities between those of silver and sugar maple. representative uses of wood. largely used in cabinet-making, turnery, woodenware, gun-stocks, etc. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 38. modulus of elasticity. 1,340,000. modulus of rupture. 15,000. remarks. occasionally shows "curly" figure. trees are occasionally tapped and small quantities of sugar are obtained from the sap. [p045] oregon maple. _acer macrophyllum pursh._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) oregon maple (oreg., wash.). white maple (oreg., wash.). maple (calif.). broad-leaved maple (central calif., willamette valley, oreg.). locality. alaska to california. best in rich bottom lands of southern oregon. features of tree. seventy to one hundred feet in height, three to five feet in diameter. beautiful appearance. color, appearance, or grain of wood. reddish brown, sapwood whitish, close-grained, compact structure, occasionally figured. structural qualities. light, hard, strong; receives polish. representative uses of wood. locally used for tool-handles, turned work, and furniture. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 30. modulus of elasticity. 1,100,000. modulus of rupture. 9720. remarks. ornamental tree has been introduced into europe. said to be one of the most valuable pacific coast broadleaf woods. [p046] boxelder, ash-leaved maple. _acer negundo linn._ _negundo aceroides moench._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) boxelder, ash-leaved maple (local and common name). red river maple, water ash (dak.). cut-leaved maple (colo.). stinking ash (s. c). negundo maple (ill.). three-leaved maple (fla.). black ash (tenn.). sugar ash (fla.). locality. atlantic ocean westward intermittently to rocky mountains, mexico. features of tree. forty to seventy feet in height, one and one-half to three feet in diameter. wings to keys are straight or incurved. leaves sparingly and coarsely toothed, show yellow but little or no red in autumn. color, appearance, or grain of wood. thin heartwood, cream-white; sapwood similar; close-grained, compact structure. structural qualities of wood. light, not strong, soft. representative uses of wood. woodenware, cooperage, etc., paper-pulp (largely), occasionally interior finish. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 26. modulus of elasticity. 82,000. modulus of rupture. 7500. remarks. a rapid grower. withstands severe climatic changes. a good tree to plant in naturally treeless sections. sugar is sometimes obtained from the sap of this species. the "boxelder" is a true maple. [p047] [illustration: plate 9. walnut (_juglans_). black walnut tree (_juglans nigra_). black walnut trunk (_juglans nigra_). black, white, and english walnuts. black walnut wood (_juglans nigra_).] walnut. (_juglans_.) the english or royal walnut (_juglans regia_), a native of persia, was the only available species of this genus until the introduction of the nearly similar black walnut of north america.[29] as oak gave way first to soft woods for construction, so it gave way first to walnut for cabinet purposes. the wood soon became very fashionable, and exorbitant prices were paid for it. walnut was extremely popular in the united states until about 1880, when oak began to resume its place as the popular cabinet wood. the nuts of the english or persian walnut are better than those of the american species, but the wood of the latter is superior. the use of walnut wood for gun-stocks began in europe, the demands early becoming so great that, until the general peace following the battle of waterloo, the greater part of the french product was diverted for that purpose, while prices rose in england so that six hundred pounds sterling is reported to have been paid for a single tree. in spite of the innumerable woods that have since been introduced, this one is yet regarded as best for gun-stocks.[30] walnut is a firm, hard, chocolate-colored wood, with pores not arranged in rings but scattered somewhat irregularly. the sombre, although rich, color has been objected to for some positions. large excrescences or "burrs" are common on foreign trees, particularly those near the black sea and in italy. the grain in such growths is beautifully irregular, and the wood, known as "burl," is prized for veneers. trees are very scarce, and walnut is now seldom seen save in cabinet work or gun-stocks. the related white walnut or butternut (_juglans cinerea_) affords a less-prized and [p048] lighter-tinted wood. the nuts of the walnuts are a source of profit. black walnut trees seldom form forests by themselves, but occur generally in mixed growth. they grow quickly, but the heartwood for which the tree is valued begins to form only when the tree is at a considerable age, so that a number of years must elapse before a tree can produce wood of the desired quality. trees one hundred years old furnish the best quality of wood. walnut trees may be known by their nuts, the husks or pods of which adhere unbroken, instead of loosening, completely divide into four sections, as with the hickories. juglans is from _jovis_, signifying jove's, and _glans_, signifying acorn. this nut, not the fruit of the oak, was the acorn of the ancients.[31] [p049] footnotes [footnote 29: about the middle of the seventeenth century.] [footnote 30: france used twelve thousand trees in 1806. (stevenson's "trees of commerce," p. 77.)] [footnote 31: the ancients considered the shade of the walnut as harmful to all life. it is certain some vegetation is affected, probably by properties in fallen leaves.] black walnut. _juglans nigra linn._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) black walnut (local and common name). walnut (n. y., del., w. va., fla., ky., mo., ohio, ind., ia.). locality. ontario and florida, westward intermittently to nebraska and texas. features of tree. ninety to one hundred and twenty-five feet in height, three to eight feet in diameter. a tall handsome tree with rough brownish, almost black, bark. large, rough-shelled nuts. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood dark, rich, chocolate-brown. thin sapwood much lighter, rather coarse-grained. structural qualities of wood. heavy, hard, strong, easily worked, durable, susceptible to high polish. representative uses of wood. cabinet-making, gun-stocks, also formerly furniture and decoration. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 38. modulus of elasticity. 1,550,000. modulus of rupture. 12,100. remarks. [p050] footnote the english, royal, or persian walnut (_juglans regia_) affords nearly similar wood. widely distributed over europe. italian trees furnish best, french next, and english least desirable, paler and coarser wood. occasional trees in eastern united states, as new york; very plentiful in california. butternut, white walnut. _juglans cinerea linn._ nomenclature. butternut, white walnut (local and common names). oil nut (me., n. h., s. c.). walnut (minn.). white mahogany. locality. new brunswick to georgia, westward to dakota and arkansas. best in ohio river basin. features of tree. medium size, sometimes seventy-five feet or over in height, two to four feet in diameter. branches widespread; large-sized oblong edible nuts. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light gray-brown, darkening with exposure; sapwood nearly white, coarse-grained compact structure, attractive. structural qualities of wood. light, soft, not strong, easily worked. susceptible of high polish. representative uses of wood. interior finish, cabinet-work. inner bark furnishes yellow dye. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 25. modulus of elasticity. 1,150,000. modulus of rupture. 8400. remarks. the sap contains sugar and is occasionally mixed with maple-sap in the manufacturing of "maple" sugar. [p051] [illustration: plate 10. hickory (_hicoria ovata_).] hickory. (_hicoria_ or _carya_.) the hickories occur only in the eastern part of north america. they produce woods in which the qualities of toughness, elasticity, and resilience are unusually pronounced, and since these qualities are greatest in the sapwood, hickories are peculiar in that the sapwood is more valuable than the heart. second-growth wood is much prized, since, being younger, it contains more of the pliable sapwood.[32] hickory is not durable when exposed and is more or less subject to attack by boring-insects. it is used for implements, machinery, carriages, and the like; hickory axe-helves have no superiors. the nuts of the shagbark or white hickory are a source of considerable profit. the pecan (_hicoria pecan_) affords wood so inferior as to be little used in construction, although it makes an excellent fuel. pecans are planted in many of the southern states because of the nuts, for which a considerable demand exists. the hickories are known by their nuts, the husks or pods of which loosen completely from the nut in four pieces, instead of adhering unbroken as in the case of the walnuts. the nine species are american trees, eight of them being natives of the united states. _carya_ was the greek name of the common walnut. hickory is said to be derived from the indian _powcohicora_, a liquor once obtained from the nuts of the hickory. [p052] footnote [footnote 32: see second-growth ash.] shagbark hickory, shellbark hickory. _hicoria ovata mill._ _carya alba nutt._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) shellbark or shellbark hickory (local and common name). scalybark hickory (w. va., s. c., ala.). shellbark (r. i., n. y., pa., n. c.). shagbark (r. i., ohio). hickory (vt., ohio). upland hickory (ill.). white hickory (ia., ark.). walnut (vt., n. y.). sweet walnut (vt.). shagbark walnut (vt.). locality. maine to florida, westward intermittently to minnesota and texas. wide range, best in ohio valley. features of tree. seventy-five to ninety feet in height, occasionally higher; two and one-half to three feet in diameter. shaggy bark, thin-shelled edible nuts. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light brown, sapwood ivory- or cream-colored. close-grained, compact structure. annual rings clearly marked. medullary rays numerous but thin. structural qualities of wood. very heavy, very hard, strong, exceptionally tough and flexible, not durable when exposed. representative uses of wood. largely used for agricultural implements, wheels, and runners, axe-handles, baskets, fuel. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 51 (u. s. forestry div.).[33] 52. modulus of elasticity. 2,390,000 (average of 137 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[33] 1,900,000. modulus of rupture. 16,000 (average of 137 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[33] 17,000. remarks. the nuts form an important article of commerce. "shagbark" refers to the shaggy appearance of the bark. [p053] footnote [footnote 33: see page 6.] pignut (hickory). _hicoria glabra mill._ _carya porcina nutt._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) pignut (local and common name). black hickory (miss., la., ark., mo., ind., ia.). brown hickory (del., miss., tex., tenn., minn.). bitternut (ark., ill., ia., wis.). white hickory (n. h., ia.). broom hickory (mo.). hardshell (w. va.). red hickory (del.). switchbud hickory (ala.). locality. ontario to florida, westward intermittently to southern nebraska and eastern texas. features of tree. seventy-five to one hundred feet in height, occasionally higher; two to four feet in diameter. rather smooth bark. large thick-shelled nuts, kernels often astringent or bitter. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light and dark brown, thick sapwood, lighter, nearly white. close-grained. structural qualities of wood. heavy, hard, flexible, tough, strong. representative uses of wood. similar to those of shagbark hickory. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 56 (u. s. forestry div.).[34] 51. modulus of elasticity. 2,730,000 (average of 30 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[34] 1,460,000. modulus of rupture. 18,700 (average of 30 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[34] 14,800. remarks. nuts are devoured by pigs, whence the name _porcina_. [p054] footnote [footnote 34: see page 6.] mocker nut (hickory). _hicoria alba linn._ _carya tomentosa nutt._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) mocker nut, whiteheart hickory (local and common names). bullnut (n. y., fla., miss., tex., mo., ohio., ill., minn.). black hickory (tex., miss., la., mo.). hickory (ala., tex., pa., s. c., neb.). big-bud, red hickory (fla.). common hickory (n. c.). white hickory (pa., s. c.). hickory nut (ky., w. va.). hog nut (del.). hard bark hickory (ill.). locality. ontario to florida, westward intermittently to missouri and texas. wide range. features of tree. seventy-five to one hundred feet in height, two and one-half to three and one-half feet in diameter. a tall slender tree with rough, but not shaggy, bark. thick shell, edible nut. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood rich dark brown, thick sapwood nearly white, close-grained. structural qualities of wood. very heavy, hard, tough, strong, and flexible. representative uses of wood. similar to those of shellbark hickory. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 53 (u. s. forestry div.).[35] 51. modulus of elasticity. 2,320,000 (average of 75 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[35] 1,630,000. modulus of rupture. 15,200 (average of 75 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[35] 16,000. remarks. the most generally distributed species of the genus in the south. mocker nut or moker nut is said (britton) to be from a dutch word meaning hammer, or else (keeler) from disappointing quality of nuts. [p055] footnote [footnote 35: see page 6.] pecan, (hickory). _hicoria pecan marsh._ _carya olivæformis nutt._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) pecan (local and common name). pecan nut, pecan-tree, pecanier (la.). locality. valley of mississippi, southward to louisiana, texas, and mexico. features of tree. ninety to one hundred feet in height, sometimes higher. two and one-half to five feet in diameter. a tall tree, smooth-shelled oblong edible nuts. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light brown, tinged with red, sapwood lighter brown. close-grained and compact, medullary rays numerous but thin. structural qualities of wood. heavy, hard, not strong, brittle. representative uses of wood. fuel, seldom used in construction. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 49 (u. s. forestry div.).[36] 44. modulus of elasticity. 2,530,000 (average of 37 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[36] 940,000. modulus of rupture. 15,300 (average of 37 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[36] 8,200. remarks. grows on borders of streams in low rich soil. largest and most important tree of western texas. the sweet edible nuts form an important article of commerce. [p056] footnote [footnote 36: see page 6.] chestnut, chinquapin. (_castanea_.) the chestnut is found in the temperature regions of central and southern europe, northern africa, china, japan, and eastern north america. the wood is valued in construction, and the much-prized nuts are regarded as a food rather than a confection. european chestnut wood was once high in favor, although examination of structures in which it was supposed to have been used indicates that in some instances oak had been mistaken for it and had been employed in its place. the north american chestnut affords a weak, brittle, but easily worked and very durable wood, such as is admirably adapted for beams, ties, and sills, where lightness and durability rather than much transverse strength are required. trees in europe have attained to great size and age. micheaux mentions one thirty feet in circumference six feet from the ground and said to have been standing for a thousand years. the famous mt. etna chestnut[37] is reported to have measured two hundred and four feet in circumference. large trunks are apt to be hollow, affording brittle, useless wood. the botanical relation between the american and european chestnuts is not distinct. some consider the former a distinct species, others a variety only. the name "chinquapin" applies to two distinct botanical species, one, the castanea pumila, closely related to the common chestnut; the other, castanopsis chrysophylla, belonging to the same family (cupuliferæ), but to quite another genus. both afford woods resembling, but heavier than, chestnut. [illustration: plate 11. chestnut (_castanea dentata_). (_courtesy n. c. geological survey_.)] the chestnut may be known by its large prickly burr, [p057] containing from one to three thin-shelled, triangular, wedge-shaped nuts. both chinquapins have prickly burrs containing one, or sometimes two, sweet edible nuts. three of the four known species of the genus castanea grow in north america, one the common chestnut (_castanea vulgaris_); another the chinquapin (_castanea pumila_); the third a plant never attaining to the size of a tree. the chinquapin (_castanopsis chrysophylla_) is the only north american representative of a genus including twenty-five species. keeler says that castanea is from a town of that name in thessaly, or from another town of that name in pontus. [p058] footnote [footnote 37: "castagno di cento cavalli," so called from having sheltered 100 mounted cavaliers, measured by brydon in 1770. it had the appearance of five distinct trees, but was probably one trunk. (g. b. emerson, "trees and shrubs of massachusetts," vol. i, page 192.)] chestnut. _castanea dentata (marsh) borkh._ _castanea vesca var. americana michx._ _castanea vulgaris var. americana a. de c._ nomenclature. chestnut (local and common name). locality. new england, new york to georgia, alabama, mississippi, kentucky, missouri, michigan. best on western slope of alleghany mountains. features of tree. seventy-five to one hundred feet in height, five to twelve feet in diameter. fine characteristic shape, not easily distinguished from red oak in winter. blossoms in midsummer. prickly burrs contain three thin-shelled nuts. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood brown, sapwood lighter, coarse-grained. structural qualities of wood. light, soft, not strong, liable to check and warp in drying. easily split. very durable in exposed positions. representative uses of wood. cabinet-making, railway ties, posts, fencing, sills. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 28. modulus of elasticity. 1,200,000. modulus of rupture. 9800. remarks. the nuts of the foreign species (_c. vesca_) as well as those of the domestic species are much prized. the former are larger and the latter sweeter. one of the latest trees to blossom. [p059] chinquapin. _castanea pumila (linn.) mill._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) chinquapin (del., n. j., pa., va., w. va., n. c., s. c., ga., ala., fla., miss., la., tex., ark., ohio, ky., mo., mich.). locality. pennsylvania to florida, mississippi, louisiana, texas, arkansas, ohio, kentucky, missouri, michigan. features of tree. a small tree, sometimes forty-five feet in height, one to two feet or over in diameter. sometimes reduced to low shrub. small prickly burr with single small chestnut-colored nut. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood dark brown, sapwood hardly distinguishable. coarse-grained, annual layers marked by rows of open ducts. structural qualities of wood. rather heavy, hard, strong. durable in exposed positions. liable to check in drying. representative uses of wood. posts, rails, railway ties, etc. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 36. modulus of elasticity. 1,620,000. modulus of rupture. 14,000. remarks. [p060] footnote the chinquapin castanopsis chrysophylla, is a tree with characteristics between oak and chestnut. its wood is nearly similar to that of the chinquapin castanea pumila, and is sometimes used for implements. beech. ironwood. (_fagus_.) (_carpinus, ostrya, etc._) beech is well known on the eastern continent. the common beech (_fagus atropunicea_) is the only american representative. eastern species have figured in literature since the time of virgil. the northern nations early wrote upon thin tablets of beechwood, and _boc_, _bok_, and _buche_, the northern names for beech, finally gave origin to the word book.[38] american indians believed that the beech was proof against lightning. [illustration: beech (_fagus atropunicea_).] beechwood is hard, heavy, strong, not durable when exposed, and somewhat subject to attack by insects. european engineers employ it to a considerable extent in construction, but it is seldom used in america save for indoor finish, furniture, handles, flooring, and the like. the small edible nuts, known as beech-mast, are pressed abroad for a fixed oil, resembling and used in place of that from the olive. they are seldom gathered in this country, but are devoured by animals. beech-trees have smooth, light-colored bark, and are very attractive in their winter appearance. they may be recognized earlier in the season by their small prickly burrs, each containing two triangular, sharp-edged nuts. there are fifteen or more species known to belong to this genus. _fagus_ is from _phago_, to eat, and refers to the nut. [illustration: plate 12. beech (_fagus_).] the name ironwood has been applied to blue beech (_carpinus caroliniana_), to the hornbeam (_ostrya virginiana_), and to at least eight other north american species affording unusually hard and heavy woods, such as are used for handles [p061] and implements.[39] trunks of trees affording these woods are generally small and the weight of the woods is so great as to prevent their use in construction. [p062] footnotes [footnote 38: _liber_, the latin for book, is from _liber_, the inner bark of a tree, while _papyrus_, the latin for paper, is from an egyptian reed of that name. the words "book," "library," and "paper" are thus drawn from trees and plants.] * keeler notes experiments made to prove resistance on part of beechwood. [footnote 39: prosopis juliflora, olneya tesota, guajacum sanctum, cliftonia monophylla, cyrilla racemiflora, exothea paniculata, bumelia tenax, bumelia lycioides. (sudworth.)] beech. _fagus atropunicea (marsh.) sudworth._ _fagus ferruginea ait._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) beech (local and common name). red beech (me., vt., ky., ohio.). white beech (me., ohio., mich.). ridge beech (ark.). locality. nova scotia to florida, westward intermittently to wisconsin and texas. features of tree. sixty to eighty feet, occasionally higher; two to four feet in diameter. small rough burr contains two thin-shelled nuts. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood reddish, variable shades, sapwood white. rather close-grained, conspicuous medullary rays. structural qualities of wood. hard, strong, tough, not durable when exposed. takes fine polish. liable to check during seasoning. representative uses of wood. shoe-lasts, plane-stocks, ship-building, handles, and fuel. carpentry (abroad), wagon-making, etc. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 42. modulus of elasticity. 1,720,000. modulus of rupture. 16,300. remarks. the nuts are seldom gathered in the united states, nor is the wood there often utilized in carpentry. this is sometimes divided commercially into red and white beech, according to color of wood. such division has no botanical basis. [p063] ironwood, blue beech. _carpinus caroliniana walt._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) ironwood, blue beech (local and common name). water beech (r. i., n. y., pa., del., w. va., ohio, ill., ind., mich., minn., nebr., kans.). hornbeam (me., n. h., mass., r. i., conn., n. y., n. j., pa., del., n. c., s. c., ala., tex., ky., ill., kans., minn.). locality. quebec to florida, westward intermittently to nebraska and texas. features of tree. thirty to fifty feet in height. six inches to occasionally two feet in diameter. a small tree, dark bluish-gray; bark resembles that of beech save in color. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light brown, thick sapwood nearly white, close-grained. structural qualities of wood. very hard, tough, strong, heavy, very stiff, inclined to check during seasoning, not durable when exposed. representative uses of wood. levers, tool-handles, etc. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 45. modulus of elasticity. 1,630,000. modulus of rupture. 16,300. remarks. prized by wheelwrights in europe. resemblance of bluish bark to light-gray bark of beech gave rise to name. [p064] ironwood, hop hornbeam. _ostrya virginiana willd._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) ironwood, hop hornbeam (local and common names). leverwood (vt., mass., r. i., n. y., pa., kans.). hornbeam (r. i., n. y., fla., s. c., la.). hardhack (vt.). locality. nova scotia to florida, westward intermittently to dakota and texas. features of tree. thirty to forty feet in height, one foot or less in diameter. the bark exhibits long vertical rows of small squares. small fruit resembles hops. leaves resemble those of birch. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood reddish brown, sometimes white, sapwood lighter or white. close-grained, compact structure. structural qualities of wood. very strong, hard, heavy, tough, durable when exposed. representative uses of wood. posts, levers, tool-handles, axe-helves, mill-cogs, wedges. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 51. modulus of elasticity. 1,950,000. modulus of rupture. 16,000. remarks. trees over twelve inches in diameter are often hollow. [p065] [illustration: plate 13. sycamore (_platanus occidentalis_). quartered sycamore wood.] sycamore. (_platanus_.) the name sycamore applies to a maple (_acer pseudo-platanus_) in europe, to a fig-tree (_ficus sycomorus_) in the orient,[40] and to the buttonball or plane tree (_platanus_) in north america. of the plane trees (_platanus_) the common or oriental plane (_platanus orientalis_) is a native of europe; the plane, buttonball, or sycamore tree (_platanus occidentalis_) is a native and common tree in eastern north america; and the california plane, buttonball, or sycamore (_platanus racemosa_) is a native of western north america. the sycamore stands for curiosity, because of its biblical association with zaccheus. many european sycamores were planted by religious persons during the middle ages because of the belief that they were the trees thus referred to in the bible. [illustration: sycamore (_platanus occidentalis_).] the woods afforded by the american sycamores have unusually complicated, cross-grained, but beautiful structures, difficult to work, but standing well and valued for cabinet work and small articles. american trees are often very large. american buttonball or sycamore trees are distinguished by rough balls which remain hanging on long stems throughout the winter. the bark also is shed to an unusual extent; flakes of the outer cover drop away, exposing smooth inner surfaces so white as to appear as if painted. six or seven species are included in the genus; three occur in north america. _platanus_ is from _platus_, signifying broad, and refers to the shape of the leaves. [p066] footnote [footnote 40: brockhaus, konversations-lexicon (b. 15, p. 536).] sycamore. buttonwood. buttonball-tree. _platanus occidentalis linn._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) sycamore, buttonwood, buttonball tree (local and common names). buttonball (r. i., n. y., pa., fla.). plane tree (r. i., del., s. c., kans., nebr., ia.). water beech (del.). platane cotonier, bois puant (la.). locality. maine to florida, westward intermittently to nebraska and texas. best in bottom lands of ohio and mississippi river basins. features of tree. ninety to over one hundred feet in height, six to sometimes twelve feet in diameter. inner bark exposed in white patches. large rough balls or fruit. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood reddish brown, sapwood lighter, close-grained, compact structures, satiny conspicuous medullary rays. attractive when quartered. structural qualities of wood. heavy, hard, difficult to work, not strong, stands well when not exposed. representative uses of wood. tobacco-boxes, ox-yokes, butcher-blocks, cabinet-work. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 35. modulus of elasticity. 1,220,000. modulus of rupture. 9000. remarks. some specimens rank among the largest of american deciduous trees. these are usually hollow. the remarkably rigid bark does not stretch to accommodate the growth and is thus discarded to an unusual degree. [p067] california sycamore. _platanus racemosa nutt._ nomenclature. sycamore, buttonwood, buttonball tree, buttonball (california). locality. california. features of tree. seventy-five to one hundred feet in height, occasionally higher; three to four feet in diameter. the bark exfoliates in irregular patches. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light reddish brown, sapwood lighter, close-grained, compact structure, medullary rays numerous and conspicuous. beautiful when quartered. structural qualities of wood. brittle, very difficult to split and to season. qualities similar to those of p. occidentalis. representative uses of wood. decoration, furniture, similar to p. occidentalis. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 30. modulus of elasticity. 800,000. modulus of rupture. 7900. remarks. hough mentions[41] a tree twenty-nine feet seven inches in circumference. [p068] footnote [footnote 41: "american woods," part 6, p. 36.] birch. (_betula_.) the birches grow in europe, asia, and north america, their ranges on the latter continent extending far into the north.[42] their history is remote and probably began with attention to the bark rather than to the wood. birch-bark is smooth, pliable, water-tight, and by reason of its resinous oils so durable that it often remains intact long after the wood inside of fallen trees has disappeared. it is separable into thin layers and was early employed as a writing material.[43] houses have been covered by it and it has been used for cordage, utensils, "damp courses," and even rude clothing. the american indians employed it for canoes, tents, troughs, and buckets. the wood is hard, heavy, strong, fine-grained, and beautiful. it shrinks in seasoning, works easily, stands well when not exposed. it is used for spools, woodenware, and other small articles, as well as for interior finish and cabinet work. figured birch is one of the most beautiful of american cabinet woods.[44] birch is often stained so as to imitate cherry and mahogany; the best imitations of the latter wood are of birch. birch is commercially divided, according to the quantity of heartwood present, into white birch and red birch. the wood is "white" when the amount is small, and as heartwood increases with age the same tree might at one time afford white and at another red wood. birch trees may be known by their more or less laminated bark with its peculiar long horizontal lenticles or dashes. the [p069] leaves of the several birches differ but little, but the decided colors exhibited by their barks give names and serve to distinguish the species. nine of the twenty-four known species of birch occur in north america; six are trees and the others low shrubs. _betula_ is said to be derived from bitumen. [p070] footnote [footnote 42: birch forms large forests in the north.] [footnote 43: pliny and plutarch agree that the famous books of numa pompilius, written 700 years before christ, were upon birch-bark. (keeler.)] [footnote 44: the banquet-hall of the famous auditorium hotel in chicago is finished in birch. (kidder.)] [illustration: plate 14. birch (_betula_). yellow birch tree (_betula lutea_). white birch bark (_betula populifolia_). yellow birch foliage (_betula lutea_). birch wood.] white birch. _betula populifolia marsh._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) white birch (local and common name). gray birch (me., r. i., mass.). oldfield birch, poverty birch (me.). poplar-leaved birch, small white birch (vt.). locality. atlantic coast, canada to delaware. features of tree. twenty to forty feet in height, about one foot in diameter. durable, laminated, smooth, white bark on large branches and on trunk, save near ground; is not very easily detached from tree. tremulous leaves. color, grain, or appearance of wood. heartwood light brown, sapwood lighter, close-grained. structural qualities of wood. soft, light, not strong or durable. representative uses of wood. clothes-pins, shoe-pegs, tooth-picks, paper-pulp. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 35. modulus of elasticity. 1,036,000. modulus of rupture. 11,000. remarks. the white bark is distinct from that of the paper birch in that it does not cover the whole trunk and in that it remains more perfectly intact. [p071] paper birch, white birch. _betula papyrifera marsh._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) paper birch, white birch (local and common names). silver birch (minn.). large white birch (vt.). boleau (quebec). canoe birch (me., vt., n. h., r. i., mass., n. y., pa., wis., mich., minn.). locality. northern united states, northward into canada, valley of the yukon in alaska. features of tree. fifty to seventy feet in height, one and one-half to two and one-half feet in diameter. smooth white exterior bark on large limbs and trunks away from ground. brown or orange inner surfaces of bark. splits freely into thin paper-like layers. color, grain, or appearance of wood. heartwood brown tinged with red, sapwood nearly white. very close-grained, compact structure. structural qualities of wood. strong, hard, tough, not durable. representative uses of wood. spools, shoe-lasts, pegs, paper-pulp, fuel, bark used in canoes. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 37. modulus of elasticity. 1,850,000. modulus of rupture. 15,000. remarks. starch is said to be manufactured from inner bark by northern indians. reaches higher latitude than any american deciduous tree. forms forests. the name white birch is because of the color of the bark. [p072] red birch. _betula nigra linn._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) red birch (local and common name). black birch (fla., tenn., tex.). river birch (mass., r. i., n. j., del., pa., w. va., ala., miss., tex., mo., ill., wis., ohio). birch (n. c., s. c, miss., la.). water birch (w. va., kans.). blue birch (ark.). locality. massachusetts to florida, westward intermittently to minnesota and texas. best development in south atlantic and lower mississippi valley regions. features of tree. thirty to eighty feet in height, one to three feet in diameter, sometimes larger. dark red brown scaly bark on trunk. red to silvery-white bark on branches. bark separates in thin paper-like scales curling outward. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light brown, sapwood yellowish white. close-grained, compact structure. structural qualities of wood. light, rather hard and strong. representative uses of wood. furniture, woodenware, shoe-lasts, ox-yokes. inferior cask-hoops from branches. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 35. modulus of elasticity. 1,580,000. modulus of rupture. 13,100. remarks. dark brown bark, whence name red birch. prefers moist bottoms, whence name river birch. [p073] yellow birch. _betula lutea michx. f._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) yellow birch (local and common name). gray birch (vt., r. i., pa., mich., minn.). swamp birch (minn.). silver birch (n. h.). merisier, merisier rouge (quebec). locality. newfoundland to north carolina, westward intermittently to minnesota and texas. best developed north of the great lakes. features of tree. sixty to eighty feet or more in height, two to four feet in diameter. a medium-sized tree. bark on trunk silvery gray to silvery yellow, branches green to lustrous or dull brown. bark exfoliates, causing a rough, ragged appearance. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light reddish brown, sapwood nearly white, close-grained, compact structure, satiny. structural qualities of wood. heavy, very strong, and hard, tough, susceptible of high polish. qualities suggest those of maple. not durable when exposed. representative uses of wood. furniture, buttons, tassel-moulds, pill-boxes, spools, and wheel-hubs. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 40. modulus of elasticity. 2,290,000. modulus of rupture. 17,700. remarks. occasional trees have thin outer bark ruptured, and exhibit inner bark of almost metallic yellow. lutea, signifying yellow, alludes to color of bark. inner bark has pungent, pleasant flavor. [p074] sweet birch, cherry birch. _betula lenta linn._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) sweet birch, cherry birch (many localities). black birch (n. h., vt., mass., r. i., conn., n. y., n. j., pa., w. va., ga., ill., ind., mich., ohio). mahogany birch (n. c., s. c.). river birch (minn.). mountain mahogany (s. c.). locality. newfoundland intermittently to illinois, southward intermittently along alleghanies to kentucky, tennessee, and florida. features of tree. fifty to eighty feet in height, three to four feet in diameter, dark reddish-brown bark, resembling that of cherry; does not separate into layers as paper-birch. leaves, bark, and twigs sweet, spicy, and aromatic. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood dark brown tinged with red, sapwood light brown or yellow, close-grained, compact structure. structural qualities of wood. heavy, very strong, hard, receives stains and high satin-like polish. representative uses of wood. woodenware, furniture, ship-building (canada), fuel. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 47. modulus of elasticity. 2,010,000. modulus of rupture. 17,000. remarks. a common tree in northern states. wood often stained so as to resemble cherry and mahogany. essences suggest wintergreen, contain much salicylic acid, and are used in medicine. the name "cherry" is because bark resembles that of cherry. "sweet" is because of essences. [p075] [illustration: plate 15. locust (_robinia, gleditsia_). black locust tree and bark (_robinia pseudacacia_). honey locust (_gleditsia triacanthos_). locust wood.] locust, mesquite. (_robinia, gleditsia, prosopis_.) the name locust applies to species of three distinct genera, all of which belong to the family leguminosæ. the black locust (_robinia pseudacacia_), the honey locust (_gleditsia triacanthos_), and the mesquite or honey locust (_prosopis juliflora_) are principal representatives of their respective kinds. the first-named genus is north american, the other two have species on both continents. [illustration: black locust (_robinia pseudacacia_).] black locust wood is tough, durable, unequalled for torsional strength and resilience, and is in every way in the first rank of american woods. it is fitted not only for exposed constructions, but for finer articles; hubs, pins, bolts, and trenails having no superiors. trees develop rapidly when young, heart wood forming as early as the third year. later growth and ultimate commercial value in the united states are much affected by insect borers, which practically limit the usefulness of the species. the black locust may be known by its clusters of large pea-blossom-shaped flowers, its bean-shaped pods, three to six inches in length, and by the prickles on the bark. the genus has six species, four of which are natives of the united states.[45] _robinia_ is from robin, the name of an early french botanist. [p076] the black locust has been extensively introduced into europe, both for ornamentation and for wood.[46] the wood of the honey locust resembles that of the black locust, but is seldom used or appreciated save for fencing and similarly unimportant purposes. trees grow rapidly and are not subject to the attacks of insects, so that they frequently attain to normal proportions. the flowers are much smaller than those of the black locust, but the pods are several times as long (twelve to eighteen inches). these often curl in drying and are thus rolled to some distance by the wind. thorns or spines are present on some individuals and are often from three to six inches in length. the foliage resembles but is more delicate than that of the black locust. there is at least one other american species. _gleditsia_ is from gleditsch, the name of a botanist. mesquite, also called honey locust, affords wood that is hard, heavy, and almost indestructible in exposed positions. the tree grows in the desert where vegetation would often seem to be impossible. the roots are developed to great size by their search for water, and are gathered and burned in the absence of other fuel. the trunks are small, but afford posts and ties. there are pods filled with rich edible pulp. sixteen or more species belong to this genus, prosopis, of which one other, the screw-pod mesquite (_prosopis odorata_), is found in the united states. [p077] footnotes [footnote 45: three of the four united states species are trees; the other species of this genus grow in mexico. no one is approximately as important or well known as the black locust.] [footnote 46: black locust was introduced into europe early in the seventeenth century, being first cultivated by the son of jean robin, for whom the genus is named. few american species have received such attention abroad.] locust, black locust, yellow locust. _robinia pseudacacia linn._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) locust, black locust, yellow locust (local and common names). false acacia (s. c., ala., tex., minn.). pea-flower locust, post locust (md.). red locust, green locust (tenn.). honey locust (minn.). white locust (r. i., n. y., tenn.). acacia (la.). locality. southern alleghany region, widely cultivated in united states east of rocky mountains. features of tree. fifty to seventy feet in height, two to three feet or over in diameter. leaves curl or close at night. long spikes or briers on young branches. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood brownish, thin sapwood, light-greenish yellow. close-grained and compact. annual layers clearly marked. structural qualities of wood. heavy, very hard, strong, and durable under extreme conditions of wet and dry. representative uses of wood. long wooden bolts or pins called treenails. posts, ties, construction, turnery, ship-ribs, ornamentations, fuel. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 45. modulus of elasticity. 1,830,000. modulus of rupture. 18,100. remarks. often a low shrub. extensively planted, particularly in west, but subject to attack by borers. one of the most valuable of american timber trees. heartwood is formed very early in this species. pseudacacia means false acacia or imitation of acacia. [p078] honey locust. _gleditsia triacanthos linn._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) honey locust (local and common name). thorn or thorny locust tree or acacia (n. y., n. j., ind., tenn., la.). three-thorned acacia (mass., r. i., la., tex., neb., mich.). black locust (miss., tex., ark., kans., neb.). honey or honeyshucks (r. i., n. j., va., fla., iowa). honeyshucks locust (ky.). sweet locust (s. c., la., kans., nebr.). piquant amourette (la.). confederate pintree (fla.). locust (nebr.). locality. pennsylvania to florida, westward intermittently to nebraska and texas. best in lower ohio river basin. features of tree. seventy to ninety feet or more in height, two to four feet in diameter. frequent long thorns.[47] light thin foliage. brown pods contain sweet pulp. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood bright brown or red, sapwood yellowish, annual layers strongly marked, coarse-grained, medullary rays conspicuous. structural qualities of wood. heavy, hard, strong, very durable in contact with soil. representative uses of wood. fence-posts, rails, wagon-hubs, rough construction, etc. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 42. modulus of elasticity. 1,540,000. modulus of rupture. 13,100. remarks. widely cultivated for landscape effect. young trees used for forming hedges. [p079] footnote [footnote 47: thorns plentiful on some individuals, but absent on others.] mesquite. _prosopis juliflora (swartz) de c._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) mesquite (tex., n. m., ariz., cal.). algaroba (tex., n. m., ariz., cal.). honey pod or honey locust (tex., n. m.). ironwood (tex.). locality. texas, west to san bernardino mountains, california. also colorado, utah, and nevada and northern mexico. features of tree. forty to fifty feet in height, one to two feet in diameter. sometimes low shrub. roots often very large. pods with sweet pulp. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood rich dark brown, often red. sapwood clear yellow. close-grained, compact structure, distinct medullary rays. structural qualities of wood. weak, difficult to work, heavy, hard, very durable. representative uses of wood. posts, fencing, ties, house-beams, fuel, charcoal. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 47. modulus of elasticity. 820,000. modulus of rupture. 6800. remarks. a locally important tree. trees sometimes stunted by fires have numerous roots. large roots used for fuel. [p080] footnote holsinger, "forestry and irrigation." vol. viii, no. 11, p. 447. whitewood or tulip-tree wood, poplar or cottonwood, (_liriodendron_.) (_populus_.) cucumber-tree wood, basswood. (_magnolia_.) (_tilia_.) these trees are not related, but are all noted for woods with soft, fine qualities, such as fit them for carvings, woodenware, and paper-pulp. no one of the woods is durable when exposed, and all are used for boxes because they nail without splitting. the names are commercially interchangeable. the whitewood or tulip tree (_liriodendron tulipifera_) is a native of america and an acclimated tree in europe. it is the sole surviving species of its genus. the wood is soft, stiff, clean, fine, straight-grained, and obtainable in large-sized pieces. much whitewood is made into lumber, the wood standing among those of the broadleaf series as white pine does among the conifers. whitewood is particularly suitable for carvings. in spite of its name it is largely greenish yellow. it is often divided commercially, according to color, into "white poplar" and "yellow poplar." trunks often attain to a very large size. matthews mentions a specimen[48] thirty-three feet in circumference. the species may be known by its large tulip-shaped flower. _liriodendron_ is from two greek words meaning lily and tree. [illustration: whitewood (_liriodendron tulipifera_).] [illustration: plate 16. whitewood or tulip tree (_liriodendron tulipifera_).] the poplars, sometimes called cottonwoods because of their seeds covered with a cotton-like down, are represented on both continents. the wood was made into shields by the [p081] ancients, because it was light and tough and would indent without breaking. the wood is often substituted for whitewood, but is less desirable, although valuable as a basis for paper-pulp. the trees may be known by the long drooping catkins that appear early in the spring before the leaves, and that are followed by white downy seeds that soon escape to whiten the surrounding ground. the poplars are noted for foliage more or less constantly in agitation. this peculiarity, so pronounced in the aspen (_populus tremuloides_), is due to the very long petioles or leaf-stems. the cottonwoods abound in many otherwise arid regions of american western deserts. the cucumber trees are of the magnolia family and grow in many of the eastern states. the wood resembles and is probably often mistaken for whitewood, for which it is a fair substitute. the trees may be known by their fruit, which resembles vegetable cucumbers. magnolia is from magnol, a botanist of the seventeenth century. basswood is a name applied to trees known in europe and america as limes, lime trees, lind, linden, tiel, tiel trees, bass, and basswood trees. the trees and their wood were early esteemed, the first for their shade and appearance, and the last for their working qualities, which resemble, but are inferior to, whitewood.[49] the trees are characterized by their dense foliage and clusters of small cream-colored fragrant flowers, so attractive to bees as to have originated the further name bee-tree. _tilia_ arises from the ancient name for these trees. [p082] footnotes [footnote 48: f. schuyler matthews, "familiar trees" (appleton, 1901), p. 39.] [footnote 49: the carvings of gibbons, a famous english artist, are said to have been made entirely of linden, no other available wood being so even-grained and free from knots. (keeler.)] tulip tree, whitewood, yellow poplar. _liriodendron tulipifera linn._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) tulip tree, whitewood, yellow poplar (local and common names). poplar (r. i., del., n. c., s. c., fla., ohio). tulip poplar (del., pa., s. c., ill.). hickory poplar (va., w. va., n. c.). blue poplar (del., w. va.). popple (r. i.). cucumber tree (n. y.). canoewood (tenn.). locality. new england to florida, westward intermittently to michigan and mississippi. features of tree. ninety to one hundred and fifty feet in height, six to twelve feet in diameter. tulip-shaped flowers in spring. greenish cones dry and remain after leaves have fallen. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light yellow or greenish brown, thin sapwood, nearly white. close, straight-grained, compact structure, free from knots. structural qualities of wood. light, soft, moderately strong, brittle, easily worked, durable. hard to split, shrinks little, resembles white pine, stands well. representative uses of wood. lumber, interior finish, shingles, boat-building, pumps, woodenware, shelves, the bottoms of drawers. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 26. modulus of elasticity. 1,300,000. modulus of rupture. 9300. remarks. very large trees formerly common. indians hollowed logs into boats. "some large enough to carry twenty or thirty persons" (hough), whence name canoewood. tulipifera, signifying turbans and to bear, refers to flowers. one of the largest as well as most useful of american deciduous trees. [p083] poplar, largetooth aspen. _populus grandidentata michx._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) poplar, largetooth aspen (local and common names). largetooth poplar (n. c.). large poplar (tenn.). white poplar (mass.). popple (me.). large american aspen (ala.). locality. nova scotia and delaware, westward intermittently to minnesota, alleghany mountains to kentucky and tennessee. features of tree. sixty to eighty feet high, two feet or more in diameter. irregular points or teeth on margins of leaves. smooth gray bark. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood brownish, sapwood nearly white, close-grained, compact structure. structural qualities of wood. soft, light, weak. representative uses of wood. paper-pulp and occasionally woodenware. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 28. modulus of elasticity. 1,360,000. modulus of rupture. 10,200. remarks. the several "poplars" are much prized for paper-pulp. the quaking aspen (_p. tremuloides_) has long leaf-stalks flattened vertically to the leaf-surface, so that leaves tremble in slight winds. [p084] cottonwood. _populus deltoides marsh._ _populus monilifera ait._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) cottonwood (local and common name). carolina poplar (pa., miss., la., n. m., ind., ohio). yellow cottonwood (ark., ia., neb.). big cottonwood (miss., neb.). whitewood (ia.). cotton tree (n. y.). necklace poplar (tex., col.). broadleaved cottonwood (colo.). locality. canada to florida, westward intermittently to rocky mountains. features of tree. seventy-five to one hundred feet in height, four to five feet in diameter, occasionally much larger. long catkins distribute cotton-like fibres. color, appearance, or grain of wood. thin heartwood, dark brown, sapwood nearly white, close-grained, compact structure. structural qualities of wood. light, soft, weak, liable to warp, difficult to season. representative uses of wood. greatly valued in manufacture of paper-pulp, also packing-boxes, fence-boards, fuel. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 24. modulus of elasticity. 1,400,000. modulus of rupture. 10,900. remarks. _monilifera_ is from the latin _monolinum_, a necklace, and _fero_, to bear, and refers to the long necklace or catkin. [p085] black cottonwood. _populus trichocarpa torr. and gr._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) black cottonwood (oreg., cal.). balsam cottonwood, balm (oreg.). cottonwood (oreg., cal.). balm cottonwood (cal.). locality. pacific coast region, alaska to california. features of tree. a large tree sometimes one hundred and fifty feet in height and four to six feet in diameter. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light dull brown, sapwood nearly white, compact structure. structural qualities of wood. light, soft, weak. representative uses of wood. staves, woodenware (local). weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 23. modulus of elasticity. 1,580,000. modulus of rupture. 8400. remarks. largest deciduous tree of puget sound district (sargent). [p086] cucumber tree. _magnolia acuminata linn._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) cucumber tree (r. i., mass., n. y., pa., n. c., s. c., ala., miss., la., ark., ky., w. va., ohio, ind., ill.). mountain magnolia (miss., ky.). black lin, cucumber (w. va.). magnolia (ark.). locality. new york to illinois, southward through kentucky and tennessee to gulf (intermittently). features of tree. fifty to occasionally one hundred feet in height, two to four feet in diameter. a large, handsome, symmetrical tree, with cones resembling cucumbers. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood brownish yellow, sapwood nearly white, close-grained, compact structure. satiny, thin medullary rays. structural qualities of wood. light, soft, not strong, durable. qualities similar to whitewood. representative uses of wood. cabinet-making, cheap furniture, flooring, pump-logs, troughs, crates, packing-boxes. used similarly to l. tulipifera. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 29. modulus of elasticity. 1,310,000. modulus of rupture. 9500. remarks. wood resembles and is often sold for tulip-tree wood. [p087] basswood, linn, linden. _tilia americana linn._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) basswood, linn, linden, american linden (local and common names). limetree (r. i., n. c., s. c., ala., minn., la., ill.). black or smooth-leaved limetree (tenn.). whitewood (vt., w. va., ark., minn.). yellow basswood, lein (ind.). beetree (vt., w. va., wis.). white lind (w. va.). wickup (mass.). locality. new brunswick to georgia, westward intermittently to nebraska and texas. wide range. features of tree. sixty to ninety feet in height, two to four feet in diameter, occasionally larger. large smooth leaves. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light or reddish brown, thick sapwood nearly similar, very straight and close-grained, compact structure. structural qualities of wood. light, soft, easily worked, tough, not strong nor durable. representative uses of wood. sides and backs of drawers, bodies of carriages, woodenware, paper-pulp. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 28. modulus of elasticity. 1,190,000. modulus of rupture. 8300. remarks. basswood refers to the inner bark or "bast," sometimes utilized for cordage. the flowers attract bees, whence the name bee-tree. white basswood, (_tilia heterophylla_,) is not distinguished commercially. [p088] willow. (_salix_.) the willows are very widely distributed over both continents, and their history extends back over a very considerable period. pliny states that britons used to make voyages in boats of willow. the willow mentioned in the bible was the salix babylónica, or weeping willow, later acclimated in this country. the principal experience with the tough, light, workable, elastic wood has been in europe. the ancients used it for shields, because it was one of the woods that would indent without breaking. lazlett states that it is used for cart-linings because it will not splinter when struck by stones. it has been used for lap-boards, cricket-bats, keels, paddles, and water-wheels. it resists heat and friction and is therefore used for lining friction-brakes. willow charcoal ignites readily and is highly esteemed in the manufacture of the finer kinds of gunpowder. the bark is used in tanning. the little branches have long been associated with baskets and woven work. american trees are seldom cut up into lumber, but are valued for shade and appearance, and are often planted along the banks of streams to prevent erosion. willows grow very rapidly and have a characteristic and attractive appearance. they usually prefer low moist places. there are so many hybrids and peculiar species as to render classification in all cases difficult.[50] black willow is the native species, oftenest attaining to tree size in north america. the white, crack, bedford, and goat willows (_salix alba_, _s. fragilis_, _s. russeliana_, and _s. caprea_) are said to afford good wood. _salix_ is said to be from the celtic _sal_, meaning near, and _lis_, water. salicylic acid is abundantly present in the bark of some species. [p089] footnote [footnote 50: about 140 species and varieties of the willow family have been enumerated.] [illustration: plate 17. black willow (_salix nigra_).] black willow. _salix nigra marsh._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) black willow (local and common name). swamp willow (n. c., s. c.). willow (n. y., pa., n. c., s. c., miss., tex., cal., ky., mo., neb.). locality. new brunswick to florida, westward intermittently to dakota, arizona, and california, mexico. features of tree. forty to fifty feet in height, two to four feet in diameter. long narrow leaf, characteristic appearance. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood brown, sapwood nearly white, close-grained. structural qualities of wood. soft, light, weak, checks badly in drying, readily worked. dents without splitting. representative uses of wood. lap-boards, basket-making, fuel, charcoal. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 27. modulus of elasticity. 550,000. modulus of rupture. 6000. remarks. prefers borders of rivers and bottom lands. many varieties of willow grow in the united states. no one is used to any extent in construction. [p090] catalpa. (_catalpa_.) many kinds of wood that were formerly plentiful are now much less so. attention is being turned to trees that give best results under artificial conditions. catalpa, formerly but little known, now bids fair to become of some importance in this connection. the catalpa grows rapidly and produces a coarse, brittle, weak, but durable and desirable, lumber, well fitted to meet the requirements of railways and other branches of construction where the annual consumption is the largest. fifty thousand catalpa trees have recently been planted by a western railway at a cost of one cent apiece. catalpas at hutchison, kansas, were large enough to cut for posts at the end of six years.[51] a sample tie recently removed from a western railway was found to be perfect after fifteen years of service. mr. john brown[52] mentions specimens sixteen inches in diameter seventeen years after planting. the species catalpa speciosa is said to be much the more desirable in that it is hardy and reaches a tall upright form. the catalpa may be known by its showy flowers, suggesting those of the horse chestnut. these are succeeded by long pods filled with many-winged seeds and often used by children as cigars. [p091] footnotes [footnote 51: u. s. dept. of agriculture, div. of forestry, bulletins 27 and 37.] [footnote 52: _the forester_, october, 1900, and november, 1902.] kansas agricultural college experiment station, bulletin 108. [illustration: plate 18. catalpa (_catalpa_).] catalpa, hardy catalpa. _catalpa speciosa warder._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) catalpa (r. i., n. y., la., ill., ind., mo., wis., ia., neb., minn.). hardy catalpa (ill., ia., kan., mich.). western catalpa (pa., ohio, kans., neb., ill.). cigar tree (mo., ia.). indian bean, shawneewood (ind.). bois puant (la.). locality. central mississippi valley, naturalized in many localities. features of tree. forty to sixty feet or more in height, three to six feet in diameter; well-formed trunks. large, white, faintly mottled flower, long pod or bean. color, appearance, or grain of wood. thick heartwood brown, thin sapwood lighter, nearly white, coarse-grained, compact structure, annual layers clearly marked. structural qualities of wood. light, soft, not strong, durable in contact with soil. representative uses of wood. railway ties, fence-posts, rails, adapted for cabinet-work and interior finish. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 25. modulus of elasticity. 1,160,000. modulus of rupture. 9000. remarks. hardier and better formed trunks than afforded by c. catalpa. a rapid grower; sprouts vigorously from stumps. a valuable tree, promising to become better known. foliage subject to attack by insects. [p092] footnote john p. brown (_the forester_, october, 1900). catalpa. _catalpa catalpa (linn.) karst._ _catalpa bignonioides walt._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) catalpa (local and common name). indian cigar tree (pa.). smoking bean (r. i.). cigar tree (r. i., n. j., pa., w. va., mo., ill., wis., ia.). indian bean (mass., r. i., n. y., n. j., pa., n. c., ill.). catawba, catawba tree (del., w. va., ala., fla., kans.). bean tree (n. j., del., pa., va., la., neb.). locality. naturalized in many localities east of rocky mountains. features of tree. thirty to fifty feet in height, one to two or more feet in diameter. trunks not well formed. a low, wide tree, large heart-shaped leaves, characteristic flower. long slender pod or bean. color, appearance, or grain of wood. thick heartwood is light pink brown; thin sapwood is nearly white. coarse-grained, compact. structural qualities of wood. light, soft, not strong, durable in contact with soil. representative uses of wood. fence-posts, railway ties, etc. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 27. modulus of elasticity. 960,000. modulus of rupture. 8300. remarks. grows rapidly. pods remain on tree after leaves fall. sometimes used as cigars by children. wood is less desirable than c. speciosa. [p093] [illustration: plate 19. sassafras (_sassafras officinale_).] sassafras. mulberry. (_sassafras_.) (_morus_.) the sassafras was one of the first american trees to be described in europe,[53] where many fictitious properties were early credited to its aromatic essences. the wood is not distinguished by unusual qualities, but trees are cut for lumber as encountered with other and more valuable species in the forest. the mucilaginous leaves are of three separate shapes. some have lobes on both sides of the central surface, others have one lobe at one side so as to resemble mittens, while yet others on the same branch have simple oval shapes. the dark-blue berries on bright-red stems are so eagerly devoured by birds as to be seldom seen. the characteristic flavor is most pronounced in the bark of the root. the red, white, and black mulberries are named from the color of their fruits. the former, which is the american species, has wood resembling that of the sassafras, only in that it is not distinguished by unusual qualities. its leaves, like that of the sassafras, are of several shapes on the same tree. the very sweet fruit resembles blackberries in form. the leaves used in silkworm-culture are from the russian mulberry, a cross between the white mulberry and black mulberry (m. alba and m. nigra).[54] [p094] footnotes [footnote 53: monardes, a spanish writer, described the sassafras about half a century after the landing of columbus.] [footnote 54: annual report chief u. s. forestry division, 1887; also bulletins on silk, published by u. s. dept. agriculture.] sassafras. _sassafras officinale nees and eberm._ _sassafras sassafras (linn.) karst._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) sassafras (local and common name). saxifrax, sasifrax tree (fla., tenn.). sassafac, sassafrac (w. va., del.). gumbo file (la., negro). locality. vermont to florida, westward intermittently to michigan and texas. features of tree. thirty to fifty feet in height, one to three feet in diameter, sometimes larger, often low shrub, characteristic odor and leaves. color, appearance, or grain of wood. thick heartwood, delicate brown, thin sapwood yellowish white, coarse-grained, annual rings clearly marked. structural qualities of wood. light, soft, not strong, brittle, checks in drying, very durable in contact with soil. slightly aromatic. representative uses of wood. pails, buckets, ox-yokes, fence-posts, and rails. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 31. modulus of elasticity. 730,000. modulus of rupture. 8500. remarks. leaves and shoots mucilaginous. bark of root rich in highly aromatic essences. sassafras often forms thickets. [p095] red mulberry, mulberry. _morus rubra linn._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) red mulberry, mulberry (local and common name). black mulberry (n. j., pa., w. va.). virginia mulberry tree (tenn.). murier sauvage (la.). locality. massachusetts to florida, westward intermittently to nebraska and texas. best in lower ohio and mississippi river basins. features of tree. fifty to sixty feet in height, two and one half to three feet in diameter. sweet edible fruit. dark brown broken bark, smooth gray branches. color, appearance, or grain of wood. thick heartwood, light orange yellow, thin sapwood whitish, coarse-grained, compact structure, annual layers clearly marked. structural qualities of wood. light, soft, not strong, very durable in contact with soil, receives good polish. representative uses of wood. local ship-building, agricultural implements, fencing, cooperage. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 36. modulus of elasticity. 11,700,000. modulus of rupture. 11,000. remarks. an ornamental tree. the leaves of this species are not adapted to silkworm culture. [p096] buckeye. horse chestnut. (_æsculus_.) the buckeye and horse chestnut are species of the same genus. the common horse chestnut (_æsculus hippocastanum_) was once thought to have been a native of asia, but it is now quite certain that it originated on the mountains of northern greece. trees have been cultivated in europe for at least three centuries and are now extensively grown over the united states. the name buckeye is generally applied to such species as are natives of north america. [illustration: horse chestnut (_æsculus hippocastanum_).] the woods resemble one another in that they are soft, straight-grained, easily worked, and decay rapidly when exposed. they are employed to some extent in woodenware, artificial limbs, and paper-making. the trees may be known by their round prickly pods, containing smooth chestnut-colored bitter nuts. the leaves of the buckeye are arranged in groups of five, while those of the horse chestnut are in groups of seven. the horse chestnut produces showy spotted flowers. there are thirteen species of this genus, eight of which are north american. the name "horse chestnut" may refer ironically to the coarse nuts, or may arise from the fact that they are occasionally eaten by cattle, or from a horseshoe marking seen on young twigs. _hippocastanum_ is from _hippos_, a horse, and _castanea_, a chestnut. the name buckeye refers to the appearance of the brown nut through the paler husk partly separated when ripe, suggesting the eye of the common deer. [p097] [illustration: plate 20. horse chestnut (_æsculus hippocastanum_).] ohio buckeye, fetid buckeye. _æsculus glabra willd._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) buckeye, ohio buckeye (local and common names). fetid buckeye (w. va.). stinking buckeye (ala., ark.). american horse chestnut (pa.). locality. ohio river basin to alabama, portions of iowa, kansas, and indian territory. features of tree. twenty-five to forty-five feet in height. one to one and one-half feet in diameter. yellowish-white flower, succeeded by round prickly pod or fruit. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood white, sapwood a little darker, close-grained, frequent dark lines of decay. structural qualities of wood. weak, light, soft, hard to split. representative uses of wood. artificial limbs, woodenware, paper-pulp, rarely lumber. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 28. modulus of elasticity. 910,000. modulus of rupture. 7000. remarks. footnote the nearly similar horse chestnut (_a. hippocastanum_) is forty to fifty feet or more in height and two to four feet in diameter. the light, weak wood is seldom used. the name horse may be applied to the coarse nuts ironically, or may refer to their occasional use by cattle, or a horseshoe marking seen on young twigs. [p098] buckeye, sweet buckeye. _æsculus octandra marsh._ _æsculus flava ait._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) buckeye (n. c., s. c., ala., miss., la., tex., ky.). sweet buckeye (w. va., miss., tex., mo., ind.). yellow buckeye (s. c., ala.). large buckeye, big buckeye (tex., tenn.). locality. alleghany mountains, pennsylvania to georgia, westward intermittently to iowa and texas. features of tree. forty to seventy feet in height, one to three feet in diameter, sometimes low shrub. large mahogany-colored seed. color, appearance, and grain of wood. heartwood, creamy white, sapwood similar, compact structure, close-grained, difficult to split. representative uses of wood. similar to those of ohio buckeye (_a. glabra_). weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 26.64. modulus of elasticity. modulus of rupture. remarks. [p099] [illustration: plate 21. sweet gum (_liquidambar styraciflua_).] gum. (_liquidambar, nyssa_.) this name is applied to two unrelated american trees--the sweet or red gum (_liquidambar styraciflua_), a member of the witch-hazel family, and the sour or black gum (_nyssa sylvatica_), which is one of the dogwoods. the woods afforded by these two trees are also distinct from one another, although both are referred to by the one name, gum. the softer sweet gum figures in carpentry. selected pieces so resemble black walnut as to be cut into veneers and made up into furniture. sour gum is harder, it splits with difficulty, and is fitted for small work and implements, such as wagon-hubs and tool-handles. both woods are close-and often cross-grained, besides being strong, heavy, tough, and difficult to season. [illustration: sweet gum (_liquidambar styraciflua_).] the sweet gum tree is characterized by rough, round balls, resembling those of the sycamore, by pointed star-like leaves, suggesting those of the sugar maple, and by corky ridges on the bark of younger branches. these latter cause the bark to resemble alligator-skin and give rise to the name alligator-wood. _liquidambar_ refers to gums excreted by the tree and sometimes used in medicine. the sour gum bears ovoid bluish-black sour drupes, or fruit containing single roughened seeds. the thick oval leaves are dark green above and dull or hairy below. the foliage of both species becomes brilliant in autumn. [p100] sweet gum. _liquidambar styraciflua linn._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) sweet gum (local and common name). liquidambar (r. i., n. y., del., n. j., pa., la., tex., ohio, ill.). red gum (va., ala., miss., tex., la.). gum, gum tree (va., s. c., la.). alligatorwood, blisted (n. j.). locality. connecticut to florida, westward intermittently to illinois and texas, mexico. greatest development in basin of mississippi river. features of tree. eighty to one hundred feet or more in height, three to five feet in diameter. tall straight trunk, corky ridges frequent on branches. star-shaped leaves turn to brilliant scarlet in autumn, round balls on long stems. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood rich brown suggesting black walnut, sapwood nearly white, close-grained, compact structure. structural qualities of wood. heavy, rather soft, strong, stiff, not durable when exposed,[55] shrinks and warps badly in seasoning, receives high polish. representative uses of wood. veneers, cabinet-work, substitute for black walnut, shingles, clapboards, paving-blocks, wooden plates. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 37 (u. s. forestry div.).[56] 36. modulus of elasticity. 1,700,000 (average of 118 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[56] 1,220,000. modulus of rupture. 9500 (average of 118 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[56] 9200. remarks. wood sometimes commercially known as satin walnut and sometimes as star-leaved gum. large specimens often have hollow butts. [p101] footnotes [footnote 55: e. c. woodward, c. e. division engineer texas & pacific ry. reports "gum" ties good after 5 years' service. they hold spikes well.] [footnote 56: see page 6.] sour gum, black gum, tupelo. _nyssa sylvatica marsh._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) sour gum, black gum, tupelo (local and common names). pepperidge (vt., mass., r. i., n. y., n. j., s. c., tenn., mich., ohio, ontario). wild pear tree, yellow gum tree (tenn.). gum (md.). stinkwood (w. va.). tupelo gum (fla.). locality. maine to florida, westward intermittently to michigan and texas. features of tree. forty-five to one hundred feet high, one and six inches to occasionally four feet in diameter. ovoid, bluish-black, sour fruit, with seed. horizontal branches, short spur-like lateral branchlets. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light brown or yellow, often nearly white, sapwood hardly distinguishable, fine grain. structural qualities of wood. heavy, not hard, fibres interlaced, therefore hard to work, strong, tough, checks unless carefully seasoned, not durable in contact with soil. representative uses of wood. wagon-hubs, rollers, ox-yokes, bowls, and woodenware. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 39. modulus of elasticity. 1,160,000. modulus of rupture. 11,800. remarks. limited usefulness because difficult to work. larger specimen in south. large trees often hollow at butts and sometimes higher. [p102] cotton gum, tupelo gum, large tupelo. _nyssa aquatica linn._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) cotton gum, tupelo gum, large tupelo (local and common names). sour gum (ark., mo.). tupelo, swamp tupelo (n. c., s. c., la.). olivetree, wild olivetree (miss., la.). locality. virginia and kentucky, southward. features of tree. sixty to eighty feet high, two to three feet in diameter. blue oblong fruit one inch or more in length. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light brown, often nearly white, sapwood nearly the same. structural qualities of wood. light, not strong, soft, compact, difficult to work. representative uses of wood. turnery, woodenware, roots used as net-floats instead of corks. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 32. modulus of elasticity. 730,000. modulus of rupture. 9300. remarks. butts of large trees are usually hollow. parts above are usually sound. [p103] [illustration: plate 22. holly, boxwood, lignumvitæ (_ilex_, _buxus_, etc.). box tree (_buxus sempervirens_). holly foliage (_ilex opaca_). lignumvitæ foliage (_g. sanctum_). dogwood foliage (_cornus florida_). dogwood bark (_cornus florida_). dogwood wood. lignumvitæ wood.] holly. boxwood. lignum vitæ. (_ilex_.) (_buxus, cornus, etc_.) (_guajacum_.) the woods afforded by these trees are all demanded in small and very perfect pieces to fill needs for which no others appear to be perfectly fitted. the holly (_ilex_) grows in europe and america, where the brilliant evergreen foliage and red berries have long been associated with the christmas season. the name holly is probably a subversion of "holy."[57] the true boxwood (_buxus sempervirens_) attains to some size in europe and asia, but remains a small shrub in america, where it is seldom if ever cut for wood, but is placed as a decoration along the borders of walks and gardens. the wood called "boxwood" in america is not therefore derived from the "box." the lignumvitæs grow in florida, the west indies, and on the northern coast of south america. holly-wood is noted for its fine, even grain, but chiefly for its smooth, ivory-white color, fitting it for the white of inlaid work, for carvings and other decorations where white color and fine qualities are required. the principal european source is the ilex aquifolium, while in america it is the ilex opaca. boxwood is, as stated, the name applied to several woods, all noted for their fine compact structure, rendering them suitable for very fine carvings such as are required in wood-engraving. the eastern product as cut from the true box is so highly prized as to be sold by the pound. american boxwood is chiefly derived from the flowering dogwood, the mexican persimmon, and the rose bay. in australia several species of eucalyptus are said to be used. lignumvitæ is noted for great strength and hardness. layers of fibres alternately cross one another so that the wood may be said to crumble rather than split. it has no superior for implements that must be [p104] fine, true, and strong, such as the sheaves of pulleys and handles of tools. the supply is obtained from two species (guajacum sanctum and guajacum officinale). holly may be known by its foliage and berries. box (_buxus_) has small, smooth, ovate, dark, evergreen leaves joining the stem so as to be opposite one another. the dogwood is known by its flowers; the lignum-vitæ is a low gnarled tree. [p105] footnote [footnote 57: "the german name christdorn, the danish name christorn, and the swedish name christtorn seem to justify this conjecture." (keeler, quoting loudon.)] holly, american holly. _ilex opaca ait._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) holly, american holly (local and common names). white holly (va.). locality. massachusetts to florida, westward intermittently to indiana and texas. features of tree. occasionally fifty feet in height and three feet in diameter, frequently much smaller, particularly in north. foliage is evergreen. bright red berries remain until spring. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood cream-white, darkening or spotting on exposure. sapwood similar or lighter. very close-grained, compact structure. structural qualities of wood. tough, moderately hard and heavy, easily worked. representative uses of wood. inlaid work, carvings, scrollwork, turnery, moderately for furniture and decoration. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 36. modulus of elasticity. 910,000. modulus of rupture. 9700. remarks. the wood resembles ivory. [p106] dogwood, flowering dogwood. _cornus florida linn._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) dogwood, flowering dogwood (local and common names). boxwood (conn., r. i., n. y., miss., mich., ky., ind., ont.). false box-dogwood (ky.). new england boxwood (tenn.). cornel, flowering cornel (tex., r. i.). locality. new england to florida, westward intermittently to minnesota and texas, sierra madra mountains, mexico. features of tree. twenty-five to thirty-five feet in height, one foot or more in diameter. often low shrub, large white flowers precede foliage, red berry in fall. rough blackish bark. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood rich brown, changing to green and red. sapwood lighter, close-grained. structural qualities of wood. heavy, strong, tough, hard, receives high polish. representative uses of wood. wood-carving, engraving, bearings of machinery, turnery. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 50. modulus of elasticity. 1,160,000. modulus of rupture. 12,800. remarks. the mexican or black persimmon and the great laurel (_rhododendron maximum_) afford substitutes. yellowwood (_schaefferia frutescens_) is also known as boxwood. the names dogwood and poison dogwood are often applied to the sumach. _cornus_ signifies horn and refers to hardness of wood. [p107] lignumvitæ. _guajacum sanctum._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) lignumvitæ (fla.). ironwood (fla.). locality. semitropical florida, bahamas, san domingo, cuba, puerto rico. features of tree. twenty-five feet high, one foot in diameter, a low gnarled tree. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood rich yellow-brown in younger specimens and almost black in older ones. sapwood light yellow. close-grained, compact structure. structural qualities of wood. very heavy and exceedingly hard, strong, hard to work, brittle. lubricated by water. representative uses of wood. sheaves of ship-blocks, rollers, pulleys, tool-handles. bearings for journals rotating in water. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 71. modulus of elasticity. 1,220,000. modulus of rupture. 11,100. remarks. two other species, guajacum officinale and guajacum arborium, afford similar woods not commercially distinguished from the above. [p108] laurel. (_magnolia, rhododendron, arbutus, etc._) the name laurel applies locally or botanically to a number of american plants, several of which attain to the dignity of trees. the big laurel or magnolia (_m. grandiflora_) is an ornamental tree of the highest rank, extensively planted in parks and gardens of american cities as far north as washington, and also grown in europe. the wood is suitable for interior finish and is also used for fuel. the california laurel (_umbellularia californica_) and the madroña or madroña laurel (_arbutus menziesii_) are pacific coast species of beautiful appearance, the strong, heavy, hard woods of which are of economic importance. professor sargent considers[58] that the former is the most valuable interior or cabinet wood produced by the forests of the pacific coast. the wood of the madroña has little or no place in construction, but its charcoal is used in the manufacture of gunpowder. the wood of the great laurel or rose bay (_rhododendron maximum_) has been used as boxwood. the gnarled roots of the mountain laurel or calico bush (_kalmia latifolia_) are used for rustic hanging-baskets, seats, and the like. all of the kinds here noted have evergreen foliage. [p109] footnote [footnote 58: page 69, "catalogue jesup collection," sargent.] california laurel, mountain laurel. _umbellularia californica nutt._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) california laurel, mountain laurel (cal., nev.). california bay tree, spice tree (cal., nev., oreg.). laurel, bay-tree, oreodaphne (cal.). myrtle-tree, cajeput, california olive (oreg.). californian sassafras. locality. california and oregon. features of tree. seventy-five to one hundred feet in height, three to five feet in diameter. evergreen foliage, beautiful appearance. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light rich brown, sapwood lighter brown. close-grained, compact structure. structural qualities of wood. heavy, hard, strong, receives beautiful polish. representative uses of wood. ship-building, cabinet-work, cleats, crosstrees. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 40. modulus of elasticity. 1,510,000. modulus of rupture. 11,400. remarks. a valuable pacific coast cabinet wood. [p110] madroña, madroña laurel. _arbutus menziesii pursh._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) madroña, madroña laurel (cal., oreg.). laurel, laurelwood, madrone. madrone-tree, manzanita (oreg., cal.). madrove (cal.). locality. pacific coast from british columbia to southern california. features of tree. fifty to seventy-five feet in height, occasionally higher. two to four feet in diameter. straight well-formed trunk. evergreen foliage. a shrub in the south. color, appearance, or grain of wood. thick heartwood reddish, thin sapwood slightly pink. close-grained; numerous and conspicuous medullary rays. structural qualities of wood. heavy, hard, strong, checks badly in seasoning. representative uses of wood. largely for gunpowder, charcoal, also furniture. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 43. modulus of elasticity. 1,190,000. modulus of rupture. 12,000. remarks. a beautiful ornamental tree. [p111] [illustration: plate 23. persimmon, osage orange, cherry (_diospyros_), (_maclura_), (_prunus_). osage orange trunk (_m. aurantiaca_). wild black cherry trunk (_p. scrotina_). cherry wood. osage orange wood. persimmon wood.] persimmon. osage orange. cherry. (_diospyros_.) (_maclura_.) (_prunus_.) the persimmon (_diospyros virginiana_) grows in many of the central and southern united states and affords a hard, tough wood, resembling fine-grain hickory, that is used for implements and other small work. the plum-like fruit is remarkably astringent when green, but is sweet, rich, and palatable when ripe. the persimmon is a member of the ebony family (_ebenaceæ_), and the extremely close-grained heartwood is almost black. the ebony of commerce is derived from tropical species of this genus. the osage orange or bois d'arc (_maclura aurantiaca_) is found in the gulf and neighboring states, and has been cultivated in the north. the wood is unusually hard and strong, and is of a yellow color, which, however, darkens with age. it is in many ways a unique and serviceable product, widely utilized locally in the south, but almost unknown in the north, and nowhere sufficiently appreciated. the aborigines made bows and arrows of it, whence the name bois d'arc. the tree affords a useless fruit somewhat resembling the common orange in appearance. the widely distributed wild cherry or wild black cherry (_prunus serotina_) supplies the cherry wood of commerce. this wood is strong, hard, fine-grained, red-colored, and one of the most popular decorative woods of the american forests. sweet or cherry birch (_betula lenta_) is often stained so as to imitate it, while it of itself is stained so as to resemble mahogany. the wood of the cultivated cherry is not used in the united states. the wild cherry bears purplish-black fruit somewhat larger than peas, sweetly bitter when ripe. the bark is also bitter. it should be noted of these woods that the thin heart of the persimmon is black, that of the bois d'arc is yellow, and that of the cherry is red. each receives a high polish. [p112] persimmon. _diospyros virginiana linn._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) persimmon (local and common name). date plum (n. j., tenn.). simmon, possumwood (fla.). plaqueminier (la.). locality. connecticut to florida, westward intermittently to missouri and texas. features of tree. occasionally seventy feet in height, one to two feet in diameter. soft plum-like fruit, astringent when green, sweet when ripe. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood dark-brown or black, sapwood light-brown, often with darker spots. very thin heartwood. very close-grained, compact structure. medullary rays conspicuous. resembles hickory. structural qualities of wood. hard, heavy, strong. representative uses of wood. plane-stocks, shoe-lasts, etc. prized for shuttles. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 49. modulus of elasticity. 1,110,000. modulus of rupture. 12,400. remarks. the astringency of unripe fruit is due to tannic acid. the dried and roasted seeds have been used for coffee.[59] heartwood is not greatly developed in trees under one hundred years of age. [p113] footnote [footnote 59: u. s. dispensatory.] osage orange. _maclura aurantiaca nutt._ _toxylon pomiferum raf._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) osage orange (local and common name). bois d'arc (la., tex., mo.). bodark, bodock (kans.). yellow-wood, osage apple tree (tenn.). hedge, hedge-plant, osage (ill., ia., neb.). mock orange (la.). bow-wood (ala.). locality. southern arkansas, indian territory, and texas. cultivated elsewhere, as in massachusetts, pennsylvania, and michigan. features of tree. twenty to fifty feet in height, rarely beyond one and one-half feet in diameter. fruit resembles orange. long thorns. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood bright orange, turns brown on exposure. sapwood light yellow, close-grained, annual rings clearly marked. structural qualities of wood. hard, heavy, very strong, flexible, durable in contact with soil. receives beautiful polish. shrinks in seasoning. representative uses of wood. fence-posts, piles, telegraph poles, railway ties, paving-blocks, occasionally indoor decoration. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 48. modulus of elasticity. 1,300,000. modulus of rupture. 16,000. remarks. indians used wood for bows, thus the name bois d'arc, corrupted into bow dark or bodark. a valuable wood not enough appreciated. often planted as hedges. the fruit is useless. [p114] [illustration: osage orange.] wild black cherry, wild cherry. _prunus serotina ehrh._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) wild black cherry, wild cherry (local and common names). black cherry (me., n. h., vt., r. i., n. y., miss., ky., mich., wis., ind., neb.). rum cherry (n. h., mass., r. i., miss., neb.). whiskey cherry (minn.). choke cherry (mo., wis., ia.). locality. eastern to central united states. features of tree. forty to eighty feet in height. two to three or more feet in diameter. bitter bark, pea-sized fruit. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood reddish brown, sapwood yellow, fine straight grain, compact structure. structural qualities of wood. light, hard, strong, easily worked. representative uses of wood. cabinet-work, interior finish. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 36. modulus of elasticity. 1,200,000. modulus of rupture. 11,700. remarks. the bitter bark contains medicinal properties valued in bronchitis and other troubles. the fruit, agreeable when ripe, is also used in medicines and cordials. [p115] [illustration: wild black cherry (_prunus serotina_).] [illustration: plate 24. teak and greenheart (_tectona_, _nectandra_, etc.). greenheart (_nectandra rodiali_). teak (_tectona grandis_). teak tree. teakwood. lignumvitæ wood.] teak. greenheart. (_tectona_.) (_nectandra_.) there are two teaks; the principal one (_tectona grandis_), a native of asia, has been called the "oak" of the indian forests, the other (_oldfieldia africana_) is an african tree.[60] the greenheart (_nectandra rodiali_) is of the laurel family and grows in south america. the woods, although foreign, are of such nature as to have widely established reputations, and each has at some time been used in construction. teak suggests oak, save that it is lighter and has a more uniform structure. it is very durable, and an oily secretion repels insects and preserves iron fastenings. during the supremacy of wooden vessels it was regarded as one of the best ship-building woods in existence. the grain fits it for carvings, and it is now known in north america chiefly because of this fact. indian teak is the wood usually referred to. greenheart was early placed among the first class of ship-building woods by lloyd's register, and is yet taken to europe to some extent for dock-and ship-building and for implements, but is seldom found and but little known in the united states. it is strong, hard, durable, and extremely heavy, the latter quality being so pronounced as to limit its field of usefulness. [p116] footnote [footnote 60: it was long supposed that african teak was supplied by the species swietenia senegalensis. it is now known that the source is oldfieldia africana, of the family euphorbiaceæ. it is not impossible that wood passing as teak may be derived from yet other species.] teak. _tectona grandis._ nomenclature. teak. indian oak. teek. sagwan. locality. india, burma, siam, ceylon. features of tree. eighty to one hundred feet in height, three to four feet in diameter, sometimes larger. straight trunk, large drooping deciduous leaves. color, appearance, or grain of wood. variable, brownish-yellow, straight, even-grained. structural qualities of wood. moderately hard, strong, easily worked, stands well, oily, fragrant, resists termites, preserves iron. representative uses of wood. furniture, ship-building, timbers, backing for armor-plates. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 50 (laslett). modulus of elasticity. 1,338,000 (lazlett). 2,100,000 (thurston). modulus of rupture. 15,000 (thurston). remarks. the oil is thought to preserve iron and repel termites. burma, malabar, rangoon, and other teaks take names from districts producing them. the distinct african teak (_oldfieldia africana_) affords wood sometimes marketed as african mahogany and sometimes as african oak. (forestry methods, see "burma teak forests," sir dietrich brandis, "garden and forest," vol. ix, "forestry and irrigation," vol. ix, no. 3, p. 139.) [p117] greenheart. _nectandra rodiali._ nomenclature. greenheart (local and common name). locality. british guiana and adjacent portions of south america and the west indies. features of tree. twenty-five to sometimes seventy feet in height, two to four feet in diameter. a straight tree. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood dark green to chestnut or nearly black, sapwood similar. clean, straight, compact structure, free from knots. numerous pores, annual layers hardly distinguishable. structural qualities of wood. exceptionally heavy, strong, and durable, tough, hard, elastic, receives high polish, breaks suddenly. representative uses of wood. ship-keels, frames, rollers, turnery, also beams, planks, and piles (europe). in america tops of fishing-rods and very occasionally veneers. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 72 (lazlett). modulus of elasticity. 1,090,000 (lazlett). modulus of rupture. 10,000 (thurston). remarks. excessive weight unfits it for many purposes. placed in first class of ship-building woods by lloyd's register. formerly supposed to repel teredo. generally exported through demerara to england. [p118] mahogany. (_swietenia, khaya, soymida, cedrela, etc._) there are three principal mahogany trees: the central american or true mahogany (_swietenia mahogani_), the african mahogany (_khaya senegalensis_), and the indian mahogany (_soymida febrifuga_). there are also minor species called mahoganies.[61] american mahogany was originally divided by dealers into spanish and honduras wood, the former from the then spanish-american possessions. a considerable supply now comes from mexico, taking name from port of shipment; as, frontera, laguna, santa ana, tecolutla, minatitlan, and tonala, desirability being much in the order named. the african field is the latest and probably most important, very large quantities of its wood being distributed through english markets. [illustration: plate 25. mahogany (_swietenia mahagoni_). two specimens of wood.] mahogany, placed among the second class of ship-building woods by lloyd's register, was once used to some extent in place of oak in naval architecture, but is now so greatly valued for decoration as to be employed for little else, save occasionally the hulls of small pleasure craft. the decorative value is due to a combination of beauty, working qualities, and durability. beauty is influenced by both grain and warm red color. the latter is generally light, and although it subsequently darkens, in most cases, to a characteristic and rich reddish-brown, is usually induced immediately by stains. the grain is not only beautiful of itself, but is such as to receive those stains and finishing processes thus demanded. different localities produce woods varying in tint and grain. individual [p119] trees also differ in desirability. no two are alike. beautiful grain effects are often obtained in "crotches" or junctions between trunk and branch, and such pieces bring high prices. mahogany is generally used as a veneer. layers are glued either to some central piece or "core" or else to one another. the layers are arranged so as to cross one another's grain, and results are usually thought to be more desirable than those obtained from solid wood. few woods glue better, and few shrink or distort less when in place. "spanish cedar" (_cedrela odorata_) is a broadleaf wood, and not a conifer as is usually supposed. it is nearly related to, and usually found and cut with, true mahogany. lindley[62] divides cedrelecæ into two sub-orders: swieteniæ, including the true mahoganies, and cedrelæ, with nine genera and twenty-five species distributed over tropical asia and america. prima vera or white mahogany belongs to bignoniaceæ, which also includes the catalpas. [p120] footnotes [footnote 61: mahogany and mountain mahogany are names applied in the united states to rhus integrifolia, a native of lower california and the coast islands, and to the following species of the rocky mountain region (idaho to arizona): cercocarpus ledifolius, used for fuel. cercocarpus parvifolius, used for fuel. cercocarpus breviflorus, heavy, hard, not common.] [footnote 62: john lindley, treasury of botany, p. 243, part i; also see gifford, "forestry and irrigation," vol. viii, no. 4, p. 174; also correspondence messrs. wm. e. uptegrove & brother, new york city.] mahogany. _swietenia mahogani jacq._ nomenclature. mahogany (local and common name). spanish mahogany (cuba, san domingo, west indies). mexican mahogany (frontera, laguna, santa anna, and other mexican ports). honduras mahogany (honduras). baywood, madeira, redwood. locality. florida keys, bahamas, west indies, mexico, central america, peru. features of tree. florida specimens forty-five feet in height and two or more feet in diameter. foreign trees larger. color, appearance, or grain of wood. light, rich reddish brown. thin sapwood yellow. smooth, fine uniform texture, inconspicuous rings, conspicuous pores, sometimes filled with white substance. structural qualities of wood. strong, brittle, durable, holds glue, takes stains and high polish, small distortion in seasoning, stands well. representative uses of wood. cabinet-work, veneers; formerly ship-building. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 45. modulus of elasticity. 1,510,000. modulus of rupture. 14,000. remarks. desirability varies with locality. spanish mahogany ranks first, and harder mexican woods next. mahogany is usually stained. african mahogany is now successfully rivaling the american product. [p121] white mahogany. prima vera. _tabeuia donnell-smithii (rose)._ nomenclature. white mahogany, prima vera (local and common names). locality. mexico and central america. features of tree. fifty to seventy-five feet in height, two to four feet in diameter. tall, slender, a beautiful tree. numerous golden-yellow flowers precede the leaves. color, appearance, or grain of wood. cream-white. beautiful, fine grain, resembles mahogany. structural qualities of wood. works and stands well. representative uses of wood. cabinet-work, fine furniture, veneers. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. modulus of elasticity. modulus of rupture. remarks. many twelve-foot logs imported through san francisco and west. higher-priced than red mahogany. named after discoverer. the wood of the butternut or white walnut is sometimes sold as white mahogany. footnote see botanical gazette, vol. xvii, 1892, p. 418; contribution u. s. national herbarium, p. 346, vol. i, no. 9, u. s. dept. agriculture, division of botany. [p122] spanish cedar, mexican cedar. _cedrela odorata linn._ nomenclature. spanish cedar, mexican cedar, cuban cedar (local and common names). locality. mexico, cuba, west indies. features of tree. fifty to eighty feet in height, two to five feet in diameter. pale-yellow flowers. pods resemble pecan-nuts. tree suggests english walnut (_j. regia_). color, appearance, or grain of wood. brownish red, straight, even, compact grain. structural qualities of wood. soft, fragrant, porous, durable. resembles cedar woods derived from coniferous trees (page 167); also resembles mahogany. representative uses of wood. cigar-boxes, boats, fine cabinet-work. may be used in place of mahogany. the figured australian red cedar (_c. australis_) is locally used for furniture, joinery, carriages, ceilings, door-frames, etc. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. modulus of elasticity. modulus of rupture. remarks. used for cigar-boxes, because its porous structure assists cigars to season, and its odor improves their flavor. the cuban supply is practically exhausted. mexico is now the chief american source. trees grow rapidly. [p123] footnotes the toon cedar (cedrela toona roxburgh) of the orient is the same as the red cedar (_cedrela australis f. v. m._) of australia. the cedar (_cedrela odorata blanco_) is thought to be distinct philippine species. "forestry and irrigation," p. 173, vol. viii, no. 4; writings dr. gifford; correspondence wm. e. uptegrove & brother, and others. [illustration: plate 26. eucalyptus (_eucalyptus_). blue gum tree (_e. globulus_) california. blue gum bark (_e. globulus_) california. jarrah trunk, (_e. marginata_) australia. jarrah wood (_e. marginata_). karri wood (_e. diversicolor_).] eucalyptus. (_eucalyptus_.) these trees, locally known as stringy-barks, iron-barks, and gum-trees, are natives of australia and the neighboring islands. some of the nearly four hundred species have been widely transplanted, although none have thus far succeeded in this country outside of florida and california.[63] the blue gum (_e. globulus_) is the species commonly referred to when eucalyptus is mentioned in north america. the eucalypts are noted for their great size, rapid growth, tough, durable wood, and alleged effect upon health. size is illustrated by the species eucalyptus amygdalina, specimens of which have reached a height of four hundred and eighty feet and are thus the tallest, although not the largest, trees known to man. growth is shown by specimens of the eucalyptus gunnii, which have grown in excess of two feet a month during the first year.[64] the working qualities of jarrah, karri, and tuart woods (_e. marginata_, _e. diversicolor_, and _e. gomphocephala_) are such as to cause them to take high rank in local construction. the first two have been preferred beyond all other species for paving the streets of london and of paris. some improvement in health is said to have followed the introduction of the blue gum (_eucalyptus globulus_) in malarial districts, such as those around rome. it is not certain whether these results are due to the presence of essences in the foliage, although medicinal properties are ascribed to them and they are used in the preparation of listerine and similar compounds, or [p124] whether they are due to the fact that the leaves evaporate unusual quantities of water drawn by the roots from the soil.[65] the trees are characterized by leathery evergreen foliage of many shades, such as blue, gray, and green. the leaves of young and old trees differ widely in some species. those of young blue gums are bright blue, oval, and stalkless, while leaves of older trees have stems, are dark green and sickle-shaped. the characteristic odor is the only point in common between the foliage of the old and young of this species. there are, as stated, nearly four hundred species. [p125] footnotes [footnote 63: first introduced in 1856; 1,000,000 specimens thought to be in california, 1874. a. kinney, u. s. forestry bulletin no. 11.] [footnote 64: eucalyptus globulus is said to have grown in california at the rate of two feet a month during the first year.] works of baron von müller; report j. ednie-brown, forest commissioner, western australia; correspondence m. francis chapman, esq., london; the forester, jan. 1900; abbot kinney, u. s. forestry bulletin no. 11. [footnote 65: the writer has seen long rows of california blue gums cut down because they "dried the soil." the general form of a blue gum tree suggests that of large black locust.] mcclatchie, u. s. forestry bulletin no. 35. jarrah. _eucalyptus marginata._ nomenclature. jarrah (local and common name). mahogany gum (australia). locality. western coast of australia. features of tree. ninety to one hundred or more feet in height, two to five feet in diameter. fifty or more feet to lowest branch. dull, sombre appearance. branches concentrated at top. color, appearance, or grain of wood. reddish, resembles mahogany, also kauri wood. structural qualities of wood. heavy, non-absorbent, somewhat oily, durable in contact with the soil, receives good polish. characteristic odor, wears thin evenly, not easily inflammable. said to repel teredo and termite. representative uses of wood. marine work, exposed positions, ship-building, bridge timbers, street-paving (london and paris). weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 65 (ednie-brown).[66] modulus of elasticity. 2,080,000 (ednie-brown).[66] modulus of rupture. 8900 (ednie-brown).[66] remarks. chief timber tree of southwestern australia. preferred by australian ship-builders. often confused with karri.[67] specimen forty years old two feet in diameter. müller calls it the least inflammable of woods. marginata refers to thick-edged leaves. [p126] footnotes [footnote 66: report forests western australia, presented to parliament, 1896.] [footnote 67: the melbourne argus, december 31, 1892, states that the woods may be distinguished by the fact that the ashes of jarrah are white and those of karri black. specimens of jarrah wood seen by the writer were dark, suggesting black walnut, those of karri were red, resembling mahogany.] karri. _eucalyptus diversicolor._ nomenclature. karri (many localities). white gum (australia). locality. australia, new zealand. features of tree. two to three hundred and fifty feet in height, four to eighteen feet in diameter. a straight graceful tree, lower branches often one hundred and fifty feet from ground. smooth yellow white bark. color, appearance, or grain of wood. reddish brown, fibres interlaced, compact structure. structural qualities of wood. hard, heavy, tough and elastic, non-absorbent, durable, difficult to work, wears evenly, characteristic odor. representative uses of wood. construction, railway ties, piles, marine work, pavements (london and paris). weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 63 (ednie-brown).[68] modulus of elasticity. 2,890,000 (ednie-brown).[68] modulus of rupture. 8000 (ednie-brown).[68] remarks. once named eucalyptus colossea because of great size. rich in essential oils. grows rapidly, one specimen thirty-five years old, having reached a height of one hundred and thirty-five feet. distinct from kauri pine (_d. australis_) of new zealand. diversicolor refers to leaves the upper and lower sides of which differ in color. [p127] footnote [footnote 68: report forests western australia, presented to parliament, 1896.] tuart. _eucalyptus gomphocephala._ nomenclature. tuart (local and common name). tewart (australia). tooart (australia). white gum (australia). locality. australia. features of tree. one hundred to one hundred and fifty feet in height, four to six feet in diameter. lower branches forty or more feet from ground. bright, cheerful appearance, straight trunk, gray-white bark. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light yellow, compact appearance, fibres interlaced. structural qualities of wood. very hard, heavy, strong, tough, rigid, durable, seasons well. difficult to split or work. representative uses of wood. keels, buffers, stern-posts, frames, wheel-hubs, shafts. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 67 (ednie-brown).[69] modulus of elasticity. 2,300,000 (ednie-brown).[69] modulus of rupture. 9300 (ednie-brown).[69] remarks. highly prized locally. one of the strongest of woods. gomphocephala refers to peculiarities in lid of calyx-tube. [p128] footnote [footnote 69: report on forests western australia, presented to parliament, 1896.] blue gum, fever tree. _eucalyptus globulus._ nomenclature. blue gum (local and common name). fever tree (australia). balluck (australia). locality. native of australia acclimated in southern california and elsewhere throughout the world. features of tree. two hundred to sometimes three hundred or more feet in height. three to six feet in diameter. loose, shaggy, exfoliating bark.[70] leaves sometimes twelve inches in length. color varies with age. characteristic odor. color, appearance, or grain of wood. straw color. sapwood lighter. indistinct annual rings. fibres interlaced. structural qualities of wood. hard, heavy, durable, difficult to split. representative uses of wood. rollers, paving-blocks, ship-building, fuel. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 43 to 69 (mueller). 57 to 69 (lazlett). modulus of elasticity. modulus of rupture. remarks. the eucalyptus of california. the species planted in malarial districts. sanitary powers due to evaporation from large leaves or presence of essential oils, which are thought to have medicinal qualities. grows very rapidly. [p129] footnote [footnote 70: the bark is variable. some trees of nearly 1 foot diameter have smooth green bark resembling that on young willow saplings; most others have the shaggy bark, while from some this has dropped away, exposing a smooth grayish interior suggesting that of the sycamore.] [illustration: plate 27. pine (_pinus_). white pine foliage (_p. strobus_). hard pine trunk (_p. palustris_). (_photograph by edward j. davison_.) white pine tree (_p. strobus_). (_courtesy n. c. geol. survey_.) hard pine wood (_p. palustris_). soft or sugar pine wood (_p. lambertiana_).] needleleaf woods. the trees affording these woods cover large areas in the natural forests of the northern hemisphere. they exist, but to an unimportant extent, in the south. cedar, larch, and cypress figure in ancient history, but woods generally were not employed until recent times.[71] pine, spruce, hemlock, and other so-called soft woods are of this group. needle-leaved woods are characterized by uniform fibre-conditions, presence of resins, and lighter weights. the vertical structure consists of simple, similar, elongated tubes or cells, tapering and finally closing at their ends, known as tracheids. these are arranged with more or less regularity, and woods are correspondingly easy to work. pith-rays are scarcely visible, and sections do not show pores. cavities known as resin-ducts, and which are not real vessels but rather simple intercellular spaces, secrete resins so important in making these woods durable and elastic. trees afford large, straight pieces. woods are used in carpentry and heavy constructions. the total requirement greatly exceeds that for hard woods. the resinous, usually evergreen, leaves and the cones are sufficient to identify these trees. needleleaf, softwood, conifer, and evergreen trees are the same. [p130] footnote [footnote 71: see oak, pages 11 _et seq._ the woods have always been important in the united states.] pine. (_pinus_.) these trees were not regarded seriously until about the latter half of the eighteenth century. their woods are now the principal ones in carpentry and construction, and are more used than any others. they are to the soft woods what the oaks are to the hard woods, and they stand at present with reference to all woods much as iron does to all metals. pine is prized because of a combination of strength, elasticity, light weight, working qualities, and availability, such as fits it for those constructions requiring the largest quantities of wood. the pines have smooth, straight, solid trunks, usually destitute of branches for many feet from the ground. there are needle-shaped, more or less cylindrical, evergreen leaves from one to many inches in length, gathered in clusters of two, three, or five, their number and the fact that they are thus clustered being important bases of classification. there are also cones of woody overlapping scales. they reproduce with difficulty,[72] and mature so slowly that ultimate survival of modern conditions must probably be as cultivated trees. thirty-nine of the seventy known species of pine are found in the united states. these with their woods are separated into two groups known as _hard_ and _soft_ pines. the dantzic or northern pine (_pinus silvestris_) is the principal european species. [p131] footnote [footnote 72: the roots of most species die with cutting of trees. there is no power of producing new shoots. (the pitch pine (_pinus rigida_) is an exception to this rule.) seeds also have short-lived vitality. trees are easily raised from fresh seeds.] soft pine. soft pine is soft, clean, light, uniform, easily worked, not strong, free from knots and resins, and obtainable in large and perfect pieces. the wood is whitish and the yearly rings are not pronounced. the supply is divided, as obtained from the white pine on the one hand, and from the sugar-pine and all other species on the other. white pine (_pinus strobus_) grows in the north, central, and eastern united states and was formerly the important tree of north america. it emphasized the forest industries of maine and of michigan, and methods connected with harvesting it have influenced logging practices in many fields. it was long the only softwood seriously considered by northern lumbermen. thirty per cent of the sawn timber and lumber used in this country in 1899 was drawn from this species.[73] white pine is diminishing so rapidly as to be already practically unobtainable in many places. the sugar pine (_pinus lambertiana_) of the western states is a tree growing at high elevations and is so large as to take rank with the redwoods and other of the world's greatest trees. some material is derived from the western white pine (_pinus flexilis_) and one or more minor species. sugar pine resembles, but is not as desirable as, white pine. the sweetish exudations from this tree are sometimes used in medicine. [p132] footnotes [footnote 73: roth, u. s. forestry bul. no. 22, p. 73.] "white pine timber supplies." u. s. s. doc. 55-1, vol. iv. hard pine. hard pine differs from soft pine in that it is hard, resinous, heavy, harder to work, and very strong. it also is obtainable in large pieces. the orange-yellow wood is more or less figured. the annual deposits are pronounced and are separated into two sharply divided rings. the supply is chiefly derived from the longleaf, shortleaf, cuban, and loblolly pines of the south atlantic states. the longleaf pine (_pinus palustris_) is distinctly the most important of its group. the wood is ideal for heavy constructions. beams, docks, trestles, and frames of cars are formed of it. the trees afford the greater bulk of turpentine, tar, and resin, or "naval stores," produced in this country.[74] cuban, shortleaf, and loblolly pine woods (_p. heterophylla_, _p. echinata_, and _p. tæda_) are nearly similar. longleaf and cuban pines are seldom separated, while shortleaf and loblolly pines are also mixed. longleaf pine usually affords finer structure and more heartwood than cuban pine. strength and weight averages of both woods are in excess of those of shortleaf and loblolly pines. no method of invariably telling these four woods apart has as yet been determined. (roth.) any or all of them are practically liable to be delivered in response to a demand for southern pine. johnson considers shortleaf pine as good as longleaf pine of equal weight, and suggests environment as a means of identification. palustris, signifying "swampy," is misleading, since long leaf pine prefers dry, sandy soil and tracts known as "pine barrens." _mitis_ refers to the soft, delicate foliage of shortleaf pine. _tæda_ signifies "torch." the trees may be told by differences in their leaves and cones. [p133] longleaf (_p. palustris_) leaves number in cluster 3 length, in. 10 to 15 cones diameter (open), in. 4 to 5 length, in. 6 to 10 cuban (_p. heterophylla_) leaves number in cluster 2 or 3 length, in. 8 to 12 cones diameter (open), in. 3 to 5 length, in. 4 to 7 shortleaf (_p. echinata_) leaves number in cluster 2 or 3 length, in. 2 to 5 cones diameter (open), in. 1 to 2 length, in. 2 loblolly (_p. tæda_) leaves number in cluster 3 length, in. 5 to 10 cones diameter (open), in. 2 to 3 length, in. 3 to 4 a confusion exists in the naming of the pines. american white pine is known as yellow or weymouth pine in europe, and all american hard pines are there often known as pitch pines. the european, dantzic, or northern pine has also many names, principally depending on port of shipment. georgia, southern, yellow, hard, and even pitch pine, are interchangeable names in this country. the species palustris has thirty local names. [p134] footnote [footnote 74: manufacture of tar, pitch, etc. (see report chief u. s. div. forestry, 1892, p. 356; also u. s. forestry bulletin no. 13.)] white pine. _pinus strobus linn._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) white pine (local and common name). weymouth pine (mass., s. c.). soft pine (pa.). northern pine (n. c.). spruce pine (tenn.). pumpkin pine. locality. north-central and northeastern united states, northward into canada, southward to illinois, and along the alleghanies into georgia, intermittently. features of tree. seventy-five to one hundred and fifty feet in height. three to six feet in diameter, sometimes larger. erect impressive form. tufts of five soft, slender, evergreen leaves in long sheath. cones four to six inches long, one inch thick, slightly curved. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood cream-white, sapwood nearly white. close, straight grain. compact structure. comparatively free from knots and resin. structural qualities of wood. soft, uniform, seasons well, easy to work, nails without splitting, fairly durable. lightest and weakest of eastern united states pines. shrinks less than other pines. representative uses of wood. carpentry, construction, matches, spars, boxes, numerous uses. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 24 (u. s. forestry div.).[75] 24. modulus of elasticity. 1,390,000 (average of 130 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[75] 1,210,000. modulus of rupture. 7900 (average of 120 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[75] 8900. remarks. formerly the chief lumber tree of the united states. the supply is rapidly diminishing. [p135] footnotes [footnote 75: see page 6.] "the white pine." spaulding. u. s forestry bul. no. 22. "white pine" a study. mr. gifford pinchot. (century co.) "white pine timber supplies." u. s. doc. 40 senate, 55-1, vol. iv. white pine. _pinus flexilis james._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) white pine (cal., nev., utah, col., n. m.). pine (utah, mont.). bull pine (col.). western and rocky mountain white pine (cal.). locality. rocky mountains, montana to mexico. features of tree. forty to fifty feet in height, one to three feet in diameter. tufts of five rather short, rigid leaves in sheaths. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light, clear yellow, turning red from exposure. sapwood nearly white. close-grained, compact structure, numerous and conspicuous medullary rays. structural qualities of wood. light, soft. representative uses of wood. construction. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 27. modulus of elasticity. 960,000. modulus of rupture. 8800. remarks. this tree forms mountain forests of considerable extent. valued locally. [p136] sugar pine. _pinus lambertiana dougl._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) sugar pine (local and common name). big pine, shade pine (cal.). little or great sugar pine. gigantic pine. white pine. locality. oregon and california. best at high altitudes (above 4000 feet), central and northern california. features of tree. one hundred to occasionally three hundred feet in height, fifteen to sometimes twenty feet in diameter. cones ten to eighteen inches in length, edible seeds. sweetish exudations. a great tree. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood pinkish brown, sapwood cream-white. coarse, straight-grained, compact structure. structural qualities of wood. light, soft, easily worked, resembles white pine (_pinus strobus_). representative uses of wood. carpentry, interior finish, doors, blinds, sashes, etc. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 22. modulus of elasticity. 1,120,000. modulus of rupture. 8400. remarks. grows at as high elevations as five thousand feet or more above tide-water. forms extensive forests with balsam fir (_abies concolor_). [p137] white pine. _pinus monticola dougl._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) white pine (cal., nev., oreg.). mountain pine, finger cone pine (cal.). little sugar pine, soft pine (cal.). western white pine. mountain weymouth pine. locality. montana, idaho, pacific states, and british columbia. features of tree. eighty to one hundred feet in height. two to three feet in diameter, sometimes larger. foliage resembles, but is denser than, white pine. long smooth cones. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light brown or red, sapwood nearly white. straight-grained, compact, suggests white pine (_pinus strobus_). structural qualities of wood. light, soft, not strong. representative uses of wood. lumber. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 24. modulus of elasticity. 1,350,000. modulus of rupture. 8600. remarks. found at elevations of seven thousand to ten thousand feet. common and locally used in northern idaho. [p138] georgia pine, hard pine, yellow pine, longleaf pine. _pinus palustris mill._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) turpentine pine. rosemary pine. n. carolina pitch pine. southern pine. longleaved yellow pine. longleaved pitch pine. long straw pine. pitch pine. fat pine. heart pine. brown pine. florida yellow pine. florida pine. florida longleaved pine. southern pitch pine. southern hard pine. southern heart pine. southern yellow pine. georgia pitch pine. georgia longleaved pine. georgia heart pine. georgia yellow pine. texas yellow pine. texas longleaved pine. locality. south atlantic and gulf states, virginia to alabama, intermittently. features of tree. fifty to ninety feet or more in height, one to three feet in diameter. tufts of three leaves, ten to fifteen inches long, in long sheath. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood orange, sapwood lighter. coarse-grained, compact structure, conspicuous medullary rays. structural qualities of wood. hard, heavy, tough, strong, elastic, durable, resinous. representative uses of wood. heavy constructions, ship-building, cars, docks, beams, ties, flooring, house-trim, many uses. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 38 (u. s. division of forestry).[76] 43. modulus of elasticity. 2,070,000 (average of 1230 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[76] 2,110,000. modulus of rupture. 12,600 (average of 1160 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[76] 16,300. remarks. finer and has less sapwood than cuban pine. one of the best woods for car-building. principal lumber tree of the southeast. [p139] footnotes [footnote 76: see page 6.] "southern pine." u. s. forestry circular no. 12. (dr. b. e. fernow, chief.) "timber pines of southern states." u. s. forestry bul. no. 13. (dr. b. e. fernow, chief.) cuban pine. _pinus heterophylla sudw._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) cuban pine, slash pine (local and common names). pitch pine, she pine, she pitch pine (ga., fla.). swamp pine (fla., miss.). bastard pine, meadow pine, spruce pine. locality. coast region, south carolina to florida and louisiana. features of tree. fifty to eighty feet in height, one to two feet in diameter. color, appearance, or grain of wood. resembles longleaf pine. representative uses of wood. similar to those of longleaf pine, from which it is seldom separated. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 39 (u. s. forestry div.).[77] modulus of elasticity. 2,370,000 (average of 410 tests by u. s. div. of forestry).[77] modulus of rupture. 13,600 (average of 410 tests by u. s. div. of forestry).[77] remarks. resembles and is marked longleaf pine (_pinus palustris_). [p140] footnotes [footnote 77: see page 6.] "southern pine." u. s. forestry circular no. 12. (dr. b. e. fernow, chief.) "timber pines of southern states." u. s. forestry bul. no. 13. (dr. b. e. fernow, chief.) shortleaf pine, yellow pine. _pinus echinata mill._ _pinus mitis michx._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) common yellow pine, hard pine. spruce pine (del., miss., ark.). bull pine (va.). shortshat pine (del.). pitch pine (mo.). poor pine (fla.). shortleaved yellow pine (n. c.). rosemary pine (n. c.). virginia yellow pine. north carolina yellow pine. north carolina pine. carolina pine. slash pine. old field pine. locality. connecticut to florida, westward intermittently to kansas and texas. features of tree. sixty to sometimes ninety feet in height, two to sometimes four feet in diameter. a large erect tree; small cones have minute weak prickles. leaves usually in twos from long sheaths. color, appearance, or grain of wood. resembles longleaf pine. structural qualities of wood. variable, usually hard, tough, strong, durable, resinous, lighter than longleaf pine. representative uses of wood. lumber, construction, similar to longleaf pine. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 32 (u. s. forestry div.).[78] 30. modulus of elasticity. 1,680,000 (average of 330 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[78] 1,950,000. modulus of rupture. 10,100 (average of 330 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[78] 14,700. remarks. affords considerable pitch and turpentine, and is the principal species of northern arkansas, kansas, and missouri. [p141] footnotes [footnote 78: see page 6.] "southern pine." mohr u. s. forestry circular no. 12. "timber pines of southern states." u. s. forestry bul. no. 13. (dr. b. e. fernow, chief.) loblolly pine. _pinus tæda linn._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) old field pine. torch pine. rosemary pine. slash pine. longshat pine. longshucks. black slash pine. frankincense pine. shortleaf pine. bull pine. virginia pine. sap pine. meadow pine. cornstalk pine (va.). black pine. foxtail pine. indian pine. spruce pine. bastard pine. yellow pine. swamp pine. longstraw pine. locality. delaware to florida and westward intermittently to texas. features of tree. fifty to one hundred feet or more in height, two to sometimes four feet in thickness. leaves in twos and threes. scales or cones have short straight spines. a large tree. color, appearance, or grain of wood. resembles longleaf pine. structural qualities of wood. resembles longleaf pine. representative uses of wood. resembles longleaf pine. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 33 (u. s. forestry div.).[79] 33. modulus of elasticity. 2,050,000 (average of 660 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[79] 1,600,000. modulus of rupture. 11,300 (average of 650 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[79] 12,500. remarks. grows naturally on deforested land, whence the name of old field pine. [p142] footnotes [footnote 79: see page 6.] "southern pine." u. s. forestry circular no. 12. (dr. b. e. fernow, chief.) "timber pines of southern states." u. s. forestry bul. no. 13. (dr. b. e. fernow, chief.) bull pine, yellow pine, western yellow pine. _pinus ponderosa laws._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) big pine. longleaved pine. red pine. pitch pine. southern yellow pine. heavy-wooded pine. western pitch pine. heavy pine (calif.). foothills yellow pine. montana black pine. locality. rocky mountains, westward intermittently to pacific ocean. features of tree. one hundred to sometimes three hundred feet in height, six to sometimes twelve feet in diameter. thick, deeply furrowed bark. leaves in tufts of threes. color, appearance, or grain of wood. thin heartwood is light red, sapwood nearly white. rather coarse grain, compact structure. structural qualities of wood. variable, heavy, hard, strong, brittle, not durable. representative uses of wood. lumber, railway ties, mine timbers, fuel, etc. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 29. modulus of elasticity. 1,260,000. modulus of rupture. 10,200. remarks. ponderosa, signifying "heavy," refers to great size. [p143] norway pine, red pine. _pinus resinosa ait._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) norway pine, red pine (local and common names). hard pine (wis.). canadian red pine (eng.). locality. southern canada, northern united states from maine to minnesota, pennsylvania. features of tree. sixty to ninety feet in height, one to three feet in diameter. reddish blossoms and bark on branchlets. leaves in twos from long sheaths. a tall, straight tree. color, appearance, or grain of wood. thin heartwood light red, sapwood yellow to white. numerous pronounced medullary rays. structural qualities of wood. light, hard, elastic, not durable, resinous. representative uses of wood. piles, telegraph poles, masts, flooring, and wainscoting. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 31 (u. s. forestry div.).[80] 30. modulus of elasticity. 1,620,000 (average of 100 tests by u. s. forestry division).[80] 1,600,000. modulus of rupture. 9,100 (average of 95 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[80] 12,500. remarks. sometimes commercially handled with white pine. unimportant as regards turpentine and resin, in spite of specific name, which signifies resinous. long sheaths enable children to make chains of leaves. [p144] footnote [footnote 80: see page 6.] pitch pine. _pinus rigida mill._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) pitch pine (local and common name). longleaved pine, longschat pine (del.). hard pine (mass.). yellow pine (pa.). black pine (n. c.). black norway pine. rigid pine, sap pine. locality. atlantic coast, canada to georgia, kentucky. features of tree. forty to sometimes eighty feet in height, one to sometimes three feet in diameter. rigid flattened leaves in threes from short sheaths. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light brown or red, thick sapwood yellow to nearly white. coarse conspicuous grain, compact structure, very resinous. structural qualities of wood. light, soft, not strong, brittle. representative uses of wood. coarse lumber, fuel, charcoal. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 32. modulus of elasticity. 820,000. modulus of rupture. 10,500. remarks. rigida refers to rigid leaves. the name "pitch pine" is sometimes applied to all of the southern pines. the name is yet more widely applied in foreign markets. sometimes called fat pine. [p145] northern pine, scotch pine, dantzic pine. _pinus sylvestris linn._ nomenclature. dantzic fir (from place of shipment). rigi fir (from place of shipment). memel fir (from place of shipment). stettin fir (from place of shipment). swedish fir. scots or scottish fir. northern fir. redwood, yellowwood. deal (local). locality. widespread in europe, as scotland, germany, and russia; also asia. naturalized in united states. features of tree. fifty to one hundred feet in height, two to five feet in diameter; sometimes larger. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood reddish white to yellowish white, sapwood similar. even straight grain (varies with locality). structural qualities of wood. moderately light, hard, tough, and elastic, easily worked (varies with locality). representative uses of wood. carpentry, construction, planks, beams, masts, heavy timber. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 34 (lazlett[81]) (varies with locality). modulus of elasticity. 1,680,000 (lazlett) (varies with locality). 1,800,000 (thurston). modulus of rupture. 7000 (thurston) (varies with locality). remarks. principal soft wood of europe. widely distributed; local peculiarities once thought to denote different species. fields tributary to dantzic and rigi afford best wood. wood "equal to dantzic fir" sometimes specified. [p146] footnote [footnote 81: table clxvii, p. 418.] kauri pine. (_dammara_.) this new zealand tree affords one of the best substitutes for northern pine. although not true pine, it belongs to the same family as the pine and other conifers. the light, strong, durable, elastic wood is obtainable in large-sized pieces suitable for masts. the species is universally noted for its resin, which possesses the quality of uniting more perfectly than others with linseed oil.[82] kauri gum is thus one of the most valuable constituents of good varnish.[83] the best gum occurs as a fossil, and is collected by digging over areas known to be fruitful but from which trees have long since disappeared. the pieces, varying in size from small pebbles to lumps as large as eggs, are scraped and otherwise cleansed by natives in the fields.[84] [p147] footnotes [footnote 82: it unites with linseed oil at lower temperatures than other gums of its kind.] [footnote 83: fossil kauri gum has sold for one thousand to fifteen hundred dollars per ton.] [footnote 84: one mass of two hundred and twenty pounds has been reported (r. ingham clark, f.r.g.s.: "notes on fossil resins," published by c. letts & co., london).] correspondence professor alvah h. sabin, new york city; messrs. pratt & lambert, new york city. [illustration: plate 28. kauri pine (_dammara australis_). _from r. ingham clark, by courtesy of messrs. pratt & lambert._ fragments of gum one-quarter natural size. "fossil gum" at right and centre.] kauri pine. _dammara australis._ nomenclature. kauri pine (local and general). cowdie pine (new zealand and many localities). locality. new zealand. features of tree. ninety to one hundred feet in height, three to four feet in diameter, occasional specimens much larger. small leaves resembling those of box. a tall handsome tree. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood straw-colored, fine, close, straight grain. structural qualities of wood. moderately hard, light, elastic, strong, seasons well, works readily, receives high polish. representative uses of wood. carpentry, masts. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 33 (lazlett[85]) (varies with locality). modulus of elasticity. 1,810,000 (lazlett). modulus of rupture. remarks. the species is widely known by reason of its gum. [p148] footnote [footnote 85: table clxxi, p. 426.] spruce. (_picea_.) the spruces form forests in europe and north america. the black spruce (_p. nigra_) and the white spruce (_p. alba_) predominate in eastern united states, while the white spruce (_p. engelmanni_) is important in the west. the norway spruce, or white fir (_p. excelsa_), is the chief european species. american trees prefer northern ranges characterized by short summers and long winters. the soft, light, clean woods resemble and are probably the best substitute for soft pine. they are apt to warp and twist in seasoning and so are not good for posts and trusses. spruce is the principal wood in new england for studding and floor-joists. the product is divided commercially and according to appearance, but irrespective of species, into white and black spruce. these terms depend sometimes, at least, on the wide and narrow rings of the black spruce (_p. nigra_). it should be remembered that spruce and fir woods are often confused with one another, and that there are trees, as the douglas spruce and kauri pine or spruce, that are called, but are not, true spruces. european spruce is often locally known as white deal. spruce trees have single, sharp-pointed, short leaves, pointing everywhere, and keeled above and below so as to appear four-sided; the cones hang down. spruce may be distinguished from the pines, firs, and hemlocks by the fact that pine leaves are longer and in clusters, that hemlock leaves are flat, blunt, and two-ranked, and that fir cones point upward. the genus picea has twelve species, five of which are north american. the resins of the black and red spruce are used as confections. [p149] [illustration: plate 29. black spruce (_picea nigra_).] the following table sets forth the primary distinctions between the spruces and the pines, firs, and hemlocks: pines (_pinus_) arrangement of leaves. in tufts or clusters. shape of leaves. comparatively long. cones. spruce (_picea_) arrangement of leaves. single, scattered, point in all directions. shape of leaves. short, sharp ends, keeled above and below. somewhat four-sided. cones. hang down, 1 to 6 inches long. fir (_abies_) arrangement of leaves. single, scattered, appear somewhat as in two ranks. shape of leaves. short, blunt ends, flat. cones. stand erect, 2 to 4 inches long. hemlock (_tsuga_) arrangement of leaves. single, scattered, appear as in two ranks. shape of leaves. short, blunt ends, flat. cones. hang down, 3/4 to 1 inch long. [p150] black spruce. _picea nigra link._ _picea mariana mill._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) spruce (vt.), yew pine, spruce pine (w. va.). double spruce (me., vt., minn.). blue spruce (wis.). white spruce (w. va.). he balsam (del., n. c.). water spruce (me.). locality. pennsylvania to minnesota, alleghany mountains to north carolina. best in canada. features of tree. forty to eighty feet in height, one to two feet in diameter. conical shape with straight trunk. dark foliage. cones remain for several years, being thus distinct from white spruce. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood reddish, nearly white; sapwood lighter. straight grain, compact structure. structural qualities of wood. light, soft, not strong, elastic, resonant. representative uses of wood. lumber, flooring, carpentry, ship-building, piles, posts, railway ties, paddles, oars, "sounding-boards," paper-pulp. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 28. modulus of elasticity. 1,560,000. modulus of rupture. 10,600. remarks. a substitute for soft pine. resin is used as a confection. [p151] footnote it is often difficult to distinguish between black and white spruce trees. the foliage of the former is darker as a whole, and there are differences in shape and persistence of cones. the names double spruce and single spruce are without evident foundation. woods exhibit similar qualities and are classed together by lumbermen. red spruce (_picea rubens_) resembles, and is sometimes considered a variety of, black spruce. white spruce. _picea alba link._ _picea canadensis mill._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) single spruce (me., vt., minn.). bog spruce, cat spruce (n. eng.). skunk spruce (wis., new eng.). spruce, double spruce (vt.). pine (hudson bay). locality. northern united states, canada to labrador and alaska. features of tree. fifty to one hundred feet in height, one to two feet in diameter, occasionally larger. compact, symmetrical, conical shape. foliage lighter than black spruce. cones fall sooner than those of black spruce. whitish resin. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light yellow, sapwood similar. straight-grained, numerous prominent medullary rays. compact structure. structural qualities of wood. light, soft, not strong (similar to black spruce). representative uses of wood. lumber, flooring, carpentry, etc. (similar to black spruce). weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 25. modulus of elasticity. 1,450,000. modulus of rupture. 10,600. remarks. notable as resident of high latitudes. chief tree of arctic forests. wood, used similarly to black spruce, is substituted for white pine. [p152] white spruce. _picea engelmanni engelm._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) white spruce (ore., col., utah, idaho). balsam, engelmann's spruce (utah). white pine (idaho), mountain spruce (mont.). locality. rocky mountain region, montana to mexico, washington, oregon, and british columbia (high elevations). features of tree. frequently seventy-five to one hundred feet in height and sometimes higher, two to three feet in diameter, sometimes low shrub. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood pale reddish yellow, sapwood similar. close, straight grain, compact structure, conspicuous medullary rays. structural qualities of wood. light, soft, not strong. representative uses of wood. lumber, charcoal, fuel. bark rich in tannin, sometimes used for tanning. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 21. modulus of elasticity. 1,140,000. modulus of rupture. 8100. remarks. notable as resident of high altitudes, extensive forests occurring at eight to ten thousand feet above sea-level. a valuable tree of the central and southern rocky mountain region. [p153] sitka spruce. _picea sitchensis trautv. and mayer._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) sitka spruce (local and common name). tideland spruce (cal., oreg., wash.). menzies spruce. western spruce. great tideland spruce. locality. pacific coast region, alaska to central california. extends inland about fifty miles; prefers low elevations. features of tree. one hundred and fifty feet or more in height, three feet or more in diameter. flat-pointed pyramidal needles, oval cylindrical cones, thick scaly reddish-brown bark. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light reddish brown, sapwood nearly white. coarse-grained, satiny. structural qualities of wood. light, soft, not strong. representative uses of wood. construction, interior finish, fencing, boat-building, cooperage. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 2626. modulus of elasticity. modulus of rupture. 10,400. remarks. a giant among spruces. forms an extensive coast-belt forest. [p154] douglas spruce. (_pseudotsuga_.) the douglas or red pine, spruce, or fir, of the pacific coast is neither true pine, spruce, nor fir, but a sort of bastard hemlock. the name "pseudotsuga" is from _pseudo_, or false, and _tsuga_, or hemlock. the trees are among the greatest known. the wood resembles larch or hard pine in properties, appearance, and applications. trees have been successfully planted in the adirondacks. the species was earlier classed as pinus taxifolia and as abies taxifolia. [p155] [illustration: plate 30. douglas spruce (_pseudotsuga taxifolia_).] douglas spruce, douglas fir. _pseudotsuga taxifolia lam._ _pseudotsuga douglasii carr._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) oregon pine (cal., wash., oreg.). red fir, yellow fir (oreg., wash., idaho, utah, mont., col.). douglas tree, cork-barked douglas spruce. spruce, fir (mont.). red pine (utah, idaho, col.). puget sound pine (wash.). locality. pacific coast region, mexico to british columbia. best in western oregon and washington. features of tree. one hundred and seventy-five to sometimes three hundred feet in height, three to five and sometimes ten feet in diameter. older bark rough-gray, often looking as though braided. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light red to yellow, sapwood nearly white. structural qualities of wood. variable, usually hard, strong, difficult to work, durable. representative uses of wood. heavy construction, dimension timbers, railway ties, piles, fuel. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 32 (u. s. forestry div.).[86] 36 (average of 20 specimens by soulé).[87] 32. modulus of elasticity. 1,680,000 (average of 41 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[86] 1,862,000 (average of 21 specimens by soulé).[87] 1,824,000. modulus of rupture. 7,900 (average of 41 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[86] 9,334 (average of 21 specimens by soulé).[87] 12,500. remarks. used similarly to hard pine. lumbermen divide into red and yellow woods, the former dark and coarse, the latter fine, lighter, and more desirable. these distinctions probably due to age. one of the world's greatest trees. [p156] footnote [footnote 86: see page 6.] [footnote 87: professor frank soulé, university of california. trans. am. inst. m. e., p. 552, vol. xxix.] fir. (_abies_.) several of the fir-trees of the western united states attain to very great size. the silver fir (_abies grandis_) and the white fir (_abies concolor_) supply much wood in the section in which they grow. the balsam fir (_abies balsamea_) of the eastern states is of some commercial importance. fir wood resembles spruce in appearance and in structural qualities. it may be told from spruce as well as from pine and larch by the fact that fir has no resin-ducts. the balsam fir is distinguishable by clear liquid resin which appears in blisters in the bark. the coarse, weak wood is cleaner than the bark would indicate. spruce and fir woods are often confused in the united states, while pine, spruce, and fir are similarly confounded in europe. [illustration: balsam fir (_abies balsamea_).] fir trees have flat, scattered, evergreen leaves, and cones that stand erect (see footnote under spruce). [p157] balsam fir, common balsam fir. _abies balsamea mill._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) balsam (vt., n. h., n. y.). fir tree (vt.). balm of gilead (del.). canada balsam (n. c.). balm of gilead fir (n. y., pa.). blister pine, fir pine (w. va.). single spruce, silver pine (hudson bay). locality. minnesota to virginia, northward intermittently into canada. features of tree. fifty to seventy feet in height, one to two feet in diameter. sometimes low shrub. blisters in smooth bark contain thick balsam. erect cones. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood white to brownish, sapwood lighter. coarse-grained, compact structure, satiny. structural qualities of wood. soft, light, not durable or strong, resinous, easily split. representative uses of wood. occasionally used as inferior lumber. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 23. modulus of elasticity. 1,160,000. modulus of rupture. 7300. remarks. scattered throughout northern pineries. cut when of sufficient size and sold with pine or spruce. cultivated in gardens. exudations known as canada balsam used in medicine. the poplar (p. balsamifera) is also called balm of gilead. [p158] great silver fir, white fir. _abies grandis lindl._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) silver fir (mont., idaho). oregon white fir, western white fir (cal.). yellow fir (mont., idaho). lowland fir. locality. vancouver region, northwestern united states. best in west washington and oregon. features of tree. two hundred to sometimes three hundred feet in height, two to five feet in diameter. leaves deep green above, silvery below, usually curved. a handsome tree. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light brown, sapwood lighter. coarse-grained, compact structure. structural qualities of wood. light, soft, not strong. representative uses of wood. lumber, interior finish, packing-cases, cooperage. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 22. modulus of elasticity. 1,360,000. modulus of rupture. 7000. remarks. forms important part of local mountain forests and furnishes much lumber locally. [p159] white fir, balsam fir. _abies concolor parry._ nomenclature. (sudworth). silver fir, balsam (cal.). california white fir (cal.). black gum, bastard pine (utah). white balsam (utah). balsam tree (idaho). colorado white fir, concolor white fir. locality. rocky mountains and coast ranges, high elevations. features of tree. seventy to one hundred and fifty feet in height, three to five feet in diameter. pale green or silvery foliage. bark blisters filled with clear pitch. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light brown to nearly white, sapwood same or darker. coarse-grained, compact structure. structural qualities of wood. light, soft, not strong, without odor. representative uses of wood. butter-tubs, packing-boxes, lumber. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 22. modulus of elasticity. 1,290,000. modulus of rupture. 9900. remarks. not always distinguished from the species abies grandis. [p160] red fir. _abies magnifica murr._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) california red fir, california red-bark fir (cal.). magnificent fir, golden fir (cal.). shasta fir (cal.). locality. california, vicinity of mount shasta. features of tree. one hundred to two hundred and fifty feet in height, six to ten feet in diameter. large erect cones. beautiful form. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood reddish, sapwood distinguishable. rather close-grained, compact structure. structural qualities of wood. light, soft, not strong, durable when exposed, liable to injury in seasoning. representative uses of wood. construction, sills, lumber, fuel. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 29. modulus of elasticity. 940,000. modulus of rupture. 9900. remarks. magnifica or magnificent refers to appearance and size of tree. [p161] red fir, noble fir. _abies nobilis lindl._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) noble silver fir, noble red fir. larch (oreg.). bigtree, feather-cone, red fir (cal.). locality. northwestern united states. cultivated in east. features of tree. one to two hundred feet in height, six to nine feet in diameter. leaves curved. large, beautiful tree. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood reddish brown, sapwood darker. rather close-grained, compact structure. structural qualities of wood. light, hard, strong, elastic. representative uses of wood. fitted for house-trimmings. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 28. modulus of elasticity. 1,800,000. modulus of rupture. 22,200. remarks. grows at high elevations (3000 and 4000 feet). with other fir forms extensive forests. sold as larch. [p162] footnote peters, "forestry and irrigation," vol. viii, no. 9 (sept. 1902), pp. 362, 366. hemlock. (_tsuga_.) the hemlocks are distributed over northern united states from maine to michigan, in the rocky mountains, and on the pacific coast. they generally mingle with broad-leaved and other needle-leaved species, but occasionally form pure forests by themselves. the wood is coarse, often crossed-grained, perishable, brittle, liable to wind-shakes, hard to work, and apt to warp and splinter. it holds nails firmly and is used for coarse lumber, dimension pieces, paper-pulp, and latterly for cheap finish. it should not be relied upon to receive shocks. the bark is used in tanning. hemlock trees may be known by their blunt, flat, evergreen leaves, appearing two-ranked and whitened beneath (see foot-note under spruce). red inner bark. [p163] [illustration: plate 31. hemlock (_tsuga_). hemlock tree (_tsuga canadensis_). western hemlock tree (_t. heterophylla_). (6500 feet above sea-level.) hemlock foliage (_tsuga canadensis_). hemlock wood (_tsuga canadensis_).] hemlock. _tsuga canadensis._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) hemlock (local and common name). spruce (pa., w. va.). hemlock spruce (vt., r. i., n. y., pa., n. j., w. va., n. c., s. c.). spruce pine (pa., del., va., n. c., ga.). locality. eastern and central canada, southward to north carolina and tennessee. features of tree. sixty to eighty or more feet in height, two or three feet in diameter. short leaves, green above and white beneath. straight trunk, beautiful appearance. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood reddish brown, sapwood distinguishable. coarse, pronounced, usually crooked grain. structural qualities of wood. light, soft, not strong or durable, brittle, difficult to work, retains nails firmly, splintery. representative uses of wood. coarse lumber, joists, rafters, plank walks, laths, railway ties. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 26. modulus of elasticity. 1,270,000. modulus of rupture. 10,400. remarks. canadensis refers to canada, the locality where tree excels. [p164] footnotes the southern or carolina hemlock (_t. caroliniana_) resembles hemlock. the western hemlock (_t. heterophylla_, alaska to california) attains height of 180 feet, diameter of 9 feet, and is said to afford heavier and better wood. this tree is known by the following names (sudworth): western hemlock, hemlock spruce (cal.). hemlock (oreg., idaho, wash.). alaska pine (northwestern lumberman). prince albert's fir, western hemlock fir, california hemlock spruce (england). "the western hemlock." allen, u. s. forestry bureau bulletin no. 33. larch. tamarack. (_larix_.) larch was well known in the older time, and was prized in europe and the orient. the two principal american species are also called tamarack and hackmatack. the eastern larch or tamarack (_l. americana_) prefers peculiar low, wet areas known as tamarack swamps. the western tree (_l. occidentalis_) resembles the european species and prefers dry places. larch wood has always been regarded as very durable. it is noted by pliny and other ancient authors.[88] vitruvius mentions a bridge that, having burned, was replaced by one of larch, because that wood would not burn as readily.[89] the foundation-piles of venice are said to be of larch.[90] it should be remembered that the identities of ancient woods are not always beyond question. american larch resembles, if it does not equal, true foreign wood. the trees are tall and straight, but so slender as to be seldom cut into lumber, almost the entire supply being demanded for posts, ties, and poles. the exceedingly durable wood resembles spruce in structure, and hard pine in weight and appearance. larch trees are marked by the fact that their foliage is deciduous. the little leaves, gathered in tufts or bundles, are of a bright pea-green when fresh in the springtime. the appearance of tamarack trees when divested of foliage in the winter is very gloomy. footnotes [footnote 88: pliny, xvi, 43-49 and xvi, 30.] [footnote 89: vitruvius, ii, 9.] [footnote 90: encyclopædia britannica, vol. xiv, p. 310.] [illustration: plate 32. larch (_larix_). larch trees in winter.] tamarack, larch. _larix americana michx._ _larix laricina (du roi) koch._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) tamarack, larch, american larch (local and common names). hackmatack (me., n. h., mass., r. i., del., ill., mich.). black larch, red larch (minn., mich.). juniper (me., canada). locality. northern united states and southern canada, east from great lakes. features of tree. seventy to ninety feet high, one to three feet in diameter. short pea-green deciduous leaves in tufts. a slender tree, winter aspect gloomy. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light brown, sapwood nearly white. coarse conspicuous grain, compact structure, annual layers pronounced. structural qualities of wood. heavy, hard, very strong, durable, resembles spruce. representative uses of wood. railway ties, fence-posts, sills, ship timbers, telegraph poles, flagstaffs, etc. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 38. modulus of elasticity. 1,790,000. modulus of rupture. 12,800. remarks. practically all (tall thin) trunks required for railway ties, posts, masts, etc. seldom cut into lumber in consequence. grows in light swamps often extensive and known as tamarack swamp. (trans. am. inst. mining engineers, vol. xxix, page 157). [p166] tamarack larch. _larix occidentalis._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) tamarack, larch (local and common names). hackmatack (idaho, wash.). western larch, great western larch, red american larch. western tamarack (cal.). locality. washington and oregon, intermittently to montana. features of tree. ninety to one hundred and twenty-five feet high, two and one-half to four feet in diameter. a large tree. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light red, thin sapwood lighter. coarse-grained, compact structure, annual rings pronounced. structural qualities of wood. hard, heavy, strong, durable. representative uses of wood. posts, railway ties, fuel, limited quantity of lumber, similar to l. americana. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 46. modulus of elasticity. 2,300,000. modulus of rupture. 17,400. remarks. a valuable tree of the columbian basin. differs from l. americana in that it grows on dry ground, often at high elevations. [p167] [illustration: plate 33. cedar (_cedrus_, _thuya_, etc.). cedar of lebanon (_cedrus libani_). foliage of white cedar (_t. occidentalis_). red cedar bark (_juniperus virginiana_). foliage of red cedar (_j. virginiana_). white cedar wood (_thuya occidentalis_). tree of red cedar (_j. virginiana_).] cedar. (_cedrus, thuya, chamæcyparis, libocedrus, juniperus_.) cedar was a name first applied to the true or lebanon cedars (_cedrus_) of the eastern continent, but later to certain arborvitæs (_thuya_), junipers (_juniperus_), and cypresses (_chamæcyparis_), and other trees (see "spanish cedar," page 122) from which durable, fine-grained, more or less fragrant woods, known as cedar, are obtained. cedar was highly prized by the ancients, who employed it in costly constructions, such as the temples of solomon and of diana at ephesus.[91][92] woods known as cedar are divided into so-called red and white cedars. red cedar is very fine-grained, soft, light, durable, fragrant, and of a pinkish-red color. much wood is derived from the red cedars, _juniperus virginiana_, _juniperus scopulorum_, and _juniperus barbadensis_, of the eastern, western, and southern states respectively. although seen in construction, red cedar is chiefly used in chests, closets, lead-pencils, and cigar-boxes. one hundred and twenty-five thousand trees (125,000)[93] are annually required for lead-pencils alone. the waste is often converted into shavings and used instead of camphor to protect woolens. the demand is greater than the supply. trees are easily grown on almost any soil. trees and wood are subject to fungus diseases which apparently cease after trees have been felled; the wood is then durable.[94] white cedar is best defined as all cedar that is not "red cedar," [p168] and is obtained from several valuable trees.[95] the arborvitæs (_t. occidentalis_) vary in size from large bushes used in hedging and ornamentation to small-sized trees gathered for wood. they are most vigorous on cold, wet areas known as cedar swamps.[96] the giant arborvitæ (_t. gigantea_), noted for its great girth, and the yellow and lawson cypresses, are important pacific coast species. the incense cedar, while much subject to fungus trouble, is also prized.[97] white cedar wood is durable, plentiful, and employed in exposed positions as ties and shingles. arborvitæs (_thuya_) have very small overlapping leaves that form flat rods or fan-like sprays. the cones are oblong, less than one-half inch in length, and all of their six or eight scales separate or open when ripe. the cypresses (_chamæcyparis_) exhibit similar foliage, but their tiny cones are simple, roughened, close, or solid globules. the junipers (_juniperus_) often, but not always, bear bluish-black berries powdered with a whitish-blue bloom. the true cedars (_cedrus_) differ from the others in that they have simple needle leaves, an inch, more or less, in length, together with cones erect and several inches in length. the deodar or cedar of india is of this genus. the principal american red and white cedars are as follows: red cedar. red cedar (_juniperus virginiana_). red cedar (_juniperus scopulorum_). red cedar (_juniperus barbadensis_). spanish cedar. (see page 99.) white cedar. arborvitæ (_thuya occidentalis_). canoe cedar (_thuya gigantea_). white cedar (_chamæcyparis thyoides_). port orford cedar (_chamæcyparis lawsoniana_). yellow cedar (_chamæcyparis nutkaensis_). incense cedar (_libodecrus decurrens_). [p169] footnotes [footnote 91: it is probable that the ancients also used the word cedar somewhat generally.] [footnote 92: pliny, 16, 213 and 16, 216.] [footnote 93: notes on red cedar, mohr. bul. 31, u. s. division forestry (gifford pinchot, forester).] [footnote 94: several of the fungoid parasites cause swellings known as "cedar apples." the branches usually die. professor von schrenk recognizes two diseases of the wood, white rot (_polyporus juniperus_ schrenk) and red rot (_polyporus carneus_). (bulletin no. 21, division vegetable physiology and pathology, u. s. dept. agriculture.)] [footnote 95: heartwood often light grayish brown.] [footnote 96: trunks of considerable size often grow surrounding, but apart from, such swamps. vigorous lower branches impede progress through swamps, which are often as thick as to resemble immense cultivated hedges. (trans. am. inst. m. e., vol xxix, p. 157.)] [footnote 97: von schrenk, contribution no. 14, shaw school of botany, st. louis.] red cedar. _juniperus virginiana linn._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) red cedar (local and common name). cedar (conn., pa., n. j., s. c., ky., ill., ia., ohio). pencil cedar, cendre (la.). savin (mass., r. i., n. y., pa., minn.). juniper, red juniper, juniper bush (local). locality. atlantic coast, canada to florida, westward intermittently to mississippi river in the north, and colorado river in the south. features of tree. fifty to eighty feet in height, two to three feet in diameter. sometimes low shrubs. dark-green foliage, loose ragged outer bark. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood dull red, thin sapwood nearly white. close, even grain, compact structure, annual layers easily distinguishable. structural qualities of wood. light, soft, weak, brittle, easily worked, durable, fragrant. representative uses of wood. ties, sills, posts, interior finish, pencil-cases, chests, cigar-boxes. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 30 modulus of elasticity. 950,000. modulus of rupture. 10,500. remarks. fragrance of wood utilized as insecticide. the western red cedar (_j. scopulorum_) and the southern red cedar (_j. barbadensis_) afford similar wood. [p170] juniper. _juniperus occidentalis hook._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) juniper (oreg., cal., col., utah, nev., mont., idaho, n. m.). cedar, yellow cedar, western cedar (idaho, col., mont.). western red cedar, western juniper (local). locality. california, washington, and oregon. features of tree. twenty-five to fifty feet in height, two to four feet in diameter, often smaller. long straight trunk in west. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood reddish-brown, sapwood nearly white. very close-grained, compact structure. structural qualities of wood. light, soft, durable, receives high polish. representative uses of wood. fencing, railway ties, posts, and fuel. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 35. modulus of elasticity. modulus of rupture. remarks. rarely found below an altitude of 6000 feet. fruit said to be eaten by indians. [p171] white cedar, arborvitæ. _thuya occidentalis linn._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) white cedar, arborvitæ (local and common names). cedar (me., vt., n. y.). atlantic red cedar (cal.). vitæ (del.). locality. northern states eastward from manitoba and michigan. northward, also occasionally southward, as in mountain region of north carolina and eastern tennessee. features of tree. thirty to sixty feet high, one to three feet or more in diameter, often smaller. bruised leaves emit characteristic pungent odor, rapidly tapering trunk. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood light brown, darkening with exposure, thin sapwood, nearly white. even, rather fine grain, compact structure. structural qualities of wood. soft, light, weak, brittle, durable, inflammable. permits spikes to work loose. representative uses of wood. railway ties, telegraph poles, posts, fencing, shingles, and boats. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 19. modulus of elasticity. 750,000. modulus of rupture. 7200. remarks. trunks so shaped as to be seldom sawn for lumber. often used for telegraph or other poles, or else thin upper ends are used for posts, and lower section flattened into ties. [p172] canoe cedar, arborvitæ. giant arborvitæ. _thuya plicata don._ _thuya gigantea nutt._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) canoe cedar, giant arborvitæ (local and common names). red cedar, giant red cedar, pacific red cedar (wash., oreg., cal., idaho). cedar, giant cedar, western cedar (oreg., cal.). shinglewood (idaho). locality. coast region, california to alaska, idaho to montana. features of tree. one hundred to two hundred feet in height, two to eleven feet in diameter. four-sided leaves closely overlapping in sprays. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood dull reddish brown, thin sapwood nearly white. coarse-grained, compact structure, annual layers distinct. structural qualities of wood. soft, weak, light, brittle, easily worked, very durable. representative uses of wood. shingles, fencing, cooperage, interior finish, canoes (coast indians). weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 23. modulus of elasticity. 1,460,000. modulus of rupture. 10,600. remarks. large trees are often hollow at the bottom. [p173] white cedar. _chamæcyparis thyoides l._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) white cedar (local and common name). post cedar, swamp cedar (del.). juniper (ala., n. c., va.). locality. maine to florida, gulf coast to mississippi, best in virginia and north carolina. features of tree. sixty to eighty feet in height, three to four feet in diameter. shaggy rugged bark. a graceful tree. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood pinkish to darker brown, sapwood lighter. close-grained, compact structure, conspicuous layers. structural qualities of wood. very light, soft, not strong, extremely durable in exposed positions, fragrant, easily worked. representative uses of wood. boats, railway ties, fencing, poles, posts, shingles. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 23 (u. s. forestry div.). 20. modulus of elasticity. 910,000 (average of 87 tests by u. s. forestry div.). 570,000. modulus of rupture. 6310 (average of 87 tests by u. s. forestry div.). 6400. remarks. grows chiefly in swamps. "white cedar posts" last many years. thyoides is from thuya meaning arborvitæ and eidos, the greek for "resemblance." [p174] port orford cedar, lawson cypress. _chamæcyparis lawsoniana murr._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) white cedar, oregon cedar (oreg., cal.). ginger pine (cal.). locality. pacific coast, california and oregon. features of tree. one hundred to sometimes two hundred feet in height, four to twelve (?) feet in diameter. leaves overlapping in sprays, very small cones one-fourth inch in diameter. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood yellowish white, sapwood similar. very close-grained. structural qualities of wood. light, hard, strong, durable, easily worked, fragrant, resinous. representative uses of wood. lumber, flooring, interior finish, ties, posts, matches, ship-building. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 28. modulus of elasticity. 1,730,000. modulus of rupture. 12,600. remarks. resin employed as insecticide. [p175] yellow cedar, yellow cypress, sitka cypress. _chamæcyparis nootkatensis (lamb) spach._ _chamæcyparis nutkaënsis spach._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) nootka cypress, nootka sound cypress (local). alaska cypress, alaska ground cypress (local). locality. oregon to alaska. features of tree. one hundred feet or more in height, three to five feet or more in diameter. sharp-pointed, overlapping leaves, small globular cones. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood clear light yellow, thin sapwood nearly white. close-grained, compact structure. structural qualities of wood. light, not strong, brittle, hard, durable in contact with soil, easily worked, receives high polish, fragrant. representative uses of wood. ship-building, furniture, interior finish. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 29. modulus of elasticity. 1,460,000. modulus of rupture. 11,000. remarks. valuable alaska timber tree. commercially not distinguished from pacific arborvitæ. [p176] incense cedar, white cedar. _libocedrus decurrens torr._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) post cedar, california post cedar (local). bastard cedar, red cedar, california white cedar (local). juniper (nevada). locality. california and oregon. features of tree. ninety to one hundred and twenty-five feet in height, occasionally higher, three to six feet in diameter. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood brownish, sapwood lighter. close-grained, compact structure. heartwood often pitted. fragrant. structural qualities of wood. light, brittle, soft, durable. representative uses of wood. flumes, shingles, interior finish. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 25. modulus of elasticity. 1,200,000. modulus of rupture. 960,000. remarks. subject to attack by fungus, causing the large oval pits in the heartwood. disease ceases upon the felling of trees. (von schrenk contribution no. 14 shaw school botany, st. louis.) [p177] [illustration: plate 34. cypress (_cupressus_, _taxodium_). monterey cypress (_cupressus macrocarpa_). (_courtesy doubleday, page & co._) cypress (_taxodium distichum_). (_photograph by edward j. davison_.) "peggy" cypress wood.] cypress. (_cupressus and taxodium_.) the name cypress has been chiefly applied to trees of the genera chamæcyparis, cupressus, and taxodium. most species of the genus chamæcyparis are now called cedars (see page 167). the cupressus, while true cypresses and important in europe, have no significance in america. the single species of the genus taxodium is not a cypress, but supplies the "cypress" wood of american commerce. it is perhaps best to confine the name cypress to the true cypress (_cupressus_) and to the commercial cypress (_taxodium_). the true cypress (_cupressus_) was once important in the east, and is thought by some to have given the gopher wood of which the ark was built.[98] pliny mentions cypress doors good after four hundred years, and a statue good after six hundred years. herodotus and other ancient authors[99] speak of it. authorities in the middle ages thought that it would never decay. the cypress gates of the early st. peter's, removed after one thousand years of service, were found to be in perfect condition.[100] cypress was much prized for mummy-cases. living trees long figured as funeral emblems, and are yet planted over graves in italy and turkey.[101] the common or evergreen cypress is the chief european species. the eight or nine american representatives are of little note save as they are sometimes used for hedges and ornamentation. the monterey and gowan cypresses (_cupressus macrocarpa_ and _cupressus goveniana_) are thus employed. there are small evergreen scale-like leaves. [p178] [illustration: bald cypress (_taxodium distichum_).] the american or bald cypress (_taxodium distichum_) is a tree of considerable importance. it grows in the south atlantic and gulf states, on submerged lands or in deep swamps where unusual logging methods are necessitated. the seasoned wood resembles white cedar in that it is soft, light, and very durable. it has been called by many names. pieces were once called black or white cypress according as they sank or floated. all dark pieces are now called black cypress. the tinted woods of some localities are called red or yellow cypress. the name bald cypress was caused by the leafless appearance of the trees in winter. the living trees are subject to a peculiar fungous disease, causing numerous cavities in the wood. these so resemble perforations made by small pegs that the wood is termed "peggy." the trouble ceases as the trees are cut, and the wood is then as durable as that from perfect trees. about one third of the standing supply is thus affected.[102] the roots frequently project upward above the surface in what are known as cypress knees. the single species of this genus may easily be recognized by its deciduous foliage; the little leaves are separated and are not in tufts as with the tamaracks. [p179] footnotes [footnote 98: funk & wagnalls' standard dictionary, quoting horace smith, "gayeties and gravities," chapter vii, p. 57.] [footnote 99: pliny 16, 214 and 16, 215; herodotus 4, 16; virgil, georgics, 2, 443.] [footnote 100: encyclopædia britannica, b. 6, p. 745.] [footnote 101: brockhaus, konversations-lexikon, b. 4, p. 654.] [footnote 102: u. s. forestry circular no. 19 (dr. b. e. fernow, chief).] cypress, bald cypress. _taxodium distichum rich._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) white cypress (n. c., s. c., fla., miss.). black cypress (n. c., s. c., ala., tex.). red cypress (ga., miss., la., tex.). swamp cypress (la.). deciduous cypress (del., ill., tex.). southern cypress (ala.). locality. south atlantic and gulf states, maryland through florida to texas, mississippi valley from southern illinois to the gulf. occasional in north, as new york. forms forests in swamps and barrens.[103] features of tree. seventy to one hundred and fifty feet in height, four to ten feet in diameter. knees on roots often hollow in old age. flat deciduous leaves. color, appearance, or grain of wood. heartwood brownish, sapwood nearly white. close, straight grain. frequently pitted by disease. structural qualities of wood. light, soft, not strong, durable. green wood often very heavy. representative uses of wood. carpentry, construction, cooperage, railway ties. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 29 (u. s. forestry div.).[104] 28. modulus of elasticity. 1,290,000 (average of 655 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[104] 1,460,000. modulus of rupture. 7900 (average of 655 tests by u. s. forestry div.).[104] 9600. remarks. wood commercially divided into "white" and "black" cypress because of differences in age and environment. fungus disease pits much wood, but stops with felling of trees.[105] [p180] footnotes [footnote 103: see trans. am. inst. m. e., vol. xxix, page 157.] [footnote 104: see page 6.] [footnote 105: von schrenk, contribution no. 14, shaw school botany, st. louis; also u. s. forestry circular no. 19.] redwood. (_sequoia_.) these trees grow only in california. there are two species: the common redwood (_s. sempervirens_), noted for its lumber, and the big or mammoth tree (_s. washingtoniana_), so remarkable for its great size. geological evidence indicates that the genus was once represented by many species on both hemispheres, but that all disappeared during the glacial period save the two here noted. the common redwood is a large and perfect tree and supplies a wood suggesting good red cedar. this soft, light, clean, reddish-brown, durable wood works and stands well, is not easily inflamed, and is obtainable in large-sized pieces for use in large constructions. coffins and shingles are made of it, also large quantities of wooden water-pipe employed for irrigation purposes. the average wood is seen in cheaper forms of indoor finish, while occasional pieces, in which the grain is distorted, are classed as curly redwood and used for costlier decorations. big or mammoth trees have been measured up to three hundred and twenty feet in height and thirty-five feet in diameter (sargent). they are thus the largest of american trees and the most massive, although not the tallest, of all trees. specimens twenty-five feet in diameter have been estimated as thirty-six hundred years old, and it is thought that under favorable conditions trees can survive for five thousand years, or even longer. the oldest trees are sound throughout. the almost incombustible bark is nearly two feet in thickness; the wood is brittle, but otherwise resembles ordinary redwood. it should be noted that large exceptional trees are all known, and that most of them have names such as the "pride of the forest," the "grizzly giant," and the "u. s. grant." these, with younger trees, are grouped in [p181] the mariposa, calavaras, and other groves. many sawmills are unfortunately engaged on the trees of this species. [illustration: plate 35. redwood (_sequoia_). redwood foliage (_sequoia sempervirens_). giant redwood tree (_s. washingtoniana_). (_courtesy doubleday, page & co._) "curly" redwood wood (dissection).] redwood trees may be known by their size, locality, and fine, dull, evergreen foliage. the name sequoia is that of an indian chief. [p182] footnote references: "the big trees of california," u. s. forestry division bulletin no. 28. also mr. jas. horsburgh, jr., southern pacific railway. redwood. _sequoia sempervirens endl._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) redwood (local and common name). sequoia, california redwood, coast redwood (local). locality. central and north pacific coast region. features of tree. two hundred to three hundred feet in height, sometimes higher, six to eight and sometimes twenty feet in diameter. straight, symmetrical trunk. low branches rare. color, appearance, or grain of wood. thick heartwood red, changing to reddish brown when seasoned; thin sapwood nearly white. coarse, straight grain, compact structure, very thick bark. structural qualities of wood. light, not strong, soft, very durable, not resinous, easily worked. does not burn easily, receives polish. representative uses of wood. timber, shingles, flumes, fence-posts, coffins, railway ties, water-pipes, interior decoration. bark made into souvenirs. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 26 (census figure, see page 6). modulus of elasticity. 790,000 (average of 8 humboldt specimens).[106] 1,140,000 (average of 7 humboldt specimens).[106] 960,000 (census figure, see page 6). modulus of rupture. 4920 (average of 9 humboldt specimens).[106] 7138 (average of 7 mendocino specimens).[106] 8400 (census figure, see page 6). remarks. pacific coast chief construction wood. curled or distorted grain adds value for cabinet purposes. [p183] * * * * * the big or mammoth tree or giant redwood (_s. washingtoniana_ sudworth and _s. gigantea_) is the largest tree known. the wood resembling that of _s. sempervirens_ is used locally, see u. s. forestry bul. no. 28. footnote [footnote 106: professor frank soulé, trans. am. inst. m. e., california meeting, 1899. there are several trees of this species near new york city.] [illustration: plate 36. endogenous structure in wood. a section through a palm tree. a cross-section of palm wood. (natural size.)] endogenous trees. (_monocotyledons_.) endogenous trees are those that increase from within. their elemental parts are similar to those of exogenous trees but the arrangement of such parts differs in that the newer fibres of the endogen intermingle with the old, pass through a pith-like tissue, and cause cross-surfaces to appear as dotted, whereas the new material of the exogen is deposited altogether and upon the outside of the old, their sections exhibiting rings or layers. the palms, yuccas, cornstalks, and bamboos are of the endogens. bark is unusual on trees of the series. endogenous woods are hardest and most compact at circumferences. the stems of palm trees are solid, but those of some of the grasses, particularly those that grow quickly, are hollow.[107] the tube or canal, when existing, is due to sluggishness on the part of the central pith, which, developing more slowly than the outer tissues, finally ruptures and disappears at the center. there are also more or less permanent joints or knots,[108] such as are made familiar by the canes and bamboos. the stems of endogenous plants are seldom cut up into lumber, but are used in segments, or else entire, as for troughs or piles.[109] the use of palm wood must be more or less [p184] limited to the neighborhoods in which such trees flourish, but it is probable that the bamboo can be much more generally employed. the endogens include numerous families and many thousand species.[110] the grasses, including wheat, rye, and indian corn at the north and sugar-cane and bamboo at the south, belong to this group. most endogens are herbs; comparatively few furnish material for structural purposes. the palms, including the palmetto, rattans, cane palms, and others, the yucca, including the joshua tree, spanish bayonet, and others, and the bamboos, representatives of the grasses, are thus useful. endogens are also known as monocotyledons. [p185] footnotes [footnote 107: the bamboo, which is a grass, is hollow, while the cornstalk, which is also a grass, is not.] [footnote 108: the knots of endogens correspond to the nodes of exogens. spaces between the nodes, known as internodes, mark the annual lengthening. knots are places whence leaves have emerged.] [footnote 109: palm in marine work appears to repel the teredoe. this is probably because of the porous character of the wood. see "marine wood borers," trans. am. soc. c. e., vol. xl, pages 195 and 204.] [footnote 110: bastin ("college botany," p. 379) divides into about fifty natural orders distributed among seven divisions. warming ("systematic botany," pp. 277, 278) divides into seven families corresponding with bastin's seven divisions. a. gray divides into twenty-one orders or families. coulter ("plants," p. 237) divides into forty families, including twenty thousand species.] [illustration: plate 37. palm (_palmaceæ_) cabbage palmetto. (_courtesy n. c. geological survey_.) washington palm (untrimmed). (_messrs. doubleday, page & co._). washington palm (trimmed). (_los angeles chamber commerce_.)] palm. palmaceæ. this is one of the largest and most important orders of plants known to man. the one thousand[111] or more known species are distributed over the tropical and semitropical regions of the entire world. only a few species, including the palmettos of the gulf states and the fan palms of california are native in the united states. palms have tall, columnar trunks without branches, but with crowns of large leaves at their summits. their forms and proportions are often magnificent. the wood is soft, light, more or less porous, difficult to work, and not strong. the shapes of trunks sometimes cause them to be locally prized for piles, while the porous qualities of the wood are such as to repel teredo.[112] there are many by-products, as fruit, nuts, oil, etc. the rattan or cane palms of india and the malayan islands sometimes grow to a height of two hundred feet and are imported into europe and america for chair-bottoms and the like. sudworth[113] enumerates the following as attaining to the dignity of trees in the united states: cabbage palmetto (_sabal palmetto_). silvertop palmetto (_thrinax microcarpa_). silktop palmetto (_thrinax parviflora_). mexican palmetto (_sabal mexicana_). sargent palm (_pseudoph[oe]nix sargentii_). fanleaf palm (_washingtonia filifera_). royal palm (_oredoya regia_). [p186] footnotes [footnote 111: coulter, "plants," p. 241.] [footnote 112: "marine wood borers," snow trans. am. soc. c. e., vol. xl, pp. 195 and 204.] [footnote 113: "check list," u. s. forestry bul. no. 17.] a. l. wallace, "palm trees of amazon and their uses," london, 1853. cabbage palmetto. _sabal palmetto walt._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) cabbage palmetto, palmetto (n. c., s. c.). cabbage tree (miss., fla.). tree palmetto (la.). locality. southern atlantic and gulf coast, united states (intermittently). features of tree. medium size, thirty to forty feet in height, one to two and one-half feet in diameter. color, appearance, or grain of wood. light-brown tint. characteristic coarse fibre arrangement. structural qualities of wood. light, soft, difficult to work; durable in marine work; repels teredo. representative uses of wood. piles, wharf work, etc. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 27. modulus of elasticity. modulus of rupture. remarks. scrubbing-brush "bristles" are made in considerable quantities in florida from the sheath of young leaves. the inner part of young plants is edible. it is said (n. y. _evening post_, april 20, 1901) that paper is being manufactured from the leaves of the palmetto. [p187] washington palm. fanleaf palm. _washingtonia filifera wendl._ _neowashingtonia filamentosa wendl._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) fanleaf palm, washington palm, desert palm (cal.). california fan palm, arizona palm, wild date (cal.). locality. california. features of tree. thirty to sixty feet in height, one and one-half to three feet in diameter. fan-shaped leaves rising yet farther in tuft from summit; edible fruit. color, appearance, or grain of wood. light greenish yellow to dark red, conspicuous grain. structural qualities of wood. soft, light, shrinks in seasoning, difficult to work. representative uses of wood. ornamental purposes. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 32. modulus of elasticity. modulus of rupture. remarks. the largest of the united states palms. much used for landscape effects in california. [p188] yucca. (_yucca_.) the eighteen species constituting this genus are all american. twelve of them are found in the southern and western united states, and eight of these are mentioned by sudworth[114] as arborescent. several of the yuccas are cultivated because of their beautiful lily-like flowers. the tree yucca or joshua-tree affords wood. this last named species produces a short stout trunk, peculiar in that it is covered by thick bark. the soft, spongy wood is sometimes sawn into lumber, made into souvenirs and lately into artificial limbs. an attempt to manufacture it into paper-pulp[115] is said to have failed because of high cost made necessary by the remote position of the industry. hough notes[116] that trees are sometimes attacked by borers that impregnate the walls of their tunnels with hardening antiseptic solutions, causing such parts to remain after the disappearance of the others. and that these parts are described as "petrified wood," and are prized for fuel since they burn with "little smoke and great heat." the eight species noted by sudworth are as follows: yucca arborescens (joshua tree). yucca treculeana (spanish bayonet). yucca gloriosa (spanish dagger). yucca mohavensis (mohave yucca). yucca aloifolia (aloë-leaf yucca). yucca macrocarpa (broadfruit yucca). yucca brevifolia (schott yucca). yucca constricta. [p189] footnotes [footnote 114: "check list," u. s. forestry bul. no. 17.] [footnote 115: south of mohave desert in california about twenty years ago.] [footnote 116: american woods, part vii, p. 57.] [illustration: plate 38. yucca (_yucca arborescens_). _by courtesy of messrs. doubleday, page & co. photograph by conaway._ wood of yucca.] joshua-tree, yucca. _yucca brevifolia engel._ _yucca arborescens torr._ nomenclature. (sudworth.) joshua-tree, the joshua, yucca, yucca tree (utah, ariz., n. m., cal.). yucca cactus (cal.). locality. central and lower rocky mountain region. features of tree. twenty-five to forty feet in height, six inches to two feet in diameter. thick outer cover or bark.[117] color, appearance, or grain of wood. light brown to white, porous grain. structural qualities of wood. light, soft, spongy, flexible in thin sheets. representative uses of wood. paper-pulp, souvenirs, boxes, book covers, and other small articles. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. 23. modulus of elasticity. modulus of rupture. remarks. bark is unusual in the case of endogenous trees. arborescens refers to fact that _it_ is a tree. [p190] footnote [footnote 117: see paragraph bark, endogenous trees, page 55.] bamboo. (_bambusæ_.) the bamboos are giant members of a group (grasses[118]), the other individuals of which, while widely distributed, valued, and very numerous, are for the most part insignificant as to bulk, height, and structural characteristics. the canes and bamboos are exceptions in that they form what may well be called forests, and produce woods used in construction. the bamboos (_bambusæ_), including about twenty genera and two hundred species,[119] are distributed unevenly over the tropical zone. [illustration: plate 39. bamboo (_bambusæ_). bamboo grove, philippines. _by the courtesy of the manila p.o. forestry bureau._ bamboo grove, china. bamboo sections, 5-1/4 inches diameter.] the bamboo plant with its numerous stalks and delicate foliage resembles a plume of giant ostrich feathers. the stems attain heights of seventy feet and diameters of four and six inches (see fig. 3 plate). knots or joints are at first close together, but are later one or two feet apart. growth is surprisingly rapid. a philippine specimen, which when measured was eighteen inches high and four inches in diameter, grew two feet in three days.[120] florida stalks have reached heights of seventy-two feet in a single season.[121] the plants are apt to take complete possession of the ground on which they grow. those who use bamboo value it highly. it is employed entire or else split into segments. some can be [p191] opened and flattened into rough boards, splitting everywhere but holding together.[122] for vessels it is cut off with reference to the partitions. the subject is thus summarized by dr. martin:[123] "the chinese make masts of it for their small junks, and twist it into cables for their larger ones. they weave it into matting for floors, and make it into rafters for roofs. they sit at table on bamboo chairs, eat shoots of bamboo with bamboo chop-sticks. the musician blows a bamboo flute, and the watchman beats a bamboo rattle. criminals are confined in a bamboo cage and beaten with bamboo rods. paper is made of bamboo fibre, and pencils of a joint of bamboo in which is inserted a tuft of goat's hair." the manipulation of this valuable material is not yet understood in america. prof. johnson notes[124] that the wood of "bamboo is just twice as strong as the strongest wood in cross-bending, weight for weight, when the wood is taken in specimens, with a square and solid cross-section." dr. fernow considers the bamboo worthy of extensive trial throughout the gulf region.[125] [p192] footnotes [footnote 118: grasses, "one of the largest and probably one of the most useful groups of plants. . . . if grass-like sedges be associated, . . . there are about 6000 species, representing nearly one third of the monocotyledons." (coulter, "plants," pp. 240-241.) the various pasture-grasses, cereals, and sugar-canes are here included. bamboos and canes are distinct in that they afford structural materials.] [footnote 119: b. e. fernow notes (p. 29, forestry bulletin no. 11): "in addition to the genus bambusa, the genera arundinaria, arundo, dendrocalamus, and guadua are the most important." all of tribe bambusae.] [footnote 120: frederic h. sawyer. memb. inst. c. e., "inhabitants of the philippines," chas. scribner's sons. 1900 (p. 5).] [footnote 121: page 29, u. s. forestry bulletin no. 11.] [footnote 122: prof. isaac f. holton, "new granada," harper bros., new york, 1857 (p. 109).] [footnote 123: "cycle of cathay," fleming h. revell co., 1899 (p. 172).] [footnote 124: materials of construction, 1897, p. 689.] [footnote 125: henry g. hubbard, u. s. forestry bulletin no. 11, a. b. mitford.] "the bamboo garden," macmillan, 1896. kurz, "bamboo and its uses," calcutta, 1876. "bamboo as substitute for wood," fernow, p. 203, 6th annual report. bamboo. _bambusa vulgaris._ nomenclature. bamboo local and common name. locality. florida (acclimated). features of tree. seventy-five feet in height, four to six inches in diameter. delicate branches and leaves. greenish glazed jointed stem, extensive roots. color, appearance, or grain of wood. yellowish brown, conspicuously fibrous, moderately thin walls, central canal broken by joints. structural qualities of wood. light, elastic, works easily. representative uses of wood. posts, poles, utensils, troughs, pipes, roofing, paper. weight of seasoned wood in pounds per cubic foot. variable. modulus of elasticity. 2,380,000 (johnson's "materials of construction," p. 689). modulus of rupture. 27,400 (johnson's "materials of construction," p. 689). remarks. [p193] index. page a _abies_, 149, 156 _balsamea_, 156, 157 _concolor_, 136, 156, 159 _grandis_, 156, 158 _magnifica_, 160 _nobilis_, 161 _taxifolia_, 154 acacia, 77 false, 78 three-thorned, 78 _acer_, 40 _dasycarpum_, 43 _macrophyllum_, 45 _negundo_, 46 _pseudo-platanus_, 40, 65 _rubrum_, 44 _saccharinum_, 43 _saccharum_, 42 _æsculus_, 96 _flava_, 98 _glabra_, 97 _hippocastanum_, 96, 97 _octandra_, 98 alburnum, 7 algaroba, 79 alligator-wood, 100 apple, 27 apple-tree (osage), 113 arborvitæ, 168, 171, 172 giant, 172 pacific, 175 _arbutus_, 108 _menziesii_, 108, 110 _arundinaria_, 190 _arundo_, 190 ash, 27, 29, 33 american, 29 black, 28, 29, 32, 46 blue, 31, 33 brown, 30 cane, 29 green, 27, 33 hoop, 32 mountain, 27 oregon, 34 prickly, 27 red, 30 river, 30 second-growth, 28 swamp, 32, 33 stinking, 46 sugar, 46 water, 32, 33, 46 white, 27, 29, 33 yellow, 27 aspen, 81 large american, 83 quaking, 83 b balluck, 128 balm, 85 balm of gilead, 157 fir, 157 balsam, 157 canada, 157 he, 150 white, 159 balsam fir, 136 balsam tree, 159 bamboo, 190, 192 _bambusæ_, 190 _vulgaris_, 192 bass, 81 basswood, 80, 87 white, 87 yellow, 87 bast, 87 bay rose, 108 bay tree, 109 california, 109 bayonet, spanish, 188 baywood, 120 beech, 60, 62 blue, 60, 63 red, 62 ridge, 62 water, 63 white, 62 bee-tree, 81, 87 _betula_, 68 _lenta_, 74, 111 _lutea_, 73 _nigra_, 72 _papyrifera_, 71 _populifolia_, 70 big-bud, 54 big tree, 161, 180, 182 california, 180, 182 birch, 68, 72 black, 72, 74 blue, 72 canoe, 71 cherry, 111 gray, 70, 73 large white, 71 mahogany, 74 oldfield, 70 paper, 71 poplar-leaved, 70 poverty, 70 red, 72 river, 72, 74 silver, 71, 73 small white, 70 swamp, 73 sweet, 74, 111 water, 72 white, 70, 71 bitternut, 53 blisted, 100 blue lin, 86 boc, 60 bodark, 113 bodock, 113 bois puant, 91 bois d'arc, 111, 113 bok, 60 boleau, 71 botanical name, 1 bow-wood, 113 boxelder, 46 boxwood, 103, 106, 108 new england, 106 box, false (dogwood), 106 broadleaf trees, 10 woods, 10 buche, 60 buckeye, 96, 97, 98 big, 98 fetid, 97 large, 98 ohio, 97 stinking, 97 sweet, 98 yellow, 98 bullnut, 54 _bumelia_, 61 _tenax_, 61 _lycioides_, 61 burl, 47 buttonball, 66, 67 buttonball tree, 66, 67 buttonwood, 66, 67 c canoewood, 82 _carpinus_, 60 _caroliniana_, 60, 63 _carya_, 51 _alba_, 52 _olivæformis_, 55 _porcina_, 53 _tomentosa_, 54 _castanea_, 56 _dentata_, 58 _pumila_, 56, 59 _vesca_, 58 _vesca var. americana_, 58 _vulgaris var. americana_, 58 _castanopsis chrysopylla_, 57, 59 catalpa, 90, 91, 92 _catalpa_, 90 _bignonioides_, 92 _catalpa_, 92 _speciosa_, 91 catawba, 92 catawba tree, 92 cajeput, 109 calico bush, 108 cedar, 167, 169, 170, 171, 172 atlantic red, 171 bastard, 176 california post, 177 california white, 177 canoe, 168, 172 cuban, 122 giant, 172 giant red, 172 incense, 168, 176 lebanon, 167 mexican, 122 oregon, 174 pacific red, 172 pencil, 169 port orford, 168, 174 post, 173, 176 red, 167, 168, 169, 172, 176 southern, 169 spanish, 119, 122, 168 swamp, 173 western, 170, 172 western red, 169, 170 white, 167, 168, 171, 173, 174, 176 yellow, 168, 170, 175 _cedrela_, 118 _australis_, 122 _odorata_, 122 _toona_, 122 _cedrus_, 167 _libani_, 167 cell structures, 2 census u. s. experiments, 4 _cercocarpus breviflorus_, 118 _ledifolius_, 118 _parvifolius_, 118 _chamæcyparis_, 167, 177 _lawsoniana_, 168, 174 _nootkatensis_, 175 _nutkænsis_, 168, 175 _thyoides_, 168, 173 chêne étoilé, 16 chêne vert, 23 cherry, 111, 114 black, 114 choke, 114 rum, 114 whisky, 114 wild, 111, 114 wild black, 111, 114 cherry birch, 74 chestnut, 56, 58 horse chestnut, 96, 97 chinquapin, 56, 59 cigar-tree, 91, 92 indian, 92 _cladrastis lutea_, 27 _cliftonia monophylla_, 61 coefficients, 3 conifers, 9, 129 coniferous trees, 129 coniferous woods, 129 confederate pintree, 78 cornel, 106 flowering, 106 _cornus_, 103 _florida_, 106 cotton tree, 84 cottonwood, 80, 84, 85 balm, 85 balsam, 85 big, 84 black, 85 broadleaved, 84 yellow, 84 crab apple, 27 cross-section, 8 cucumber, 86 cucumber-tree, 80, 82, 86 _cupressus_, 177 _cupressus goveniana_, 177 _macrocarpa_, 177 cypress, 167, 177, 179 american, 179 bald, 178, 179 black, 179 deciduous, 179 gowan, 177 monterey, 177 red, 179 southern, 179 swamp, 179 white, 179 d dagger, spanish, 188 _dammara australis_, 146, 147 date plum, 112 date, wild, 187 deal, 145, 149 deciduous trees, 7 deciduous woods, 7 _dendrocalamus_, 190 dicotyledons, 6, 7 _diospyros_, 111 _virginiana_, 111, 112 dogwood, 103, 106 flowering, 106 douglas tree, 155 duramen, 7 e ebony, 111 _ebenaceæ_, 111 elm, 35, 36, 39 american, 36 cliff, 37 cork, 37, 39 hickory, 37 moose, 38 mountain, 39 red, 38, 39 redwooded, 38 rock, 37, 38 slippery, 38 small-leaved, 39 wahoo, 39 water, 36, 39 white, 36, 37 wing, 39 winged, 39 witch, 39 encena, 24 endogens, 6, 183 endogenous trees, 6, 183 endogenous woods, 6, 183 evergreen, 9, 129 evergreen trees, 9, 129 evergreen woods, 9, 129 _eucalyptus_, 123 _colossea_, 126 _diversicolor_, 123, 126 _globulus_, 123, 128 _gomphocephala_, 123, 127 _eucalyptus marginata_, 123, 125 exogens, 7 exogenous trees, 7 exogenous woods, 7 _exothea paniculata_, 61 f _fagus_, 60 _atropunicea_, 62 _ferruginea_, 62 false box, 106 feather-cone, 161 fever tree, 128 fibre, 2 _ficus sycamorus_, 65 fig-tree, 65 fir, 149, 155, 156 balsam, 136, 156, 157, 159 california red, 160 california red-bark, 160 california white, 159 colorado white, 159 concolor white, 159 dantzic, 145 douglas, 155 feather-cone, 161 golden, 160 great silver, 158 lowland, 158 magnificent, 160 memel, 145 noble, 161 noble red, 161 noble silver, 161 northern, 145 oregon white, 158 prince albert's, 163 red, 155, 160, 161 rigi, 145 scots, 145 scottish, 145 shasta, 160 silver, 156, 158, 159 stettin, 145 swedish, 145 tree, 157 western hemlock, 163 western white, 158 white, 156, 158, 159 yellow, 158 forestry division experiments, 4 _fraxinus_, 27 _americana_, 29 _lanceolata_, 27, 33 _nigra_, 32 _oregona_, 34 _pubescens_, 30 _pennsylvanica_, 30 _quadrangulata_, 31 _sambucifolia_, 32 _viridis_, 33 g gallic acid, 12 generic name, 1 _gleditsia_, 75 _triacanthos_, 75, 78 gopher wood, 27 gum, 99, 100, 101 black, 101, 160 blue, 123, 128 cotton, 102 kauri, 147 mahogany, 125 red, 100 satin, 100 sour, 99, 101, 102 star-leaved, 100 sweet, 99, 100 tree, 100, 123 tupelo, 101, 102 walnut, 100 white, 126, 127 yellow (gum) tree, 101 great laurel, 106, 108 greenheart, 115, 117 _gaujacum_, 103 _arborium_, 107 _officinale_, 104, 107 _sanctum_, 61, 104, 107 _guadua_, 190 h hackmatack, 165, 166 hardhack, 64 hardshell, 53 hardwoods, 9, 10 heartwood, 7 he balsam, 150 hedge, 113 hedge-plant, 113 hemlock, 149, 162, 163 carolina, 163 southern, 163 western, 163 _hicoria_, 51 _alba_, 54 _glabra_, 53 _ovata_, 52 _pecan_, 55 hickory, 51, 54 black, 53, 54 brown, 53 common, 54 hardbark, 54 (hickory nuts), 51, 52, 54 hognut, 54 mockernut, 54 pecan, 55 pignut, 53 red, 53, 54 scalybark, 52 second-growth, 51 shagbark, 52 shellbark, 52 switch-bud, 53 upland, 52 white, 52, 53, 54 holly, 103, 105 american, 105 white, 105 honey, 78 honey pod, 79 honey shucks, 78 hornbeam, 60, 63, 64 horse chestnut, 96, 97 i _ilex_, 103 _opaca_, 103, 105 _aquifolium_, 103 indian cigar tree, 92 indian-bean, 91, 92 iron-bark, 123 ironwood, 60, 63, 64, 79, 107 j jarrah, 123, 125 joshua (the), 189 tree, 188, 189 _juglans_, 47 _cinerea_, 48, 50 _nigra_, 49 _regia_, 47, 49 juniper, 165, 167, 169, 170, 176 red, 169 western, 170 juniper bush, 169 _juniperus_, 167 _barbadensis_, 167, 168, 169 _occidentalis_, 167, 168, 170 _scopulorum_, 167, 168, 169 _virginiana_, 167, 168, 169 k _kalmia latifolia_, 108 karri, 123, 126 kauri gum, 146, 147 kauri pine, 146, 147 l lanza experiments, 5 larch, 161, 164, 165 american, 165 american western, 166 black, 165 great western, 166 red, 165 tamarack, 166 western, 166 _larix_, 164 _americana_, 164, 165 _laricina_, 165 _occidentalis_, 164, 166 laurel, 106, 108, 109, 110 big, 108 california, 109 great, 106, 108 madroña, 108, 110 mountain, 108, 109 laurelwood, 110 lazlett experiments, 5 leverwood, 64 _libocedrus_, 167, 168 _decurrens_, 168, 176 lignumvitæ, 103, 107 lime, 81 lime tree, 81, 87 black, 87 smooth-leaved, 87 linn, 87 lin, black, 86 lind, 81 white, 87 linden, 81, 87 american, 87 _liriodendron_, 80 _tulipifera_, 80, 82 liquidamber, 99, 100 _liquidamber_, 99 _styraciflua_, 99, 100 locust, 75, 77, 78 black, 75, 77, 78 green, 77 honey, 75, 77, 78, 79 honey shucks, 78 pea flower, 77 post, 77 red, 77 screw pod, 76 sweet, 78 thorn, 78 thorny, 78 white, 77 yellow, 77 m _maclura_, 111 _aurantiaca_, 111, 113 madeira, 120 madroña, 108, 110 madrone tree, 110 madrove, 110 magnolia, 108 mountain, 86 _magnolia_, 80, 108 _grandiflora_, 108 _acuminata_, 86 mahogany, 118, 120 african, 118, 120 american, 118, 120 cuban, 118, 120 honduras, 118, 120 indian, 118 mexican, 118, 120 mountain, 74, 118 san domingan, 118, 120 spanish, 118, 120 white, 50, 119, 121 mammoth trees, 180, 182 manzanita, 110 maple, 40, 45 ash-leaved, 46 bird's-eye, 40, 42 black, 42 blister, 40, 42 broad-leaved, 45 curly, 40, 42, 43, 44 cut-leaved, 46 hard, 42 (maple keys), 41 negundo, 41, 46 oregon, 45 red, 44 red river, 46 river, 43 rock, 42 silver, 43 soft, 43, 44 swamp, 43, 44 sugar (sugar maple), 42 (maple sugar), 41, 42, 43, 44, 46, 50 water, 43, 44 white, 43, 44 three-leaved, 46 medullary rays, 8 merisier, 73 mesquite, 75, 79 rouge, 73 mockernut, 54 mock orange, 113 modulii, 3 monocotyledons, 6, 185 _morus_, 93 _alba_, 93 _morus, nigra_, 93 _rubra_, 93, 95 mulberry, 93, 95 black, 93, 95 red, 93, 95 russian, 93 white, 93 mulberry-tree, virginia, 95 murier sauvage, 95 myrtle tree, 109 n naval stores, 132 _nectandra_, 115 _rodiali_, 115, 117 needleleaf conifers, 9, 129 trees, 9, 129 woods, 9, 129 _negundo aceroides_, 46 _neowashingtonia filamentosa_, 187 noble silver fir, 161 _nyssa_, 99 _aquatica_, 102 _sylvatica_, 99, 101 o oak, 11 african, 116 basket, 14 black, 12, 19, 22 box, 16 box white, 16 brash, 16 british, 11, 26 bur, 12, 17 california live, 12, 24 california post, 18 canyon, 25 canyon live, 25 chêne étoilé, 16 chêne vert, 23 chestnut, 12, 15, 26 coast live, 24 common, 26 cow, 12, 14 dantzic, 26 durmast, 26 dyer's, 22 encina, 24 english, 11, 26 evergreen, 24 highland, 25 indian, 115, 116 iron, 16, 25 live, 11, 12, 23, 24, 25 maul, 25 mossycup, 17 mossycup white, 17 mountain, 15 oregon white, 18 overcup, 16, 17 pacific post, 12, 18 pin, 12, 20 post, 12, 16 quercitron, 22 red, 12, 19, 21, 26 rigi, 26 rock, 15 rock chestnut, 15 scrub, 17 spanish, 12, 19, 21 spotted, 22 stave, 13 swamp, 20 swamp chestnut, 14, 15 swamp spanish, 20 swamp white, 14 tanbark, 15, 22 water, 20 water spanish, 20 western white, 18 white, 11, 12, 13, 16, 18 valparaiso, 25 yellow, 12, 22 yellowbark, 22 oil nut, 50 _oldfieldia africana_, 115, 116 olive california, 109 olivetree, 102 wild, 102 _olneya tesota_, 61 orange, mock, 113 oreodaphne, 109 _oredoya regia_, 185 osage, 111, 113 osage apple tree, 113 osage orange, 111, 113 _ostrya_, 60 _virginiana_, 60, 64 p palm, 185 california fan, 187 desert, 187 fanleaf, 185, 187 royal, 185 sargent, 185 washington, 187 palmacea, 85 palmetto, 186 cabbage, 185, 186 mexican, 185 silvertop, 185 silktop, 185 tree, 186 papyrus, 60 peaflower (locust), 77 pear, 27 wild, 101 pecan, 55 nut, 55 tree, 55 pecanier, 51 pepperidge, 101 persimmon, 111, 112 black, 106 mexican, 106 _picea_, 148, 149 _alba_, 148, 151 _canadensis_, 151 _excelsa_, 148 _engelmanni_, 148, 152 _mariana_, 150 _nigra_, 148, 150 _rubens_, 150 _sitchensis_, 153 pignut, 53 pine, 130, 135, 149, 151 alaska, 163 bastard, 139, 141, 159 big, 136, 142 black, 141, 144 black norway, 144 black slash, 141 blister, 157 brown, 138 bull, 135, 140, 141, 143 canadian red, 143 carolina, 140 common yellow, 140 cornstalk, 141 cowdie, 147 cuban, 132, 133, 139 dantzic, 133, 145 douglas, 154, 155 european, 133, 145 fat, 138, 144 finger cone, 137 fir, 157 florida, 138 florida longleaved, 138 florida yellow, 138 foothills yellow, 142 foxtail, 141 frankincense, 141 georgia, 138 georgia heart, 138 georgia longleaved, 138 georgia pitch, 138 georgia yellow, 138 gigantic, 136 ginger, 174 great sugar, 136 hard, 133, 139, 140, 143, 144 heart, 138 heavy, 142 heavy-wooded, 142 indian, 141 kauri, 146, 147 little sugar, 136, 137 loblolly, 133, 141 longleaf, 133, 138, 139 longleaved, 142, 144 longleaved pitch, 138 longleaved yellow, 138 longshat, 141 longshucks, 141 longstraw, 138, 141 meadow, 139, 141 montana black, 142 mountain, 137 mountain weymouth, 137 northern, 133, 134, 145 north carolina, 140 north carolina pitch, 138 north carolina yellow, 140 norway, 143 oldfield, 140, 141 oregon, 154, 155 pitch, 133, 138, 139, 140, 142, 144 poor, 140 puget sound, 155 pumpkin, 134 red, 142, 143, 155 rigid, 144 rocky mountain white, 135 sap, 141, 144 scotch, 145 shade, 136 she, 139 she pitch, 139 shortleaf, 133, 140, 141 shortleaved yellow, 140 shortshat, 140 silver, 157 slash, 139, 140, 141 soft, 130, 131, 134, 137 southern, 133, 138 southern hard, 138 southern heart, 138 southern pitch, 138 southern yellow, 138, 142 spruce, 134, 140, 141, 163 swamp, 139, 141 texas longleaved, 138 texas yellow, 138 torch, 141 turpentine, 138 virginia, 141 virginia yellow, 140 western pitch, 142 western white, 131, 135, 137 western yellow, 142 weymouth, 133, 134 white, 131, 134, 135, 136, 137 yellow, 133, 138, 140, 141, 142, 144 pintree, confederate, 78 _pinus_, 130, 149 _echinata_, 132, 133, 140 _flexilis_, 131, 135 _heterophylla_, 132, 133, 139 _lambertiana_, 131, 136 _mitis_, 132, 140 _monticola_, 137 _palustris_, 132, 133, 138, 139 _ponderosa_, 142 _resinosa_, 143 _rigida_, 144 _strobus_, 131, 134 _sylvestris_, 145 _tæda_, 132, 133, 141 piquant armourette, 78 pith cavity, 7 pith ray, 2, 8 plane tree, 65, 66 platane cotonier, 66 _platanus_, 65 _occidentalis_, 65, 66 _orientalis_, 65 _racemosa_, 65, 67 plaqueminier, 112 plum, date, 112 poplar, 80, 82, 83, 157 blue, 82 hickory, 82 large, 83 large toothed, 83 necklace, 84 tulip, 80, 82 white, 83 yellow, 82 popple, 82, 83 _populus_, 80 _balsamifera_, 157 _deltoides_, 84 _grandidentata_, 83 _monilifera_, 84 _tremuloides_, 81, 83 _trichocarpa_, 85 powcohicora, 51 possumwood, 122 prima vera, 119, 121 _prosopis_, 75 _juliflora_, 61, 79 _odorata_, 76 _prunus_, 111 _serotina_, 111, 114 _pseudophoenix sargentii_, 185 _pseudotsuga_, 154 _douglasii_, 156 _taxifolia_, 155 _pyrus_, 28 _americana_, 28 _ancuparia_, 28 _communis_, 28 _coronaria_, 28 _malus_, 28 _sambucifolia_, 28 _vulgaris_, 28 q quarter sawing, 9 quercitron, 22 _quercus_, 11 _agrifolia_, 12, 24 _alba_, 12, 13 _chrysolepis_, 12, 25 _digitata_, 12, 21 _falcata_, 21 _garryana_, 12, 18 _macrocarpa_, 12, 17 _michauxii_, 12, 14 _minor_, 12, 16 _obtusiloba_, 16 _palustris_, 12, 20 _prinus_, 12, 15 _robur_, 12 _robur var. sessiliflora_, 12, 26 _robur var. pedunculata_, 12, 26 _rubra_, 12, 19 _tinctoria_, 22 _velutina_, 12, 22 _virens_, 23 _virginiana_, 12, 23 _wislizeni_, 25 quince, 27 r radial section, 8 red flower, 44 redwoood, 120, 145, 180, 182 california, 182 coast, 182 giant, 182 resin, 132 resin ducts, 2, 10 _rhododendron maximum_, 106, 108 _rhus integrifolia_, 118 _robinia_, 75 _pseudacacia_, 75, 77 rose bay, 108 rotary cut, 9 rowan tree, 27 s _sabal mexicana_, 185 _palmetto_, 185, 186 salicylic acid, 74, 88 _salix_, 88 _alba_, 88 _babylonica_, 88 _caprea_, 88 _fragilis_, 88 _nigra_, 89 _russeliana_, 88 sapwood, 7 sargent (prof. c. s.) experiments, 4 sassafac, 94 sassafrac, 94 sassafras, 93, 94 californian, 109 _sassafras_, 93 _officinale_, 94 _sassafras_, 94 savin, 169 saxifrax, 94 tree, 94 _schæfferia frutescens_, 106 sequoia, 183 _sequoia_, 180 _gigantea_, 182 _sempervirens_, 180, 182 _washingtoniana_, 180, 182 shagbark, 52 sharpless (j. p.) experiments, 4 shawneewood, 91 shellbark, 52 shinglewood, 172 simmon, 112 smoking-bean, 92 soft woods, 9, 129 _sorbus_ (see _pyrus_), 28 _soymida_, 118 _febrifuga_, 118 spanish bayonet, 188 spanish dagger, 188 species, 2 specific gravity, 4 specific name, 2 spice-tree, 109 spruce, 148, 149, 150, 154, 155, 163 black, 148, 150 blue, 150 bog, 151 california hemlock spruce, 163 cat, 151 cork-barked douglas, 155 double, 150, 151 douglas, 154, 155 engelmann, 152 great tideland, 153 he balsam, 150 hemlock, 163 menzies', 153 mountain, 152 red, 150 single, 157 sitka, 153 skunk, 151 water, 150 western, 153 white, 150, 152 stinkwood, 101 strength of woods, 3 stringy-bark, 123 sugar, 41, 42, 44, 46, 50 sugar tree, 42 _swietenia_, 118 _mahagoni_, 118, 120 sycamore, 40, 65, 66, 67 california, 67 t _tabeuia donnell-smithii_, 121 tamarack, 164, 165, 166 western, 166 tanbark, 2 tangential section, 8 tar, 132 _taxodium_, 177 _distichum_, 178 teak, 115, 116 african, 115 indian, 115 teek, 116 _tectona grandis_, 115, 116 tewart, 127 thorn, 78 _thrinax microcarpa_, 185 _parviflora_, 185 _thuya_, 167 _gigantea_, 168, 172 _occidentalis_, 168, 171 _plicata_, 172 tiel, 81 tiel-tree, 81 _tilia_, 80 _americana_, 87 _heterophylla_, 87 tooart, 127 toothache tree, 27 _toxylon pomiferum_, 113 tracheid, 2 _tsuga_, 149, 162 _canadensis_, 163 _caroliniana_, 163 _heterophylla_, 163 tree, 1 tree yucca, 188 tuart, 123, 127 tulip-tree, 80, 82 tupelo, 101, 102 large, 102 swamp, 102 turpentine, 132 u _ulmus_, 35 _americana_, 36 _alata_, 39 _fulva_, 38 _racemosa_, 37 _pubescens_, 38 _umbellularia californica_, 108, 109 u. s. census experiments, 4 u. s. forestry division experiments, 4 v veneer, 42, 47, 119 vessel, 2 vitæ, 171 w wahoo, 39 whahoo, 39 walnut, 47, 49, 50, 52 black, 47, 49 english, 47, 49 persian, 47, 49 royal, 47, 49 shagbark, 52 sweet, 52 white, 50 _washingtonia filifera_, 185, 187 watertown arsenal experiments, 4 weights of woods, 3 white mahogany, 50 whitewood, 80, 82, 84, 87 wickup, 87 wild date, 187 wild olive tree, 102 wild pear tree, 101 willow, 88, 89 bedford, 88 black, 89 crack, 88 goat, 88 swamp, 89 weeping, 88 white, 88 x _xanthoxylum americana_, 27 _clava-herculis_, 27 y yellowbark, 22 yellow gum tree, 101 yellowwood, 106, 113, 145 yucca, 184, 188, 189 aloe-leaf, 188 broadfruit, 188 cactus, 189 mohave, 188 schott, 188 tree, 188, 189 _yucca_, 188, 189 _aloifolia_, 188 _arborescens_, 188, 189 _brevifolia_, 188, 189 _constricta_, 188 _gloriosa_, 188 _macrocarpa_, 188 _mohavensis_, 188 _treculeana_, 188 * * * * * * transcriber's note: original spelling and grammar have usually been retained. each footnote has been moved from the bottom of a page to the end of its section. illustrations have been moved from within paragraphs to nearby locations between paragraphs. plates were originally printed on unnumbered pages and followed by a blank page. pages 26 and 116: the name "laslett", retained, probably refers to "lazlett". page 35: some paragraphs of the original printed book appear to be footnotes, but lack an anchor in the text. for example, the one on page 35 is likely a general reference for the genus ulmus (elm). pages 123-124 contain a particularly interesting example. this chapter on eucalyptus contains five footnote paragraphs. the third and fifth are not anchored. it may be that either: (1) the third paragraph was meant to be part of the second footnote, or (2) the third paragraph was meant to be a general reference for eucalyptus, or (3) the anchor for the third paragraph was simply not printed due to typographical error. since such ambiguity is rather common in this book, the footnote paragraphs, both anchored and not, have been retained in the order printed, but relocated to the end of the immediate containing section. page 57: "chrysaphylla" changed to "chrysophylla". page 60: the original second footnote, " * keeler notes experiments made to prove resistance on part of beechwood." had no anchor in the text, and in the 1908 edition (the second edition, first thousand), this footnote was omitted entirely from the corresponding chapter. herein, it is retained. page 64: "virginina" changed to "virginiana". page 88: the names "salix babylónica", and "salix babylonica" (the latter in the index), are both retained. there are several other retained instances of spelling inconsistencies in the use of accents, or "æ-ligature" versus "ae". page 120: "santa anna" on page 120 and "santa ana" on page 118 are both retained. pages 133, 149: these two data tables were recast in a different shape to achieve shorter line length. page 168: the table says "spanish cedar. (see page 99.)". this may be a misprint, referring to page 119. page 198: index entry "_nectanara_, 115" changed to "_nectandra_, 115". also, "_negunao_" to "_negundo_". page 201: "caliofrnia" (under "sassafras") to "californian". [illustration: figure 1. an observation point for finding forest fires. vigilance is the watchword on the national forests. during 1916 forest officers extinguished 5,655 forest fires. photo by the author] our national forests a short popular account of the work of the united states forest service on the national forests by richard h. douai boerker, m.s.f., ph.d. arboriculturist, department of parks, city of new york. with the united states forest service from 1910 to 1917. new york the macmillan company 1918 _all rights reserved_ copyright, 1918 by the macmillan company set up and electrotyped. published, september, 1918 _whom should this humble volume seek to honor but the father and mother whose unselfish devotion made possible both my education and my profession?_ the highest type of scientific writing is that which sets forth useful scientific facts in language which is interesting and easily understood by the millions who read. l. a. mann. preface forestry is a vast subject. it has to do with farm and forest, soil and climate, man and beast. it affects hill and valley, mountain and plain. it influences the life of cities, states, and nations. it deals not only with the manifold problems of growing timber and forest by-products, such as forage, naval stores, tanbark, and maple sugar, but it is intimately related to the navigability of rivers and harbors, the flow of streams, the erosion of hillsides, the destruction of fertile farm lands, the devastation wrought by floods, the game and birds of the forest, the public health, and national prosperity. the practice of forestry has, therefore, become an important part in the household economy of civilized nations. every nation has learned, through the misuse of its forest resources, that forest destruction is followed by timber famines, floods, and erosion. mills and factories depending upon a regular stream flow must close down, or use other means for securing their power, which usually are more expensive. floods, besides doing enormous damage, cover fertile bottom-lands with gravel, bowlders, and débris, which ruins these lands beyond redemption. the birds, fish, and game, which dwell in the forests, disappear with them. springs dry up and a luxurious, well-watered country becomes a veritable desert. in short, the disappearance of the forests means the disappearance of everything in civilization that is worth while. these are the lessons that some of the world's greatest nations have learned, in some cases through sad experience. the french people, after neglecting their forests, following the french revolution, paid the penalty. france, through her reckless cutting in the mountain forests, has suffered and is still suffering from devastating floods on the seine and other streams. over one million acres were cut over in the mountains, and the slash and young growth that was left was destroyed by fire. as a result of this forest destruction the fertility of over 8,000,000 acres of tillable land was destroyed and the population of eighteen departments was impoverished or driven out. now, although over $40,000,000 has been expended, only a very small part of the damage has been repaired. our own country has learned from its own experiences and from the experiences of nations like france. on a small scale we have endured the same devastating floods. forest fires in the united states have caused an average annual loss of seventy human lives and from $25,000,000 to $50,000,000 worth of timber. the indirect losses run close to a half a billion a year. like other nations, we have come to the conclusion that forest conservation can be assured only through the public ownership of forest resources. other nations have bought or otherwise acquired national, state, and municipal forests, to assure the people a never-failing supply of timber. for this reason, mainly, our own national forests have been created and maintained. the ever-increasing importance of the forestry movement in this country, which brings with it an ever-increasing desire for information along forestry lines, has led me to prepare this volume dealing with our national forests. to a large extent i write from my own experience, having come in contact with the federal forestry movement for more than ten years. my connection with the united states forest service in various parts of the west has given me ample opportunity to study every phase of the problem. i am attempting to chronicle a wonderful accomplishment by a wonderful organization of altruistic americans,--an accomplishment of which every american has reason to feel proud. few people realize that the bringing under administration and protection of these vast forests is one of the greatest achievements in the history of forest conservation. to place 155,000,000 acres of inaccessible, mountainous, forest land, scattered through our great western mountain ranges and in eighteen western states, under administration, to manage these forests according to scientific forestry principles, to make them yield a revenue of almost $3,500,000 annually, and to protect them from the ravages of forest fires and reducing the huge annual loss to but a small fraction of what it was before--these are some of the things that have been accomplished by the united states forest service within the last twenty years. not only is this a great achievement in itself, but few people realize what the solution of the national forest problem has meant to the millions of people who live near them; what it has meant to bring civilization to the great forested empire of uncle sam; what it has meant to change from a condition of unrestricted, unregulated misuse with respect to the public domain, to a policy of wise, regulated use, based upon the principle of the greatest good to the greatest number in the long run. in the early days before the forest service organization became established, the people were said to have "shot-gun titles" to timber or grazing lands on the public domain, and "might made right" in the truest sense of the word. this crude condition of affairs gave way to wise, conservative use under government control. just as the farmer each year sets aside a certain amount of his seed for next year's planting, just so the stockman saves his calves and cows and lambs for greater growth and each year sees a part of his herd maturing for market, and just so the forester, under the new system, cuts only the mature trees and allows the young timber to remain for greater growth and greater value in the future, or, in the absence of young trees, plants small trees to replace those removed. the people of the west are convinced that a great work has been done well and wisely. the people of the eastern states will soon realize that a similar forest policy, already inaugurated in the appalachian and white mountains, will mean every bit as much to them. if i succeed only in a small degree to make my reader appreciate the great significance of the national forest movement to our national economy, i will feel amply repaid for the time spent in preparing this brief statement. i am indebted to the forest service for many valuable illustrations used with the text, and for data and other valuable assistance. to all those who have aided in the preparation of this volume, by reading the manuscript or otherwise, i extend my sincere thanks. i am especially grateful to mr. herbert a. smith and others of the washington office of the forest service for having critically read the manuscript and for having offered valuable suggestions. richard h. douai boerker. new york, n. y., july 7, 1918. introduction forestry as a national problem the forest problem is, both locally and nationally, of vital internal importance. not only is wood--the chief product of the forest--indispensable to our daily life, but the forest plays an important rôle in regulating stream flow, thereby reducing the severity of floods and preventing erosion. for these reasons the preservation of forests ceases to be a problem of private or individual concern, but forthwith becomes a governmental problem, or, at best, an enterprise which should be jointly controlled by the national government and the individual states. _our consumption of wood._ it is often said that wood enters into our daily life from the time we are born until we die--from the cradle to the coffin. it is difficult to imagine a civilization without wood. in our country in a single year we use 90,000,000 cords of firewood, nearly 40,000,000,000 feet of lumber, 150,000,000 railroad ties, nearly 1,700,000,000 barrel staves, 445,000,000 board feet of veneer, over 135,000,000 sets of barrel headings, over 350,000,000 barrel hoops, over 3,300,000 cords of native pulp wood, 170,000,000 cubic feet of round mine timbers, nearly 1,500,000 cords of wood for distillation, over 140,000 cords for excelsior, and nearly 3,500,000 telephone and telegraph poles. in short, we take from our forests yearly, including waste in logging and manufacture, more than twenty-two billion cubic feet of wood valued at about $1,375,000,000. this is enough lumber to construct seven board walks twenty-five feet wide from the earth to the moon, a distance of about 240,000 miles, or a board walk one-third of a mile wide completely around the earth at the equator. these figures give a little idea of the enormous annual drainage upon the forests of the united states and immediately suggest an important reason that led to the establishment of our national forests. _the lumber industry._ measured by the number of persons employed, lumbering is the country's largest manufacturing industry. in its 48,000 saw mills it employs more than 600,000 men. its investment in these plants is over $1,000,000,000, and the investment in standing timber is $1,500,000,000 more. this industry furnishes the railroads a traffic income of over $200,000,000 annually. if we include in these statistics also the derived wood products, we find that over 1,000,000 wage earners are employed, and that the products and derived products are valued at over $2,000,000,000 annually. most certainly we are dealing with a very large business enterprise. _our future lumber supply._ you may ask, "what effect have the great annual consumption of wood and these large business interests upon the future supply of wood?" the most reliable statistics show that out of 5,200 billion feet of merchantable timber which we once possessed, only 2,900 billion feet are left. in other words, almost half of our original supply of timber has been used. besides, the present rate of cutting for all purposes exceeds the annual growth of the forests. even the annual growth is considered by many experts of unknown quantity and quality, to some extent offset by decay in virgin forests. the only logical conclusion to draw from this condition of affairs, if the present rate of consumption continues, is a timber shortage in so far as our most valuable woods are concerned. in view of this it is fortunate that the national government began to control the lumber and forest situation by the creation of national forests and the institution of scientific forestry practice. _forests and stream flow._ but the forests not only supply us with wood. for other reasons they deserve governmental consideration. the forests in the mountains control our streams, vitally affect the industries depending upon water power, reduce the severity of floods and erosion, and in this way are intimately wrapped up with our great agricultural interests. for this reason forestry is by nature less suited for private enterprise. in agriculture and horticulture the influence of the farm or the fruit crop rarely extends beyond the owner's fence. what i plant in my field does not affect my neighbors; they share neither in my success or failure. if by the use of poor methods i ruin the fertility of my farm, this fact does not influence the fertility of my neighbor's fields. but in forestry it is different. unfortunately, just as the sins of the fathers are visited upon their children, so the sins of the mountains are visited upon the valleys. [illustration: map showing the national forest areas in the west, the location of the proposed national forests in the east, and the area which the present national forests would occupy if they were all consolidated into one body in some of the well-known eastern states.] the mountainous slopes of the appalachian ranges and the steep, broken, granite ridges of the rockies, the sierras, and the cascades are the sites most suited in our country for forestry purposes. the appalachian ranges have been affected most by the reckless cutting of forests. when these mountains were clothed with forests, the rivers ran bank full, ships came to the harbors at low tide with ease, and factories and cotton-mills ran steadily all year long. since the destruction of these forests the surrounding country has suffered from alternate floods and droughts; great manufacturing centers have lost their steady supply of water; harbors are filled with silt from the mountain sides; and fields, once fertile, are covered with sand, gravel, and débris, deposited by the ungovernable stream. these forests belonged to private individuals who disposed of the timber and pocketed all the profits, while the community below suffered all the loss. in other words, private ownership is inadequate since private interest and private responsibility are not sufficiently far-reaching and far-sighted. _forests and erosion._ erosion is one of the most serious dangers that threaten our farms both by transporting fertile soil and by covering the bottom-lands with sand, gravel, and débris. since we are largely an agricultural people, the importance of this problem will be readily appreciated. over 50 per cent. of our population is rural, and the annual production of farm crops has a value of over $5,500,000,000. farm uplands are washed away or eroded by high water, and high water is largely caused by the destruction of the forests on the mountain slopes. with the forest cover removed, there is nothing to obstruct the flow of water down the mountain sides. raindrops beating on the bare soil make it hard and compact so that most of the water runs off instead of being absorbed by the subsoil, with the result that a heavy rain storm rushes down through the valleys in a few days instead of a few weeks, tears out the river banks, floods the lowlands, and deposits upon them the rocks and gravel carried down from the mountains. the most effective means for preventing the erosion and destruction of our farmlands is by the wise use of the forests at the headwaters of the rivers. [illustration: figure 2. a typical national forest landscape in the high mountains. potosi peak, 13,763 feet, from yankee boy basin, uncampahgre national forest, ouray county, colorado.] _forestry a public enterprise._ from what has been said it will be seen that forestry is a national business rather than an individual's. moreover, it is of such a protracted nature, reaching continuously into such long periods of time, demanding so many years of time and patience to see the expected and promised results, that an individual would not live to see the success of his labors. the individual becomes easily discouraged and is especially affected by financial conditions. the government, on the other hand, having unlimited resources at its command can more readily afford to wait for results. in fact every consideration of national welfare urges the government to carry it on; it is a sure source of revenue, there is none less fluctuating, and it is closely connected with the manifold industries of life. its chief product is wood, without which the human race, so far, has not succeeded in managing its affairs, and which will therefore always have a sale value. the extent and character of our national forests _how the government obtained the national forest lands._ probably the first question that will occur to my reader concerning the national forests is, how did the government acquire them? to answer this question we have but to turn back the pages of history to the close of the revolutionary war. following this war, our country started on its career of continental conquest. this conquest was largely a peaceful one because most of the western country was acquired by treaty or purchase, thus: louisiana territory was purchased from france in 1803; texas applied for admission into the union in 1845; oregon territory was acquired by treaty from great britain in 1846; the present states of california, nevada, utah, new mexico, and arizona were ceded to us as a result of the mexican war in 1848; and the gadsden purchase was obtained from mexico in 1853 and added to the territory of new mexico. then also alaska was finally purchased from russia in 1867. these large acquisitions, comprising together the western two thirds of the united states, were gradually divided into territories. later they became states, and were opened up to settlement and development by means of various land and mining laws and large railroad grants. the national forests are composed of the land most valuable for growing timber, that has not been acquired in some way by private individuals, in the western part of the united states. _the romance of the national forest region._ this vast expanse west of the mississippi river boasts of some of the wildest and most romantic scenery on the north american continent, and it is in the heart of this picturesque country that the national forests are located. this is the country in which owen wister, harold bell wright, stewart edward white, jack london, theodore roosevelt, and other authors have gotten their inspirations and laid their plots. to one who knows "the virginian," or "when a man's a man," or "the winning of barbara worth," or "the valley of the moon," nothing more need be said. to others i might say that my pen picture of that country is a very poor and very inadequate method of description. it is the land of the cow-puncher, the sheep-herder, and the lumber-jack; a land of crude customs and manners, but, withal, generous hospitality. it is the country of the elk and the mule-tail deer, the mountain lion and the rattlesnake. its grandeur makes you love it; its vastness makes you fear it; yet there is an irresistible charm, a magic lure, an indescribable something that stamps an indelible impression upon the mind and that makes you want to go back there after you have sworn an oath never to return. this national forest empire presents a great variety of scenery, of forest, and of topography. the beautiful white pine forests of idaho and montana, the steep pineand spruce-clad granite slopes of the colorado rockies, and the sun-parched mesas of the southwest, with their open park-like forests of yellow pine, all have their individual charm. and after crossing the well-watered cascades and sierra nevadas we find forest scenery entirely different. the dense, luxuriant, giant-forests of the coast region of oregon and washington, bathed in an almost continual fog and rain, are without doubt the most wonderful forests in the world. and lastly, california, so far as variety of forest scenery is concerned, has absolutely no rival. the open oak groves of the great valleys, the arid pineand oak-covered foothills, the valuable sugar pine and "big-tree" groves of the moist mountain slopes, and the dwarfed pine and hemlock forests near the serrated crest of the sierras, all occur within a comparatively short distance of each other, and, in fact, may be seen in less than a day on any one of the many national forests in these mountains. _famous scenic wonders near the forests._ many of the beautiful national parks that have been created by congress are either entirely or partly surrounded by one or more of the national forests. these parks are a mecca to which hundreds of thousands of our people make their annual pilgrimage. most of these parks are already famous for their scenery, and, in consequence, the national forests surrounding them have received greater patronage and fame. the glacier national park in montana, the yellowstone in wyoming, the rocky mountain in colorado, the mount rainier in washington, the crater lake in oregon, the wind cave in south dakota, and the lassen peak volcanic park, the yosemite, general grant, and sequoia parks in california, are all situated in the heart of the national forest region. the highest and best-known mountain peaks in the united states are either located within or situated near the national forests, as, for example, rainier and olympus in washington; hood, baker, st. helens, jefferson, and adams in oregon; shasta, lassen, and whitney in california; and pikes peak in colorado. then there are the national monuments, of which there are eleven, all situated within one or more of the national forests. these were created under an act of congress for the preservation of objects of historic or scientific interest. the largest monument, and no doubt the most famous, is the grand canyon national monument located in the tusayan and kaibab national forests in arizona, comprising over 800,000 acres. the next largest is the mount olympus monument on the olympic national forest in washington, comprising almost 300,000 acres. other well-known monuments are the cinder cone and the lassen peak monuments on the lassen national forest in california, and the cliff dwellings on the gila national forest in new mexico. _the size and extent of the national forests._ with this brief introduction of the nature of the country in which the national forests are located, the reader will be interested to know something of the size of the forests and their total area. the total area varies slightly from time to time, due to the addition of lands that have been found to have value for forestry purposes, or to the elimination of lands found to be chiefly valuable for agricultural use. on june 30, 1917, there were 147 national forests with a total of 155,166,619 acres. thus the average national forest comprises about one million acres of government lands. the many private holdings scattered through the forests make the average gross area of each forest much greater. these forests are located in alaska, arizona, arkansas, california, colorado, florida, idaho, michigan, minnesota, montana, nebraska, nevada, new mexico, north dakota, oklahoma, oregon, porto rico, south dakota, utah, washington, and wyoming. besides these forests there have been acquired or approved for purchase under the weeks law over 1,500,000 acres in the states of georgia, maine, new hampshire, north carolina, south carolina, tennessee, virginia, and west virginia. these lands are now under protection and will gradually be consolidated into national forests. more lands are constantly being acquired in the eastern states in accordance with the weeks law. few people have any conception of what a gigantic empire the national forest domain is. if consolidated into one large compact area, the 155 million acres of national forests would cover an area larger than the combined areas of thirteen well-known eastern states, viz.: maine, vermont, new hampshire, massachusetts, connecticut, rhode island, new york, new jersey, pennsylvania, maryland, delaware, virginia, and west virginia (see map). this area is also one fifth larger than the entire area of france. we marvel sometimes at the ability of a ruler to rule a country as large as france or germany; why should we americans not marvel at the ability of the man who practically rules over our national forests, who keeps in perfect working order the great organization which protects and administrates the forests? _the topography and climate of the national forest region._ the difficulty of the work of this organization is at once apparent when we find that these forests are located in wild, rugged, mountainous country, in most cases many miles from the railroad and human habitations, such as towns and cities. this country is usually far above sea level--the average being between 3,000 and 8,000 feet in altitude. but there are large areas in the national forests of colorado that lie above 10,000 feet elevation. such country as this has a very severe climate. the climate is usually too cold and the growing seasons too short for the production of crops such as wheat, corn, oats, potatoes, etc. therefore, practically all of this land is what the forester calls "absolute forest land," that is, it is better adapted for growing timber crops than any other. another important fact about the national forests is that they are located, for the most part, on steep mountain slopes and at the headwaters of mountain streams. this makes them of vital importance in regulating the stream flow of our western rivers. in fact it is no exaggeration to say that all our large western rivers have their origin on national forest land. why the national forests were created aside from the great economic reasons why a nation should possess national forests, there are local reasons which pertain to the welfare of the home builder and home industries which are often of paramount importance. the timber, the water, the pasture, the minerals, and all other resources on the government lands in the west are for the use of all the people. and only by a well-regulated policy of sale or rental can these resources be disposed so as to give all individuals an equal opportunity to enjoy them. these vast resources have been estimated to have a value of over $2,000,000,000. but their value to the local communities can hardly be overestimated. the welfare of every community is dependent upon a cheap and plentiful supply of timber. if lumber, fence posts, mine props, telephone poles, firewood, etc., must be brought in from distant markets, the prices are usually very much higher. the regulation of the cut on each national forest assures a never-failing supply of timber to the home builder and to home industries. then also the permanence of the great live stock industry is dependent upon a conservative use of vast areas of government range. local residents are protected from unfair competition. lastly, the protection by the forest service of the forest cover in the western mountains assures a regular stream flow which is of vital importance for power, irrigation, and domestic purposes. [illustration: figure 3. the climate of most of the national forests is severe. this view was taken in the early summer and shows the high mountains still covered with snow. most of the national forest lands are therefore of small value for agriculture. photo by abbey.] [illustration: figure 4. on many high mountains on the national forests snow banks persist throughout the summer. this view was taken in the latter part of august. lassen national forest, california. photo by the author.] perhaps the most comprehensive statement upon the purposes of the national forests and the methods and general policy of administering them is to be found in a letter by the secretary of agriculture to the forester, dated february 1, 1905, when the forests were turned over to the department of agriculture: "in the administration of the forest reserves it must be clearly borne in mind that all land is to be devoted to its most productive use for the permanent good of the whole people, and not for the temporary benefit of individuals or companies. all the resources of the forest reserves are for _use_, and this use must be brought about in a thoroughly prompt and businesslike manner, under such restrictions only as will insure the permanence of these resources. the vital importance of forest reserves to the great industries of the western states will be largely increased in the near future by the continued steady advance in settlement and development. the permanence of the resources of the reserves is therefore indispensable to continued prosperity, and the policy of this department for their protection and use will invariably be guided by this fact, bearing in mind that the _conservative use_ of these resources in no way conflicts with their permanent value. "you will see to it that the water, wood, and forage of the reserves are conserved and wisely used for the benefit of the home builder first of all, upon whom depends the best permanent use of lands and resources alike. the continued prosperity of the agricultural, lumbering, mining, and live-stock interests is directly dependent upon a permanent and accessible supply of water, wood, and forage, as well as upon the present and future use of these resources under businesslike regulations, enforced with promptness, effectiveness, and common sense. in the management of each reserve local questions will be decided upon local grounds; the dominant industry will be considered first, but with as little restriction to minor industries as may be possible; sudden changes in industrial conditions will be avoided by gradual adjustment after due notice, and where conflicting interests must be reconciled the question will always be decided from the standpoint of the greatest good of the greatest number in the long run." how the national forest policy has benefited the people this general policy, which was laid down by the secretary of agriculture, has been followed out, with the result that a great many benefits have been derived by the nation as a whole, by the individual states in which the national forests are located, and, lastly, by the local communities and users of the forests. _the remaining timber resources were saved._ first of all the timber, the forage, and the water-power on the public domain has been reserved for the whole people and not for a privileged few. before the forest reserve policy went into effect, the most valuable timber was being withdrawn from government ownership by the misuse of the public land laws, whose purpose and intent were fraudulently evaded. many claims were initiated apparently for the purpose of establishing a homestead but in reality for the purposes of securing the timber on the land and later to dispose of it to some large timber holder. every citizen is allowed to exercise his homestead right. big timber operators would secure the services of many dummy locators, pay the expenses of locating, improving, and perfecting the patent, and then buy the claim from these dummies for small sums. a large timber holder in california secured his hundreds of thousands of acres of timber land in this way. by instructing these men where to locate their claims he was able to secure more or less solid blocks of timber made up originally of 160 acre patches. these patches, which originally were bought by the lumber barons for from $500 to $800 a claim, now have a value of from $8,000 to as high as $20,000. the people of the united states have lost the difference. it is difficult to say where or how this wholesale misuse of the public land laws would have ended if it had not been for the inauguration of the national forest policy. since the government has taken full charge of its forest domain, this misuse has stopped. in fact many of the fraudulent claims located years ago are being investigated, and if they are found to have been initiated with intent to defraud the government, the land and the timber is returned to the national forest in which it is located. to-day the national forests contain about one fifth of the standing timber in the united states, an amount which will undoubtedly have a great effect upon the supply of timber available for future generations, especially since under present lumbering methods the privately owned timber lands are being practically destroyed, while the national forests are actually being improved by scientific management. four fifths of the standing timber is privately owned, and this is usually of much higher quality than the publicly owned timber. [illustration: figure 5. the big trees. "mother of the forest" in the background. north calaveras grove, california.] _the use of forage and water resources was regulated._ the forage and water resources of the public domain have been subject to similar abuse. before the national forest policy was put into effect the large ranges of the west were used indiscriminately by all. the range was subject to considerable abuse because it was used very early in the spring before the forage was mature, or too late in the fall, which prevented the forage from ripening its seed and reproducing for the next season. not the small, local stockmen, however, but the large sheep and cattle companies, many controlled by foreign capital, benefited by this condition of affairs. these "big men," as they were called, illegally fenced and monopolized large areas, varying in size from townships to entire counties. what chance would a local rancher with fifty or sixty cattle have against a million-dollar outfit with perhaps 40,000 to 50,000 cattle? he was merely swallowed up, so to speak, and had no chance whatever to get his small share. "might made right" in those days, and it is said that if a man held any title or equity on the range it was a "shotgun" title. also, the sheep and cattle men had innumerable disputes about the use of the range which in many cases resulted in bloodshed. if a sheep man arrived first on the range in the spring with his large bands of sheep, he simply took the feed. the government owned the land and the forage but it had no organization in the field to regulate the use of it. it was indeed a chaotic condition of affairs and ended only after the inauguration of the present policy of leasing the lands under the permit system. these permits are issued and charged for upon a per capita basis. the conservative and regulated use of the grazing lands under forest service supervision has resulted in better growth and better weights on stock and more actual profit. there are ample data that show that the national forests produce some of the best lambs that are put upon the market. data secured from the modoc national forest, california, in 1910, show that lambs brought 50 cents per head more and weighed an average of 10 pounds more than lambs produced outside the forest. weights taken of 10,000 head showed an average of 72 pounds for national forest lambs, while outside the forest average weights on 3,000 lambs showed only 62 pounds. the regulation of the length of the grazing season, the introduction of better methods of handling sheep, and the prevention of over-grazing are some of the forest service methods that produce better lambs. then also under the old system the valuable water-power sites were being rapidly eliminated from government ownership by large corporations who secured valuable property for a song. the national forests, however, still contain about one-third of the potential water-power resources of the united states and over 40 per cent. of the estimated power resources of the western states. and this vast wealth will not pass from the ownership of the united states but will be leased under long-term leases from which the government will receive yearly a fair rental. _the forests were protected from fire and trespass._ but not only have these large timber, forage, and power resources been put under administration for the use of the people. the protection of the national forests, which goes hand in hand with their administration, means a great deal to the local communities, the states, and the nation as a whole. until about twenty years ago the forests upon our public lands--the timber of the rocky mountains from montana to new mexico and of the pacific coast ranges from northern washington to southern california--seemed destined to be destroyed by fire and reckless, illegal cutting. nothing whatever was being done to protect them from fire or trespass. they were simply left to burn. when the people living near the public domain wanted any house logs, fence posts, or firewood, they went into the public domain and took them. the best trees were usually taken first. in california, especially, there was a common practice of cutting down the finest sugar pine trees and cutting and splitting them into shakes to make a roof covering. then, too, much government timber was stolen by lumber companies operating in the vicinity of valuable government timber. after the land had been stripped of everything of value a fire was started in the slashing, which among other things burned the stumps and thus practically obliterated all evidence of trespass. had this destruction continued there would to-day have been little timber left in the west, and the development of the country which demands timber all the time, and not only at certain intervals, would have been retarded, if not stopped altogether. [illustration: figure 6. a scene on one of the famous national parks. upper lake, glacier national park, northern rockies, montana.] how terrible the forest fires were in this western country is well illustrated by what an old california settler once told me, and what i have heard repeatedly in many western states. he said: "in the years before the forest service took over the care and protection of the forests around here, the mountains within view of my ranch were not visible for many months at a time, being almost continually enveloped in smoke from the big forest fires that were raging in the forests all summer without ever being under control. they started in the spring as soon as it became dry and were not suppressed until the late fall rains and snows put them out." but he added with great enthusiasm, "since the service has taken charge the sky around here is as clear as crystal all summer. i never see any forest fires, not even smoke, because the rangers seem to get to them before they get to be of any size." such testimony as this speaks volumes for the efficiency of the present system of protecting the forests from fire. _the watershed cover was preserved._ the destruction of the forest cover on the watersheds feeding thousands of streams which rise in the western mountains would have had its bad effect on stream flow--low water during the long dry periods, and destructive floods after heavy rains. this condition of affairs would have meant disaster to the systems of irrigation by which most of the western farmers raise their crops. it would also have seriously impeded and in many cases prevented electric power development, to say nothing of affecting the domestic water of many of our large western cities whose drinking water comes from the streams rising in the national forests. the protection of these valuable watersheds by the forest service from fire and destructive lumbering is of such vital importance to the welfare of the nation that it has been made one of the main reasons for establishing national forests. _civilization brought to the mountains._ what the national forest movement has done for settling and building up the western states can hardly be overestimated. it has brought civilization into the wilderness. roads, trails, telephone lines, and other modern conveniences have been brought to remote corners of the mountains. it has encouraged the settlement of the country by calling attention to the agricultural lands within the national forests. more important than that, it has assured the west permanent towns, permanent civilization, and not a temporary, careless, shiftless civilization which vanishes with the exploitation of resources, as it did under the old régime. the improvements on the national forests have benefited not only the forest officers for the administration of the forests. they have helped immensely the local population. the pleasure resorts as well as the business of the forests have been made more accessible. new trails have opened up new and hitherto inaccessible country, where fishing, hunting, and trapping are ideal. all the old and new roads and trails have been well marked with sign boards giving the tourist detailed information about distances between the various points of interest. roads have opened up new regions to automobiles and to the horse and wagon. in 1916 it was estimated that more than 2,000,000 people visited the national forests for recreation and pleasure. they came in automobiles, in horse and wagon, on horseback, on mules, on burros, and in all sorts of made-to-order contrivances, and the writer has even seen those that could not afford anything better, pack their camp outfits in a wheelbarrow and push it before them in their effort to leave the hot, dusty valleys below, and go to the refreshing and invigorating forests of uncle sam. in addition to the large numbers of tourists that visit the national forests every year, over 100,000 persons or companies use the national forests. of these a little more than half are paid users, who are charged a fair fee for timber, grazing, or other privileges and a little less than half enjoy free use privileges. _agricultural lands opened to settlement._ the settlement of the agricultural lands in the national forests is a matter that has received special attention at the hands of the forest service in late years. land more valuable for agriculture than for timber growing was excluded from the national forests before the boundaries were drawn, so far as this was possible. small tracts of agricultural land within the forests which could not be excluded are opened to settlement under the forest homestead act of june 11, 1906. the amount of land, however, that is more valuable for agriculture than for timber is trifling, because the greater part of the valuable land was already settled before the forests were created. the few small patches that are left inside of the national forest boundaries are rapidly being classified and opened to entry for homesteads. much of the land apparently adapted for agricultural purposes has a severe climate because it lies at high altitudes and it is often remote from roads, schools, villages, and markets. therefore the chance offered the prospective settler in the immediate vicinity of the forests is far better than in the forests themselves. the forest service is doing everything it can to encourage homesteaders on the national forests; it wants them because they help to report fires, help to fight fires, and in many other ways assist the forest officers. _permanent and not temporary civilization resulted._ only those people who have been brought up near a large lumbering center can appreciate what it means when a town vanishes; when all that is left of a thriving town of 5,000 or more souls is empty streets, empty houses, and heaps of tin cans. in the days of the golden age of lumbering in michigan many towns flourished in the midst of the forests. these towns had thrifty, busy people, with schools, churches, banks, and other conveniences. these people were engaged in exploiting the forests. the beautiful white pine forests were converted into boards at the rate of thousands of feet every day. when these magnificent forests were laid low, the lumbermen left to seek virgin timber elsewhere. they left behind them empty towns and barren lands; only a few charred stumps remained to show where the forests once stood. but this is not an incident peculiar to the golden age of lumbering in michigan. even to-day this very thing is happening. the town of crossfork, potter county, pennsylvania, had a population of over 2,500 souls in 1909. when the nearby timber was exhausted, practically the whole town was abandoned. in 1913 it had a population of 50. in direct contrast to this short-sighted policy of the state of michigan (and many others also) is the national forest policy, which provides for a future supply of forest products as well as a present supply; which provides for work and homes and schools and churches for future generations as well as for the present; which provides for a permanent industry and not one that vanishes with the exploitation of the resources of a region as snow vanishes under the warm rays of a spring day. lumbering even to-day is merely the removal of every vestige of timber that has any sale value. but forestry, which is practiced on the national forests, removes only the mature trees, leaving the young growth to be cut at some future time. lumbering has been and is to-day forest destruction; forestry is forest conservation under a system of wise use. lumbering is followed usually by fire, and often by an entire impoverishment of the region in which it is carried on because it destroys both the mature tree and the young growth; under a system of forestry, cutting is followed by young, green forests which are protected from fire for the benefit of future generations. such a system leaves the region and the industry in a permanent, good condition. the county under the old system receives no more taxes after its wealth is gone; but each county will receive taxes or money in lieu of taxes every year as long as the national forests shall endure. [illustration: figure 7. the remains of the old boiler house. the town once had a sawmill, planning mill, lath mill, besides modern conveniences. all these are now gone after the forests have been cut. lemiston, montmorency county, michigan.] [illustration: figure 8. deserted houses, abandoned after the sawmill left. these are the remains of what was once a prosperous town. lemiston, montmorency county, michigan.] _financial returns._ all the benefits of which i have spoken are without doubt great assets to the local community, to the state, and to the nation as a whole. they are great contributions to the welfare of our country even though they cannot be measured in dollars and cents. this brings us then to the financial aspect of the national forest movement. even though the fundamental purpose of the national forests was in no sense a financial one, it is interesting to look into the finances of this great forestry enterprise. the total regular appropriation for salaries, general expenses, and improvements for the fiscal year 1918 is $5,712,275. for 1917 it was slightly less than this: $5,574,735. the receipts from the sale or rental of national forest resources in the fiscal year 1917 reached $3,457,028.41. from these figures it will be seen that the expenditures exceed the receipts by between $2,000,000 and $3,000,000 a year, depending partly on the severity of the fire season and partly on the activity of the general lumber market. when we consider that this is really a newly established business scarcely twenty years old; that large expenditure have been made and must necessarily be made every year for equipment and improvements before the resources could even be used; and that an efficient organization had to be built up to handle the business, we must confess that the receipts are really a wonderful showing. when the forest reserves were taken over by the government it could not be expected that they would yield a revenue at the very outset, nor could it be expected that even in the long space of twenty-five years they could be made self-supporting. the reasons for this are many. they are located for the most part in rugged, inaccessible mountains. in the case of almost every forest a great deal of money had to be expended for roads, trails, telephone lines, fences, bridges, ranger stations and other cabins, lookout structures, fire lines, and many other improvements before the resources could even be used. many of the resources were practically locked up; there were no roads by which to get them out of the wilderness. during the fiscal year 1916 alone there were built 227 miles of roads, 1,975 miles of trails, 2,124 miles of telephone lines, 89 miles of fire lines, 81 lookout structures, 40 bridges, 222 miles of fences, 545 dwellings, barns, and other structures, and many other improvements. up to date there have been constructed over 3,000 miles of roads, over 25,000 miles of trails, about 23,000 miles of telephone lines, 860 miles of firebreaks, about 360 forest fire lookout cabins and towers, and many other improvements. their total value is estimated at $7,000,000. and these vast improvements are but a small percentage of the improvements which will be necessary to be able to put these forests to their highest use. not only must enormous sums be spent for improvements. the huge sums which are spent for the protection of the great resources bring no tangible return in dollars and cents; yet the fire protection system prevents the destruction of millions of dollars' worth of timber every year. then again, when government timber lands are cut over, only the mature trees are taken; the smaller trees, although they have a commercial value, are left on the ground to mature because they will have a still greater value in from forty to fifty years. this is merely foregoing a small present revenue for a larger future one. also many national forests have on them large areas of steep mountain slopes where not a stick of timber is allowed to be cut. these areas are maintained intact for watershed protection. in fact many of the forests of southern california are maintained solely for this purpose. these forests are covered almost entirely by a low bush-like growth called "chaparral," which has no value either as timber or as browse, but which has great value to preserve an equable stream flow for domestic use, irrigation, and water power. but there are still other reasons why the cash receipts from the national forests are not as large as they might be. in addition to the cash receipts the equivalent of a large revenue is foregone every year through the various forms of free use and the sale of timber to settlers at cost instead of at its actual cash value. during the fiscal year 1917 approximately $150,000 worth of timber was given to settlers free of cost. about 40,000 people were served under this policy. also much timber is sold at cost to settlers for domestic use. in this way over 4,400 persons received many millions of feet of timber whose cost value was about $20,000, but whose sale value was much greater. the privilege of grazing a small number of stock free of charge is granted to settlers living on or near the forests. the stock thus grazed amounts to about 125,000 animals every year. the forests are also put to many special uses for which no charge is made although their administration involves some expense. strict accounting should credit the fair value of such uses to the receipts from the national forests, for it is in effect income which instead of being put into the treasury is made available for the benefit of the people. from what has been said it will be seen that a large part of the benefits derived from the systematic administration of the national forests cannot be measured in dollars and cents. these benefits are in effect privileges extended to the people who in return assist in the protection of the forests from fire and thus more than repay the government for what they receive. even under the rather unfavorable revenue producing conditions mentioned above, it is interesting to note that in 1917 the receipts of thirty-two national forests exceeded their total expenditures. on fifteen others the receipts exceeded the cost of protection and administration. in other words, one-third of the national forests are practically self-supporting. _the new eastern national forests._ the great success with which the national forest policy was launched in the western states was largely responsible for the inauguration of a similar policy in the appalachian and white mountains. the main purpose for which these forests are to be acquired is to preserve a steady stream flow for water-power navigation and domestic use, and to lessen the damage caused by floods and erosion. these forests are of vital influence in controlling the flow of the merrimac, connecticut, androscoggin, potomac, james, santee, savannah, tennessee, and monongahela rivers. some years ago the merrimac drove mills worth over $100,000,000, which employed over 80,000 people. upon these, it is said, 350,000 were dependent for support. in the carolinas and georgia alone the cotton mills operated by water-power turn out an annual product valued at almost $100,000,000. in these mills 60,000 people are employed, upon whom 250,000 are dependent for support. these mills utilize 106,000 horsepower. the forests which control these waters are therefore of great pecuniary value. the act of march 1, 1911, commonly known as the weeks law, made the acquisition of forest lands in the appalachian and white mountains possible. up to june 30, 1917, over 1,500,000 acres have been approved for purchase by the national forest reservation commission. the forest service has been designated as the bureau to examine and value such lands as may be offered for purchase. the original appropriation was $2,000,000 per year for five and one-half years, beginning the last half of the fiscal year 1911. the agricultural appropriation bill for the fiscal year 1913 made the appropriation for 1912 and subsequent years available until expended. a further appropriation of $3,000,000 was provided later for the same purpose, to be expended during the fiscal years 1917 and 1918. under section 2 of the same law coöperative fire protection with the states was provided for. this section of the law provided that the forest service should maintain a coöperative system of forest fire protection with those states which have a law providing for a system of fire protection for state and private forest lands upon the watersheds of navigable streams. in no case was the amount to be expended by the forest service to exceed the amount appropriated by the state for the same purpose in any given fiscal year. the original appropriation was $200,000 and subsequent appropriations have been for $100,000 annually. twenty-one states are coöperating with the forest service in this way. by the passage of the weeks bill, congress has voiced the sentiment that the forest fire problem, _even on private land_, is not only no longer a private problem, is not even exclusively a state problem, but a joint problem and duty to be borne by the state and nation. forest fires are now rightfully looked upon as a public enemy rather than a private menace. this is a big step in the right direction, and it is hoped that this same principle will be applied in the not too distant future to all other matters dealing with private timber lands. if the protection of these private timber lands is a public and not a private problem, then certainly their management for continuity is a public problem. a timber owner should not be allowed to cut his timber without the consent of the government, and the government should see to it that he leaves the young growth as a basis for a future crop or provides a new growth of timber by planting young trees. table of contents page preface vii introduction xiii forestry as a national problem xiii our consumption of wood xiii the lumber industry xiv our future lumber supply xv forests and stream flow xvi forests and erosion xvii forestry a public enterprise xviii the extent and character of our national forests xix how the government obtained the national forest lands xix the romance of the national forest region xx famous scenic wonders near the forests xxii the size and extent of the national forests xxiv the topography and climate of the national forest region xxvi why the national forests were created xxvii how the national forest policy has benefited the people xxx the remaining timber resources were saved xxx the use of forage and water resources was regulated xxxii the forests were protected from fire and trespass xxxv the watershed cover was preserved xxxvii civilization brought to the mountains xxxviii agricultural lands opened to settlement xxxix permanent and not temporary civilization resulted xl financial returns xliii the new eastern national forests xlvii i the creation and organization of the national forests 1 economic conditions which led to forest conservation 1 prodigality leads finally to conservation 1 the march of forest destruction 2 our lumber and water supply imperiled 5 the first steps in federal forest conservation 6 the upbuilding of the west 6 the lake states first to act 7 the first federal steps 8 the act of august 16, 1876 9 further work under the act 11 the first forest reserves established march 30, 1891 12 the situation before 1891 12 the need of the forest policy 13 the act of march 3, 1891 14 an anomalous condition--forest reserves without forest administration 14 the need of administration on the reserves 14 more reserves created 16 the administration of the reserves under the general land office 16 the act of june 4, 1897 16 the division of forestry in 1898 18 the bureau of forestry 19 the consolidation of the forestry work in the department of agriculture in 1905 19 the act of february 1, 1905 19 early forestry education and literature 20 changes in the forest service personnel 21 more national forests created 21 the growth of the forest service 22 recent modifications in the organization 23 the present organization of the forest service 24 the administrative districts 24 the washington office 26 the district offices 28 ii the administration of the national forests 30 personnel 31 duties of forest officers 31 the forest supervisor 32 the forest assistant 34 the forest ranger 35 the forest clerk 38 forest service meetings 39 how the forest service appropriation is allotted to the national forests 40 forest service expenses 40 the agricultural appropriation bill 42 the ranger's protection and improvement plans 42 the supervisor's plans 43 approval of plans by the district forester 44 the district fiscal agent 45 tax money paid to the states 46 the equipment and supplies for the national forests 47 the property auditor and property clerk 47 blank forms 48 supplies 48 national forest improvements 49 the need of improvements 49 transportation facilities 50 communication facilities 53 grazing improvements 56 protection improvements 57 appropriations for improvement work 58 the classification and consolidation of national forest lands 61 land classification 61 the consolidation of national forest lands 63 how young forests are planted to replace those destroyed by fire 64 reforestation and the timber supply 64 reforestation and water supply 65 government reforestation policy 67 methods of reforestation 70 direct seeding work on the national forests 72 planting on the national forests 78 the organization and scope of forest experiments and investigations 83 the need of scientific experiments 83 the science of growing timber 84 dendrological studies 86 seed studies 87 nursery studies 88 forestation experiments 89 studies of forest influences 89 meteorological observations 91 forest management studies 92 forest protection studies 94 protection from grazing damage 95 protection from insects and diseases 96 tree studies 97 grazing investigations 98 investigations dealing with poisonous plants and predatory animals 102 national forest utilization experiments 104 forest products laboratory experiments 108 industrial investigations 116 iii the protection of the national forests 120 protection from fire 120 forest fire danger on the national forests 120 importance of fire protection 121 causes of forest fires on the national forests 124 behavior of forest fires 126 losses by forest fires on the national forests 126 the forest fire problem stated 128 fire prevention 129 fire suppression 133 how forest fire funds are distributed 134 forest fire history 136 relation of forest fires to the weather 137 improvements and equipment for protection 138 forest fire maps and charts 139 forest fire organization 140 how fires are located 142 the fire fighting organization 144 forest fire coöperation 146 fighting forest fires 147 protection against trespass, forest insects, erosion, and other agencies 150 trespass 150 forest insects 154 tree diseases 159 water supply 162 public health 167 violation of game laws 168 iv the sale and rental of national forest resources 170 the sale and disposal of national forest timber 170 government timber sale policy 171 annual yield and cut 172 timber reconnoissance 174 logging the timber 176 the first step in purchasing government timber 180 procedure in an advertised sale 180 timber sale contract clauses 182 special contract clauses 184 when the operation may begin 186 marking the timber for cutting 186 scaling, measuring, and stamping 188 disposal of slash 190 payment for timber 192 stumpage rates 193 cutting period 194 readjustment of stumpage rates 194 refunds 194 the disposal of timber to homestead settlers and under free use 195 sales to homestead settlers and farmers 195 free use 195 timber settlement and administrative use 198 the rental of national forest range lands 200 importance of the live-stock industry 200 permits issued in 1917 201 kinds of range, grazing seasons, and methods handling stock 202 grazing districts and grazing units 205 who are entitled to grazing privileges 207 grazing permits 211 grazing fees 214 stock associations 215 protective and maximum limits 216 prohibition of grazing 218 protection of grazing interests 219 special uses 220 claims and settlement 223 the national forest homestead act 224 the mining laws 229 coal-land laws 230 administrative use of national forest lands 230 water power, telephone, telegraph, and power transmission lines 230 appendix 233 illustrations figure 1. an observation point for finding forest fires. vigilance is the watchword on the national forests. during during 1916 forest officers extinguished 5,655 forest fires. photo by the author _frontispiece_ facing page figure 2. a typical national forest landscape in the high mountains. potosi peak, 13,763 feet, from yankee boy basin, uncompahgre national forest, ouray county, colorado xviii figure 3. the climate of most of the national forests is severe. this view was taken in the early summer and shows the high mountains still covered with snow. most of the national forest lands are therefore of small value for agriculture. photo by abbey xxviii figure 4. on many high mountains on the national forests snow banks persist throughout the summer. this view was taken in the latter part of august. lassen national forest, california. photo by the author xxviii figure 5. the big trees. "mother of the forest" in the background. north calaveras grove, california xxxii figure 6. a scene on one of the famous national parks. upper lake, glacier national park, northern rockies, montana xxxvi figure 7. the remains of the old boiler house. the town once had a sawmill, planing mill, lath mill, besides modern conveniences. all these are now gone after the forests have been cut. lemiston, montmorency county, michigan xlii figure 8. deserted houses, abandoned after the sawmill left. these are the remains of what was once a prosperous town. lemiston, montmorency county, michigan xlii figure 9. forest officers in front of the forest supervisor's summer headquarters. note the many telephone wires that lead from the office. this is 50 miles from the railroad. lassen national forest, california 32 figure 10. scene in front of the forest supervisor's headquarters. sheep leaving the national forest summer range in the fall to go to winter range in the valley. lassen national forest, california 32 figure 11. forest officers and lumberjacks burning the slash resulting from a timber sale. the snow on the ground makes the burning less dangerous. washakie national forest, wyoming. photo by the author 38 figure 12. forest officers at a winter timber-cruising camp repairing snow shoes. besides cruising the timber, these men make a logging map of the government lands, to show how the timber can best be taken out. lassen national forest, california. photo by the author 38 figure 13. a forest fire lookout tower on leek springs mountain, eldorado national forest, california 50 figure 14. a typical forest ranger's headquarters. idlewood ranger station, arapaho national forest, colorado 52 figure 15. a typical view of the national forest country in montana. forest service trail up squaw peak patrol station, cabinet national forest 54 figure 16. forest rangers repairing a bridge over a mountain stream. arapaho national forest, colorado 56 figure 17. a forest fire lookout station on the top of lassen peak, elevation 10,400 feet, lassen national forest, california. the cabin was first erected complete in a carpenter's shop in red bluff, about 50 miles away. it was then taken to pieces and packed to the foot of lassen peak. on the last two miles of its journey it was packed piece by piece on forest officers' backs and finally reassembled on the topmost pinnacle of the mountain. photo by the author 58 figure 18. forest officers and laborers building a wagon road through trap rock. payette national forest, idaho 58 figure 19. drying pine cones preparatory to extracting the seed. near plumas national forest, california 66 figure 20. extracting tree seed from the cones. the dried cones are shaken around until the seeds drop out through the wire mesh which forms the sides of the machine 66 figure 21. preparing the ground with a spring-tooth harrow for the broadcast sowing of tree seeds. battlement national forest, colorado. this view was taken at approximately 10,000 feet elevation. photo by the author 70 figure 22. a local settler delivering a load of lodgepole pine cones at the seed extractory, for which he receives 45 cents per bushel. forest officers receiving them, arapaho national forest, colorado 70 figure 23. in a forest nursery a trough is often used for sowing seeds in drills. the seed scattered along the sides of the trough rattles into position at the bottom and is more even than when distributed by the ordinary worker at the bottom of the trough. pike national forest, colorado 72 figure 24. uncle sam grows the little trees by the millions. these will soon cover some of the bare hillsides on the national forests of the west 72 figure 25. one of the largest forest service nurseries where the young trees are given the utmost care before they are large and strong enough to endure the rigorous climate of the national forests. mccloud nursery, shasta national forest, california 76 figure 26. a view of seed sowing with a corn planter. san isabel national forest, colorado 78 figure 27. sowing seed along contour lines on the slopes. pike national forest, colorado 78 figure 28. a planting crew at work setting out small trees. the man ahead digs the hole, and the man behind plants the tree. wasatch national forest, utah 82 figure 29. at the fort valley forest experiment station, coconino national forest, arizona. a typical meteorological station. forest officer measuring precipitation. note the shelter which contains thermometers and also the electrically equipped instruments to record the direction and velocity of the wind 90 figure 30. forest officer ascertaining the amount of evaporation from a free water surface. fort valley forest experiment station, flagstaff, arizona 90 figure 31. forest ranger with his pack horses traveling over his district. meadow creek, foot of mt. wilson, montezuma national forest, colorado 102 figure 32. a plank of incense cedar affected by a disease known as "pin rot." by cutting the cedar timber when it is mature this can be largely avoided. lassen national forest, california. photo by the author 114 figure 33. the western pine forests will some day be a great source for naval stores. by distilling the crude resin of the jeffrey pine a light volatile oil--abietene--is secured which has great healing and curative properties. lassen national forest, california. photo by the author 114 figure 34. a forest fire lookout station at the summit of mt. eddy. mt. shasta in the background. california 124 figure 35. a forest fire lookout station on the summit of brokeoff mountain, elevation 9,500 feet. lassen national forest, california. photo by the author 128 figure 36. turner mountain lookout station, lassen national forest, california. this is a 10 ft. by 10 ft. cabin with a stove and with folding bed, table, and chairs. the forest officer stationed here watches for forest fires day and night throughout the fire season. photo by the author 128 figure 37. a fire line cut through the low bush-like growth of "chaparral" on the angeles national forest, california. this "chaparral" is of great value for regulating stream flow. the streams are used for water power, domestic purposes, and for irrigating many of the largest lemon and orange groves of southern california 132 figure 38. a forest officers' temporary camp while fighting forest fires. near oregon national forest, oregon 132 figure 39. putting out a ground fire. even if the fire does not burn the standing timber, it kills the young trees and so weakens the larger ones that they are easily blown over. wallowa national forest, oregon 136 figure 40. forest officers ready to leave a tool box for a forest fire in the vicinity. such tool boxes as these are stationed at convenient places on national forests ready for any emergency. arapaho national forest, colorado 136 figure 41. a forest fire on the wasatch national forest, utah. forest officers trying to stop a forest fire by cutting a fire line. note the valuable growth of young trees which they are trying to save at the right 140 figure 42. a forest fire running in dense underbrush on one of the national forests in oregon 144 figure 43. men in a dense forest with heavy undergrowth clearing away brush to stop the fire as it is running down hill. crater national forest, oregon 144 figure 44. fire in a lodgepole pine forest in colorado. arapaho national forest, colorado 148 figure 45. a mountain fire in "chaparral" five hours after it started. pasadena, california 148 figure 46. a few years ago this was a green, luxuriant forest. picture taken after the great fires of august 20, 1910, on the coeur d'alene national forest near wallace, idaho 152 figure 47. the first evidence of insect attack are the reddish brown pitch tubes on the bark. lodgepole pine infested by the mountain pine beetle. lassen national forest, california. photo by the author 156 figure 48. the last stage of an insect-attacked tree. the tree is dead and the dry bark is falling off. lassen national forest, california. photo by the author 156 figure 49. wrecked farm buildings due to flood of may 21, 1901, nolichucky river, near erwin, tenn. this is one result of denuding the appalachian mountains of their forest cover 162 figure 50. when steep hillsides are stripped of their forest growth, erosion results. erosion has been especially serious in the appalachian mountains. view taken in madison county, north carolina 162 figure 51. a fertile corn-field covered with sand, gravel and débris brought down from the mountains by floods. these farm lands are ruined beyond redemption. this could have been prevented by preserving the forests on the watershed of this river 166 figure 52. a view towards mt. adams and the headwaters of lewis river. council lake in the foreground. national forest lands lie at the headwaters of practically every large western river. this means that the water supply for the western people used for domestic use, water power, and irrigation is being protected from pollution and destruction. view taken on the rainier national forest, washington 172 figure 53. a large storage reservoir used to irrigate the ranches in the valley below. elevation 10,500 feet. battlement national forest, colorado. photo by the author 176 figure 54. a sheep herder's camp used temporarily by forest service timber cruisers. elevation about 10,000 feet. battlement national forest, colorado. photo by author. 176 figure 55. view taken in the coast range mountains of california where sugar pine and douglas fir and the principal trees. klamath national forest, california. photo by the author 180 figure 56. a typical mountain scene in the california coast range. on these steep slopes a forest cover is of vital importance. klamath national forest, california. photo by the author 180 figure 57. a forest officer at work on a high mountain peak making a plane-table survey and timber estimate of national forest lands. photo by the author 182 figure 58. a government timber cruiser's summer camp. these cruisers get a fairly accurate estimate of uncle sam's timber resources at a cost of from 2 to 5 cents an acre. photo by the author 182 figure 59. forest officers moving camp while engaged in winter reconnoissance work. all food, beds, and clothing are packed on "alaska" sleds and drawn by the men themselves. photo by the author 184 figure 60. a winter reconnoissance camp showing snow-shoes, skis, "alaska" sleds, and bull hide used to repair the webbing on the snow-shoes. lassen national forest, california. photo by the author 184 figure 61. a group of giant redwoods. santa cruz county, california 186 figure 62. a big sugar pine tree about six feet in diameter. this is the most valuable timber species in california. photo by the author 188 figure 63. a western yellow pine forest in california. these trees are from four to six feet in diameter and from 150 to 200 feet high. note the forest service timber cruiser measuring the tree at the left. photo by the author. 188 figure 64. logging in california. powerful steam engines pull the logs from the woods to the railroad and load them on flat cars. photo by the author 190 figure 65. the loaded flat cars reach the sawmill where the logs are unloaded and sawn into lumber. during the fiscal year 1917 timber sales on the national forests brought into the national treasury almost $1,700,000.00. photo by the author 190 figure 66. scene in montana. forest officers constructing a telephone line through the flathead national forest 192 figure 67. forest ranger, accompanied by a lumberman, marking national forest timber for cutting in a timber sale. coconino national forest, arizona 192 figure 68. an excellent illustration showing the difference between unrestricted logging as practiced by lumbermen, and conservative logging as practiced by the forest service. in the foreground is the unrestricted logging which strips the soil of every stick of timber both large and small; in the background is the forest service logging area which preserves the young growth to insure a future supply of timber for the west. bitterroot national forest, montana 194 figure 69. view showing the forest service method of piling the brush and débris after logging, and also how stump heights are kept down to prevent waste. new mexico 196 figure 70. a tie-cutting operation on a national forest. these piles of railroad ties are being inspected, stamped, and counted by forest rangers. from this point the ties are "skidded" to the banks of a stream to be floated to the shipping point. near evanston, wyoming 196 figure 71. brush piles on a cut-over area before burning. forest service methods aim to clean up the forest after logging so that forest fires have less inflammable material to feed on. bitterroot national forest, montana 198 figure 72. at a time of the year when there is least danger from fire the brush piles are burned. missoula national forest, montana 198 figure 73. counting sheep as they leave the corral. sheep and cattle are pastured on the national forests at so many cents per head, hence they must be counted before they enter in the spring. wasatch national forest, utah 208 figure 74. logging national forest timber. santa fe national forest, new mexico 208 figure 75. sheep grazing on the montezuma national forest at the foot of mt. wilson, colorado. over 7,500,000 sheep and goats grazed on the national forests during the fiscal year 1917 216 figure 76. grazing cattle on a national forest in colorado. permits were issued during 1917 to graze over 2,000,000 cattle, horses, and swine on the national forests 216 figure 77. north clear creek falls, rio grande national forest, colorado. the national forests contain about one-third of all the potential water-power resources of the united states 230 figure 78. the power plant of the colorado power company, on the grand river, holy cross national forest, colorado. every fiscal year there is a substantial increase in water power development on the national forests 230 figure 79. this is only one of the thousands of streams in the national forests of the west capable of generating electric power. it has been estimated that over 40 per cent. of the water resources of the western states are included in the national forests. photo by the author 232 figure 80. view in the famous orange belt of san bernardino county, california. these orchards depend absolutely upon irrigation. the watersheds from which the necessary water comes are in the national forests and are protected by the forest service. some of the smaller watersheds in these mountains are said to irrigate orchards valued at $10,000,000 232 our national forests chapter i the creation and organization of the national forests economic conditions which led to forest conservation in order that the reader may fully appreciate the gigantic task that has been accomplished in bringing the national forest administration and organization to its present state of development, it is necessary to briefly sketch the conditions that led up to the inauguration of the federal forest policy before we stop to consider that policy and the establishment and organization of national forests. _prodigality leads finally to conservation._ every great movement, which has for its object the betterment of the lot of mankind, lags far behind the times. there must be an actual economic need before a new movement can be expected to take root and flourish. forest conservation had no place in the household economy of nations that had forests in superabundance. their forests were used with prodigality. it seems to be a great human failing to use natural resources lavishly when the supply is apparently unlimited, and to practice frugality only when the end of a resource is in sight. thus we find in the pages of forestry history that all nations have begun to husband their forest resources only after having felt the pinch of want. in our country history repeats itself and our federal policy of forest conservation properly begins at the time that the national conscience was awakened to the realization that if we did not practice economy with our forest resources we would some day be without an adequate supply of timber and forage, and be confronted with other dangers and calamities that follow the destruction of forests. _the march of forest destruction._ when the london company settled at jamestown, virginia, in 1607 it found that unlimited pine and hardwood forests confronted it on every side. nor did these early settlers ever find a way out of this forested wilderness except by clearings made with the ax. when the pilgrim fathers landed at cape cod in 1620 they found similar forests stretching in all directions from their town-site. after the atlantic seaboard became pretty well settled the home-builders began moving westward through new york, pennsylvania, and what is now ohio. still nothing but unbroken, virgin forests were encountered. westward to the mississippi civilization advanced and still forests reigned supreme. then the middle west, the rocky mountain region, and finally the pacific coast regions were settled. during 140 years civilization has spread from coast to coast and of that vast wilderness of forest there is left only a remnant here and there. the giant pines that sheltered de soto and his thousand followers on their ill-fated expedition in 1541 to the mississippi river have long since disappeared. along the allegheny and appalachian ranges the vast forests that once harbored the hostile narragansetts and iroquois are now but a memory. the giant oak, ash, and cypress forests of the mississippi valley are rapidly being decimated by the big sawmills that work night and day to outdo each other. in the north the dense and magnificent forests of white pine that greeted father marquette, when he planted his missionary station at sault ste. marie in 1668, have been laid low. unproductive wastes, sandy barrens, and useless underbrush now greet the eye. in fact the pine forests which covered the greater part of michigan, wisconsin, and minnesota have been leveled by the woodman's ax. the army of lumbermen has moved now to the coast to again turn virgin timberlands into unproductive wastes. thus forest destruction has followed civilization. statistics show very vividly how gradually one large lumbering center after another has become exhausted, often leaving behind desolation and business depression. in these large centers thriving towns sprang up only to disappear again after the removal of the forest wealth. in 1850 about 55 per cent, of the annual cut of lumber came from the new england states; even as late as 1865 new york furnished more lumber than any state in the union. by 1890 michigan had reached the zenith of its production and in that year the lake states furnished 36 per cent. of the lumber cut. by 1909 the southern states had increased their cut to over 50 per cent. of the total of the country. in 1913 the cut of the state of washington was the largest ever recorded for that state or for any other state, even outdoing michigan during its golden age. in 1915 about 20 per cent. of the cut came from the coast but the south still furnished almost 50 per cent. _our lumber and water supply imperiled._ in our prodigal use of our forest resources we have become the most lavish users of wood in the world. while the annual consumption per capita for france is about 25 cubic feet, and that of germany about 40 cubic feet, our per capita consumption is in the neighborhood of 250 cubic feet. and the most terrible thing about our reckless methods has been that we have wasted by crude lumbering methods and we have let great forest fires consume many times as much lumber as we have used. there have been vast public and private losses through unnecessary forest fires which not only consumed millions of dollars' worth of timber every year, but which also cost the lives of thousands of settlers. then, as every one knows, by being grossly negligent with our forests, our rivers have visited their wrath upon the unfortunate people in the valleys. many streams have become raging torrents in the spring and only chains of stagnant pools in the summer, thus destroying their value for water power and irrigation. cotton mills, which formerly used water power all the year round, now must depend upon more expensive steam power generated by coal to keep their mills running in times of water shortage, while during high water there is the great danger that the entire factory might be swept away. the first steps in federal forest conservation. gradually the national conscience became awakened to the need of a more rational use of our forest resources. but it was not until after the civil war that the first steps were taken. as was to be expected, the states in which forest destruction had reached its worst stages were the first to attempt to mend their ways, thus leading the way along which the federal government was soon to follow. _the upbuilding of the west._ the decade following the civil war is marked by the construction of some of our great trans-continental railroads and the consequent development of the great western country. in fact between 1865 and 1875 the railroad mileage of the united states doubled. the first trans-continental railroad, the union pacific, was completed in 1869. others soon followed. to encourage construction and settlement vast tracts of land were granted to the railroad companies by the government, and with the land much valuable timber passed from government ownership. after the construction of the railroads towns and villages sprang up like mushrooms. as was to be expected with this increased development the destruction of our forests received an added impetus. the lake states, then the center of the lumber industry, began to take alarm at the rapidity with which their hillsides were being denuded. destructive lumbering, usually followed by devastating forest fires, was fast decimating the virgin pine forests. the young growth that had escaped the lumberman's ax fell a prey to forest fires which soon took the form of annual conflagrations. as the population increased the new sections of the country were settled, and as manufacturing operations were extended timber was getting higher in price. _the lake states first to act._ the first attempt to remedy the situation was made by the state of wisconsin. in 1867 the wisconsin legislature suggested a committee who should report upon the destruction of wisconsin's forests. the next year michigan took a similar step and in 1869 the maine legislature began to look into their waning supply by appointing a committee to estimate the standing timber of the state. as early as this observations and calculations upon the rate of consumption of lumber pointed to a not far distant wood famine. _the first federal steps._ the first step taken by the federal authorities was at the urgent request of the statistician of the department of agriculture in 1870. at that time lands were recognized as being either "improved" or "unimproved" farm lands. he recommended that the category of "unimproved farm lands" be subdivided into "woodlands" and "other unimproved lands." by thus dividing off woodlands from other unimproved farm lands more attention was concentrated upon the former. this attention was manifested in the investigations that followed shortly in which it was estimated that 39 per cent. of the area of the country was in woodland. this was the first and most logical step toward taking an inventory of our forest resources. another early attempt to assist in forest conservation was an attempt to reforest the treeless plains of our western states. on march 3, 1873, the timber culture act was passed by congress by which the planting to timber of 40 acres of land in the treeless territories conferred the title to 160 acres of public domain. at first this act seemed to work out as intended but it did not take very many years before it proved a dismal failure. settlers had no knowledge of planting trees; the restrictions of the act could not be enforced, and the act was open to other abuses. the act was finally repealed in 1891. many similar laws for encouraging the planting of timber were passed by the legislatures of some of the middle western states, but all met with little success. in 1874 nebraska inaugurated arbor day. by this act of the legislature the second wednesday in april of each year was set aside for planting trees. other states have followed the example of nebraska, so that to-day almost every state provides one day in the year for planting trees. thus arbor day has become practically a national institution. _the act of august 16, 1876._ the first constructive piece of legislation enacted by the congress of the united states was the act of august 16, 1876. this was the first of a series of acts passed by congress which, although occurring many years apart in some cases, put forest conservation upon a firm basis. under the first act the commissioner of agriculture was directed: "to appoint some man of approved attainments who is practically well acquainted with methods of statistical inquiry and who has evinced an intimate acquaintance with questions relating to the national wants in regard to timber, to prosecute investigations and inquiries with the view of ascertaining the annual amount of consumption, importation, and exportation of timber and other forest products; the probable supply for future wants; the means best adapted to their preservation and renewal; the influence of forests upon climate and the means that have been successfully applied in foreign countries, or that may be deemed applicable in this country for the preservation and restoration or planting of forests, and to report upon the same to the commissioner of agriculture, to be by him in a separate report transmitted to congress." dr. franklin b. hough, an active, untiring, and intelligent scholar, was the first man to be appointed by this act. as commissioner of forestry he prepared the first report and submitted it to congress. the next year, in 1877, congress granted its first appropriation of $6,000, "for the purpose of obtaining other facts and information preparatory to establishing a division of forestry." _further work under the act._ the office of commissioner of forestry gradually enlarged the scope of its duties and functions. five years later, due to the ever-increasing importance of the subject, a distinct division, the division of forestry, was established in the department of agriculture. the duties and powers of this division were "to devote itself exclusively to such investigations of the subject as would tend to the fullest development of the resources of the country in that respect, to discover the best methods of managing and preserving our waning forests and to maintain in all its bearings the universal interest involved in that industry." in 1881 an agent of the department was sent to europe to study the work of forestry there. in 1882 the american forestry congress was organized. this organization had for its object the discussion and dissemination of the important facts of forestry, and while strictly a private body, had a considerable influence in later years in educating the people to the needs of forestry and in helping to establish a rational forest policy in the united states. its first meeting took place in cincinnati. at a second meeting held the same year in montreal the name was changed to the american forestry association and since then has been the center of all private efforts to advance the forestry movement. in 1898 this association began the publication of a propagandist journal which is now called _american forestry_. in 1884 the duty of making experiments with timber was added to the functions of the division. the next year the collecting and distribution of valuable economic tree seeds was begun. in 1886 the study of the biology of some of our important timber trees was taken up, while in the following year silvicultural problems first engaged the attention of the division. the first forest reserves established march 30, 1891 _the situation before 1891._ before 1891 the division of forestry was simply a bureau of information. in general the information supplied was of a twofold nature. it was technical in so far as it related to the management of private woodlands and statistical in so far as the knowledge of the conditions of our forest resources induced the application of forestry principles. up to that date congress had neither appropriated enough money for efficient outdoor work nor did she attempt to put any government woodlands under the control of the division. therefore there had been no management because there were no forests to manage. this one-sided development of the forestry work of the division was greatly impeding a rational development of the forest conservation movement. _the need of a forest policy._ the need for a well-defined forest policy with respect to the government forest lands now began to be felt. railroad land grants, the homestead act, preëmption claims, and the timber and stone act were taking much valuable timberland out of government ownership. people secured claims under these acts merely for the timber that was on them. the purposes of the laws and acts of congress were being fraudulently evaded. also the government had restrictive and protective laws in regard to its lands, but it could not enforce them on account of lack of appropriations with which to maintain an administrative and protective organization. the time was now ripe for an executive policy to manage the woodlands that still remained in the possession of the government before it was too late to save what was left. _the act of march 3, 1891._ the division of forestry was designed by the nature of its duties to be more than a bureau of information. the existence of a governmental department to promulgate forestry principles while the government itself had made no provision to apply such principles to its own permanent timberlands was an incongruity that suggested further legislative action. this was in part supplied by the law of march 3, 1891, which conferred upon the president the power to establish forest reservations. the first exercise of power under this act was the presidential proclamation creating the yellowstone park timber land reserve under president harrison on march 30, 1891. this was probably the wisest step yet taken in the development of a national forest policy; but, unfortunately, the act left the division simply a bureau of information as it was before. an anomalous condition--forest reserves without forest administration _the need of administration on the reserves._ at first thought it will be seen that this piece of legislation must necessarily remain inoperative unless it were followed by the establishment of a proper administration of the reserves based upon sound forestry principles. furthermore, the law withdrew from public use all such lands that might be acquired under it. it was now easy for the government to acquire lands; the question that next presented itself was how to protect and regulate the use of these new acquisitions. forest protection cannot be secured without forest rangers and forest guards; nor forest management without technical foresters. the very reasons for establishing the reserves would point to the absolute need of a system of managing them. these reasons were briefly: "to prevent annual conflagrations; to prevent useless destruction of life and property by fires, etc.; to provide benefit and revenue from the sale of forest products, fuels, and timbers; to administer this resource for future benefit; to increase the stock of game; to promote the development of the country; to give regular employment to a professional staff; to secure continuous supplies of wood and to get the maximum amount of good from each acre." such arguments as these assume the presence of a force of men to protect and administrate these reserves. _more reserves created._ in spite of this serious fault in the act of march 3, 1891, more forest reservations were created. by 1894 presidents harrison and cleveland had created about 17,500,000 acres and on a single day, february 22, 1897, president cleveland proclaimed over 20,000,000 acres. by the close of 1897 a total of almost 40,000,000 acres of forest reserves had been established. during the six years following the law giving the president power to establish reserves, the reserves were under the jurisdiction of the general land office. the appropriations of congress were small, amounting to less than $30,000 annually. such appropriations were used mainly for testing timber strength and the conditions affecting quality. the administration of the reserves under the general land office _the act of june 4, 1897._ the secretary of the interior in 1896 requested the national academy of sciences, the legally constituted advisor of the government in scientific matters, to investigate, report upon, and recommend a national forest policy. this resulted in the act of june 4, 1897, under which, with subsequent amendments, the national forests are now being administered. under this act the reserves remained in the hands of the general land office, department of the interior. it charged this office with the administration and protection of the forest reservations. later the geological survey was charged with surveying and mapping them, and the division of forestry was asked to give technical advice. it is very evident that the division of forestry containing all the trained scientific staff had no relation to the government forestry work except as the offices of the department of the interior might apply for assistance or advice. it is true that an important step had been taken, but the complete separation of the administration by the general land office and the force of trained men in the division of forestry was a serious defect. the act of june 4 might be called the magna charta of national forestry. the u. s. geological survey undertook the task of surveying, classifying, and describing the forest reservations. at a cost of about one and one-half million dollars over 70,000,000 acres of forest reserves were mapped and described. the general land office undertook the administration and forest superintendents and rangers were appointed to take charge of the reservations. the rules and regulations for administering the reserves were formulated by the commissioner of the general land office. _the division of forestry in 1898._ on july 1, 1898, the division of forestry employed 11 persons, 6 clerical and 5 scientific. there were also some collaborators and student assistants. there was no field equipment and no field work. but in the fall of 1898 an important step was taken. from that time on the division of forestry offered practical assistance to forest owners and thus it shifted its field of activity from the desk to the woods. the lumbermen were met on their own grounds and actual forest management for purely commercial ends was undertaken by well known lumbermen. from that time dates the solution of specific problems of forest management and the development of efficient methods of attacking them. the work of the division at this time, therefore, consisted of activities along 4 distinct lines: (1) that of working plans, (2) that of economic tree planting, (3) that of special investigations, and (4) that of office work. thus it will be seen, even at this late date the division had practically nothing to say about the scientific forestry methods which should be used on the reservations. _the bureau of forestry._ in 1901 the division of forestry was raised to the rank of a bureau, but this was a change in name only and carried with it no change in the handling of the government's vast forest resources. the consolidation of the forestry work in the department of agriculture in 1905 _the act of february 1, 1905._ the necessity of consolidating the various branches of government forest work became apparent and was urged upon congress by president roosevelt and by the executive officers concerned. this was finally accomplished by the act of february 1, 1905, by which entire jurisdiction over the forest reserves was transferred to the secretary of agriculture. matters of surveying and passage of title, however, were still kept under the jurisdiction of the general land office. by this act the division of forestry for the first time in its career became an administrative organization. on july 1 of the same year the bureau of forestry became the forest service and in 1907 the change of name from "forest reserves" to "national forests" was made to correct the impression that the forests were like reserves which had been withdrawn from use. _early forestry education and literature._ the act of february 1, 1905, was the final step which established the federal policy with regard to our national forests. at this stage it will be interesting to note briefly the status of the science of american forestry and of forestry education. as late as the spring of 1898 there was no science or literature on american forestry, nor could education in the subject be procured in the country. but soon thereafter several forestry schools were established, namely, cornell forestry school in 1898, yale school of forestry and biltmore forest school in 1899, and the university of michigan forestry school in 1903. the beginning of the twentieth century saw the first professional foresters graduated and taking upon themselves the task of applying scientific forestry methods to the national forests. further evidence of the growth of the profession of forestry was the organization of the society of american foresters in 1900. the first professional journal was started in 1902 as the _forestry quarterly_, and other scientific forestry literature was issued by the government. the scientific knowledge gathered in the field work since 1898 has taken the form of a rapidly growing literature on the subject which has formed the basis of the science of american forestry. _changes in the forest service personnel._ by 1905 the work of the forest service had increased to such an extent that the number of employees was increased to 821. with the opening of the forestry schools, professional foresters became available and the national forests then began to be put into the hands of expert scientific men. gradually the old type of untrained, non-scientific woodsman is being replaced by the trained forester. in addition, the entire force was made a part of the classified civil service and the plan of political appointees was banished forever. _more national forests created._ while the administration of the national forests was being adjusted the area of national forests was constantly being increased. to the 40,000,000 acres of reserves set aside by presidents harrison and cleveland before 1897, president mckinley added over 7,000,000 acres until 1901. when roosevelt became president the national forest policy received an added impetus and vigor. being a great lover of the out-of-door-life and being especially well acquainted, on account of his extensive travels, with the great western country, president roosevelt threw his powerful influence into the balance. with the close coöperation of mr. gifford pinchot, his warm personal friend, and at that time the chief forester, mr. roosevelt set aside between 1901 and 1909 over 148,000,000 acres of national forests, more than three times as much as had been set aside by all his predecessors together. since 1909 a careful adjustment of the boundaries has been going on, both presidents taft and wilson adding small areas here and there, which were found valuable for forestry purposes, or eliminating small areas found to have no value. acts of congress passed since 1907 prohibit the addition by the president to the national forests already established in washington, oregon, california, idaho, montana, wyoming, and colorado. additions can be made in these states only by special act of congress. a number of such acts have been passed; some of them upon petitions of the people in these states. _the growth of the forest service._ the growth of the forest service between 1897 and 1917 is little short of marvelous. the number of its employees has increased from 61 in 1898 to 3,544 on june 30, 1917. the annual appropriations have increased from less than $30,000 in 1897 to $5,712,275 for the fiscal year 1918. but besides this appropriation for 1918 the weeks law calls for an expenditure of $2,100,000 and the federal aid road act for $1,000,000 more. the receipts of the national forests have also increased by leaps and bounds. in 1897 the receipts were practically negligible in amount but by 1906 they had reached approximately $800,000. in the fiscal year 1917 they were more than $3,457,000. _recent modifications in the organization._ further slight modifications in the organization, as established in 1905, were made since that date. before 1908 all the work of the forests was supervised from the main office in washington and this arrangement caused much delay and inconvenience in carrying on the business of the forests. in the fall of 1908 six administrative districts were established, to which another was added in 1914. by this arrangement the national forests are divided into 7 groups and each group has a district headquarters in a large city or town centrally located in the group. the district office acts as sort of clearing house for all national forest business. all matters in the administration and protection of the national forests that cannot be settled on the forest or appear to be of general importance to the district are taken to the district office, which is in charge of a district forester and several assistants. beginning in 1909 forest experiment stations were established in each district and in 1910 the forest products laboratory, the first one of its kind in the world, was formally opened at madison, wisconsin. the weeks law, passed on march 1, 1911, provides for the acquisition of forest lands on the watersheds of navigable streams in the appalachian and white mountains. up to june 30, 1917, over 1,500,000 acres have been approved for purchase in these mountains. the pisgah national forest in north carolina was recently organized from purchased lands. the present organization of the forest service _the administrative districts._ the administration of the national forests and the conduct of all matters relating to forestry which have been placed upon the department of agriculture are in charge of the forester whose office is in washington, d. c. to facilitate the administration of the forests 7 districts have been established with headquarters in the following places: district 1. (montana, northeastern washington, northern idaho, and northwestern south dakota) missoula, montana. district 2. (colorado, wyoming, the remainder of south dakota, nebraska, northern michigan, and northern minnesota) denver, colorado. district 3. (most of arizona and new mexico) albuquerque, new mexico. district 4. (utah, southern idaho, western wyoming, eastern and central nevada, and northwestern arizona) ogden, utah. district 5. (california and western nevada) san francisco, california. district 6. (washington, oregon, and alaska) portland, oregon. district 7. (arkansas, florida, oklahoma, and the newly purchased areas in south carolina, georgia, north carolina, tennessee, virginia, west virginia, new hampshire, maine, and alabama,) washington, d. c. each administrative district embraces a number of national forests and is in charge of a forest officer known as the district forester who is responsible to the forester for all administrative and technical work performed within the district. each district forester is aided by several assistants and by specialists in various lines of work. each national forest is in charge of a forest supervisor who may have a deputy and a forest assistant or forest examiner to assist him if the amount of business on a national forest warrants it. each national forest is subdivided into ranger districts for the purpose of facilitating the protection work. each ranger district is in charge of a ranger who may be assisted by other rangers or forest guards. _the washington office._ the work of the forest service in washington is organized under the office of forester and the branches of operation, lands, silviculture, research, grazing, engineering, and acquisition of lands under the weeks law. the office of forester includes the associate forester, the editor, the dendrologist, the chief of accounts, besides inspectors and lumbermen. the branch of operation administers and supervises the business organization of the forest service and has general supervision of the personnel, quarters, equipment, and supplies of the service and all the fire protection and permanent improvement work on the national forests. the branch of lands examines and classifies lands in the forests to determine their value for forest purposes, conducts the work in connection with claims on the forests prior to proceedings before united states registers and receivers, and assists the chief engineer of the service in handling matters in connection with the occupation and use of the national forest lands for hydro-electric power purposes. the branch of silviculture supervises the sale and cutting of timber on the national forests and coöperates with states in protecting forest lands under section 2 of the weeks law. the branch of research has supervision over the investigative work of the service, including silvicultural studies, studies of state forest conditions, investigations of the lumber and wood-using industries and lumber prices, and the investigative work carried on at the forest products laboratory and the forest experiment stations. the branch of grazing supervises the grazing of live stock upon the national forests, allotting grazing privileges and dividing the ranges between different owners and classes of stock. it is also charged with the work of improving depleted grazing lands and of coöperating with the federal and state authorities in the enforcement of stock quarantine regulations. the branch of engineering has to do with the proper designing and planning of roads, trails, and bridges; with the engineering problems involved in granting permits to hydro-electric plants in the forests; and with the making of forest maps, surveys, improving the forest atlas, and other drafting work. the branch of acquisition of lands under the weeks law has charge of examining and evaluating such lands which are offered for purchase and recommending suitable lands for purchase under the act. _the district offices._ each district office (of which there are 7) is organized in the main along the same lines as the washington office. each branch in the washington office is represented in the district office by an assistant district forester or some similar official. the office of the district forester has in addition the office of solicitor (forest service branch), which is in charge of an assistant to the solicitor of the department of agriculture. he is the advisor to the district forester in all matters of law which arise in the administration of the national forests. his opinions are usually binding except that, in urgent cases, appeal may be taken to the solicitor of the department at washington through the forester. many cases of law arise on the national forests such as cases of timber, fire, and grazing trespass. all these are handled in the office of the district forester. the office of accounts in the districts is in charge of the district fiscal agent who is an assistant to the chief of accounts in the washington office. three of the districts have a branch of products. the experiment stations in the districts are under the supervision of the district forester and the men in charge of them bear the same relation to the district office as the supervisor of a national forest. most of the districts also have in the office of silviculture a consulting pathologist who has charge of all problems relating to tree diseases. the following scheme will illustrate in a general way the organization of the forest service and show how the national forests are administered at the present time: chapter ii the administration of the national forests under the head of administration we must necessarily understand those factors which are essential to carry on the business of the national forests. first of all we must consider the personnel, that is, the men that make up the organization by means of which the work on the forests is done. next we must learn how the money for this large enterprise is appropriated each year to carry on the work, and how it is divided up so that each national forest gets an amount each year in proportion to its needs. then again men and money are of little avail without tools, equipment, and supplies. the proper distribution of these to the 147 national forests is no small business organization in itself. lastly we must learn of the many permanent improvements which are made on the national forests which are absolutely necessary for their proper administration, protection and use. no large constructive forestry enterprise is complete without these. they consist of the construction of means of transportation, means of communication, and living quarters for the personnel; of extensive planting of young trees to reëstablish forests which have been destroyed by fires; the carrying on of research and experiments to aid in the development of the best methods of forestry; and the classification and segregation of agricultural lands and the establishment of permanent boundaries. all these matters must necessarily be considered before we attempt to learn about the protection and the utilization of the national forests. personnel _duties of forest officers._ forest officers are the servants of the people and they are expected to assist in every way possible those who wish to use the resources of the forests. their first duty is to enforce the regulations under which all permits, leases, sales, and rentals are made. these regulations cover every phase of national forest activity and in conducting business under them they must not let personal or other interests weigh against the good of the forests. for the good of the forest service their conduct must be prompt and courteous and their business methods sensible and effective. they make it their business to prevent misunderstandings and violations of forest regulations rather than to correct mistakes after they have been made. on the national forests there are permanent employees and temporary employees. under the former heading come the forest supervisor, the deputy supervisor, the forest assistant, the forest ranger, lumbermen, sealers, planting assistants, and forest clerks. under the latter category come the forest guards, the field assistants, and the temporary laborers. all permanent positions are in the classified civil service. vacancies are filled from a certified list of those who have passed a civil service examination or by promotion from the lower ranks. [illustration: figure 9. forest officers in front of the forest supervisor's summer headquarters. note the many telephone wires that lead from the office. this is 50 miles from the railroad. lassen national forest, california.] [illustration: figure 10. scene in front of the forest supervisor's headquarters. sheep leaving the national forest summer range in the fall to go to winter range in the valley. lassen national forest, california.] _the forest supervisor._ a forest supervisor is in charge of each national forest and he plans the work of the forest and supervises its execution. he works, of course, under direct instruction from the district forester and is responsible to him. when the amount of business on the forest warrants it he is assisted by a deputy supervisor. both these positions are filled by the promotion of experienced men in the classified civil service. the forest supervisor's headquarters are located in towns conveniently situated with regard to the most important points in his forest. the town is usually located on a railroad and centrally located with regard to the various ranger districts of his forest. his headquarters are usually the center of the system of roads and trails which covers his entire forest. from his office also the telephone system radiates in all directions to his various district rangers. in short, the forest supervisor's office is so situated that he has at all times full knowledge of all the activities of his forest; he is therefore in a position to give advice and directions by telephone to his rangers and other subordinates almost at any time of the day or night. such intimate communication is of especial importance during the fire season. some forests have two headquarters, one that is occupied in the winter and the other that is occupied in the summer. the summer quarters is usually most advantageously situated as far as the business of the forest is concerned, but owing to deep snow, which seriously interferes with mail and telephone connections, a more accessible winter quarters is occupied from october to may. the force of men the forest supervisor has working under him varies of course with the amount of work to be performed. the permanent force is usually from 10 to 15 men, which during the fire season may be increased to from 25 to 40 and in cases of great fire emergency sometimes to several hundred men, by the addition of temporary employees. _the forest assistant._ the other permanent men on a national forest are the forest assistant or forest examiner, forest rangers, and a forest clerk with his assistant, the stenographer and typewriter. the forest assistant or examiner ranks next to the deputy and his work is directed by the forest supervisor, to whom he makes his reports. the forest assistant is the technical man of the forest force, who upon making good is promoted to forest examiner. he is employed upon such technical lines of work as the examination and mapping of forest areas; reports on applications for the purchase of timber; marking, scaling, and managing timber sales; the survey of boundaries; and nursery and planting work. not only is a forest assistant called upon to perform these various lines of technical work. the very nature of the country he is in indicates that he must be an all-round practical man. he must be able to ride, pack, and drive. he must often live alone and therefore must do his own cooking, washing, and take care of other personal needs. he must be strong and healthy and capable of undergoing hardships, at least be able to stand long days of walking, climbing, and horseback riding. his various duties and the different situations that arise often call for knowledge and practical ability as a carpenter, a mechanic, a plumber, an engineer, a surveyor, and many other lines of work. perhaps more important than his education and ability are his personal qualifications. his temperament must be such that he must feel satisfied and contented under the most trying conditions. he must be able to do without most of the comforts of modern civilization for most of the time. for these reasons the country-bred western youths are more liable to make a success of the work than the city-bred easterner. _the forest ranger._ the forest ranger's position is one of the most important and at the same time the most difficult positions on our national forests. the forest ranger's headquarters are usually at the nearest business center to his district and if that is not practicable permanent headquarters are provided on the forest. in any case his station is located as near to the center of the business activity of his district as possible. if his headquarters are centrally located in his district, trails, roads, and telephone lines lead out from his cabin to all parts of his district. his station is built and maintained at government expense and usually has, besides his living quarters, a barn, tool-house, pasture, corral, and other necessary improvements. the forest ranger performs such routine work as the supervision of timber sales, grazing, free use, special use, and other contracts and permits, the carrying out of the protection and improvement plans for his district, and other administrative duties. the average forest ranger has a territory of from 75,000 to 150,000 acres to take care of. on june 30, 1917, there were about 1,100 forest rangers employed on the national forests who were assisted by over 900 assistant forest rangers and forest guards. the protective force was therefore about one man for every 77,800 acres or about 121 square miles. the forest ranger must be a man who is physically sound and capable of enduring great hardships. he is often required to do heavy manual labor in fighting fire under the most trying conditions. for this reason he must have great endurance. they are usually men who have been brought up in timber work, on ranches or farms, or with the stock business. they are therefore thoroughly familiar with the region in which they are to be employed and especially acquainted with the rough, semi-primitive life which is characteristic of remote places in the west. he must be able to take care of himself and his horses in regions remote from settlement and supplies. he must be able to build trails, roads and cabins; he must be able to ride, pack, and drive and deal tactfully with all classes of people. he must know something about land surveying, estimating, and scaling timber; of logging, mining laws, and the live stock business. his duties include patrol to prevent fire and trespass; estimating, surveying, and marking timber; the supervision of cutting and similar work. he is authorized to issue permits, build cabins and trails, oversee grazing business, investigate mining and agricultural claims, report upon applications, and report upon and arrest for the violation of forest laws and regulations. _the forest clerk._ the forest clerk performs the clerical work and the book-keeping in the forest supervisor's office. he sometimes has a stenographer and typewriter to assist him and to do the mechanical work of correspondence. lumbermen are specialists who are thoroughly well versed in all that pertains to logging, milling, scaling, and cruising timber. they are assigned temporarily to forests where need for their work arises. scalers are men thoroughly familiar with the art of scaling or measuring logs, ties, poles, cord wood and other forest products. planting assistants are specialists in nursery and planting work. their duties include the preparation of seed beds, seed sowing, transplanting and care of seedlings, and field planting. they are assigned to the forest service nurseries. [illustration: the work of forest officers in the winter figure 11. forest officers and lumberjacks burning the slash resulting from a timber sale. the snow on the ground makes the burning less dangerous. washakie national forest, wyoming. photo by the author.] [illustration: figure 12. forest officers at a winter timber-cruising camp repairing snow shoes. besides cruising the timber, these men make a logging map of the government lands, to show how the timber can best be taken out. lassen national forest, california. photo by the author.] temporary laborers, forest guards, and field assistants are employed during the field season when additional work on the national forests warrants it. forest guards perform temporary protection, administrative, and improvement work; field assistants, usually students of forestry serving their apprenticeships, are usually employed at minor technical work and timber cruising; temporary laborers are employed by the day or month at any kind of improvement or maintenance work. _forest service meetings._ a general meeting of the forest force is usually held annually to give the forest officers the benefit of each other's experience, to keep in touch with the entire work of the forest, and to promote "esprit-de-corps." the time and place of the meeting depends upon circumstances, but it is usually held at a time of the year when there is least danger from fire. often joint meetings are held with the forces of adjacent forests. this annual meeting idea is carried through the entire forest service. the forest supervisors in each administrative district usually meet at the district headquarters once a year and the district foresters of all the districts together with representative officers from the washington office usually meet annually at some centrally located district office such as the one at ogden, utah. these meetings assist greatly in keeping all the work in the various branches of the service up to the same standard of efficiency, in avoiding mistakes by learning the experience of others, and in correlating and summarizing work done on similar problems in widely different regions. how the forest service appropriation is allotted to the national forests it is, indeed, a great task to distribute the money that is each year appropriated by congress for the forest service so that the washington office, the district offices, and the 147 national forests each get their just share and so that each dollar buys the greatest amount of good for the whole people without extravagance or waste. to do this a large organization has been built up composed of business men who have absolutely no selfish interest at heart and among whom graft or favoritism is unknown and unheard of. it may be said without exaggeration that the business of the national forests is on a thoroughly sound and efficient basis. _forest service expenses._ while for reasons already spoken of, the cash receipts are considerably below the expenses for running the forests, the rapidly increasing system of roads, trails and telephone lines points not only to a constantly increasing use and service to the public but also as a consequence to increased financial returns. the expenses of the forest service on the national forests are of a two-fold character. there are costs of administration and protection on the one hand which might be called ordinary running expenses, and the costs of improvements, reforestation, and forest investigations on the other. the latter are really in the nature of investments, and do not properly fall into the category of operating costs. yet they are absolutely necessary to the welfare of the forests. they comprise expenditures for roads, trails, telephone lines, and similar improvements, the establishment of forests by the planting of young trees which have been destroyed by past fires, the carrying on of research and experiments to aid in the development of the best methods of forestry, and expenses connected with the classification and segregation of agricultural lands in the forests. the establishment of permanent boundaries and the cost of making homestead and other surveys are also in the nature of investments. such expenditures may be looked upon as money deposited in the bank to bear interest; they will not bring direct financial returns now but will produce great revenue many years hence. _the agricultural appropriation bill._ the fiscal year in the forest service extends from july 1 of one year to june 30 of the next. every year, in the agricultural appropriation bill that comes before congress, there is an appropriation for the forest service for its work. this appropriation is not in a lump sum but by allotments or funds. there is the fund for fire fighting, one for general expenses, another for statutory salaries, another for improvements, another for emergency fire conditions, and usually there are special appropriations for various purposes. for the fiscal year 1918 (extending from july 1, 1917, to june 30, 1918) there are special appropriations for land classification, for purchasing land under the weeks law, for coöperative fire protection under the weeks law, and for the federal aid road act. _the ranger's protection and improvement plans._ long before this bill reaches congress every forest ranger on every national forest, every forest supervisor, and every branch of the washington and the district offices have been estimating how much money they will need to carry out the plans proposed for the next fiscal year. each forest ranger works and studies over his plans for the next year with which he hopes to protect his district from fire. he plans and figures out what improvements are urgently necessary to make the remote parts of his district more accessible. he tries to arrive at a safe estimate of the cost of so many miles of trails, roads, and telephone lines, so many cabins, barns, corrals, etc., which he thinks are absolutely essential to the proper administration of his district, and he estimates the number of forest guards, lookout men, and patrol men he will need for the protection of his territory. usually these items are summed up under his annual improvement plan and his protection plan respectively. _the supervisor's plans._ when the forest supervisor receives such estimates and plans from each of his forest rangers he studies them over carefully and tries to decide in an impartial way what improvements are most necessary in each ranger district and what additional men are necessary for the adequate protection of the region in question. he carefully weighs the arguments for and against each expenditure and decides what improvements must be made now and which ones it would be possible to postpone for one or more years without detriment to the work of his forest as a whole. for in most cases the amount of necessary work to be done on each ranger district is far in excess of the amount which the forest supervisor could approve owing to the inadequacy of the forest service funds. so, for the forest supervisor, it is merely a question of how low he can keep his estimates for money for the ensuing year until such a time when congress will appropriate more money so that all the important and necessary work can be done. in most cases therefore the major part of all the expenditures recommended by the forest ranger is warranted, but the forest supervisor knows that he must cut all the estimates down considerably in order to bring the total forest estimate reasonably near the amount he is likely to get, basing his judgment upon what he got the year before. _approval of plans by the district forester._ the district forester then gets the national forest estimate from every one of his 25 or 30 forest supervisors and he in turn must decide what projects on each forest are immediately necessary and which ones can be postponed. the same process is repeated in the washington office when all the estimates from the district foresters are received, and the forester in turn sends to the secretary of agriculture his estimates by allotments or funds, which in turn are put before congress. while congress sometimes makes minor changes in the forest service appropriation, in most cases the bill is passed as it stands. _the district fiscal agent._ the money appropriated by congress is allotted to each district, and in turn to each national forest and finally to each ranger district by funds, such as general expenses, fire fighting, improvements, etc. in each district the financial matters are taken care of in the office of accounts by the district fiscal agent. he is the assistant of the chief of the forest service branch of the division of accounts of the department of agriculture and pays all the bills incurred by the district and receives all the money which comes in from the sale of national forest resources. the amount of money appropriated for the district is credited to him and he disburses this appropriation in accordance with the fiscal regulations of the department of agriculture. no other officer is allowed to receive money for the sale of timber, forage, or other resources; in fact no other official in the district handles any of the forest service funds whatsoever. all remittances by users of the national forests are made to the u. s. district depository. if a rancher has bought some timber from a forest ranger, he is given a letter of transmittal showing the amount of the purchase which he must send to the district fiscal agent with the amount necessary to pay for the timber. the letter of transmittal explains the purpose of the remittance. _tax money paid to the states._ another interesting feature of the national forest business is the money paid each state out of the annual receipts in lieu of taxes. it must be remembered that national forests do not pay taxes to the states in which they are located. on the other hand, if the national forests were private property they would bring into the county and state treasuries yearly taxes. to compensate the state for the taxes lost in this way each national forest pays to each county in proportion to the area of the national forest lands located in that county a sum of money equal to 25 per cent, of the total gross receipts each fiscal year. from the receipts of the fiscal year 1917 this amounts to about $850,000. it is provided that this money is to be expended for schools and roads in the county in which the national forests lie. recently a law was passed giving the secretary of agriculture authority to expend an additional 10 per cent. of the national forest receipts for the construction of roads and trails for the benefit of local communities. from the fiscal year 1917 this amounts to about $340,000. these moneys for roads, trails, and schools are of course a great benefit to the mountain communities, since usually the amount of taxable property in such remote localities is small and hence the amount of taxes received is small. these allotments to the counties have helped to develop the communication systems of local communities and have also made the national forests more accessible and useful. the equipment and supplies for the national forests _the property auditor and property clerk._ the depot for equipment, supplies, and blank forms is located at ogden, utah, and this office furnishes all the forests in all the districts with most of the equipment necessary. the record of the property of the united states in the custody of the forest service is kept by a man called the property auditor. requisitions for supplies and equipment are made by the forest supervisor to the property clerk. government property is considered expendable or non-expendable depending upon its character. each forest has a property custodian who has charge of all the property assigned to the forest. when property is received from the property clerk or if property is transferred from one forest officer to another, the property custodian must note the change on his records. _blank forms._ the blank forms which are supplied by the property clerk are printed standard forms used in issuing permits, making contracts, reports, examinations, timber sale agreements, in short, those used in almost every business transaction of the forest service. even timber estimates, tree measurements, and other similar public records are kept on standard printed forms for permanent uniform record. _supplies._ supplies such as stationery, typewriters, pencils, ink, notebooks, paper for map work, compasses, measuring tapes, and a host of other articles are furnished upon requisition by the property clerk. equipment such as filing cases, tables, chairs, typewriters, tree-measuring instruments, tents, cooking utensils, surveying instruments, snow shoes, skiis, knapsacks, water buckets, canteens, kodaks, and many other forms of equipment are furnished by the property clerk, although in cases of emergency some of these things may be purchased locally by forest officers by the authority of the forest supervisor. national forest improvements _the need of improvements._ it is but natural, from their situation, that the national forests represent pioneer conditions; conditions that one might expect to find in a wild, rugged, mountainous country. this was true to an extreme degree when the national forests were first established and it is true in a very large degree even to-day, since the amount of time and money which it will be necessary to expend on the construction of improvements on the 155,000,000 acres of national forests is something enormous. for a long time to come, then, the national forests will need improvements in order to make them secure against fire and in order to make the resources, now locked up, available. proper protection and the fullest use of national forest resources depend mainly upon facilities for transportation, communication, and control. all parts of the national forests should be accessible by roads and trails; there should be telephone communication between settlements and forest officers' headquarters and with the lookout stations; and in most cases suitable living accommodations must be provided for the field force. for the fullest use of the forage resources, water for the live stock must be developed and range fences constructed; to reduce the hazard and the cost and difficulty of controlling forest fires, firebreaks and other works must be constructed. _transportation facilities._ adequate facilities for travel and transportation are of first importance. steam roads, electric roads, and boat lines are utilized in the national forest transportation system as well as the existing roads and trails. added to this, new roads and trails are being constructed every year to complete the already existing network. [illustration: figure 13. a forest fire lookout tower on leek springs mountain. eldorado national forest, california.] the need for new roads and trails depends upon the number of them already existing, the value of the resources that it is necessary to make accessible, the fire liability, and the amount of unrealized revenues due to lack of transportation facilities. if valuable grazing land or timber land can be made accessible there is good reason for building a new road. in many cases roads and trails are built to facilitate the protection of large remote areas from fire. such areas may have large bodies of valuable timber which if destroyed by forest fires would involve a heavy loss. even aside from valuable timber on an area, it is absolutely necessary when a forest fire breaks out to get to it with men and fire-fighting equipment in the shortest possible time before it spreads. if the fire gets to be a large one, many men with provisions, tents, fire-fighting tools, and other equipment must be transported to the scene of the fire. any delay in the transportation of these things may prove fatal and may result in an uncontrollable conflagration. the transportation system that is proposed for a national forest, if the one that exists is inadequate, is usually planned many years ahead. the ultimate or ideal system is always kept in mind so that every mile of road or trail that is constructed is made a part of it. if not enough money is available for a good road, a trail is built along the line of the proposed road. later this trail is widened into a permanent road. the engineer connected with each district office usually has charge of laying out big road projects. a few miles of permanent, good, dirt road with good grade is always preferred to many miles of poor road with heavy grade and improper drainage. a road and trail system is planned for each national forest which will eventually place every portion of the forest within a distance of at least 7-1/2 miles of a wagon road. a pack-train can then transport supplies from the point to which they are delivered on the wagon road to any field camp and return in a single day. in trail and road construction it is very often necessary to build bridges. sometimes a very simple log bridge meets the need, but in bridging many large mountain torrents, which become very high and dangerous in the spring, large bridges are necessary. cable suspension bridges and queen and king truss bridges are built where occasion arises for them, but only after being planned in detail and after the district forester has approved their design and method of construction. [illustration: figure 14. a typical forest ranger's headquarters. idlewood ranger station, arapaho national forest, colorado] very often navigable streams and lakes are used as a part of the transportation system on a national forest. on the tahoe national forest in california launches are operated by the forest service on lake tahoe to patrol the region around the lake for forest fires. ferries, boats, and launches belonging to private companies or individuals are used by agreement or if necessary are bought by the service from the improvement funds. speeders, motor cars, and hand cars on railroads or logging roads are often used when an agreement has been made with the company. in this way railroads are made a part of the transportation system of the forest. _communication facilities._ the system of communication on the national forests is scarcely less important than the system of transportation. this system includes telephone lines, signal systems, and mail service. the telephone system, as can be readily seen, is of the utmost importance for the transaction of all kinds of national forest business. in case a forest ranger wishes to speak to his supervisor about controlling a large fire, it makes a great difference whether he can talk to him over the telephone or whether he must send a messenger on horseback perhaps 60 or 70 miles. in the former case practically no time is lost, in the latter it would take at least two days for the messenger to reach the forest ranger, and in the meantime the fire would continue to rage and spread. in the absence of a telephone system a signal system is used. the one probably used the most in forest fire protection work is the heliograph, by which code messages are sent from one point to another by means of a series of light flashes on a mirror. the light of the sun is used and the flashes are made by the opening and closing of a shutter in front of the mirror. very often these heliograph stations are located on mountain tops in the midst of extremely inaccessible country. where there are a number of these stations at least one is connected by telephone to the forest supervisor's office. when the forest officer at the telephone gets a heliograph message about a certain fire he immediately telephones the news directly to the forest ranger in whose district the fire is located, or if he does not happen to be in direct communication with the forest ranger he notifies the forest supervisor, who then notifies the officer concerned. of course it is all prearranged who should be notified in case a fire is reported to the heliograph man. [illustration: figure 15. a typical view of the national forest country in montana. forest service trail up squaw peak patrol station, cabinet national forest.] unfortunately it has been found that this system of communication is not satisfactory even under favorable conditions. this system depends upon direct sunlight; without it is useless. when there is much smoke in the air it is also of uncertain value. the heliograph system has perhaps reached its greatest development upon the california national forest, but even here experience has shown that it is only a temporary makeshift and the plan is to replace it by a telephone system as soon as possible. the forest supervisor, especially in his summer headquarters, depends directly upon the mail service for communication with the district forester and the outside world. in many cases the fact that the forest supervisor has his headquarters in a small mountain community in the summer has made it possible for that community to receive a daily mail service or mail at least three times a week. when the forest supervisor becomes satisfied that mail service is desirable in certain mountain communities he investigates local settlers' needs for mail facilities; or he may coöperate with the people in the nearest village who are petitioning for mail service. often his influence proves the deciding factor in getting it. as i have said before, telephone communication is indispensable to fire protection and to quick and efficient methods of conducting national forest business. not only do forest service lines enter into the national forest telephone system but all private lines are also made use of. by coöperative agreements with private companies the national forest lines are used by private companies, in return for which private lines are used by the forest service. in this way a complete network of telephone lines is established connecting not only the forest supervisor with all his rangers and his forest fire lookout stations, but also connecting each one of these with local communities and the large towns at a distance. thus, when a forest fire occurs and the available local help is not sufficient to control the fire the telephone system is put to use to call help from the nearest villages and towns. [illustration: figure 16. forest rangers repairing a bridge over a mountain stream. arapaho national forest, colorado] _grazing improvements._ it is often necessary for the complete and economical use of the forage on a national forest to coöperate with the local stockmen to develop range by constructing improvements. water may have to be developed; fences, corrals, bridges, trails, and other works may have to be constructed. often cattle belonging to different stockmen are grazed on adjacent areas which are not separated by natural boundaries such as rivers, ridges, or swamps. if there is no obstacle to prevent the cattle from drifting from one range into another, a drift fence is built, thus definitely separating one stockman's range from the other. often good range would remain unused on account of lack of water altogether or on account of lack of water during the dry season only. in this case the forest service usually coöperates with the stockmen to provide water. roads, trails, and bridges are often necessary to enable sheep and cattle to reach range lands. _protective improvements._ ranger stations, cabins, lookout stations, firebreaks and similar works are required to protect the forests from fire and are known as protective improvements. buildings are constructed for the field force to afford necessary shelter and to furnish an office for the efficient transaction of business. land is often cultivated for the production of forage crops and fences are built to insure necessary pasturage for live stock used by the forest officers in their work. the buildings may be substantial houses to be used throughout the year or they may be merely such structures as will afford the necessary shelter and domestic conveniences for forest officers in the summer. these summer camps are constructed where needed for the use of patrolmen, officers engaged in timber sale work or at such points as will serve the needs of officers traveling through the forest. barns, sheds, and other small structures are constructed at the ranger's headquarters when they are needed. office buildings are also constructed for the use of forest rangers or for summer headquarters of the forest supervisor. [illustration: figure 17. a forest fire lookout station on the top of lassen peak, elevation 10,400 feet, lassen national forest, california. this cabin was first erected complete in a carpenter's shop in red bluff, about 50 miles away. it was then taken to pieces and packed to the foot of lassen peak. on the last two miles of its journey it was packed piece by piece on forest officers' backs and finally reassembled on the topmost pinnacle of the mountain. photo by the author.] [illustration: figure 18. forest officers and laborers building a wagon road through trap rock. payette national forest, idaho.] _appropriations for improvement work._ the money for the construction of national forest improvements is secured from various sources. the annual forest service appropriation usually carries a considerable sum for this purpose. in the fiscal year 1918 $450,000 has been appropriated for this work, which divided among the 147 national forests gives an average only of about $3,000 per forest. this is really a very small sum considering the size of the average national forest. fortunately there are other appropriations and funds and each year sees more money available for this most important work. under the law 25 per cent. of the receipts are paid to the states in which the national forests are located to be expended for roads and schools. the amount to be paid to the states in this way from the receipts in 1917 is about $848,874.00. by the acts of congress organizing them as states, arizona and new mexico also receive for their schools funds an additional share of the receipts based on the proportion that their school lands within the national forests bear to the total national forest area in the states. the approximate amounts due on account of the receipts for 1917 are $42,844.80 to arizona and $18,687.56 to new mexico. congress has also provided that 10 per cent, of the receipts shall be set aside as an appropriation to be used under the direction of the secretary of agriculture for road and trail building in national forests in coöperation with state authorities or otherwise. the amount thus appropriated on account of the fiscal year 1917 receipts is $339,549.61. this added to the amount carried over from the 1916 receipts fund, $136,981.23, and the amount appropriated for improvements, in the regular agricultural appropriation bill, $450,000.00, brings the total available for the construction of roads, trails, cabins, bridges, telephone lines, etc., on the national forests for the fiscal year 1918 to $926,530.84. there is still another fund recently appropriated which will enable roads and trails to be built on a very much larger scale than hitherto has been possible and will result in the rapid opening of forest regions at present practically inaccessible. the federal aid road act, passed by congress in 1916, appropriated ten million dollars for the construction and maintenance of roads and trails within or partly within national forests. this money becomes available at the rate of a million dollars a year until 1927. in general, the states and counties are required to furnish coöperation in an amount at least equal to 50 per cent. of the estimated cost of the surveys and construction of projects approved by the secretary of agriculture. the apportionment among the states is based on the area of national forest lands in each state and the estimated value of the timber and forage resources which the forests contain. the total amount from all sources available for roads, trails, and other improvements on the national forests during the fiscal year 1918 is therefore $1,926,530.84. the classification and consolidation of national forest lands the classification and consolidation of national forest lands is a matter of great importance to their proper administration and protection. if all the lands within the forests are to be put to their highest use for the permanent good of the whole people the lands inside of their boundaries must be classified and permanent boundaries established for each forest. through this kind of work the national forests gain in stability. the classification and segregation of the agricultural lands is most important, for these lands are open to entry under the forest homestead act. _land classification._ the land classification work is organized in the washington and district offices under the branch of lands. crews of men are sent out from the district offices and the work of classification, carefully planned ahead, is done by projects, that is, large contiguous areas are examined together. for instance, the hat creek project on the lassen national forest consisted of a number of large areas containing scattered parcels of agricultural lands along the hat creek valley in that forest. for the classification of the lands on a big project a surveyor and a lineman, one or more timber cruisers, and an expert from the bureau of soils constitute the crew. as a result of this work over 1,100 individual tracts within the forests were made available for entry under the forest homestead act during the fiscal year 1916, because this land was found to have a greater value for growing agricultural crops than for growing timber. under this same policy since 1912 about 12,000,000 acres were eliminated from the forests, partly because they were of greater value for agricultural use, or because they were not suited for the purposes for which the national forests were created. up to june 30, 1917, 127,156,610 acres of national forest land have been examined and classified. such work as this, once and for all time, will settle the controversy now and then waged in congress by certain congressmen that the national forests have large and valuable tracts of agricultural lands locked up within their boundaries and therefore should be abolished, or turned over to the states, or equally radical disposition made of them. such congressmen usually are working for some predatory private interests who want to secure the great wealth in the national forests that is being wisely conserved for the people. _the consolidation of national forest lands._ there has also been a great need for consolidating the national forest lands where these were interspersed with private or state lands. congress has recognized this need and from time to time has granted authority to exchange lands with private owners or states where such an exchange would be advantageous to the government through the resulting consolidation of holdings. thus by getting the government lands into a more compact body their administration and protection are materially facilitated in many ways. before any exchange is made it must be ascertained that the land which the government is to receive has equal value with that relinquished, also that the land is chiefly valuable for the production of timber and the protection of stream flow. recent additions to the whitman national forest in oregon consisted of privately owned cut-over timberland rapidly reproducing to valuable timber trees. title to this will be secured by exchange for government owned lands. how young forests are planted to replace those destroyed by fire _reforestation and the timber supply._ more than 15,000,000 acres of national forest lands which are capable of producing timber and valuable chiefly for that purpose have been denuded of their original tree growth. these lands are not adapted to agriculture and possess but a small value for grazing. in their present condition they are practically unproductive barrens. it is probable that one-half of this area will reforest itself naturally through the reseeding of burns, and the encroachment of tree growth upon natural openings, parks, grass lands, and brush lands. this natural extension of the forest on such areas is progressing at the estimated rate of 150,000 acres annually. the remaining half of the denuded area, 7,500,000 acres, must be reforested by artificial means. this land is unquestionably adapted to growing timber and useful to the nation primarily for that purpose. every year that it lies idle the country suffers a great financial loss, for such an immense area is capable of growing at least three-quarters of a billion feet of timber annually. it was recently estimated that the timberlands on the national forests are producing between five and six billion feet of lumber annually by growth. the complete restocking of the areas now denuded or sparsely timbered will increase the annual production of wood at least 25 per cent., an item certainly worth considering. _reforestation and water supply._ even more important than the value of the timber which is lost annually is the part which these large areas play in the conservation of water supply. most of this area is on the watersheds of western streams and rivers and the fact that it is denuded is a dangerous menace to the equable flow of the rivers which drain those areas. the national forests contain over 1,175 watersheds which supply many municipalities, 324 water-power projects, and 1,266 irrigation projects, aside from many other outside power and irrigation projects which are fed by watersheds within the forests. the cities of salt lake city, utah; denver and colorado springs, colorado; portland, oregon, and seattle, washington, all derive their municipal water supply from streams arising in the national forests. the proposed water system for the city of san francisco, california, is also to be taken from the national forest streams. a few years ago planting was undertaken on the watershed of the colorado springs, colorado, reservoir. this water supply is worth annually from $80,000 to $100,000. besides this the 2,000 horsepower hydro-electric plants are valued at $40,000 and the 40,000 undeveloped horsepower are said to have an additional value of $400,000, making the total value of the watershed more than $500,000, with the probability that a greater water supply having a far greater value will be needed as the city grows. [illustration: figure 19. drying pine cones preparatory to extracting the seed. near plumas national forest, california.] [illustration: figure 20. extracting tree seed from the cones. the dried cones are shaken around until the seeds drop out through the wire mesh which forms the sides of the machine.] and there are many evidences that the people of the west have begun to realize that the national forests are the key to the entire water-supply situation in the west no matter for what purpose the water is used. the public consideration now being given to flood control, the requests from many western cities for special measures to protect their municipal water supply, the concern expressed by irrigation associations in colorado and elsewhere, lest even the regulated cutting on the national forests may reduce stream flow, and the rapid rate at which unused reservoir and power sites in the forests are being developed, all are evidences of the importance of forests in protecting water supplies. reforestation is essential so that the national forests can effectively discharge this function. _government reforestation policy._ the duty of the forest service to put the denuded areas which will not be reforested naturally into a condition of productivity admits of no further argument. but the problem is not so easily solved as it is made clear. under the semi-arid conditions prevailing on many national forests this work involves uncertainties and unsolved problems. on the national forests artificial reforestation was an untried field when the forest service entered it. the government therefore had to develop its own practice in the face of a great variety of conditions, largely unfavorable. the situation still calls for intensive experiments to develop the best methods from the standpoint of both cost and results. more than that, it calls for a different set of methods for each forest region of the west which has its peculiar trees, climate, and soils. then, lastly, when the proper methods have been demonstrated by experiment, the new methods can be applied on a large scale with a very good chance for success. therefore intensive experiments must come first. business prudence requires the development of all methods in detail and reasonable certainty as to their results before large sums are expended upon field operations. in the least favorable regions like the semi-arid mesas of the southwest, the work is restricted for the present to small, carefully conducted experiments, the result sought being reliable information upon how to proceed rather than the reforestation of many acres. in the most favorable regions, as the western slopes of the rocky mountains and the cascade ranges, the results already obtained have been so excellent, due to an unusual combination of good growing conditions, that operations upon a larger scale have been justified simultaneously with continued intensive investigations. as the work is extended into each new region or new national forest, the most favorable sites are always chosen first. after the possibilities and limitations of each method have been ascertained by experience under the best conditions of each locality the work can either be intelligently extended or restricted. but the work is always conducted from the standpoint of the maximum return for each dollar expended. in accordance with the policy outlined by the forest service watersheds used for municipal supply or irrigation continue to receive first consideration. large sums are not, however, being spent on such watersheds where any uncertainty as to the outcome exists; that is before successful methods have been perfected by experiment. in addition to watersheds, reforestation work is being conducted for the primary object of producing timber only where climatic conditions and other factors are extremely favorable. as far as possible these areas are being selected with reference to the low cost of the work, natural conditions which insure rapid tree growth, and urgent local need for additional timber supplies. these favorable conditions generally obtain in washington, oregon, idaho, montana, minnesota, and michigan and it is in these states that the best results have been obtained. in california, utah, nevada, colorado, and the southwest the work is restricted to intensive experiments on a small scale, until successful methods of meeting the adverse local conditions have been perfected. [illustration: figure 21. preparing the ground with a spring-tooth harrow for the broadcast sowing of tree seeds. battlement national forest, colorado. this view was taken at approximately 10,000 feet elevation. photo by the author.] [illustration: figure 22. a local settler delivering a load of lodgepole pine cones at the seed extractors, for which he receives 45 cents per bushel. forest officers receiving them. arapaho national forest, colorado.] _methods of reforestation._ two general methods of reforestation have been developed. the first is called the direct seeding method, in which tree seed is sown upon the ground with or without simple forms of cultivation. the other method is the planting method by which seedlings are grown in nurseries under ideal conditions of soil, light, and moisture until they are large enough to be transplanted and stand the rigors of the open field. direct seeding, where successful, is the cheaper method, but is necessarily limited to sites whose soil and moisture conditions are exceptionally favorable to tree growth. the inability of the newly germinated seedling to establish itself except in comparatively moist soil makes the success of this method on the semi-arid mesas of the southwest, for example, very problematical, especially since these localities are subject to long dry seasons. in such localities the use of the direct seeding method must be restricted to experiments designed to determine the exact range of conditions under which it is feasible. the main effort, however, of the forest service has been given to direct seeding on areas where reasonable success appears to be assured. the planting of 2 or 3 year old seedlings or transplants largely overcomes the adverse soil and moisture factors which appear to have made direct seeding unsuccessful in many localities. this method, which is the general practice in european forestry, must without doubt be employed to reforest a considerable portion of the denuded lands. the growing and planting of nursery stock is carried on simultaneously with direct seeding. the object of this is to ascertain the comparative results of the two methods, the sites on which the greater success will be obtained from each, and the proper relation of the two methods in the future development of reforestation work. since reforestation work was begun on the national forests about 135,500 acres have been sowed or planted. the larger part of this acreage was reforested by direct seeding. until only a few years ago larger areas were direct seeded each year than were planted to nursery stock, but at the present time more planting is being done. during the fiscal year 1916 about 7,600 acres were planted and about 2,800 acres were seeded. the average cost in that year of planting was about $10.00 per acre, that of the seeding was about $4.50 per acre. the 1917 costs were slightly higher, due to the increased cost of labor and supplies. the reforesting methods of the forest service mean the collection of large quantities of seeds and the growing of large quantities of small trees for planting. since 1911 the forest service has collected over 175,000 pounds of seeds for its direct seeding and planting work. during the fiscal year 1916 the forest service had 14 large tree-nurseries and 7 small ones, which had in them over 37 million young trees which would, in a short time, be planted in the field. from these figures it is readily seen that the reforestation work on the national forests is conducted on a large scale. _direct seeding work on the national forests._ the direct seeding work on the national forests involves many more problems than one would at first thought suppose. seed must be collected and extracted; it must be stored, if it is not used immediately; if the seed is sown it must be protected from rodents and very often the ground must be prepared before the seed is sown. [illustration: figure 23. in the forest nursery a trough is often used for sowing seed in drills. the seed scattered along the sides of the trough rattles into position at the bottom and is more even than when distributed by the ordinary worker at the bottom of the trough. pike national forest, colorado.] [illustration: figure 24. uncle sam grows the little trees by the millions. these will soon cover some of the bare hillsides on the national forests of the west.] seeds are collected in various ways. often cones are purchased at advertised rates from persons who make a business of seed collecting. the collectors deliver the cones to a specified ranger station or to some seed extracting plant. but such collectors are not always available. seed is collected by forest officers by stripping cones directly from standing trees or from those felled in logging operations. large quantities are also gathered from the vast stores or caches assembled by squirrels. seed extraction is usually done most economically by experienced forest officers. it requires drying by exposure to natural or artificial heat to open the cones; threshing to separate the seed from the scales and woody portions of the cone; and cleaning or fanning to remove chaff and dirt. much of the extraction has hitherto been done in small quantities at a large number of stations and with very simple home-made appliances. in view of the large amount of seed which must be handled each year the cost of extraction has been materially reduced and seed of higher average fertility has been obtained by concentrating the major part of the work at central seed-extracting plants equipped with improved machinery. a problem of great importance from the standpoint of final results is that of having seed available at the season of the year when it is needed. past experiments have shown that fall sowing is essential to success in most parts of the west where extensive seeding projects will be conducted. experience has also shown that seed on a large scale cannot be extracted in time for use in the same season. moreover, every year is not a good seed year, so that forest officers must take advantage of the good years to collect large quantities and store them for use during years of seed shortage. purchased domestic or foreign seed cannot be used to advantage to make up these deficiencies because it is sometimes of poor quality and not adapted to the climatic conditions in which it must be sown. for these reasons methods had to be devised for storing large quantities of seeds for several years at a time and in such a manner that their vitality would not be impaired. many storage tests have been made by the forest service to determine the best way of storing seeds. the tests showed that the sealed glass jar is the best container and that seed must be stored either in air-tight receptacles or at low temperatures to be kept for any considerable period without loss of fertility. probably the greatest obstacle encountered in reforestation by direct seeding is the destruction of the seeds by rodents. the failure of many direct seeding projects has been due primarily to loss from this cause. failure has occurred on areas of practically every character regardless of the time of the year the seed was sown. success has been encountered only where recent burns had largely eliminated the animals either by outright destruction or by the loss of food supply. the rodents which are most destructive to tree seeds are the ground squirrels, the chipmunks, the mice, and the gophers. it is not strange that they should seek out the seed that has been carefully sown by the forest officers. in many cases these seeds are their natural food and they are wonderfully diligent and expert in searching it out. in coöperation with the biological survey, the forest service has worked on the problem of destroying the rodents. many methods have been tried out in the field. the free use of grain poisoned with strychnine has thus far produced the best results and has reduced the loss from rodents sufficiently to secure satisfactory germination. the successful elimination of such injury appears to lie in the thorough poisoning by this method of areas to be seeded, once or oftener in advance of sowing. with successful germination assured by the collection of good seed and the protection of it after it has been sowed from rodents, the next problem lies in cheap methods of cultivation and sowing. this will enable the young seedling to develop its root system early enough and rapidly enough to withstand the first annual drought, the dominant feature of the climate of all the western national forests. [illustration: figure 25. one of the large forest service nurseries where the young trees are given the utmost care before they are large and strong enough to endure the rigorous climate of the national forests. mccloud nursery, shasta national forest, california.] there are numerous methods used in sowing tree seed on the national forests. three general methods are used in most of the work. broadcast sowing is practiced in the fall and spring or upon the snow in the winter, both on ground that has not been prepared and on soil that has been scarified by rough brush drags, harrowing, disking, or partial or complete plowing. in seed-spot sowing the seed is planted at regular intervals in small spots where the soil is cleared of vegetation and worked up loose to a depth of from 5 to 6 inches. when corn planting or dibbling is practiced the seed is thrust into the soil by a hand corn-planter, or, in the case of large nuts, pressed into holes made with a pointed stick. the corn-planter method is often combined with the preparation of seed spots or the plowing of single furrows, in order to plant the seed in loose soil free from vegetation. on a large majority of the forests broadcast seeding on unprepared ground has not succeeded. as a rule satisfactory stands have been secured from broadcasting only after an expensive preliminary cultivation which would be impracticable in extended operations and which would exceed the cost of planting with nursery stock. but broadcasting on prepared strips and upon recent burns has given some success. the seed-spot method has been most successful if done at the proper season. late summer and early fall sowing has produced better results than sowing in spring or winter. as a whole direct seeding has not succeeded, especially when the results and costs of the work are compared with the planting of nursery stock. planting has thus far yielded better results, especially on the less favorable areas. furthermore, from the standpoint of final results attained, planting has actually been cheaper than seeding, in spite of the greater initial cost of planting. while the major emphasis in reforestation work is placed upon planting, considerable seeding is being done, but it is confined to the most favorable localities and sites. _planting on the national forests._ reforestation by planting young trees has received much attention during the last few years principally because it has produced better results. much still remains to be said for both methods and future experiments alone can decide which method to use in a specified region and under given conditions of climate and soil. usually direct seeding has been tried first in any given locality where reforestation work was to be done. in fact the policy of the forest service in artificial reforestation on the national forests has been, first, to conduct experiments to find out what can be done and what is the best way to do it; second, to reforest by direct seeding wherever this is feasible; and third, to plant nursery seedlings where direct seeding has been found too uncertain. [illustration: figure 26. a view of seed sowing with a corn planter. san isabel national forest, colorado] [illustration: figure 27. sowing seed along contour lines on the slopes. pike national forest, colorado] in selecting areas for planting, preference is usually given to the watersheds of streams important for irrigation and municipal water supply and to land which is capable of producing heavy stands of a quick-growing species or of a specially valuable species. next in importance are areas which offer good opportunities for object lessons to the public in the practice of forestry. some areas offer combinations of advantages. for instance, a burned-over tract may be suitable for planting to some rapid-growing species which is also valuable for timber and at the same time may be situated so that it will serve as an object lesson also. it is on such areas in general that reforestation by planting is being concentrated. while the reforestation of the watersheds of streams important for irrigation and municipal water supply has a large financial value, this value is hard to estimate because it involves not actual cash profit but loss prevented. but when a favorable site is planted to a quick-growing, valuable, species, it is comparatively easy to arrive at a fair estimate of the possible profit on money invested. it has been estimated that under many conditions it is highly profitable to reforest waste lands on the national forests by planting. from certain experiments made it is estimated that a white pine forest artificially established on a second-class forest soil in minnesota, will yield about 46,500 board feet per acre in 50 years, worth at least $10 per thousand feet, or $465 per acre. figuring the cost of planting and the cost of care and protection per acre per year at 3 per cent. compound interest gives a total cost of $34.07 per acre at the time the timber is cut and a net profit of $8.62 per acre per year. douglas fir in the northwest will produce 81,000 board feet in 80 years, worth at least $8.50 per thousand feet. after deducting all expenses this would leave a net profit of $555.30 in 80 years or about $6.94 per acre per year. these profits are indeed large, considering that the land is not capable of producing cereal or vegetable crops profitably. and it must be remembered that in all the above calculations all the money invested is earning 3 per cent. compound interest and that the net profits are the earnings in excess of this 3 per cent. interest. the little trees that are set out on the national forests every year are produced in large nurseries, where they are grown by the millions. in these nurseries the little trees receive the most expert care from the time the seeds germinate until the time they are large enough to withstand the rigors of wind and weather on the barren hillsides of uncle sam's forests. the seeds are first carefully sown in seed beds and left to develop in these from one to three years. at the end of one year they may be transplanted in nursery rows where they will have more room to develop. rapidly growing species like yellow pine are kept only a year in the seed bed and perhaps one or two years in the transplant beds; but slow growing species, like cedar, must remain in the seed beds two years and usually two years in the transplant beds. all this depends upon the species and the site upon which it is to be planted. if my reader were to visit the pikes peak region during spring or fall he would doubtless encounter large gangs of men planting young trees on the barren mountain slopes. under the proper supervision of forest officers some of the men will be seen digging holes with a mattock while others are coming directly behind them with bags or boxes with wet moss or burlap, containing small trees. these men are called respectively the diggers and planters. two men will plant from 500 to 1,000 trees a day, depending upon how deep the holes must be dug to accommodate the roots, whether the ground is bare or covered with sod, whether the land is mountainous or level, and many other factors. in this way uncle sam plants his denuded areas in the forests, so that they will be producing _timber_ for future generations instead of useless _brush_ or _tree weeds_. the great variety of climatic and topographic conditions included in the national forest area makes the problem of tree planting infinitely complex. nursery stock must be raised in each region having similar climatic conditions, and in each of these regions different methods of planting must be used, depending upon local conditions. the semi-arid mesas of arizona and new mexico present different planting problems from the humid forest regions of oregon and washington; the methods used in the sandhills of nebraska and the sand plains of michigan cannot be applied in full on the high mountain slopes of colorado; nor are the planting problems in the vast chaparral areas of northern california anything like those encountered in the mountains of idaho, or in the prairie states of the middle west, or in the black hills. then, again, the reforestation problems of the chaparral fields of southern california are more perplexing than any i have mentioned above. [illustration: figure 28. a planting crew at work setting out small trees. the man ahead digs the hole, and the man behind plants the tree. wasatch national forest, utah] the organization and scope of forest experiments and investigations _the need of scientific experiments._ no science can make progress without intensive experiments and investigations, least of all a new science like forestry. the science of forestry as it has developed in europe is several hundred years old, but the science of forestry as applied to american conditions is still in the infancy of its development--probably not over 20 years old. therefore we know very little about our trees, our forests, and the wood which they produce, and the professional foresters who handle the scientific work on our national forests are very much handicapped. to supply the needed information about the requirements of many of our tree species, the uses to which their wood can be put, and many other related subjects, the forest service has established 8 forest experiment stations (recently reduced to 6) and one forest products laboratory. it has become the business of these institutions to study the laws governing the life of the tree and the forest and their effect upon the final product--wood. the experiment stations are working on the solution of the many problems which confront the forest officers in the management and the protection of the national forests; while the forest products laboratory was organized to promote the most profitable utilization and the most economical disposition of the forest products of the national forests. both sets of institutions, in doing this, are helping materially to build up the science of american forestry, which even to-day can hardly be said to exist. _the science of growing timber._ in order to better understand the many diversified problems which are being studied at the forest experiment stations, it is necessary to give the reader a few ideas concerning the science of forest ecology. this science is the basis of all problems dealing with the growing of timber and is therefore a study of the utmost importance to forestry. forest ecology is the study of the relations of trees and forests to their surroundings. by surroundings (or environment) we mean all the factors which influence their growth and reproduction, such as soil temperature, soil moisture, soil texture, rainfall, light, wind, air temperature, relative humidity, altitude, slope, exposure, and surface. forests, we must remember, are not warehouses of standing logs; they are not merely aggregations of individual trees; but they are complex communities of living organisms, which are affected in many ways by climate and soil and which, in turn, affect in no small degree the climatic and soil conditions in their immediate vicinity. the forester cannot treat the forest as an aggregation of individuals, for forests have laws which govern their behavior which are entirely different from those that govern the individual tree. some foresters and botanists prefer to call this science by the name of "tree sociology," and they compare it with human sociology. individuals, as we well know, are governed by different natural laws than communities. just so with trees and forests. in order, therefore, to grow a never-failing supply of timber intelligently and economically we must understand these complex organisms and communities, we must study their behavior under different soil and climatic conditions and ascertain the conditions under which they grow best. only by doing this can the forester achieve all the objects of forestry, namely, to help nature to produce more and better timber, in a shorter length of time and at the smallest possible cost. the experimental work of the forest experiment stations is grouped under such categories as these: dendrological studies, forestation studies, studies in forest influences, studies relating to forest management, studies in forest protection, commercial tree studies, and grazing studies. _dendrological studies._ dendrological studies include studies in tree distribution and wood identification. for each tree species growing in the united states (and there are about 500 of them) it is desirable to know its geographical distribution, its commercial distribution, and its local distribution. the first of these deals with the entire range of the tree by geographical divisions; the second of these with the distribution of those bodies of timber that are of commercial quantity or size; and the last deals with the distribution of the tree by local divisions, such as lowlands, slopes, ridges, valleys, plateaus, etc. this information is usually placed on maps for permanent record. observations by forest officers on the many national forests are recorded by them and at the first opportunity sent to washington. very often it happens that the range of a species of tree is considerably extended and that a tree is found growing in a locality where it was never reported from before. the identification of woods is done at the forest products laboratory. the distinguishing characteristics of the woods of many american tree species have been determined. the wood of different trees is studied under the microscope to discover in what way it differs from other woods closely related. many such results are published for the benefit of both the lumber dealer and the general public in the form of bulletins. both the subject of dyewoods and that of the many woods now sold as mahogany have been investigated in this way. the resulting data have been used by many companies and have helped to protect the public from frauds. _seed studies._ experiments in reforestation are grouped under seed studies, nursery studies, and sowing and planting. considerable work has been done in developing the best methods of seed-extraction. much valuable information has been gathered on the largest amount of seed that may be extracted from pine cones of different species per unit of time at different degrees of temperature; the maximum temperature which may be applied to seeds of different species without impairing their vitality; the germinating power of seed extracted at different temperatures; the comparative length of time required for the germination of seed extracted with or without artificial heat; and the most economical type of seed-extracting plant. studies have been made upon the comparative germination of tree seeds in the field and the greenhouse. the ultimate success of the plantations being established on the national forests in a large degree depends upon the character of the seed used. hence studies are being conducted of the effect of altitude, soil, age of the tree, density of stand, insect damage and disease infection, and other factors that affect the mother tree, upon the character of the seed collected from those trees, and the growth and form of the resulting seedling. also tests to show the effect of the source of seed on the form and growth of young seedlings have indicated very clearly that with all species the seed grown in the locality where the trees are to be planted give as a rule better results than seed imported from another region. _nursery studies._ nursery studies endeavor to show the most efficient methods for growing young trees for field planting for each species of trees. it is of great importance to know how much seed to sow per foot in the nursery beds; what is the best time (spring or fall) for sowing; to what depth the seed should be covered in order to give the highest germination; whether better results are obtained by drill sowing or by broadcast sowing; the best methods of shading, fertilizing, watering, and cultivating the seed beds; the methods of securing the best root development of the young seedlings; the best time and method of transplanting from the nursery beds to the transplant beds; the best methods for retarding spring growth in seedlings to be used at high altitudes; and other problems of similar nature. _forestation experiments._ experiments in forestation have, year after year, proven that planting is much safer than direct seeding and ultimately less expensive. for this reason a greater emphasis has been placed upon planting studies. these studies have attempted to show the best season for planting each species; the best methods of planting; the most advantageous classes of stock to use; and what the most suitable sites are for each species of tree. _studies of forest influences._ studies on the influence of forests upon stream flow and erosion are attempting to furnish important data for american conditions upon this subject. at the wagon wheel gap forest experiment station in colorado such a study is being carried on. the purpose of the study for the first two or three years has been to determine the character of the two streams which are to be measured. the forest cover on the two watersheds is practically identical. the results so far obtained indicate that the influence upon the stream flow must be about the same in both cases, and, consequently, a comparison of these streams after the denudation of one watershed will be a very fair test of the influence of the forest cover upon the relative height of the flood stage and low-water stage, the amount of erosion, and the rate of melting of the snow. [illustration: figure 29. at the fort valley forest experiment station, coconino national forest, arizona. a typical meteorological station forest officer measuring precipitation. note the shelter which contains thermometers and also the electrically equipped instruments to record the direction and velocity of the wind.] [illustration: figure 30. forest officer ascertaining the amount of evaporation from a free water surface. fort valley forest experiment station, flagstaff, arizona.] experimental observations which have been conducted since 1908 at the various forest experiment stations have shown that the forest exercises a decided moderating influence upon temperature extremes, wind motion, and evaporation. likewise, the presence of a forest cover retards the melting of snow in the spring, and in this way huge snowbanks in the forests feed the nearby streams until late in the summer. forests therefore have been shown to conserve the water supply and also causing this water to run off slowly rather than in sudden floods. studies have also been conducted on determining the effect of cutting timber upon the climate within the forest. _meteorological observations._ the climatic requirements of forest types have been studied at the fremont experiment station since january 1, 1910, through experimental observations, and other stations have taken up the same problem since that date. the first step in this work at the fremont has been to obtain a complete meteorological record as a basis for determining what climatic conditions are most important in limiting the natural range of such important species as yellow pine, douglas fir, and engelmann spruce. the data collected so far have shown that soil moisture and soil temperature are the controlling factors in determining the existence of the three forest types. it has also been shown what climatic conditions each of the three types of forest must have in order to succeed. this work has since been extended to include other types of forest and a meteorological station has been established at timber line on pikes peak. this station, which is at approximately 11,500 feet, is equipped with self-recording instruments to measure the climatic factors which obtain at that elevation and which mark the uppermost altitudinal limit of tree growth in that locality. such studies as these, based upon systematic meteorological observations, have an important bearing on all other forest problems. the data secured in this way especially assist the technical foresters in solving the various problems in forest management, reforestation, fire protection, and land classification, besides giving positive knowledge of the environment in which our trees live and of the factors affecting their growth and reproduction. these systematic observations are of prime importance if we ever hope to have a science of american forestry. _forest management studies._ experiments in forest management are carried on to determine the best methods of cutting national forest timber to secure natural reproduction and at the same time to improve the quality and productivity of the remaining stand. these studies are carried on by means of permanent sample plots, on which all the trees are carefully measured and recorded. first the timber is cut on the plots under different systems of management, or thinnings or improvement cuttings are made. an exact record is kept of the amount of timber removed and of the size and distribution of the remaining trees. measurements taken at regular intervals show the precise effect of the method used on each plot. close observations of the reproduction which takes place, brush and other forms of cover which may establish themselves, and changes in soil conditions are recorded. on similar sample plots methods of brush disposal, methods of marking timber for cutting, and thinning methods are studied. after logging there are several ways in which the resulting slash may be disposed, depending upon surrounding conditions. in some localities the brush must be burned immediately on account of the fire danger which its presence involves; in other places it must be removed because it interferes with reproduction; in still other places the brush may be scattered over the area because there is little fire danger and, in fact, the brush has been found to assist and protect reproduction. all these possibilities must be determined by experiments. likewise in marking timber for cutting and in thinning practice various methods are possible, depending upon circumstances, the most important of which are the requirements of the species and the density of the forest. other management studies deal with the determination by actual measurement of the volumes of trees and stands, and the growth of trees and the yields of whole forests. reliable growth and yield data for the different species and types are necessary to properly handle timber sales as well as for forest management. they are also essential for determining damages caused by fires and trespass. _forest protection studies._ studies in forest protection endeavor to find the best methods of protecting the national forests from fire, grazing, disease, insects, wind, snow, hail, and animals. the most efficient protection of the national forests from fire calls for an accurate, scientific knowledge of all the factors that enter into the problem. comprehensive studies are undertaken to secure the basis for a more scientific method of distributing national forest fire-protecting funds. the aim has been to find the degree of intensiveness in fire protection warranted by timber, forage, and watershed values, as modified by their susceptibility to damage by fire. under the ideal system of allotting fire-protecting funds, the most valuable resources, which at the same time are most in danger of destruction by fire, should receive the largest amount of funds and therefore the greatest amount of protection. less valuable resources, less susceptible to fire danger, should receive protection in proportion. other classes of fire protection studies have to do with the various phases of fire prevention, fire detection, and fire control. studies have also been carried on to determine the rapidity with which fire spreads in different forest types, and under a given set of climatic conditions. _protection from grazing damage._ studies of the effects of grazing upon the natural reproduction of forests are conducted with a view to devising a system of range control which would minimize such injury without requiring the total exclusion of the stock from the range. studies have shown that serious damage occurs to seedlings under four feet in height during the dry season, on areas containing poor forage, or which have been overgrazed, or where there was little or no underbrush. it was found that sheep do twice as much damage as cattle. some of the measures that have been adopted to lessen the injury to reproduction by sheep and cattle are: the revegetation of overgrazed areas, reductions in the amount of stock, provisions for the better distribution of stock by the regulation of watering places, and the exclusion of sheep from cut-over areas on which reproduction is deficient until the seedlings reach a sufficient height to be out of the reach of the animals. _protection from insects and diseases._ in coöperation with the bureau of entomology and the bureau of plant industry the forest service is conducting a large number of studies and investigations dealing with the insects and diseases that do destructive damage to forests. the direct result of these studies will be the gradual eradication of predaceous insects and dangerous tree diseases from the valuable timber forests of the government. control measures already taken have shown the value of exact scientific information. on the klamath national forest some years ago about 900 acres were treated for insect infestation. the cost was about $3,000 and the amount of timber saved by the eradication of the insects was worth over $600,000. other studies are carried on to identify and describe certain classes of insects, such, for instance, as those that destroy the seeds of trees in the cones. the various families, genera, and species of forest insects are studied and described, and the results are published in the form of monographs. many of these insects are difficult to identify and concerning others very little is known. investigations on tree diseases have not made such good progress, because tree diseases are much more difficult to control. tree diseases, like human diseases, must be prevented instead of controlled. a general survey of the tree diseases prevalent in the national forests has been made, especially in california. further studies have brought to light little known or even unknown diseases. in california, studies have shown that a certain relation exists between old age and disease. incense cedar, for example, seems to become infested after it reaches maturity at an age of about 150 years. _tree studies._ commercial tree studies are made of important tree species. the results are published in the form of monographs dealing with the range, silvicultural characteristics, growth, yield and management of each tree. these studies bring together all the important facts known about the tree described, such as: the industrial uses of the wood, the conditions under which the tree succeeds, the rate of growth in different situations, and the most suitable methods of management to secure the highest returns. tables are included to show the volume of the trees at different ages and sizes, in cubic feet, in cords, in board feet, etc. studies are also made of the life history and requirements of important forest trees, often in connection with commercial studies. such studies cover: local, geographical, and commercial occurrence of the species, the species which are associated with it, the habit of the tree, its soil and climatic requirements for germination and growth, and the various matters connected with its reproduction. such publications as these give the forest officers much valuable information about the trees with which they are dealing, and also furnish the only sources of information to students in forest schools on the characteristics and requirements of the trees important in forestry in this country. _grazing investigations._ grazing investigations, being intimately connected with a great national industry, have received a considerable amount of attention. these studies are confined at present to grazing reconnoissance, the reseeding of depleted mountain grazing lands, studies in the best methods of handling sheep on the range, studies of the effect of grazing on the forest, identification of range plants, and the systematic elimination of poisonous range plants and predatory animals. grazing reconnoissance is a stock taking of the forage possibilities of a certain piece of range land. this work is usually done by organized parties, but a small amount is done also by forest officers in spare time. this study aims to collect all the important grazing information, such as: the area of grazing lands, the kind of forage, the species of forage plants, the location of streams, springs, and other watering places for stock, the location of stock driveways, drift fences, and cabins, the location of timber lands that do and those that do not contain forage, and many other matters pertaining to the grazing of stock. the maps and field data secured furnish the basis for range improvement and more intensive range management. up to date, over 12,288,885 acres of range lands have been covered in this way. all intensive forage and range experiments are conducted at the great basin experiment station on the manti national forest. here intensive problems are carried on under controlled conditions and under constant and careful observation and the necessary care and thoroughness is given to them which could only be given them at a fully equipped experiment station. all grazing investigations on the national forests are carried on under the direct supervision of this station. the seeding of depleted grazing lands is accomplished either by direct artificial seeding or through rotation grazing. under the former method the seed of native or foreign grasses and other range plants are sown on the range, in the attempt to increase the forage crop. by rotation grazing, that is, permitting the stock to feed first on one area and then on another, the grasses and forage plants are allowed to recuperate from the effect of grazing and allowed to reproduce. the stock is excluded from one area while the seed is maturing, and after the seed has matured and become scattered on the area the stock is allowed to graze on it. as the stock feeds on the plants it tramples the seed into the ground and thereby furnishes favorable conditions for the germination of the seed. there are few parts of the national forests that cannot be completely regenerated by the adoption of either one or the other of these two methods. to reduce interference with the natural processes of reforestation, damage to tree growth and watersheds, depletion of grazing lands, and the waste of valuable forest resources, it is important to develop improved methods of managing different kinds of live stock on different types of land. these new methods of handling stock have been applied only to sheep. the lambing of sheep in small inclosures on the open range has resulted in the saving of a large percentage of the lambs. the new method of bedding sheep where they happen to be at nightfall has been found to have many advantages over the old system of returning them to an established bedding ground a number of nights in succession. the results have been better sheep, less damage to range, and more feed. it was not so many years ago that practically nothing was known about the various plants which make up the forage crop on the national forests. forest officers could not identify the plants or say whether they were of value for forage or not. this made it difficult to secure the use of each range by the class of stock to which it was best adapted, to apply deferred and rotation grazing and to eliminate losses from poisonous plants. this obstacle to efficient range management was overcome when a system of plant collection and identification was started by the forest service. some 23,000 specimens of about 3,000 different species have been collected on the national forests, identified by specialists and the collector informed as to the value of each species. the identification of range plants is the first step toward securing an intimate knowledge of the life history of the plant. such information as the soil and moisture requirements, date of flowering and seeding, requirements for reproduction, and its relation to other range plants is of the utmost importance if the maximum forage crop is to be produced on the range each year. this constitutes the latest stage in the development of grazing studies. [illustration: figure 31. forest ranger with his pack horses travelling over his district. meadow creek, foot of mt. wilson, montezuma national forest, colorado] _investigations dealing with poisonous plants and predatory animals._ in coöperation with the bureau of plant industry the study of poisonous plants and the means for reducing the losses from them has been undertaken. the death camas, the lupines, the larkspurs, some of the wild cherries, locoweed, and practically all species of zygadenus are plants that have been found to cause death among stock. while the handling of stock to avoid the poison areas can eliminate the losses to a small extent, it has been found that the most expeditious remedy is in digging out and destroying the poisonous plants. on the stanislaus national forest in california, a cattle range of about 14,000 acres, containing about 67 acres of larkspur, was cleared of this weed at a cost of about $695. the average loss of cattle in previous years had been about 34 head. following the eradication of the larkspur the loss was 4 head. the net saving was valued at $1,800. similar operations are conducted on other forests. the work of the destruction of predatory animals has been transferred to the hands of the bureau of biological survey. formerly special forest service hunters were detailed to hunt the animals, and these men used to kill about 4,000 a year. the biological survey, however, still furnishes traps, ammunition and poison for the destruction of predatory animals to forest officers, who do this work in connection with their regular duties. bears, coyotes, mountain lions, lynxes, wildcats, and wolves are the animals that do the most of the damage. what makes the problem a difficult one is that the wolf and the coyote, the two species which do the greatest damage to game and domestic stock, are transient visitors on the forests which frequent the forests only when game and stock is most abundant. they are bred, born, and spend the greater portion of their lives in the foothills outside of the national forests. under these conditions the animals killed on the forests are quickly replaced by others from outside. for this reason the matter was handed over to the biological survey, which will destroy these animals throughout the public domain and the results will be much more permanent and effective. besides the investigations carried on by the forest experiment stations many studies are carried on dealing with forest products. the purpose of the branch of forest research of the forest service is to promote the most profitable and economical utilization of forest products by means of experiments and investigations. the work of the branch falls into three divisions: national forest utilization, the work of the forest products laboratory, and industrial investigations. _national forest utilization experiments._ the work of the proper utilization of the products of the national forests is under the supervision of the district forester and the assistant district forester in charge of forest products in the districts. only three out of the seven districts have such an organization. these men have charge of all problems connected with the use and marketing of national forest timber, the construction of improvements on the forests, and related administrative questions. the following problems are included: studies of existing industries, covering methods and costs of manufacture, grades, and other specifications of manufactured products and the prices obtained for such products; the collection of market prices, mill scale studies to determine grades and overrun, and investigations in kiln drying; waste in existing industries and closer utilization possible through improved methods; new uses for national forest species through wood preservation; introduction of industries which will result in closer or more profitable utilization, as the manufacture of pulp and paper, wood distillation, turpentining, and the manufacture of secondary wood products; overcoming prejudices against particular species or classes of material; general questions of timber supply and demand, markets and freight rates; advice and assistance in the construction of national forest improvements, particularly in the use of wood preservatives; advice and assistance to persons on any matter connected with the utilization of national forest timber; the preparation of publications upon subjects covered by investigations which have practical or scientific value; and demonstrations of methods or processes developed by the forest service for the benefit of local communities. the presence on a forest of large quantities of unmarketable timber, or dead timber, or of material not used in current sales would mean an investigation of methods for its utilization. local problems affecting wood-using industries in manufacturing or marketing timber, such as sap stain in lumber, difficulties in seasoning lumber, and the effect of different silvicultural methods upon the average grades of lumber manufactured, are also taken up with the products experts at the district office. also in the construction of national forest improvements the forest supervisor may need assistance in applying wood preservatives to telephone poles, fence posts, and other material. sometimes timber treating plants are erected, if necessary, to treat not only material used on the national forests, but also material used by local residents near a forest. one of the important problems which confronts the office of products in the various national forest districts is the utilization of the so-called low grade or inferior tree species. the terms "high grade" and "low grade" or "inferior," as used at present, merely indicate the lumberman's valuation of the timber from his point of view and according to his standards of value. if a certain species will not produce clear lumber, which is straight-grained, easily worked, and not subject to splitting or warping, it is at once classed as inferior. but the forest products specialists each year are making progress in demonstrating that wood, in order to be of marketable value, does not necessarily need to be cut in the form of lumber. it is also being shown that proper methods of drying lumber make possible the use of inferior woods for lumber and manufacturing purposes. the office of forest products in california has made considerable progress in overcoming the lumberman's prejudices against the inferior species in the california national forests and the species are beginning to find wider use and to command better prices. the discovery that incense cedar was valuable for making lead pencils caused the price of this so-called "inferior" species to jump from an average of $10 per thousand feet in logs f. o. b. cars to as high as $16. white fir, a species religiously avoided by lumbermen in the woods, was found to have special properties which make it very valuable as a pulpwood. one mill in california now uses annually upwards of 30,000 cords of it for making paper. lodgepole pine has been shown to have a great value for telephone and telegraph poles when treated with preservatives. it was found to be 12 per cent. stronger than western red cedar, the standard pole timber, has a more desirable taper and can be shipped for less money. many other cases could be cited from this and other national forest districts. _forest products laboratory experiments._ the work of the forest products laboratory includes investigations on the mechanical properties of wood; the physical and chemical characteristics and properties of wood; air seasoning and artificial drying of wood; agencies destructive to wood; wood preservation; wood distillation; production of naval stores; and the production of pulp and paper and other chemical products of wood. this work is carried on at the laboratory and sometimes in coöperation with the national forests and district experts. at the laboratory there is a director and a large staff of technical and scientific men, such as chemists, physicists, and engineers, each of whom is an expert in his particular line of work. a good deal of attention is given to testing the strength of woods grown in the united states, as a means of assisting users to select the species best adapted to a given purpose, or to find substitutes for species which are becoming difficult to obtain. the strength of a good many species used for structural timbers has been tested. the species most used for this class of timber are the southern pines, douglas fir, norway pine, tamarack, and red spruce. an important discovery was made several years ago that western hemlock, generally considered an inferior timber, showed an average strength 88 per cent. as great as that of douglas fir, one of the best construction timbers in the united states. strength tests have also been made on fire-killed timber and these have shown that timber killed by fire is almost as strong as green timber. other tests have been made to determine the effect of preservative treatment upon the strength of timber. as a result of the large number and variety of strength tests carried on by this laboratory the united states government now has a more thorough and comprehensive collection of data on the mechanical properties of wood than any other nation. many studies are also conducted to determine the physical properties and the structure of the different kinds of wood grown in this country. the minute structure of the wood of many of our native species has been studied by means of microscopic slides. a study has also been made of a large number of species to determine the specific gravity of the actual wood substance. other tests are made to determine the specific heat of woods. the drying or seasoning of woods, more especially of certain species which have been found difficult to season, has received a good deal of attention. a new type of kiln, invented by a forest service man, has been devised to season such woods as the eucalyptus, which has always been very difficult to handle in drying. western larch has been seasoned with a loss of only 5 per cent., whereas the loss in ordinary commercial kilns usually ran between 60 and 70 per cent. as a result, many manufacturers have remodeled their old kilns to embody the new forest service methods. a new method has also been developed for the rapid dry-kilning of eastern hemlock, which has great commercial possibilities. experiments in wood preservation have to do with the kind of preservatives it is best to use, the character of the wood to be treated, and the methods of injection. experiments have developed the best methods for treating railroad ties, mine timbers, fence posts, wood paving blocks, telephone and telegraph poles, and wharf piling. untreated mine timbers have been found to last only from 1 to 2 years, while treated ones are usually entirely sound at the end of 4 years. untreated railroad ties last from 5 to 10 years, while treated ones will last over 15. such experiments as these have shown the advisability of treating all kinds of timbers with creosote or zinc chloride, or some other preservative. many new preservatives are being proposed or marketed each year by various companies or individuals. these are all tested to determine their value to prevent the growth of fungi in the wood. their efficiency varies greatly and many of them have been shown to have very small value. studies in wood distillation seek to find new woods which can be used for this industry, new and more efficient methods which can be employed, and new uses for wood waste and stumps. charcoal, wood alcohol, acetate of lime, and tar are derived from the distillation of such woods as beech, birch, and maple, to which tar oils and turpentine are added for the pines and other resinous woods. these by-products of wood distillation have many uses, as well as the many products which are, in turn, made from these by-products. charcoal is used in the manufacture of black powder, acetic acid is used in the manufacture of explosives, and wood alcohol is converted into formaldehyde for disinfection against contagious diseases. by means of temperature control methods developed at the laboratory in the destructive distillation of hardwoods, the net gain per annum of one company's plant was over $17,000. about one-half of the plants of the country have adopted the new method developed by the forest products laboratory. experiments have been conducted by the laboratory in the distillation of the needles of coniferous trees and the distillation of the crude gum of some of the important timber trees of the south and west. the oils distilled from many trees in this way have found great use for various purposes. shoeblacking owes its peculiar aromatic odor, faintly suggestive of the deep spruce and hemlock woods, to an oil which is distilled from these same kind of needles. evergreen tree leaf oils are used for the perfume of soap, and in the manufacture of liniments, insecticides, and medicinal preparations. investigations have been carried on at the forest products laboratory in making artificial silk from sawdust. the industry has already attained considerable proportions. it consists principally of converting cellulose into viscose, which, in turn, is manufactured into an almost endless number and variety of silk and other goods varying from sausage casings to silk hose and tapestries. sawdust is used also in the manufacture of inlaid linoleum and dynamite. experiments in naval stores are attempting to improve the old methods of harvesting turpentine, which have proven very destructive to the forests. with the approaching exhaustion of the southern pinery as a field for the naval stores industry, it has become more and more important to find other species for this purpose. consequently the laboratory has conducted experiments with the various pines on the national forests in california, colorado, arizona, and new mexico. [illustration: figure 32. a plank of incense cedar affected by a disease known as "pin rot." by cutting the cedar timber when it is mature this can be largely avoided. lassen national forest, california. photo by the author.] [illustration: figure 33. the western pine forests will some day be a great source for naval stores. by distilling the crude resin of the jeffrey pine a light volatile oil--abietene--is secured which has great healing and curative properties. lassen national forest, california. photo by the author.] a great many pulp and paper investigations are also conducted by this laboratory. the large size of the industry and the threatened exhaustion of the native spruce forests which furnish the principal supply are circumstances which call for intensive investigations. about nine-tenths of the paper which we use is made from wood, and the amount of wood which is converted into paper annually has reached almost 5,000,000 cords. there are over 2,500 newspapers in the united states, and it is said that a single issue of a new york sunday paper consumes the trees on about 15 acres of forest. the main object of the work at the laboratory has been to use other species of wood for the manufacture of paper to offset the fast waning supplies of spruce. poplar, hemlock, pine and balsam are now being used in considerable quantities. news and wrapping paper has also been successfully made from many national forest species, including sitka spruce, western hemlock, engelmann spruce, red fir, white fir, and lodgepole pine. kraft paper has been made and manufactured into suitcases, bags, wall coverings, twine, and similar articles. not only has the forest products laboratory brought into use species of trees never before tried for paper making, but it has also improved some of the old methods of paper making to such an extent that the results have been adopted by various large paper mills. many strength tests are conducted with packing boxes. the railroad companies of the united states are paying annually claims amounting to many millions of dollars because of goods damaged in shipment. much of the damage is preventable through properly constructed boxes. tests conducted at the laboratory have shown for canned-food boxes an increase in strength of 300 per cent, by the use of four additional nails in each end of the box. the results of these tests are being rapidly adopted by manufacturers and canners. the dyeing principle of the osage orange wood was not used prior to the investigations conducted by the laboratory. the value of this material has been so conclusively shown that about one million dollars' worth of the dye is now being manufactured annually in the united states and practically all from material which was formerly wasted. the discovery that sodium fluoride is superior to sodium carbonate in preventing sap stain in lumber promises to reduce materially the present estimated loss of $7,000,000 from this cause. _industrial investigations._ the function of the office of industrial investigations of the branch of forest research is to conduct statistical and industrial studies of uses of wood in the united states. the aim of these investigations is to determine methods and conditions under which wood is now used; the marketable products obtained from it; tendencies in methods of manufacture; and improved methods possible, especially in the utilization of waste. when practicable, such investigations are followed by the commercial application of their results. this office also conducts all statistical investigations of the production and use of forest products. the work of industrial investigations includes the following: collection and compilation of statistics on the production and consumption of forest products, prevailing market and stumpage prices, imports and exports, and transportation rates; the compilation and study of specifications of rough and manufactured forest products; studies of lumber manufacture and wood-using industries as to methods, forms of material, waste, costs, equipment, substitution of one species for another, and improvements through a more conservative use of raw material; studies of special problems or features of wood-using industries; advice and assistance to states, industries and individuals along such lines of work; and the dissemination of results by publications. many studies in wood utilization are made not only of certain industries like the shingle, or the lumber industry, but also dealing with the industries of particular sections of the country and with the various states. these investigations in the states show the kinds and amounts of woods required by the various industries, the purposes for which the various species are employed, and the extent of their use. so far the wood-using industries of 35 states have been studied and the results published. records of lumber prices for important woods are compiled quarterly. these figures are useful in establishing timber sale prices on the national forests. statistics as to the annual consumption of lumber in the country are also compiled by this office. the wood waste exchange was established in 1914 by the forest service. it consists of two lists of manufacturers, which are sent out quarterly to persons desiring them. one of these is of "opportunities to sell waste" and contains the names of firms which use sawdust and small pieces of wood. this list is sent to people having waste for sale. the other list is of "opportunities to buy waste," and gives the names of concerns which have waste to dispose of. this list is sent to people who wish to buy material. no charge is made for this service, and at the present time over 500 coöperators are using this exchange. by the use of this exchange, makers of wooden novelties have been successful in finding supplies of material near their plants. other wood-working industries have been able to dispose of their waste at higher prices than they could otherwise have obtained. many firms were located within short distances of each other, but until recently have had no way of getting together. a philadelphia firm, engaged in the manufacture of composition flooring, has been able to obtain a portion of its sawdust from a new york lumber company. a new york woodworking establishment disposed of its waste pieces of white oak and sugar maple to a maker of wooden novelties in connecticut for use in the manufacture of furniture knobs. a clock maker of connecticut secured waste material for making clock boxes from the planing mill of a new york lumber company. chapter iii the protection of the national forests the resources of the national forests may be injured or destroyed in many ways. fire may burn the timber and young growth; insects and tree diseases may damage or kill timber, and certain persons may innocently or willfully commit trespass on national forest land and use the resources without permit. then also, the fish and game of the forests must be protected from unlawful shooting and trapping, and the water issuing from national forest streams must be kept free from pollution, to protect the public health. protection from fire _forest fire danger on the national forests._ practically all the resources of the national forests are subject to severe injury or even to entire destruction by fire. it is an ever-present danger on the national forests, due to their great inaccessibility, their dry climate, and to other unfavorable conditions. there are probably few forest regions in the world where the danger of fire is greater than on the national forests. the great size of the individual forests, as compared with the size of the available patrolling force, the difficulty of reaching remote areas across miles of wilderness, the dry air and light rainfall in most parts of the western united states, the prevalence of lightning storms in the mountains, the sparseness of the population, and the constant use of fire in the industries and the daily life of the people, all combine to make the hazard exceptional. _importance of fire protection._ forest fires when uncontrolled mean the loss of human lives, the destruction of homes, live stock, forage, timber and watershed cover. besides the direct damage to the national forest resources it defeats all attempts to practice forestry; it nullifies all efforts of forest management, such as regulation of cutting to insure a second crop of timber, the planting of denuded areas, and the restriction of grazing to assist reproduction. fire destroys the very improvements which are constructed annually at great expense. in other words, protection from fire is the first and most important problem on the national forests without which no operation or transaction, however small, can be undertaken. if the problem of fire protection is the most important task confronting a forest officer on the national forests, then certainly fire prevention is next in importance. obviously it is easier to prevent fires than to fight them. all large conflagrations have their origin in small fires which if they could be reached in time could probably be put out by one man. but in regions remote from water and supplies fires may start and reach vast proportions before a party of fire fighters can get to the scene, no matter how promptly the start is made. by far the best plan, therefore, is to prevent fires rather than to depend upon fighting them after they get started. to this end the forest service has given the most earnest consideration. during the dangerous season the main attention of forest supervisors and forest rangers is devoted to preventing fire. extra men are employed, the forests are systematically patrolled, and a careful lookout is maintained from high points. roads and trails are so built that every part of the forests may be quickly reached with pack animals. tools and food for fire fighters are stored at convenient places. the ranger stations and lookout houses are connected with the office of the forest supervisor by telephone, so that men may be quickly assembled to fight a dangerous fire which the patrolman cannot subdue alone. each forest supervisor endeavors to secure the coöperation of all forest users in the work of preventing fires and in reporting and helping to fight them in case they get started. probably the beginning point of any discussion of forest fires is a consideration of their causes. the forest service has kept careful records year after year (by calendar and not fiscal years) concerning the cause, the damage, the area burned over, the cost of fighting and many other matters. during the calendar year 1917 there were 7,814 forest fires on the national forests. of these the national forests of california had to contend with 1,862. of the total number of forest fires 40 per cent. were confined to less than 1/4 of an acre, 28 per cent. to less than 10 acres, while 32 per cent. spread over areas greater than 10 acres. the large percentage of small fires shows how efficiently the national forest fire protection organization works in keeping the area burned over to the lowest possible acreage. _causes of forest fires on the national forests._ forest fires on the national forests originate in many different ways. in 1917, lightning caused 27 per cent.; unknown agencies, 17 per cent.; campers, 17 per cent.; incendiaries, 12 per cent.; railroads, 13 per cent.; brush burning, 7 per cent.; saw mills, 3 per cent., and all other causes, 4 per cent. thus it will be seen that a very large percentage, at least 60 per cent., of the fires are attributable to human agencies and are therefore preventable. at least 27 per cent, of the fires, those attributed to lightning, are not preventable, and the only way to combat those is for the forest officer to get to them as soon as possible after they get started. the preventable fires, however, may be arrested at their source, that is, by popular education dealing with the use of fire in the woods these causes can be greatly reduced and, in time, no doubt, eliminated. therefore, the fire protection problem immediately resolves itself into two almost distinct phases of action--fire prevention and fire control. [illustration: figure 34. a forest fire lookout station at the summit of mt. eddy. mt. shasta in the background, california] just how these various agencies start fires may be of interest. railroads cause fires by their locomotives sending out sparks through the smokestack or dropping hot ashes along the right-of-way. these sparks alight in inflammable material, such as dry grass and leaves, and start a fire. lightning sets fire to trees, especially dead and dry ones. in the california mountains, lightning storms without rain are frequent and these do great damage. the author has seen as many as nine forest fires started by a single lightning storm inside of half an hour. incendiary fires are set by people with varying intent. how many are set with malicious intent, just to see the forests burn, is not known, but many fires are started by people setting fires to drive game, to improve the pasture, to make traveling through the woods easier, or for other reasons. brush burning includes those fires which start from settlers clearing land and burning the brush and thickets. campers cause a large percentage of the fires by leaving their camp fires burning. instead of extinguishing them before they leave camp, careless people let them burn; a wind blows a few sparks into some dry leaves or grass nearby, and the fire is started. many forest fires also start around logging camps by sparks escaping from logging engines, or by setting fire to the slash that is left after logging and allowing these fires to get beyond control. _behavior of forest fires._ fires behave differently, once they get started, depending upon the character of the timber, the amount of wind, and the degree of inflammability of the forest cover. ground fires burn the inflammable dry grass, needles, dead twigs, etc., on the ground; crown fires are much more severe and, being usually fanned by a heavy wind, run through the tops or crowns of the trees; brush fires burn the bushes and dry shrubs from 5 to 10 feet high; timber fires consume the entire forest--crown, stem, ground cover, and undergrowth--and usually occur in timber that stands close together. _losses by forest fires on the national forests._ the results of forest fires naturally vary with the kind and intensity of the fire. crown and timber fires do the most damage, and ground and brush fires do less. while the ground fires and brush fires seem to do very little damage to the valuable timber, still they may greatly reduce the productive power of the soil and destroy the watershed cover. severe ground fires may kill valuable timber by girdling the trees. the great fires of august, 1910, which swept northern idaho and western montana destroyed millions of dollars' worth of timber and 85 human lives, and cost the united states $839,000 for fire fighting. these were timber fires and they occurred for the most part in valuable stands of dense timber. the forest fire losses on the national forests for the last 9 years show a very great and gradual reduction of losses due to forest fires. in 1908, the total loss through fires was $451,188 and in 1909 it was $297,275. in 1910, the year of the great fires in montana and idaho, there were very heavy losses in timber and human lives, due to an unusual combination of dry weather and high winds. but in that year the fire organization was not complete; it had never really been tried out. in this year the organization received its first severe test, and while it did the best it could with the available men and equipment, the situation in idaho pointed out conclusively the weak points and the short-comings. the proof of these statements is found in the statistics of the next 5 years, when the average total loss for 1911 to 1915, inclusive, was $293,000, and, it must be remembered, several of these years were equally as unfavorable, so far as dry weather and high winds were concerned, as the year 1910. during these years, however, the fire fighting organization had a good chance to be tried out thoroughly; for, as is quite evident, experience is the greatest teacher in this kind of work. during the calendar year 1916 the fire losses reached a new low level, compared to other years, the losses amounting to only $198,599. in 1917 they were higher. [illustration: figure 35. a forest fire lookout station on the summit of brokeoff mountain, elevation 9,500 feet. lassen national forest, california. photo by the author.] [illustration: figure 36. turner mountain lookout station, lassen national forest, california. this is a 10 ft. by 10 ft. cabin with a stove and with folding bed, table, and chairs. the forest officer stationed here watches for forest fires day and night throughout the fire season. photo by the author.] _the forest fire problem stated._ having seen a little of the causes, behavior and results of forest fires on the national forests, it is comparatively easy to state the forest fire problem as it occurs on the national forests. briefly stated, it is this: with the funds, organization and equipment that are available, the aim of the forest service is to keep the area burned over each year (and therefore the damage done) down to an accepted reasonable minimum. but the problem is not as easily worked out as it is stated, due, largely, to a great many uncontrollable and variable factors which cannot be foreseen in advance, the most important of which are the weather conditions. as has been said before, there are two general ways of keeping the area burned over down to an accepted reasonable minimum: either prevent the fires from getting started (as in the case of those started by human agencies) or, after they get started, to get to them with men and fire fighting implements in the shortest possible time after they are found. the former is called fire prevention, and the latter fire suppression or control. how the organization of the national forests solves these two problems is of the greatest interest. _fire prevention._ the measures employed for fire prevention may be either administrative, legislative or educative in nature. the most important administrative measures employed to prevent fire are those that aim to reduce the amount of inflammable material in the national forests. this is done in many different ways. the free use timber policy enables rangers to give away much dead timber, both standing and down. timber operators cutting on the national forests are required by the forest service contract to remove dead snags, which are a fire menace, from the timber sale area. where there is fire danger, all slashing resulting from such sales must be burned or otherwise disposed of. while grazing is usually not considered a measure to prevent fires, still grass lands that have not been grazed over become very dry in the fall and are a dangerous fire menace. wherever it is feasible, old slash left by lumbermen on private lands adjacent or near to the national forests are burned, when the fire can be confined to a small area. another administrative measure is the reduction of the causes of fires by a patrol force. forest guards travel along the highways where there is most traffic and most danger. their presence often is enough to remind campers, hunters and fishermen to put their camp fires out before leaving them. these patrolmen mix with the people and, if necessary, remind them in a courteous way to be careful to extinguish their camp fires before breaking camp. most of the necessary legislative measures for preventing forest fires already exist. the national forest force is seeking merely to obtain a strict enforcement of existing laws. railroads are required to use spark-arresters on their locomotives and to provide for keeping their rights-of-way free from inflammable material. logging camps must also prevent the destruction of national forest timber by fire by using spark-arresters on all logging engines. the forest officers are ever on the alert for the detection and apprehension of campers for leaving fires unextinguished and incendiaries for starting fires willfully. these careless individuals are arrested by them without warrant, either under the federal laws, if the fire occurred on national forest lands, or under the state law, if it occurred outside of government lands. educational measures are for the purpose of educating both the local forest-using public and the general public who may travel through the forests in the careful use of fires in the forests. forest officers, especially rangers, come into personal touch with local residents and users, that is, the ranchers, stockmen, business men, loggers, campers, hunters, fishermen and others. such people are often reminded by personal appeals by the forest officers. most of them have learned by this time, because of having been called upon to help fight fires at one time or another, and having gotten a taste of the result of other people's carelessness. many written appeals are also sent out by the supervisor and are slipped into the envelopes when grazing permits and other official documents are mailed. one of these written appeals, and probably the one that has been used most widely, is known as the six rules for the prevention of fires in the mountains: 1. matches.--be sure your match is out. break it in two before you throw it away. 2. tobacco.--throw pipe ashes and cigar or cigarette stumps in the dust of the road and stamp or pinch out the fire before leaving them. don't throw them into the brush, leaves, or needles. 3. making camp.--build a small camp fire. build it in the open, not against a tree or log, or near brush. scrape away the trash from all around it. 4. leaving camp.--never leave a camp fire, even for a short time, without quenching it with water or earth. 5. bonfires.--never build bonfires in windy weather or where there is the slightest danger of their escaping from control. don't make them larger than you need. 6. fighting fires.--if you find a fire try to put it out. if you can't, get word of it to the nearest united states forest ranger or state fire warden at once. keep in touch with the rangers. besides these kinds of appeals, many kinds of fire warnings are posted at conspicuous places along roads and trails to remind the public to be careful with fire in the forests. [illustration: figure 37. a fire line cut through the low bush-like growth of "chaparral" on the angeles national forest, california. this "chaparral" is of great value for regulating stream flow. the streams are used for water power, domestic purposes, and for irrigating many of the largest lemon and orange groves of southern california.] [illustration: figure 38. a forest officers' temporary camp while fighting forest fires. near oregon national forest, oregon.] an attempt is also made to reach the general public, that is, those living outside the local communities, but who occasionally travel through and use the national forests. many hundreds of thousands travel through the forests every year by automobile or by other conveyances. these people camp in the forests, fish, hunt, and enjoy the cool climate and beautiful scenery. before they start on their trips, that is, while they are still in their home towns, and also while they are on their way, many means have been devised to reach them. they are confronted with newspaper advertisements, folders, booklets, and other printed matter. in towns and cities, public meetings, lectures, exhibits, expositions, county fairs, commercial clubs, and the chambers of commerce, all help, either directly or indirectly, by one means or another, to inform the people of the great fire danger on the national forests. even the letters sent out by the district forester and the supervisors have written appeals affixed to the outside of the envelopes by means of a rubber stamp. in short, every possible means is used to educate the public that uses the national forests and in whose interest, in fact, the forests are being maintained and protected. _fire suppression._ so much for the problem of fire prevention. in case a fire does get started, and there are thousands of them on the national forests every year, the problem, as has been said before, consists of getting men and tools to it in the shortest possible time, in order to keep the damage down to the lowest possible point. to do this, a vast organization has been formed by the forest service, which is not unlike the minute man organization of revolutionary days. a brief outline of this organization and how it works when a fire starts will give my reader a still better idea of what the forest service is doing in forest fire protection. but before speaking of this organization, a few preliminary matters are of interest; they deal with the manner of distributing fire protection funds, forest fire history, and the study of weather conditions. _how forest fire funds are distributed._ it devolves upon the forest supervisor and also the district forester to apportion the appropriation allotted for fire protection in the most economical and efficient manner. first of all, the money is allotted to the various forests in proportion to their needs. these needs are measured by the size of the forest, the value of its resources, the length of the dangerous dry season, the fire liability or the amount of money loss in case of fire, the fire hazard or the degree to which an area is subject to fire danger, the difficulty of prevention and control and many other factors. these same factors are employed to apportion the supervisor's allotment of money to the various ranger districts on his forest. probably the most difficult factors for the forest supervisor to appraise on each ranger district are the fire liability and the fire hazard. fire liability has to do with the amount of damage a fire could do if it got started. valuable timber needs protection most of all, and the value of the forest is determined by the kind of trees in it and the density of the stand. fire hazard is usually expressed in terms of risk. the supervisor asks his ranger if the risk on a certain area in his district is high, low, or medium. risk depends, of course, largely upon the character and inflammability of the forest cover and the presence of human causes. dense forests involve greater risk than open, scattering trees; government forests interspersed with private holdings containing much old slash have a high risk factor; and government forests near sawmills, large towns, and along railroad rights-of-way also have high risk factors. all these matters must be considered, in order that each area on each ranger district gets just enough money for fire protection and not a bit more. [illustration: figure 39. putting out a ground fire. even if the fire does not burn the standing timber, it kills the young trees and so weakens the larger ones that they are easily blown over. wallowa national forest, oregon.] [illustration: figure 40. forest officers ready to leave a tool box for a forest fire in the vicinity. such tool boxes as these are stationed at convenient places on national forests ready for any emergency. arapaho national forest, colorado.] _forest fire history._ very important also in fire protection are the studies which the forest service is carrying on, dealing with forest fire history. for many years back, records have been kept on all fires: their causes, area burned over, date of the fire, damage caused, the exact location of each fire, the cost of fighting it, the total number each month and each calendar year, and many other data. more recently records have been kept upon still further details connected with each fire, such as: the time elapsed between the start and the discovery of a fire, between the discovery and the report to the proper official, between the report and the beginning of the actual work of fighting, and the time required to put the fire out. intensive studies have been made also upon the length and character of the fire season on each forest, for it is important to know the maximum length, the minimum length and the average length of the fire season. these data show how much extra help must be hired for fire patrol and fire fighting, and during what periods the greatest damage is done, based both on acreage burned over and by the number of fires. studies of this kind yield positive information on what areas of each forest are particularly liable to lightning fires, to camp fires, and to incendiary fires. with this knowledge the forest supervisor can plan and distribute his men and funds more intelligently; they tell him during what period he can expect the most trouble, and therefore must have the greatest number of fire fighters at his command. it is scientific study like this that is doing more than anything else to solve the fire protection problem in the western states. _relation of forest fires to the weather._ in coöperation with the united states weather bureau, the forest service studies weather conditions in relation to forest fires. weather forecasts have been sent to each forest supervisor throughout the fire season, informing him of the probable weather conditions. the velocity and duration of the wind, the temperature, the precipitation, and the relative humidity are all factors which greatly affect the inflammability of the forest. forest supervisors have been informed in these forecasts of what are known as emergency conditions, that is, an unusual and abnormal combination of weather conditions which make fire danger very great. these conditions may be a high wind, low relative humidity, high temperatures, or a combination of the three. when a forest supervisor is informed by the district forester that emergency conditions are likely to exist during the next ten days or so, he immediately sends an alarm to all his rangers to be especially watchful. _improvements and equipment for protection._ after the preliminaries of fire protection finance, forest fire history, and the study of weather and emergency conditions have been worked out, probably the first and most important prerequisite to forest fire protection is a matter already spoken of, namely, the improvements and the equipment. the construction and maintenance of improvements and the possession of suitable equipment is second in importance only to the organization which is to do the actual fire suppression. roads, trails, telephone lines, fire lines, lookout stations, ranger stations, tool and food caches, a central supply depot, and many other things are necessary before men can be effective. each forest ranger has use for the following equipment: fire fighting tools, water bags and pails, teams, pack horses, wagons, automobiles, saddle horses, tents, portable telephone lines, riding and packing equipment, and many other special equipment, which must be hired when occasion for its use arises. if a forest ranger has not access to this equipment, and few of them have, he has hanging by his telephone a complete list of all the stores, stables, garages, etc., in the neighboring towns and how much equipment each can furnish when called upon. _forest fire maps and charts._ not the least important bit of equipment, by any means, is the fire map or maps. the forest supervisor has a fire map of his whole forest in his office and the forest ranger has one of his district (sometimes including the neighboring districts, too) hanging in his cabin, usually posted conspicuously, so that it can be referred to any time of the day or night without delay. these maps have upon them all the available information regarding the country which is to be protected. they show physiographic features, such as topography, creeks, springs, meadows, water, swamps, etc.; vegetative features, such as timber, forage, brush, reproduction, planted areas, regenerating areas, slashings, etc.; such man-made features as roads, trails, cabins, ranger stations, corrals, pastures, supervisor's headquarters, sheep camps, cattle camps, ranches, camp sites, railroads, logging railroads and camps, sawmills, power plants, towns, villages, etc.; and special protective features, such as locations of men, tools, equipment, tool and food caches, local help, emergency help, fire lines, fire breaks, lookouts, government and private telephone lines, instruments and switchboards, locations of stores, state fire wardens, livery stables, pack trains, garages, stage routes, etc. all these features and data are not put upon one map; usually a series of maps are used or some of the information is put on charts or on the border of the maps. in short all this information is put in such form that it is available at the shortest notice for emergency conditions. it makes little difference how it is recorded, so long as the information is available when needed. [illustration: figure 41. a forest fire on the wasatch national forest, utah. forest officers trying to stop a forest fire by cutting a fire line. note the valuable growth of young trees which they are trying to save on the right.] _forest fire organization._ the forest fire organization, whether it be on the whole national forest or upon the ranger district, consists of three agencies: the fire detection agencies, the fire reporting agencies, and the fire fighting agencies. all these must work in absolute harmony without interruption of any kind, to obtain the maximum of efficiency. the detection agencies consist of the lookout men, stationed at high, advantageous points which overlook large areas, and the moving patrolmen, who are assigned to definite beats or territory which cannot be adequately reached by the lookouts. lookout men live in small cabins on the tops of high mountains, and they watch for fires constantly. in regions which have very few high points and which are not suited to that method of detection, moving patrolmen are employed. these men move about on foot, on horseback, on railroad speeders, in automobiles, or in any other conveyance adapted to the country they are in. when the detectors find a fire they report it immediately to the nearest forest ranger or the forest supervisor. the forest ranger in whose district the fire is located is logically the first man to be informed, but telephone connections and other conditions sometimes alter this procedure. just because a fire is found in, we will say, ranger district number one, does not necessarily mean that the forest ranger of this district is the proper man to be notified. the fire may be at the very outer boundary of his district and may be much more easily accessible to the forest ranger in district number two. in any case it is all arranged beforehand just exactly who shall be notified in case of a fire in each and every corner of a national forest. each man in the organization has his duties and responsibilities determined for him in advance and he does his part without being prodded or reminded. the location of a fire in the wild and inaccessible forest regions of the west, which may seem a very simple matter, is determined in a very ingenious manner. _how fires are located._ the lookout man, as well as the forest rangers and the forest supervisor, is provided with identical maps of the forest. these maps show most of the important features useful in fire protection work, including also the private lands, all government holdings, and the public land survey. this public land survey has divided the land surface into legal subdivisions known as townships, sections, and quarter sections, and it is by these and with reference to these that all features, both natural and artificial, are located. a township is usually a square 6 miles on a side, containing 36 sections. each section is divided into quarter sections containing 160 acres each, which are further divided (though not by law) into forty-acre squares. the problem, therefore, that confronts the lookout man upon the discovery of a forest fire is to inform the ranger or other forest officer where the fire is--that is, in what _section_ it is located, if it cannot be located with reference to some well-known natural feature. in order to determine in what section or quarter section a fire is located, each lookout point on the supervisor's and rangers' fire maps has a transparent circular protractor mounted on it. (a protractor is a device by which angles are marked off; it consists of a circle upon whose arc the degrees from 0 to 360 are indicated, 0 degrees being equivalent to north, 90° to east, 180° to south and 270° to west.) the center of the protractor is the lookout point. a piece of black thread is fastened to the center of each lookout point, so that it can be stretched across the arc of the circle and the degrees read off. the other end of the thread has fastened to it a thumb tack or similar device, so that when the thread is stretched to read a certain angle, it can be fixed at that angle. the maps of the lookout men are usually fastened or permanently mounted upon a table which is oriented (that is, the top of the map is turned toward the north). the lookout men have sighting devices, usually alidades, which are placed on the map, by means of which they sight at a fire; but the bearing of the fire is read from the angles marked on the edge of the map, which is in reality a large protractor. by these devices a fire is quickly and accurately located. when the lookout man sees a fire, he gets its bearing from the map by means of the sighting device. he telephones this bearing to the ranger, or, in many cases, to the supervisor. immediately the supervisor goes to his map, picks up the black thread attached to this lookout point, stretches the string, and, having marked off the bearing, pushes the thumb tack into the map. in the meantime, another lookout, perhaps two more, have sighted the same fire. the black threads from the other lookout points on the supervisor's map are stretched and fixed in a similar manner. the fire will be found to be at the point where two or more of these black threads intersect. this is only one of the many ways which have been devised to locate forest fires; there are other methods, but all are based upon the same principle. [illustration: figure 42. a forest fire running in dense underbrush on one of the national forests in oregon.] [illustration: figure 43. men in a dense forest with heavy undergrowth clearing away brush to stop the fire as it is running down hill. crater national forest, oregon.] _the fire fighting organization._ the organization of men who do the actual fire suppression must be an elastic one, adequate to meet the needs of a ranger district or of a whole national forest, or, in some cases, of an entire administrative district, comprising as many as 25 to 30 national forests. the forest guards and forest rangers are known as the first line of defense in this war against forest fires. upon them falls the brunt of the work of fire suppression. the second line is composed of local stockmen, ranchers, and logging and sawmill crews. when these prove insufficient in number, the large villages and towns are called upon, and the last resort is the labor of the cities and the united states army. thus, in the case of a very large fire the organization of the forest service is modified to cover not only each and every national forest, but also entire states. in case of a very large fire, every available man from each forest is sent to take his place in the organization. expert fire fighters are sent direct to the fire. other forest officers are sent to the large towns and villages to act as quartermasters. these men hire fire fighters, entrain them, and fill orders for food, bedding, tools, and other equipment. other quartermasters at the scene of the fire check shipments of supplies, check the time of fire fighters, approve accounts, hire transportation, and perform similar duties. special disbursing agents are sent to the scene to pay the men. in short, everything is done to dispatch as quickly as possible the necessary men, food and equipment to the fire, and to do it in accordance with the prearranged plan for such emergencies. _forest fire coöperation._ a very important part of the plan of fire protection on the national forests are the coöperative agreements entered into between the forest service and private individuals or companies. such coöperation may be in the form of building improvements for fire suppression, furnishing men in case of fire, furnishing lookouts or patrols, furnishing equipment, and, in fact, in connection with any of the necessary means for fighting fire. this coöperation has been of mutual benefit. one national forest may coöperate with one or more neighboring forests or with sawmills, power plants, logging camps, or railroad companies. coöperation may also be with a well-organized forest protection association, of which there are a large number in the western states. these coöperative agencies agree to send a large force of their men to fires on the national forest in their vicinity, and the forest service reciprocates by sending men for fires occurring on their lands, which may threaten national forest timber. often coöperative agencies enter into agreement to build jointly with the forest service certain improvements, such as telephone lines, lookout towers, or trails, which will benefit public fire protection as well as private. many sawmills and logging companies who operate on or near the national forests have agreements with the service, by which they suspend all operations and send all their help to fires which threaten national forest timber. all timber sale contracts of the forest service provide for coöperative fire protection. _fighting forest fires._ the most important requirements for successful fire suppression are: quick arrival after discovery, adequate forces of men, proper equipment, thorough organization on the fire line, skill in attacking, and careful, systematic patrol after the fire is thought to be out. all fires, whether large or small, require generals to lead the attacking forces, and the strategy of fire fighting can only be learned after long experience on the fire line. a cool, level-headed man is the greatest necessity in an emergency, for it is as disastrous to get too many men as it is too few. a few men that know how to attack a fire are worth a great deal more than a great many that are inexperienced. [illustration: figure 44. fire in a lodgepole pine forest in colorado. arapaho national forest, colorado] [illustration: figure 45. a mountain fire in "chaparral," five hours after it started. pasadena, california] there are different kinds of fires, depending upon their size, their intensity, and the nature of the country in which they are burning. and there are as many different methods of fighting fire as there are kinds of fires. some fires, such as grass fires or those burning in the needles and litter in the forest, can be extinguished directly by being smothered or beaten out. for this purpose rangers sometimes use their saddle blankets, when nothing else is handy, but usually wet gunny sacks, boughs, and tree branches are used. often, if it is available, sand or dirt is thrown on the fire with a shovel. surface fires are a little more difficult to extinguish. they are more intense and more swift and consume brush, young growth, and fallen dry trees. these usually cannot be attacked directly, but must be controlled indirectly by the building of a trench or a fire break, or by a system of back firing. trenches are fire breaks in miniature, usually from one to several feet wide. fire breaks or fire lines are broad belts from 30 to 50 feet wide, which are cleared of inflammable material, not so much to stop the fire when it reaches this belt as to furnish a safe area from which fire can be fought and, most of all, from which back firing can be started. these lines or belts are usually built along ridges. if a fire starts on the lower slope of a mountain and the wind carries it up the mountain toward the fire line, the only hope of stopping the fire at the top of the ridge at the fire line is to start fires on the top of the ridge, which will burn down the slope and meet the original fire coming up. in rare cases, as, for instance, in the idaho fires of 1910, the fires get to be so large and swift that all methods of attack prove futile and the only salvation is in natural barriers, such as rivers, or a change of the wind, or rain, to extinguish them. in all fire fighting work, the plan is to surround the fire (if it cannot be beaten or smothered out) by a trench, fire line, or fire break, and to prevent the fire from spreading. in this kind of work, shovels, spades, mattocks, rakes, and hoes are used to move the soil; saws and axes are used to remove fallen trees from the fire line, and in some cases plows, dynamite, and other implements are employed. protection against trespass, forest insects, erosion and other agencies while the protection of the forest resources from fire is probably the most important phase of forest protection, it is not the only one by any means. the national forest force also protects the forest resources from trespass, from insect damages, and from tree diseases. also water supply for domestic use, for irrigation, water-power, and navigation must be protected, and the public health must be safeguarded against the pollution of the streams emerging from the forests. it is also the duty of forest officers, in coöperation with the state authorities, to protect game, fish, and birds from illegal practices. _trespass._ the act of june 4, 1897, authorizes the secretary of agriculture to make rules and regulations for the occupancy, use and protection of the national forests, and provides that any violation of such rules and regulations shall be punishable by a fine or imprisonment or both. this and later acts provide for fines or imprisonment for all violations of the regulations governing national forests. the violation of these regulations constitutes trespass, and these may be either fire, timber, grazing, occupancy or property trespass, depending upon the offense. since the united states has all the civil rights and remedies for trespass possessed by private individuals, it may bring action to recover damages resulting from trespass or breach of contract. fire trespass includes the following offenses: setting fire to timber, brush or grass; building camp fires in dangerous places where they are hard to extinguish; or leaving camp fires without completely extinguishing them. the various railroads that cross the national forests are one of the most frequent offenders in that the sparks issuing from the locomotives or the hot ashes dropping from the fire box set fire to national forest timber. the railroads are required to use every precaution to prevent such fires, but many of them are started, resulting in damage suits by the government. the damages cover not only the merchantable timber and forage destroyed, but damages are also collected for young, immature growth, which at first thought might seem to have little or no value. but the courts have held that while the young, unmerchantable trees have very little value now, they have a great value as the basis for a future crop of timber. thus, in the case of the united states versus the chicago, burlington and quincy railroad, in 1910, for fire trespass on the black hills national forest, caused by sparks from the locomotives operated by the company, the damages included $17,900 for young growth. also, in the case of the united states versus the great northern railroad, in 1911, in which suit was brought upon the negligence (causing fires to start) of the defendant company on their right-of-way, which fires subsequently spread to the blackfeet national forest, damages included the destruction of a great many immature trees, the value of which was estimated on the basis of their value at maturity discounted to date. it is significant that this case never went to trial; the defendant paid damages and costs without argument. [illustration: figure 46. a few years ago this was a green, luxuriant forest. picture taken after the great fires of august 20, 1910, on the coeur d'alene national forest near wallace, idaho] under timber trespass are included the following acts: the cutting, killing, girdling, or otherwise damaging trees; the cutting of timber under sale contract or permit before it is marked by a forest officer; the removal of timber before it is scaled, measured, or counted by a forest officer; and the fraudulent stamping of any timber belonging to the united states with the regulation marking tools or similar device. under grazing trespass are included such acts as: grazing stock on national forest lands without permit; grazing stock on areas which are designated as closed to grazing; driving stock across a national forest without permit; and refusal to remove stock upon instructions from an authorized forest officer when an injury is being done to the national forests by reason of the improper handling of the stock. the use of national forest land without a permit for any purpose for which special use permits are required constitutes occupancy trespass. but traveling, temporary camping, hunting, surveying, or prospecting may be carried on without permit, and camp wood and forage for stock used in connection with such activities may be taken free of charge. the unauthorized appropriation, damage, or destruction of property belonging to the united states, which is used in the administration of the national forests, also constitutes trespass. innocent trespass is usually settled amicably between the trespasser and the supervisor. if the violation of the timber, grazing, or land regulations was due to a misunderstanding and was not of a willful character, a permit is issued and the trespasser pays for the timber or special use, as under regulation. fire and property trespass cases seldom can be construed as innocent, hence in most cases such offenses result in litigation. _forest insects._ protection against forest insects is carried out in coöperation with the bureau of entomology of the department of agriculture. an essential part of good forest protection is the work of locating and reporting evidences of insect depredations. there are scores of insects which are constantly working in the forests, either injuring or killing live trees or attacking the wood of trees after they have been killed. weevils kill young shoots on trees and destroy tree seeds; bark beetles and timber beetles infest the bark, girdle the tree and destroy the wood; and various borers and timber worms attack seasoned and unseasoned forest products and destroy the wood in the forest after it has been cut down and sawed into lumber. the greatest annual loss by insects is caused not so much by conspicuous local outbreaks as in the sustained annual loss of scattered merchantable trees. local infestations often kill a large percentage of trees on an area, but these outbreaks are easily seen; the scattered infestations that kill a tree or two here and there over large forest areas are not so noticeable, but, taken all together, add up to a startling total. the task of locating and reporting insect infestations falls upon the forest ranger and other field men of the forest service. since the rangers are practically the only class of forest officers that visit all parts of a national forest during each field season, the supervisor relies mostly on them to report upon insect infestations. in riding to and from his work, while on fire patrol, while going for mail and supplies, while attending to the timber, grazing and other business of his district, the ranger does a good deal of traveling and covers practically every part of his district. these are good opportunities to watch for fresh outbreaks of insects, and the wide-awake, progressive ranger never misses such chances. if he sees reddish-brown masses of pitch and sawdust on the bark of a tree he immediately recognizes it as the work of insects. or perhaps he may see a pine or a spruce tree with all its needles turned yellow. he knows then that this tree was girdled by bark beetles very recently, probably during the previous summer. a tree whose needles had turned red would indicate to him that the infestation was more than a year old, since trees attacked in the spring of one year usually do not show the results until the following summer. these two stages are known by the trained entomologist as the "yellow-top" and the "red-top" stages respectively. the latter is followed by the "black-top" stage. in this stage, insect infested trees stand out very conspicuously as leafless, gray or black snags, and they tell the story of the work of bark beetles that happened years ago. [illustration: figure 47. the first evidence of insect attack are the reddish brown pitch tubes on the bark. lodgepole pine infested by the mountain pine beetle. lassen national forest, california. photo by the author.] [illustration: figure 48. the last stage of an insect-attacked tree. the tree is dead and the dry bark is falling off. lassen national forest, california. photo by the author.] probably the first external evidence of the attack of a bark beetle upon living trees with normal green foliage, is the presence of pitch tubes upon the outer bark. these are small, reddish-brown (later becoming grayish-white) masses of pitch and sawdust, which exude from the small cylindrical entrance made by the adult beetle where it bores through the bark to begin its egg tunnel. each tube represents the entrance of one or more of these beetles. but we must follow these egg tunnels further, to learn how the actual damage is done to the tree. as soon as the bark beetle has made its entrance through the bark, it starts to work up through the live bark and cambium of the tree, forming a tunnel but little larger than the diameter of the beetle, which is known as the egg gallery, these egg galleries vary in shape from straight to winding, and in length from ten to forty inches. as a rule, male and female beetles work together in one gallery, and the eggs are deposited along the sides of the gallery, often in little pockets. when the tunneling and egg-laying process of the adult beetles is completed, their activity ceases, and they are usually found dead at the upper end of their galleries. the larvæ hatch and begin their work by burrowing across the cambium at right angles to the egg galleries. the complete girdling of the cambium layer is not accomplished until the larvæ have completed their work, and the numerous larval galleries, by joining one another, form a complete gallery around the cambium of the tree, thus cutting off the food supply which is made in the leaves of the tree, from the lower portion of the tree, namely the roots. since the roots cannot live without nourishment, the tree dies. as soon as the larvæ have completed their development they pupate. later they develop into adult beetles. these adult beetles issue forth in swarms the following spring, to attack new trees. the control of insect pests is a difficult matter. on areas where insect depredations are conspicuous and are liable to spread to nearby valuable timber, control measures are undertaken in coöperation with experts from the bureau of entomology. in these control projects, crews of men fell the infested trees, strip the bark from them, and burn the bark (usually at a time of the year when the young broods of beetles are still in the bark, namely, fall or winter). trap trees are sometimes resorted to. in this method, trees are girdled with an ax and thereby weakened to such a degree that beetles are attracted to it. after such a tree has become thoroughly infested in this manner, it is cut down and burned. in the case of a large, conspicuous infestation, an insect reconnoissance is made, in order to obtain an estimate of the percentage of trees that have been killed by insects. when it is possible, the timber is immediately sold. for example, on the lassen national forest, the writer several years ago made such an estimate of an infestation caused by the mountain pine beetle, covering over 100,000 acres. the reconnoissance showed that about 35 per cent. of the trees above 12 inches in diameter had been killed. the killed timber was subsequently utilized for telephone and telegraph poles. there are many administrative measures which are practiced on the national forests, which aim to prevent insect infestation. the prevention and suppression of forest fires, which form infection courts for insects, is probably the most important one. in all timber sales, old dead snags and slashing, which are breeding places for insects, are disposed of. through free use and timber sales, insect-killed timber is disposed of and the loss due to insects is reduced to a minimum, besides in many cases destroying the young insect broods. _tree diseases._ in almost every administrative district there is a consulting pathologist, connected with the bureau of plant pathology of the department of agriculture, who has charge of all work dealing with the eradication of tree diseases. a tree disease is really any condition that interferes with the normal functioning of the tree, be this condition caused by fungi, mistletoe, fumes, smoke, frost, sunscald, drought or excess of water in the soil. parasitic fungi and mistletoes cause most of the tree diseases. leaf diseases, by killing a greater part of the foliage, destroy the very organs in which food for the growing tissues is prepared. diseases of the bark intercept the flow of food coming down in the bark from the leaves. diseases of the sapwood cut off the water supply, which is pumped upward from the roots. those that attack the roots also affect the water supply of the tree. diseases of flowers and seeds destroy the faculty of reproduction. certain parasites are able to enter the youngest parts of trees, twigs and leaves directly, but the majority of the fungi causing decay of the wood can get into the interior of the living tree only by way of a pin knot or wound. for this reason, every wound caused by lightning, by fire, by man, or by animals, constitutes a menace to infection. many coniferous trees cover their wounds by an aseptic coat of pitch, which is very effective in preventing the germination and growth of fungus spores. but the less resinous conifers and the hardwood trees do not cover their wounds very effectively; large wounds are not covered at all. upon exposure by a wound, the sapwood just underneath the bark dies, dries out, and checks. spores of parasitic fungi enter the cracks, germinate and infect the heartwood. the spores of a heartwood-inhabiting fungus cannot germinate and thrive unless they fall upon the heartwood of the tree. in this way certain diseases of the heartwood, which result in rot or decay, can very frequently be traced directly to fire scars, lightning scars, spike tops, broken limbs or branches, and other mechanical destruction caused by lightning, fire, storms, cloudbursts, or heavy snowfall. fire as a cause of wounds is responsible for more cases of heartrot than all other injuries taken together. for this reason the protection of forests from fire is the most important preventive measure that can be taken to eradicate tree diseases. in fact, the best way of controlling diseases is by preventing them, and the forest officers are endeavoring to eliminate any danger to the health of the forest, to prevent the injury of the trees, and to establish healthy conditions for their growth. this is forest hygiene, and it bears the same relation to the trees and forests as personal hygiene and community sanitation do to persons and communities. it is impossible to grow a sound and thrifty forest for future generations if there are unhealthful conditions in the forest that are a constant menace to the trees. the first step in this hygienic work is close observation on the part of the forest officers. the next important step is to prevent the infection and infestation of sound trees by getting rid of all diseased and insect-infested living and dying trees. by means of timber sales and free use, forest officers very materially help in establishing healthy conditions on the national forests. there is a clause in most timber sale contracts which requires the cutting by the purchaser of all snags and other unhealthy trees on the area. this measure not only eliminates undesirable trees from a hygienic standpoint, but it also makes it possible to utilize the merchantable timber left in undesirable trees, which would otherwise go to waste. on timber sales, forest officers who do the marking leave for reproduction only such trees as are perfectly sound and healthy. mistletoe infested trees, especially, are marked for cutting, for neither in plant nor in animal life can healthy offspring be expected to develop under unhealthful conditions. [illustration: figure 49. wrecked farm buildings due to flood of may 21, 1901, nolichucky river, near erwin, tenn. this is one result of denuding the appalachian mountains of their forest cover.] [illustration: figure 50. when steep hillsides are stripped of their forest growth, erosion results. erosion has been especially serious in the appalachian mountains. view taken in madison county, north carolina.] _water supply._ undoubtedly the greatest value of the mountain forests of the west, most of which are within the national forests, lies in their influence upon the regularity of the water supply. in many states these mountains afford the only water supply for domestic use, for irrigation, and for the development of power. the future development of the entire region depends, therefore, upon a regular water supply. it is not so much the amount of water as the manner in which it flows from the mountains that is important. to insure this regularity, the vegetative covering is an important factor. for this reason, congress made the preservation of conditions favorable to stream flow one of the principal objects in the establishment and administration of the national forests. many of my readers who have lived out-of-doors a great deal have learned by common observation the simple problem of how the forest regulates stream flow. any one who has been in a treeless region after a heavy rainstorm can recall how suddenly the streams swell and flood their banks, and how soon these same streams return to their former flow. on the other hand, a severe rainstorm in a forested region will hardly have an appreciable effect upon the streams. the difference is not very hard to explain. in a treeless region there are no natural obstacles which might delay or prevent the raindrops from reaching the ground. the soil is usually hard and dry, and the water runs off as though from a gable roof. in a forest, we well know, the crowns of the trees intercept most of the rain that falls; very little strikes the ground directly. the rain that strikes the crown is dissipated on the leaves or needles, on the twigs and branches, and on the trunk. it must travel a long way before it reaches the ground, and all this delay helps in preventing a rapid run-off or flood. the soil in the forest is covered by a living ground cover of flowers, shrubs and young trees, and by a dead cover composed of leaves, twigs, dead branches, fallen trees, all of which interrupt the raindrop's journey to the ground. even after the rain reaches the ground, only a small part of it goes off as surface run-off. the soil in the forest is loose and full of holes and channels made by decaying roots, earth worms, etc., so that the water is absorbed as fast as it reaches the soil. also the soil in the forest contains a large amount of organic matter, resulting from decaying leaves and branches, and this organic matter acts as a great sponge, because it is capable of holding several times its own weight of water. as a result of the living and dead ground cover, the crown cover, and the organic matter in the soil, the rainfall is fed to the streams gradually through weeks and months, instead of a few hours, and the nearby rivers have a steady, equable flow, instead of alternate stages of floods and low water. closely bound up with the protection of watersheds is the erosion problem. without a forest cover, rain runs off mountain slopes very rapidly, often carrying with it silt and sand, and, in severe floods, even rocks and bowlders. a well known physical law states that the carrying capacity of a stream increases as the sixth power of its velocity. in other words, double the velocity of a stream and you have multiplied its carrying power by 64; increase its velocity ten times, and you multiply its carrying power by a million. the delay caused by the forest cover in each raindrop's journey down a mountain side not only prevents floods, but also preserves the fertility of the fields in the valleys below. many streams in the west carry such enormous amounts of silt that the storage capacity of reservoirs has been seriously impaired, even within a comparatively short time. then, also, there is the added difficulty and expense of keeping the diversion works--the ditches and canals--free from an excess of this material. studies which have been carried on to determine in what way the administration of the national forests can keep the destructive processes of erosion at a minimum have shown that the balance between the stability of the soil and rapid erosion on many slopes is so delicate that only a slight abuse may result in complete loss of the fertile top soil and permanent changes in the character of the vegetation. in august, 1909, the town of ephraim, on the manti national forest, utah, experienced a disastrous flood from ephraim canyon, which was attributed in part to the overgrazed condition on the watershed. an examination made the next spring clearly demonstrated that the severity of the flood was a direct result of deterioration of forest, brush, and grass cover, due to overgrazing during a long period of years. the canyon was therefore closed to grazing as an immediate protective measure. plans were thereafter made to restore the forest cover of the canyon by planting. [illustration: figure 51. a fertile corn-field covered with sand, gravel, and débris brought down from the mountains by floods. these farm lands are ruined beyond redemption. this could have been prevented by preserving the forests on the watershed of this river.] in this kind of protection work, as in the case of forest fires, it has been found that preventive measures are much more effective and much less costly than remedial measures. the regulations under which the forests are administered give the secretary of agriculture power to institute preventive measures. to insure the sufficiency and purity of the water supply of a municipality or of an irrigation district, or to prevent floods and snowslides, the use of watersheds for grazing, timber, special uses, or settlement is especially restricted when such restriction is found to be necessary. on steep grass or timber-covered mountain slopes both grazing and timber sales are prohibited, if necessary. _public health._ from the relation which the national forests bear to the streams that issue from them, it will be seen that they may exert a great influence upon the health and general welfare of the communities in the valleys below. all persons either permanently or temporarily camped upon national forest land are liable to trespass proceedings if unsanitary conditions result from their presence. all camp refuse must be disposed of either by burying or burning. this regulation applies to hunting and fishing parties, as well as to large logging camps, sawmills, and construction camps on national forest lands. thus the regulations strictly guard against the pollution of the water supply of the people who live in the large towns and cities, and also those who live on the forests or near them. the watersheds tributary to many of the large western cities and towns are under special protection by the forest service. under this sanitary regulation, it is possible to maintain such control of them as will greatly reduce the danger of typhoid and other enteric diseases. _violation of game laws._ wild game, fish and birds add materially to the enjoyment of the national forests by the public, and their protection and preservation is a duty of forest officers. although this duty rests primarily with the state the forest service assists, as far as practicable, in the protection of game on the national forests from illegal practices. forest service officials are at the same time state game wardens. in the event of a violation of the state game laws, they either apprehend the offender or report the matter to the proper state official. various kinds of game and bird refuges may be included within national forests, depending upon whether they are created by specific acts of the state legislature or by acts of congress. in these refuges, hunting, trapping, willfully disturbing, or killing any game or bird is prohibited. whether the violation occurs in the state game refuge or the national refuge, the forest officer has authority to arrest the offender without warrant. chapter iv the sale and rental of national forest resources the timber, the pasture, the water and mineral resources and the land in the national forests are for the use of the people, and they may be obtained for legitimate use from the local forest officers without delay. in fact, the forest service is doing all it can to encourage all kinds of business which depends upon national forest resources. the sale and disposal of national forest timber there has been a steady increase in the amount and value of the timber cut on the national forests. during the fiscal year 1917 over 700,000,000 feet of timber, valued at almost $1,500,000, was cut, while almost three times as much was sold. most of this was cut in the states of montana, oregon, idaho, washington, california and arizona. all mature timber on the national forests which may be cut with benefit and in accordance with certain well-established forestry principles, is for sale and is advertised and offered as demand arises. the outstanding feature of government timber sales is the fact that only the stumpage is sold, the title of the land remaining with the government. the timber is sold in any quantity, so long as the sale is in accordance with well-established policy. large sales require a large initial investment for constructing a railroad or other means for taking out the timber, and may even require the construction of a common carrier from the market to comparatively inaccessible regions. _government timber sale policy._ the national forest timber sale policy, first of all, aims to prevent the loss of this valuable public property through forest fires. this phase of the policy, however, is covered under the chapter on protection. next, it aims to utilize the ripe timber which can be marketed and to cut it in such a way as to insure the restocking of the land with young timber and the continuance of forest production. the price at which timber is sold represents, as required by statute, the appraised market value and a proper return to the public which owns it. it is disposed of in such a way as to prevent its speculative acquisition and holding, and to prevent monopoly. national forest timber has found its way into both the general, far distant market, and the local market. but it is the aim of the forest service to first of all provide for the requirements of local communities and industries, including the free use and sale at cost to settlers as authorized by statute. it is also the aim of the forest service policy to make timberlands of agricultural value available for settlement under conditions which prevent speculative acquisition but encourage permanent and genuine farming. according to this policy, land which at the present time is covered with a good stand of timber and which has been shown to have a greater value for agricultural purposes is cleared as soon as a bona fide sale can be consummated. and, lastly, it is the aim of this policy to return as soon as possible the cost of protection and administration of the national forests, and to yield a revenue to the states, since these are entitled by statute to 25 per cent. of all gross receipts as an offset to the loss of local taxes through the government ownership of the forests. [illustration: figure 52. a view towards mt. adams and the headwaters of lewis river. council lake in the foreground national forest lands lie at the headwaters of practically every large western river. this means that the water supply for the western people used for domestic use, water power, and irrigation is being protected from pollution and destruction. view taken on the rainier national forest.] _annual yield and cut._ each year the amount of timber which can be cut from each national forest, according to sound forestry principles, is authorized by the secretary of agriculture. this cut is based upon the best available data as to the amount of mature and over-mature timber needing removal, and the amount of annual growth on each forest. at the present time only a small percentage of the authorized annual cut of the forests is taken. most forests cut a very small part of their annual allotment, but a few forests cut their full annual yield, or nearly so. on some forests, the entire annual yield is used by local industries and no timber can be sent to the general market; on others a very small part of the annual yield is used by local needs and most of the cut can be sent to the general market. on the cascade national forest, in oregon, for instance, the annual production is estimated at about 200,000,000 feet, while the present local needs can be supplied by approximately 1,000,000 feet. from such a forest a large annual cut can be made for the general market. on the deerlodge national forest, in montana, on the other hand, the annual yield is estimated to be about 40,000,000 feet, all of which is needed to supply the large copper mines near butte. from forests like this, no sales for the general market can be made. although the national forests contain about six hundred billions of board feet of timber, or about one-fifth of the standing timber in the united states, only a small fraction of the available timber is actually disposed of. this is due to the comparative inaccessibility of this timber and the presence of large bodies of privately owned timber which lie between it and the market. the result of this condition is that the bulk of the salable timber on the forests will be automatically saved until such a time when most of the privately owned timber has been cut. in this way, future generations will benefit and the public will receive a much better price for it years hence than they could possibly obtain now. _timber reconnoissance._ before any timber can be sold to advantage, however, it is necessary to take an inventory of the timber resources. in other words, it is necessary to know where the timber is, how much there is, and what can be done with it. this timber estimate, or timber reconnoissance, as it is called, is also needed to settle questions of title arising from the presence of patented lands or valid claims; to determine if cutting is advisable on a given area, and, if so, under what stipulations; and to fix the minimum price at which stumpage is to be sold. the annual yield, or the amount of timber grown or produced annually upon an area, must be the ultimate basis of the annual cut, and this yield can only be computed after an inventory of the timber has been made. timber reconnoissance (valuation survey or valuation strips) involves an estimate of the standing timber by small legal or natural subdivisions of land, with the necessary land surveys, the preparation of an accurate topographic and forest type map, and the compilation of detailed descriptive notes. these notes deal with the condition and character of the timber, the most practical methods of exploitation, the extent and character of the young growth, and many other factors which affect the management of timber lands. these data are secured at a cost of from 3 to 10 cents per acre, depending upon the accessibility and the topography of the region and the density of the timber. this work is carried on both in the summer and in the winter. up to date, about 21,000,000 acres have been covered by intensive reconnoissance and about 48,000,000 acres by extensive methods. _logging the timber._ in order that my reader may better understand various matters connected with the disposal of national forest timber, it will be necessary to give a brief outline of how timber and other forest products are taken from the woods, and the different steps necessary before a green tree in the woods becomes a board or a railroad tie. the methods of logging used in the national forests are essentially the same as those used on private lands, with the exception of certain details, such as the protection of young growth, the cutting of snags, and the disposal of the brush. the methods used, of course, vary with the locality; they are different for the pacific coast, where donkey engines are used, than for the rocky mountains, where horses are largely employed. they vary with the climate, the topography, the size of the timber, and the kind of product to be harvested. but a typical logging operation, as carried on in the sierras of california, will give an idea of how logs are taken from the forest. [illustration: figure 53. a large storage reservoir used to irrigate the ranches in the valley below. elevation 10,500 feet. battlement national forest, colorado. photo by the author.] [illustration: figure 54. a sheep herder's camp used temporarily by forest service timber cruisers. elevation about 10,000 feet. battlement national forest, colorado. photo by the author.] in the particular operation which i have in mind the timber was located on the western slope of the mountains between 3,500 and 5,000 feet in elevation. the slopes were of medium steepness and much of the timber was on level benches. the large sawmill was located at the lower edge of the timber and the logging camp was in the woods near the cutting. the felling of the trees, which were from 3 to 6 feet in diameter, was done by two men with a two-man saw. these men are the "fallers." two men then cut the tree into logs and still other men called "swampers" cut the brush and fallen trees away so that the newly cut timber can be "skidded" to the railroad. this "skidding" is done by a powerful, steam-driven stationary donkey-engine, which is fitted up with a long cable and a drum. after the log is attached to the cable out in the woods by means of a "choker," the man in the woods gives the signal and the engine starts, revolving the drum and winding up the cable at the same time pulling the log towards the engine. just beside this engine is a platform from which the logs are loaded directly on flat cars. when six or eight flat cars are loaded in this manner a locomotive hauls them to the sawmill where they are sawed into boards. in this case as soon as the boards were cut they were placed in a flume in which there was a strong stream of water. in this they floated about 40 miles to a town in the valley below directly into the company's lumber yard. in the rocky mountains one of the main forest products derived from the national forests is railroad ties. on the particular operation with which the writer is familiar the government had sold to a tie operator about 3,000,000 railroad ties under a long term contract. this tie operator had a large contract with a railroad company. the area of the sale, several thousand acres, was divided or surveyed into long strips each 100 to 150 feet wide and from one to one and a half miles long. a large camp and commissary was established on the area. there were about 100 tie choppers and each man was assigned to a strip. on these strips the trees to be cut were marked by a forest officer. trees too small to make ties were left as a basis for a future tie operation in from forty to fifty years. the tie choppers usually worked alone. they first felled the tree with a saw, cut the lower limbs off, and marked off the ties on the bark to see how many ties could be cut from the tree. the tree was then "scored" with an ax on both sides in order to start making the two flat faces of the tie. these sides were then chipped with a "broad ax," thus making two smooth faces. the bark was then peeled from the other two faces and the tree was then cut into finished ties. after the ties were made the top of the tree was lopped, that is, the branches were cut from the trunk. in this operation these branches were scattered evenly over the ground. the tie chopper then cleared a road through the middle of his strip and "parked" his ties on the road. he then stamped his private mark on each tie. in the winter the ties were "hauled" on large sleds to the river bank. each tie chopper's ties were put in a separate pile so that the company's scaler could count them and credit them to the man that made them. in the spring, when the river's banks were full, the ties were "driven" down the river to the shipping point, usually a town on a railroad line. a forest officer is detailed to an operation of this kind to inspect the choppers' work and count and stamp the ties. he sees to it that all trees that have been marked for cutting are cut, that no trees not marked have been cut, that young growth is not unnecessarily injured, that the stumps are not left too high, that the tops are fully utilized, that the slashing or brush is disposed of according to the contract, and that the operator is keeping all his agreements in the contract. _the first step in purchasing government timber._ after the desired body of timber has been located, the first step for any one desiring to purchase government timber is to communicate with an officer of the national forest in which the timber is located. if only a small amount is desired--less than $50 in value--the local ranger can arrange to make the sale without delay. amounts valued at more than this can be sold only by the higher officials of the service, that is the supervisor, district forester, or the forester, according to the size of the sale. the supervisor can sell up to two million feet; larger sales are made by the district forester or the forester. all sales exceeding $100 in amount must be advertised, except those made to homestead settlers and farmers in a private sale. sales are advertised in order to secure the largest number of bidders possible and thus prevent the monopoly of large bodies of timber by large timber operators. [illustration: figure 55. view taken in the coast range mountains of california where sugar pine and douglas fir are the principal trees. klamath national forest, california. photo by the author.] [illustration: figure 56. a typical mountain scene in the california coast range. on these steep slopes a forest cover is of vital importance. klamath national forest, california. photo by the author.] _procedure in an advertised sale._ after the applicant has selected the body of timber he wishes to purchase, he is furnished by the supervisor with a sample application stating the area, estimated amount, minimum stumpage price, period allowed for cutting and removing the timber, and other conditions to be complied with, following as closely as possible the form of the final sale agreement. usually, also, the purchaser is interested in the amount of timber which he may cut per acre. for this reason he visits sample areas on which the trees have been marked for cutting. a notice of the sale of the timber is then published, the choice of mediums and number of insertions depending upon whether the sale is of local, regional, or general interest. this notice describes the timber, gives the minimum stumpage prices that will be accepted, and specifies the date upon which sealed bids will be received. the period of advertising is at least 30 days, and in large sales from 3 to 6 months. forms for bidding are furnished to the original applicant and others who signify their intention to bid. a deposit is required with all bids to show the good faith of the bidder. in large transactions this deposit is usually from 3 to 5 per cent. of the purchase price. on the date specified in the advertisement the supervisor (or district forester) opens all bids received and awards the sale to the highest bidder. the sale contract is then prepared and executed by the purchaser. a specific statement of financial ability is required in all sales of ten million feet or more, and in smaller sales in the discretion of the approving officer. such a statement may be required before the approval of the sale application, either formal or tentative, and in any event before the timber is awarded to the successful bidder. the contract must be supported by a suitable bond given by two responsible sureties or by a surety company authorized to do business with the united states. [illustration: figure 57. a forest officer at work on a high mountain peak making a plane-table survey and timber estimate of national forest lands. photo by the author.] [illustration: figure 58. a government timber cruiser's summer camp. these cruisers get a fairly accurate estimate of uncle sam's timber resources at a cost of from 2 to 5 cents an acre. photo by the author.] _timber sale contract clauses._ the sale contract contains in full all the conditions under which the cutting is to be done. in all sales of national forest stumpage the contract provides that no timber shall be cut until it has been paid for, and that it shall not be removed until it has been scaled by a forest officer. all live timber is marked or otherwise designated before cutting, and any merchantable timber used for logging improvements, such as houses, bridges, stables, etc., must be scaled and paid for. in order to secure full utilization of the timber the maximum stump height is ordinarily fixed at 18 inches, and merchantable timber must be used to a specified diameter in the tops, which is adjusted for each species in accordance with local manufacturing and market conditions. the officer in charge of the sale is authorized to vary the stump height and top diameter in individual cases when those specified in the contract are not practicable. the tops must be trimmed up and, as a rule, brush must be piled and burned, or burned without piling under the direction of forest officers. merchantable timber which is not cut and removed and unmarked trees which are cut must be paid for at double the specified stumpage rates. this extra charge serves as a penalty. all camps, buildings, railroads, and other improvements necessary in logging and manufacturing the timber may be constructed upon national forest land without charge. railroads which open up inaccessible regions may be required to be made common carriers or to transport logs and lumber for other purchasers or for the government at reasonable rates. since fire protection is one of the most important duties of the forest service, provision is made in all contracts that the purchaser must place himself and employees, as well as the employees of his contractors, at the disposal of authorized forest officers for fighting fires. reimbursement is made for such services at the wages in vogue for fighting fires on the national forest in question, unless the fire threatens the timber of the purchaser or property of the operator, or is started in connection with the operation. under these conditions the purchaser is expected to furnish his available employees to assist the government in fire fighting without charge. efficient spark arresters are required on wood and coal burning boilers or locomotives. inflammable material must be cleaned up in the vicinity of logging engines, and other precautions taken to insure against fire spreading from this source. snags and diseased trees upon the sale area must usually be felled, whether merchantable or not, in order to remove fire menace and to check the spread of timber infestations and pests. [illustration: figure 59. forest officers moving camp while engaged in winter reconnaissance work. all food, beds, and clothing are packed on "alaska" sleds and drawn by the men themselves. photo by the author.] [illustration: figure 60. a winter reconnaissance camp showing snow-shoes, skis, "alaska" sleds, and bull hide used to repair the webbing on the snow-shoes. lassen national forest, california. photo by the author.] _special contract clauses._ special clauses are inserted in contracts to meet peculiar and unusual conditions. these deal with the number of men the company is to furnish for brush burning; the time of the year this work is to be done; the construction of fire lines; the manner of scaling timber; the manner of piling and the location of piles of material to be scaled; the definition of a merchantable log; the utilization of tops; the manner or method of logging to be used; the location of improvements; the use of timber for the construction of improvements; the disposal of improvements at the termination of the contract; where cutting is to begin and how fast it is to proceed; the percentage of merchantable timber to be reserved in marking; and other special clauses recommended by the bureau of entomology for the sale of insect infested timber. that the forest service timber sale policy and the various timber sale clauses have met with the approval of the lumbermen and the timber buyers of the western states is attested by the fact that in the last ten years (from july 1, 1907, to june 30, 1917) there have been nearly 75,000 purchasers of national forest timber and that between these two dates the annual number of timber sales has increased from 5,062 in the fiscal year 1908 to 11,608 in the fiscal year 1917. no better evidence could be cited of the confidence which the lumbermen have in the forest service method of doing business. _when the operation may begin._ as soon as the contract has been executed and the first payment has been made a portion of the timber is marked for cutting and the purchaser may begin operations at once. sometimes cutting in advance of the execution of the contract is allowed to prevent serious hardship and unnecessary delay and expense on the part of the purchaser. [illustration: figure 61. a group of giant redwoods. santa cruz county, california] _marking the timber for cutting._ in order to insure a proper restocking of the ground, all live trees must be marked or otherwise designated by a forest officer before cutting can commence. usually from 1/10 to 1/3 of the stand is reserved, either scattered over the entire tract or distributed in groups. these trees are left for various reasons, depending upon circumstances. the most important consideration is, of course, to leave enough seed trees to restock the cut-over area. on steep slopes a certain number of trees must be left to protect the watershed and to prevent the erosion of the soil. many species of trees are subject to windthrow when the stand is thinned out. to counteract this tendency a sufficient number of trees must be left to prevent the wind from getting an unobstructed sweep. in many semi-arid portions of the west additional trees must be left standing to protect the forest from excessive drying and to prevent the ground from being occupied by useless tree weeds and brush. often, especially along highways, trees are left for their scenic effect. from an economic standpoint it is important sometimes to leave trees in order to make a second cut worth while. where only dead timber is purchased, and no living trees are cut, or where patches of forest are to be cut clean, forest officers, instead of marking every tree to be removed, blaze and mark a boundary of the cutting area or patch and instruct the purchaser accordingly. where individual trees are marked they are blazed and stamped "u. s." next to the ground on the lowest side of the stump. additional blazes may be made several feet above the ground whenever desired by the purchaser for the convenience of his "fallers" or where deep snow may conceal the lower mark from the "fallers." where both kinds of blazes are used, one man, in fairly dense pine timber, can mark from 500 to 1,000 trees in a day. under no condition may unmarked or undesignated trees be cut by the purchaser. the system of marking and the proportion of the timber to be cut is explained to purchasers by marking sample areas before the contract is executed. the cost of logging under the methods of marking adopted is compensated fully in the stumpage appraisal. _scaling, measuring, and stamping._ unless timber is sold by estimate, it must be scaled, counted, or measured before it is removed from the cutting area or place agreed upon for this purpose. in addition it must be stamped by a forest officer with a regulation marking ax or similar instrument. payment is made upon the actual scale, count or measure, with due allowance for defect. all national forest timber is sold under specifications which are in accordance with those in commercial use, such as logs by the thousand board feet, ties by the piece, poles by length and top diameter, shingle bolts by the cord, and mining timbers by the linear foot. all logs are scaled at the small end. [illustration: figure 62. a big sugar pine tree about six feet in diameter. this is the most valuable timber species in california. photo by the author.] [illustration: figure 63. a western yellow pine forest in california. these trees are from four to six feet in diameter and from 150 to 200 feet high. note the forest service timber cruiser measuring the tree at the left. photo by the author.] all saw timber is scaled by the scribner decimal c log rule. in order to permit scaling at reasonable cost to the forest service, purchasers may be required, where the cost of logging may not be unduly increased, to skid and pile the logs for scaling. piles and skidways must be constructed so as to permit economical scaling and when necessary and practicable the purchaser is required to mark the small ends of the logs to avoid misunderstanding when they are scaled on the pile. logs or other material that has been scaled or measured are designated by a "us" stamp impressed in the wood so that the material may not be scaled again by mistake. each merchantable log scaled is stamped on at least one end and unmerchantable or defective logs are stamped "us" in a circle. material other than saw logs, such as mine timber, ties, posts, poles, or piling, after scaling, is stamped on at least one end. cord wood is stamped at both the top and bottom of each rick. on all national forests except those in alaska and west of the summit of the cascades in washington and oregon, logs over 16 feet are scaled as two or more logs as far as practicable in lengths of not less than 12 feet. in alaska and parts of oregon and washington logs up to and including 32 feet in length are scaled as one log; logs from 32 to 64 feet inclusive are scaled as two logs as nearly equal in length as possible in even feet. all diameters are measured inside the bark at the top end of the log and diameters are rounded off to the nearest inch above or below the actual diameter. in the case of logs each one is numbered and the number entered in a scale book with the corresponding board foot scale of the log. in the case of ties, posts, poles, mining timbers, etc., each pile or skidway is numbered and the count or scale entered opposite the corresponding number in the scale book. _disposal of slash._ one of the most important features in national forest timber sales is the disposal of the brush or slash after logging. on account of the great diversity of conditions which obtain on the forests, the best way to dispose of brush is not everywhere the same. piling and burning is required where the fire risk is great; otherwise the method promising the best silvicultural results is used. [illustration: figure 64. logging in california. powerful steam engines pull the logs from the woods to the railroad and load them on flat cars. photo by the author.] [illustration: figure 65. the loaded flat cars reach the sawmill where the logs are unloaded and sawn into lumber. during the fiscal year 1917 timber sales on the national forests brought into the national treasury almost $1,700,000.00. photo by the author.] when piling and burning is necessary, all tops and débris, including large chips made from hewing ties, are piled at a safe distance from standing trees. the piles are not allowed to be made in groups of seedlings or young growth, against dead snags, near living trees, or on stumps, large tops or logs, but wherever possible in openings. the piles are adapted to the size of the opening in which they are made and must be made sufficiently compact to kindle easily and burn cleanly. the ideal pile is of medium size, conical in shape, compact, from 5 to 7 feet in diameter at the base and from 4 to 5 feet high. brush piling and burning is an art which can only be acquired after long experience. brush is scattered whenever this method promises the best silvicultural results, unless there is serious danger from fire on account of dense timber and reproduction. the scattered brush is intended to afford protection to seedlings from excessive transpiration and from trampling by stock and to protect the soil from erosion. ground burning may be advisable where clean cutting has been employed, to expose the loose mineral soil for better seed germination. when this method is used the purchaser is required to clear a fire line around the area to be burned and to furnish adequate help to the forest officer who supervises the burning. frequently brush is burned as the cutting progresses. fires are started at convenient points and the brush is thrown on them as it is lopped. where brush burning is necessary it is not advisable, ordinarily, to burn over an entire sale area. it is frequently possible to burn the brush so as to form broad fire lines, particularly along railroads or wagon roads. the best times for brush burning are after a light fall of snow or rain, early in the spring before the snow has melted or the dry season has begun or during or immediately after summer rains. brush disposal must always keep pace with logging except when the depth of snow or other reasons make proper disposal impossible. often the brush must lay in piles at least one season before it becomes dry enough to burn. _payment for timber._ payment must be made for all timber in advance of cutting. this, however, does not imply that one advance payment must be made to cover the stumpage value of all the timber included in the sale. frequent installments are allowed sufficient usually to cover the cut of one or two months. [illustration: figure 66. scene in montana. forest officers constructing a telephone line through the flathead national forest.] [illustration: figure 67. forest ranger, accompanied by a lumberman, marking national forest timber for cutting in a timber sale. coconino national forest, arizona.] this arrangement makes it possible to secure large tracts of national forest timber at a very slight initial outlay and to hold them with almost no interest charges. the other usual carrying charges, namely, taxes and fire protection, are eliminated. the timber is protected from fire by the united states throughout the life of the contract. the money deposited to secure cutting in advance of the execution of the contract may be credited towards the amount to accompany the bid. _stumpage rates._ the minimum stumpage rates applicable in each proposed sale are determined by a careful study of the conditions in the particular case. stumpage rates are the actual market value of the timber. they are based upon the quality of the timber and the character of its commercial products; the estimated cost of logging, transportation, and manufacture; the investment required on the part of the operator; the selling value of the product; and a fair profit to the purchaser. the estimated profit depends upon the size and the permanency of the operation and the degree of risk involved. the cost of brush disposal, protection of young growth, logging only marked timber and other requirements of the forest service is fully considered in appraising stumpage rates. timber is ordinarily appraised at the rates indicated for the most valuable products to which it is suited and for which an established market exists. merchantable dead timber is appraised at the same rate as green timber of the same species unless it is clearly shown that the products manufactured from it command a lower market price or that logging costs are higher. _cutting period._ ordinarily the cutting period allowed in each sale is only sufficient to permit the removal of the timber at a reasonable rate, approximately equivalent to the working capacity of the plant. sales of accessible timber usually do not exceed 5 years in length. however, in the case of inaccessible tracts requiring a large investment for transportation facilities an exception is made and periods of from 15 to 20 years may be granted. _readjustment of stumpage rates._ in all sales exceeding 5 years in length provision is made to have the stumpage rates readjusted by the forester at the end of three or five year intervals to meet changing market and manufacturing conditions. [illustration: figure 68. an excellent illustration showing the difference between unrestricted logging as practised by lumbermen, and conservative logging as practised by the forest service. in the foreground is the unrestricted logging which strips the soil of every stick of timber both large and small; in the background is the forest service logging area which preserves the young growth to insure a future supply of timber for the west. bitterroot national forest, montana.] _refunds._ deposits to cover or secure advance cutting or to accompany bids apply on the first payment if a sale is awarded to the depositor; otherwise they will be refunded. refunds are also made to the purchaser if the last payment is in excess of the value of the timber that is cut. the disposal of timber to homestead settlers and under free use besides selling the timber and other forest products outright, as has just been described, some timber is sold to settlers at cost and much timber is given away to the local people under the free use policy. _sales to homestead settlers and farmers._ sales to homestead settlers and farmers are made without advertisement in any amount desired, at the price fixed annually for each national forest region of similar conditions by the secretary, as equivalent to the actual cost of making and administering such sales. only material to be used by the purchaser for domestic purposes exclusively on homesteads or farms is sold in this way. such uses include the construction or repair of farm buildings, fences, and other improvements and fuel. such sales are restricted to mature dead and down timber which may be cut without injury to the forest. _free use._ free use of timber is granted primarily to aid in the protection and silvicultural improvement of the forests. hence the material taken is, except in unusual cases, restricted to dead, insect infested and diseased timber, and thinnings. green material may be taken in exceptional cases where its refusal would clearly cause unwarranted hardship. the use of such material is granted freely: (1) to bona fide settlers, miners, residents, prospectors, for fire wood, fencing, building, mining, prospecting, and other domestic purposes; and to any one in case its removal is necessary for the welfare of the forest; (2) for the construction of telephone lines when necessary for the protection of forests from fire; (3) to certain branches of the federal government. free use is not granted for commercial purposes or of use in any business, including sawmills, hotels, stores, companies or corporations. such persons are required to purchase their timber. [illustration: figure 69. view showing the forest service method of piling the brush and débris after logging, and also how stump heights are kept down to prevent waste. new mexico.] [illustration: figure 70. a tie-cutting operation on a national forest. these piles of railroad ties are being inspected, stamped, and counted by forest rangers. from this point the ties are "skidded" to the banks of a stream to be floated to the shipping point. near evanston, wyoming.] the aggregate amount of free use material granted annually to any user must not exceed $20 in value, except in cases of unusual need or of dead or insect infested timber, the removal of which would be a benefit to the forest, or in the case of any timber which should be removed and whose sale under contract cannot be effected. in these cases the amount may be extended to $100. supervisors have authority to grant free use permits up to $100, district foresters up to $500, and larger amounts must have the approval of the forester. free use material is appraised in the same manner and in accordance with the same principles as timber purchased under sale agreements. the valuation of such material is at the same rate as that prevailing for similar grades of stumpage in current sales in the same locality. the magnitude of the free use business may be appreciated from the fact that during the fiscal year 1917 there were 41,427 individuals or companies who received timber under this policy. the total amount thus given away was 113,073,000 board feet valued at over $150,000. permits for this use are required for green material, but dead timber may be taken without a permit. supervisors designate as free-use areas certain portions or all of any national forest and settlers, miners, residents, and prospectors may cut and remove from such areas free of charge under forest service regulations any timber needed for their own use for firewood, fencing, buildings, mining, prospecting, or other domestic purposes. material cut under free-use regulations must not be removed from the cutting area until scaled or measured by a forest officer. in some cases this requirement is waived when by it the needs of the users are met with greater dispatch and the cost of administration is thereby reduced. the free-use applicant is required to utilize the trees cut in accordance with local forest service practice and he is required to avoid unnecessary damage to young growth and standing timber. timber settlement and administrative use when timber on national forest land is cut, damaged, killed, or destroyed in connection with the enjoyment of a right-of-way or other special use, it is not necessary to advertise it for sale, but payment therefor is required at not less than the minimum rate established by the secretary of agriculture. timber removed in this way is usually scaled, measured, or counted and the procedure is identical with that of a timber sale. but where timber is destroyed or where it is not worked up in measurable form or where the cutting is done in such a way that scaling is impracticable, settlement is required on the basis of an estimate. [illustration: figure 71. brush piles on a cut-over area before burning. forest service methods aim to clean up the forest after logging so that forest fires have less inflammable material to feed on. bitterroot national forest, montana.] [illustration: figure 72. at a time of the year when there is least danger from fire the brush piles are burned. missoula national forest, montana.] in 1912 a new branch of the southern pacific railroad was built across a portion of the lassen national forest in california. the company was going to use some of the timber, but most of it was to be destroyed or disposed of in the easiest manner. scaling was impossible, so the company paid for the timber--about $10,000--on the basis of a careful estimate made by the writer, then forest examiner. the charge for all such timber is made on the basis of the current stumpage rates for timber of like quality and accessibility included in sales for all classes of material which have to be cut or destroyed and which are commonly salable on the forest. timber is often used by the forest service itself in the administration of the national forests. the forester, district foresters, and the supervisors are authorized to sell or dispose of under free use or otherwise, within the amount each one is authorized to sell, any timber upon the national forests when such removal is actually necessary to protect the forest from ravages or destruction, or when the use or removal of the timber is necessary in the construction of roads, trails, cabins, and other improvements on the national forests or in experiments conducted by the forest service. the rental of national forest range lands the forage crop on the national forests is for the use of the sheep and cattle of the western stockmen and it is procured by means of grazing permits which are issued and charged for upon a per capita basis. the primary objects of the administration of government grazing lands are: the protection and conservative use of all national forest land adapted to grazing; the permanent good of the live stock industry through the proper care and use of grazing lands; and the protection of the settler and home builder against unfair competition in the use of the range. _importance of the live stock industry._ the grazing business, more than any other feature of national forest management, is immensely practical, because it is immediately concerned with human interests. this industry furnishes not only meat, but leather, wool, and many by-products. that the national forests play a big part in the maintenance of this industry there can be little doubt, for it has been estimated recently that 30 per cent. of the sheep and 20 per cent. of the cattle of the far western states are grazed in the national forests. the forests contain by far the largest part of the summer range lands in the far western states and hence are of paramount importance. the winter grazing lands in the west are so much greater in area than the summer lands, that for this reason also national forest range lands are in great demand. _permits issued in 1917._ during the fiscal year 1917 more than 31,000 permits to graze cattle, hogs, or horses, and over 5,500 permits to graze sheep or goats were issued. these permits provided for 2,054,384 cattle, 7,586,034 sheep, about 100,000 horses, about 50,000 goats, and about 3,000 hogs. the total receipts for 1917 were over $1,500,000. the gross receipts to the owners of the stock probably exceeded $50,000,000 and the capital invested in the stock no doubt amounted to over $200,000,000. an idea of the growth of the grazing business may be gotten from the forest service statistics for the fiscal years 1908 and 1917. the increase in the number of permits and the volume of the business is due primarily to a better administration and better regulation of grazing interests and more specifically to the increase in the carrying capacity of government lands by wise and restricted use. between these two fiscal years there was no appreciable increase in the total area of the forests which would account for the increased business. in 1908 there were issued 19,845 permits for 1,382,221 cattle, horses and hogs; in 1917 there were issued 31,136 permits for 2,054,384 animals. in 1908 there were issued 4,282 permits for 7,087,111 sheep and goats; in 1917 5,502 permits were issued for 7,586,034 sheep and goats. the number of cattle and horses grazed has increased therefore by 50 per cent. and the number of sheep and goats by 7 per cent. the total receipts have increased from $962,829.40 in 1908 to $1,549,794.76 in 1917. _kinds of range, grazing seasons, and methods of handling stock._ for the proper understanding of the grazing business on the national forests it is necessary to know something about the different kinds of range, the length of grazing seasons, and the methods of handling different classes of stock. sheep and goat range differs materially from cattle and horse range and the proper distribution of stock over a national forest cannot be effected unless this difference is recognized. sheep and goat range usually consists of low shrubs or brush and is known collectively as "browse"; cattle and horses subsist mainly upon grass, flowering plants and herbs. sheep feel more at home on high mountain slopes, while cattle and horses range usually on the lower slopes and in the valleys, and especially in the broad meadows, around lakes and along streams. sheep are more apt to find feed in the forests, that is under the trees; cattle prefer the open; they usually avoid the forest, preferring to keep out on the open meadows and grassy slopes. naturally some ranges have feed at some seasons of the year and other ranges at other seasons. some of the national forests in california extend from an elevation of a few hundred feet in the foothills of the great valleys to an elevation of more than 10,000 feet at the crest of the sierra nevada mountains. the lower foothills afford excellent feed soon after the beginning of the fall rains in november and, due to the very mild winter which this region enjoys, there is excellent feed in february and march. this is known as winter range. the medium high slopes of the mountains have a later growing season and the sheep and cattle reach there about june and stay until august or september. still higher up the forage matures later and the grazing season extends from august until november. at these elevations the snowbanks usually lie until july and the growing season is very short, for the new snow usually buries the vegetation about the first of november. thus stockmen have what they call "winter range," "summer range," and "fall range," depending upon what seasons of the year the forage crop can be utilized. the national forests on the whole contain very little winter range, hence stockmen must move their stock in the fall to private lands at lower elevations either where the climate is considerably warmer or where there is very little snowfall. a large part of the western winter grazing lands are in regions of light snowfall, such as at the lower elevations in utah, nevada, wyoming, and colorado. here the stock feeds on dry grass. stockmen who cannot get winter range lands must feed their stock at ranches. the characteristic habits of sheep and cattle require that they be handled differently on the range. sheep are herded in bands while cattle are handled in scattered groups. the new and approved method of handling sheep called the "burro system" calls for a burro with the sheep to pack the herder's blankets and provisions. the herder camps where night overtakes him. the herder and his band keep moving over the allotted range from one camp to another until he has covered the whole range. after leaving his last camp he is ready to begin all over again, since the feed near the camp where he began has had two to three weeks' time to grow a new crop. cattle usually run loose singly or in groups on their allotted range. usually a range rider is camped on the range to keep the cattle from straying to other ranges. he salts the cattle to keep them on their own range, takes care of cattle that have gotten sick, and takes care of the stock in other ways. _grazing districts and grazing units._ the secretary of agriculture not only has the authority to regulate grazing and prescribe the schedule of grazing fees to be charged but he also regulates the number and class of stock which are allowed to graze on each national forest annually. the ranges within the national forests are used by the kind of stock for which they are best adapted except when this would not be consistent with the welfare of local residents or the proper protection of the forests. for convenience in administration forests are divided into grazing districts. a typical forest is divided into from 4 to 6 districts which may be natural grazing units, natural administrative units (coinciding with the ranger districts), or parts of the forest used by different classes of stock or parts of the forest having different lengths of grazing seasons. each grazing district is also subdivided into smaller divisions, units, or allotments. these are usually natural divisions defined by topographic boundaries, such as ridges, mountains, streams, etc., or more or less artificial divisions determined by the class of stock which uses them. for example, cattle and horses ordinarily graze in the valleys along the streams, while sheep and goats graze the crests of ridges and the slopes of mountains and will cross none but shallow streams. each range division or unit is usually given a well-known local name, such as "duck lake unit" or "clover valley unit." one or more stockmen may be allotted to such a unit, depending upon the size of the unit and the number of animals it can feed. if only one stockman uses it, it becomes an individual allotment. usually a sheep owner with several large bands of sheep is allotted one large unit adapted to sheep grazing, while a large unit adapted to cattle and horses may be allotted to one large cattle owner or to two or more smaller owners. the manner in which sheep and goats are handled makes individual allotments both practicable and desirable. the boundaries of range allotments are usually well defined. in the case of sheep they are marked with cloth posters. in most forests range allotments are fairly well settled. each stockman gets with his permit each spring a small map showing his own range and the surrounding ranges. _who are entitled to grazing privileges._ the secretary of agriculture has the authority to permit, regulate, or prohibit grazing on the national forests. under his direction the forest service allows the use of the forage crop as fully as the proper care and protection of the national forests and the water supply permit. the grazing use of the national forest lands is therefore only a personal and non-transferable privilege. this privilege is a temporary one, allowable under the law only when it does not interfere with the purposes for which the national forests were created. it is non-transferable because it is based upon the possession of certain qualifications peculiar to the permittee. to understand these qualifications it is necessary to briefly look into the history of the grazing of live stock on the western grazing lands. [illustration: figure 73. counting sheep as they leave the corral. sheep and cattle are pastured on national forests at so many cents per head, hence they must be counted before they enter in the spring. wasatch national forest, utah.] [illustration: figure 74. logging national forest timber. santa fe national forest, new mexico.] by long use of the public lands of the united states for grazing purposes, long before the national forests were created, stock owners have been allowed to graze their stock upon such lands under certain conditions of occupancy, residence, and ownership of improved lands and water rights. this use, continuing through a long period of years, has, in the absence of congressional legislation, been commonly accepted in many communities, even receiving the recognition of certain of the courts. it was allowed under "unwritten law," as it were, only by the passive consent of the united states, but by force of the presidential proclamation creating national forests, such passive consent ceased, being superseded by definite regulations by the secretary of agriculture prescribed under the authority of congress. therefore grazing stock on the forests, as it was done before the forests were created, is trespass against the united states. due to the fact that local stockmen have used certain public ranges year after year by the passive consent of the united states, these stockmen are recognized in these localities as having preference rights or equities in the use of range lands. these equities form the basis upon which grazing privileges are allowed. grazing permits are issued only to persons entitled to share in the use of the range within the national forests by reason of their fulfilling certain conditions or requirements. prior use and occupancy of national forest lands for grazing purposes is the first and foremost requirement. local residence and ownership of improved ranch property within or near the forest and dependence upon government range are also conditions that may entitle a stockman to grazing privileges. the forest service also recognizes those stockmen who have acquired by purchase or inheritance stock grazed upon national forest lands under permit and improved ranch property used in connection with the stock, provided circumstances warrant the renewal of the permit issued to the former owner. the regular use of a range during its open season for several successive years before the creation of the national forest and under grazing permit thereafter is what is meant by "prior use" or "regular occupancy." the longer the period or use the greater the preference right. no one can acquire this right to the use of national forest range, nor can it be bought or sold, but stockmen may acquire a preference in the allotment of grazing privileges. this preference right does not entitle him to continued use of a certain part of a forest, but only to preference over other applicants less entitled to consideration in the use of the ranges open to the class of stock which he wishes to graze. certain stockmen may be given preference in ranges secured by prior use and occupancy supplemented by heavy investments in improved property and water rights. citizens of the united states are given preference in the use of the national forests, but persons who are not citizens may be allowed grazing permits provided they are bona fide residents and owners of improved ranch property either within or adjacent to a national forest. regular occupants of the range who own and reside upon improved ranch property in or near national forests are given first consideration, but will be limited to a number which will not exclude regular occupants who reside or whose stock are wintered at a greater distance from the national forests. with this provision applicants for grazing permits are given preference in the following order: class a. persons owning and residing upon improved ranch property within or near a national forest who are dependent upon national forests for range and who do not own more than a limited number of stock (known as the protective limit). class b. regular users of national forests range who do not own improved ranch property within or near a national forest, and persons owning such ranch property but who own numbers of stock in excess of the established limit. class c. persons who are not regular users of the national forest range and who do not own improved ranch property within or near a national forest. such persons are not granted permits upon forests which are fully occupied by classes a and b. classes b and c are not allowed to increase the number of stock grazed under permit except by the purchase of other permitted stock. from this classification it is very evident that the small local stockmen who own approximately from 30 to 300 head of cattle and from 500 to 2,000 head of sheep and who own and reside upon the ranches near the forests are given the preference in the allotment of grazing privileges. _grazing permits._ various kinds of grazing permits are required each year on the national forests. these are known as ordinary grazing permits, on-and-off permits, private land permits, and crossing permits. all persons must secure permits before grazing any stock on a national forest except for the few head in actual use by prospectors, campers, ranchers, stockmen, and travelers who use saddle, pack and work animals, and milch cows in connection with permitted operations on the national forests. under these conditions 10 head are allowed to graze without permit. persons owning stock which regularly graze on ranges partially included within a national forest, or upon range which includes private land may be granted permits for such portions of their stock as the circumstances appear to justify. this regulation provides for cases where only a part of a natural range unit is national forest land, and where the economical use of the entire unit can be secured only by the utilization of the forest land in connection with the other land. the regulation contemplates a movement of the stock governed by natural conditions, between the forest range and the adjoining outside range, or between forest land and intermingled private land. this is called an on-and-off permit. permits on account of private lands are issued to persons who own, or who have leased from the owners, unfenced lands within any national forest which are so situated and of such a character that they may be used by other permitted stock to an extent rendering the exchange advantageous to the government. the permits allow the permittees to graze upon national forest land, free of charge, the number of stock which the private lands will support, by waiving the right to the exclusive use of the private land and allowing it to remain open to other stock grazed on national forest land under permit. the regular grazing permit carries with it the privilege of driving the permitted stock over national forest lands to and from the allotted ranges at the beginning and end of the grazing season and from the range to the most accessible shearing, dipping, and shipping points during the term of the permit. but crossing permits are necessary for crossing stock over national forest lands to points beyond the national forest, for crossing stock to private lands within a national forest, or for crossing stock to reach dipping vats or railroad shipping points. rangers sometimes are detailed to accompany the stock and see that there is no delay or trespassing. no charge is made for crossing permits, but it is absolutely necessary that persons crossing stock comply with the regulations governing the national forests and with the quarantine regulations prescribed by the secretary of agriculture and the state authorities. _grazing fees._ the full grazing fee is charged on all animals under 6 months of age which are not the natural increase of stock upon which the fees are paid. animals under 6 months which are the natural increase of permitted stock are not charged for. a reasonable fee is charged for grazing all kinds of live stock on national forests. the rates are based upon the yearlong rate for cattle, which is from 60 cents to $1.50 per head, depending upon conditions on the forest. the yearlong rates for horses are 25 per cent. more and the yearlong rate for swine 25 per cent. less than the rate for cattle. the rate for sheep is 25 per cent. of the yearlong rate for cattle. the rates for all kinds of stock for periods shorter than yearlong are computed in proportion to the length of the season during which the stock use national forest lands. all grazing fees are payable in advance. when notice of the grazing allowance, periods, and rates for the year has been received by the supervisor he gives public notice of a date on or before which all applications for grazing must be presented to him. these public notices are posted in conspicuous places, usually in the post offices. applications for grazing permits are submitted on blank forms furnished by the supervisor. as soon as an applicant for a grazing permit is notified by the supervisor that his application has been approved, he must remit the amount due for grazing fees to the district fiscal agent and upon receipt of notice by the supervisor that payment has been made a permit is issued allowing the stock to enter the forest and remain during the period specified. all grazing fees are payable in advance and the stock is not allowed to enter the national forest unless payment has been made. _stock associations._ the thirty or more grazing regulations effective on the national forests are for the primary purpose of making the national forest range lands as useful as possible to the people consistent with their protection and perpetuation. it is clearly impossible to meet the wishes and needs of each individual user, but it is often entirely possible to meet the wishes of the majority of users if made known through an organization. the organization of stock associations is encouraged by the forest service and the opinions and wishes of their advisory boards are recognized when they represent general rather than individual or personal interests. it is often possible through these organizations to construct range improvements such as corrals, drift fences, roads, trails, and sources of water supply for the common good of the members of the organization and paid for by them. _protective and maximum limits._ in order to secure an equitable distribution of grazing privileges, the district forester establishes protective limits covering the number of stock for which the permits of class a owners will be exempt from reduction in the renewal of their permits. permits for numbers in excess of the protective limits will be subject to necessary reductions and will not be subject to increase in number except through purchase of stock or ranches of other permittees. [illustration: figure 75. sheep grazing on the montezuma national forest at the foot of mt. wilson, colorado. over 7,500,000 sheep and goats grazed on the national forests during the fiscal year 1917.] [illustration: figure 76. grazing cattle on a national forest in colorado. permits were issued during 1917 to graze over 2,000,000 cattle, horses, and swine on the national forests.] protective limits are established to protect permittees from reduction in the number of stock which they are allowed to graze under permit below a point where the business becomes too small to be handled at a profit or to contribute its proper share toward the maintenance of a home. the average number of stock which a settler must graze in order to utilize the products of his farm and derive a reasonable profit is determined upon each forest or, if necessary, upon each grazing district thereof, and serves as the basis for the protective limit. protective limits have been established for various forests running from 25 to 300 head of cattle and from 500 to 2,000 head of sheep and goats. increases above the protective limit are allowed only to purchasers of stock and ranches of permit holders and any such increase must not exceed the maximum limit. class a permittees owning a less number of stock than the protective limit are allowed to increase their number gradually. whenever it is found necessary to reduce the number of stock allowed in any national forest, class c stock is excluded before the other classes are reduced. the reduction on a sliding scale is then applied to class b owners. class a owners are exempt from reduction. when new stock owners are allowed the use of national forest range upon a forest already fully stocked, reductions in the number of permitted stock of class b and c owners is made in order to make room for the new man. thus it is seen that the matter of protective limits is actually a protection to the small stock owner; he is protected from the monopoly of the range by big corporations. when necessary to prevent monopoly of the range by large stock owners, the district forester establishes maximum limits in the number of stock for which a permit may be issued to any one person, firm or corporation. _prohibition of grazing._ it often becomes necessary to prohibit all grazing on an area within a national forest or at least to materially reduce the amount of stock which is allowed to graze on a given area. sheep may be excluded from a timber-sale area for a certain number of years after cutting or until the reproduction has become well established. where planting operations are being carried on it is usually necessary to exclude all classes of stock. if investigations show that grazing is responsible for the lack of reproduction over a considerable area, the area or a portion of it may be withdrawn from range use until young growth has become established again. the watersheds of streams supplying water for irrigation, municipal or domestic purposes may be closed to grazing of any or all kinds of domestic stock when necessary to prevent erosion and floods or diminution in water supply. camping grounds required for the accommodation of the public may be closed to the grazing of permitted stock. limited areas which are the natural breeding or feeding grounds of game animals or birds may be closed to grazing. areas within national forests infested seriously by poisonous plants may be closed to grazing. _protection of grazing interests._ the protection of national forest grazing interests is secured by the prevention of overgrazing, by the prevention of damage to roads, trails, or water sources, by the proper bedding of sheep and goats, by the proper disposition of carcasses, by salting the stock and by the proper observation of the national and state live stock and quarantine laws. when an owner, who has a permit, is ready to drive in his stock upon the national forest he must notify the nearest forest officer concerning the number to be driven in. if called upon to do so he must provide for having his stock counted before entering a national forest. each permittee must repair all damage to roads or trails caused by the presence of his stock. sheep and goats are not allowed to be bedded more than three nights in succession in the same place (except during the lambing season) and must not be bedded within 300 yards of any running or living spring. the carcasses of all animals which die on the national forests from contagious or infectious diseases must be burned and are not permitted to lie in the close vicinity of water. in order to facilitate the handling of stock and prevent their straying off their range, they must be salted at regular intervals and at regular places. in order to facilitate the moving of stock by stockmen from their home ranches to their grazing allotments and to minimize the damage of grazing animals to the forests, stock driveways are established over regular routes of travel. special uses all uses of national forest lands and resources permitted by the secretary of agriculture, except those specifically provided for in the regulations covering water power, timber sales, timber settlement, the free use of timber, and grazing, are designated "special uses." among these are the use or occupancy of lands for residences, farms, apiaries, dairies, schools, churches, stores, mills, factories, hotels, sanitariums, summer resorts, telephone and telegraph lines, roads and railways; the occupancy of lands for dams, reservoirs and conduits not used for power purposes; and the use of stone, sand, and gravel. no charge is made for a large number of these permits, some of which are the following: (1) agricultural use by applicants having preference rights under the act of june 11, 1906; (2) schools, churches, and cemeteries; (3) cabins for the use of miners, prospectors, trappers, and stockmen in connection with grazing permits; (4) saw mills sawing principally national forest timber; (5) conduits, and reservoirs for irrigation or mining or for municipal water supply; (6) roads and trails (which must be free public highways); (7) telephone lines and telegraph lines with free use of poles and connections for the forest service. the occupancy and use of national forest land or resources under a special use permit (except those given free of charge) are conditioned upon the payment of a charge and are based upon certain rates. agricultural use of land is given to permittees at a charge of from 25 cents to $1.00 an acre. not over 160 acres are allowed to any one permittee. cabins cost from $3.00 to $5.00; hay cutting from 20 to 50 cents an acre; hotels and roadhouses from $10.00 to $50.00; pastures from 4 to 25 cents per acre; residences covering from one to three acres cost from $5.00 to $25.00; resorts from $10.00 to $50.00; stores from $5.00 to $50.00 for two acres or less; and other uses in proportion. perhaps the use that is purchased most of all on the national forests is that for residences and summer homes. on many of the forests they are already in great demand. a large proportion of the population of the far western states seek the cool and invigorating air of the mountains in the early summer because the heat of the valleys, especially in california, is almost unbearable. there are many desirable pieces of land on the national forests that are being reserved by the forest service especially for this purpose for the people of the neighboring towns. for example, on the angeles national forest in california the supervisor had about 250 suitable sites surveyed in one picturesque canyon and in six months 226 of them were under special use permits as summer homes. a large reservoir--huntington lake--was constructed on the sierra national forest in california as the result of a dam constructed by a hydro-electric power company. immediately there was a keen demand among the residents of san joaquin valley for summer homes on the shores of the lake. in a few years it is expected there will be a permanent summer colony of from 2,000 to 3,000 people. the forest service has already authorized an expenditure of $1,500 in order to furnish an adequate supply of domestic water for the colony. claims and settlement claims can be initiated upon national forest lands under (1) the act of june 11, 1906, (2) under the mining laws, and (3) under the coal land laws. in connection with these claims it is the duty of the forest service to examine them, but the determination of questions involving title is within the jurisdiction of the secretary of the interior. it is the purpose of the forest service to protect the lands of the united states within the national forests from acquisition by those who do not seek them for purposes recognized by law. when it is apparent that an entry or a claim is not initiated in good faith and in compliance with the spirit of the law under which it was asserted, but is believed from the facts to be a subterfuge to acquire title to timber land, or to control range privileges, water, a water-power site, or rights of way; or if it otherwise interferes with the interests of the national forests in any way, the forest service recommends a contest, even if the technical requirements of the law appear to have been fulfilled. it is bad faith, for instance, to hold a mining or agricultural claim primarily for the timber thereon or to acquire a site valuable for water power development. _the national forest homestead act._ at the present time there is very little, if any, fraud connected with the forest homestead act because the land is classified before it is opened to entry. the greater part of the work dealing with fraudulent claims is a relic of the old régime. before the forests were established many homestead and timber and stone entries were made for the purpose of securing valuable timber. a large number of persons resorted to settlement in order to secure the preference right. it was the common custom in those days for land cruisers to locate men on heavily timbered land either before or immediately after survey and before the filing of the plats and the opening of the land to entry. a cabin would be built upon the land and some unsubstantial improvements made. when the national forests were created they contained great numbers of these squatters' cabins. many were abandoned but others attempted to secure title. under the old timber and stone act timber could be secured for $2.50 per acre, but the national forests are not subject to entry under this act. so as a last resort the squatters tried to prove up on the land under the homestead law. when the forests were created the service found a great many of these fraudulent claims on their books, many of which were being brought up annually for patent. between december, 1908, and june 30, 1913, a total of 498 entries for national forest land were canceled in a single administrative district. these entries represented fraudulent efforts to secure title to 85,906 acres of national forest land for speculative purposes, involving nearly a billion feet of merchantable timber. during the fiscal year 1913 alone 300,000,000 board feet of merchantable timber in one district was retained in public ownership primarily because the forest officers brought out the facts. the lands in all cases were covered with heavy stands of timber, very small portions of the land had been cleared, the claimant's residence on the land was not in compliance with the law, seldom was any crop raised on the land, and the claimant in other ways did not carry out the intent of the law. the act of june 11, 1906, known as the national forest homestead act, provides for the acquisition by qualified entrymen of agricultural lands within national forests. the act is in effect an extension of the general provisions of the homestead laws to the agricultural lands within the national forests, with the essential difference that the land must be classified by the secretary of agriculture as chiefly valuable for agriculture. this act authorizes the secretary of agriculture in his discretion to examine and ascertain, upon application or otherwise, the location and extent of lands both surveyed and unsurveyed in the national forests, chiefly valuable for agriculture, which may be occupied for agricultural purposes without injury to the national forests or public interests. he is authorized to list and describe such lands by metes and bounds or otherwise and to file such lists and descriptions with the secretary of the interior for opening to entry in accordance with the provisions of the act. agricultural lands listed by the secretary of agriculture are opened by the secretary of the interior to homestead entry in tracts not exceeding 160 acres at the expiration of 60 days from the filing of the lists in the local land office. notice of the filing of the list is posted in the local land office and is published for a period of not less than four weeks in a local newspaper. the act provides that the person upon whose application the land is examined and listed, if a qualified entryman, shall have the preference right of entry. to exercise this preference right, application to enter must be filed in the local land office within 60 days after the filing of the list in that office. the entryman can perfect his title to the land within a certain period of years by fulfilling certain conditions of residence and cultivation. by the act of june 6, 1912, known as the "three year homestead act," the period of residence necessary to be shown in order to entitle a person to patent under the homestead laws is reduced from 5 to 3 years and the period within which a homestead entry may be completed is reduced from 7 to 5 years. the new law requires the claimant to cultivate not less than 1/16 of the area of his entry beginning with the second year of entry and not less than 1/8 beginning with the third year and until final proof, except that in the case of the enlarged homestead laws, double the areas given are required. on a 160-acre claim, therefore, it is required that 1/8 or 20 acres be under cultivation. a mere breaking of the soil does not meet the requirements of the statute, but such breaking of the soil must be accompanied by planting and sowing of seed and tillage for a crop other than native grasses. the period within which the cultivation should be made is reckoned from the date of the entry. the secretary of the interior, however, is authorized upon a satisfactory showing therefor to reduce the required area of cultivation on account of financial disabilities or misfortunes of the entryman or on account of special physical and climatic conditions of the land which make cultivation difficult. the entryman must establish an actual residence upon the land entered, 6 months after the date of the entry. after the establishment of residence the entryman is permitted to be absent from the land for one continuous period of not more than 5 months in each year following. he must also file at the local land office notice of the beginning of such intended absence. _the mining laws._ mineral deposits within national forests are open to development exactly as on unreserved public land. a prospector can go anywhere he chooses and stake a claim wherever he finds any evidences of valuable minerals. the only restriction is that mining claims must be bona fide ones and not taken up for the purpose of acquiring valuable timber or a town or a water power site, or to monopolize the water supply of a stock range. prospectors may obtain a certain amount of national forest timber free of charge to be used in developing their claims. more than 500 mining claims are patented within the national forests every fiscal year. a good example of mining claims located for fraudulent purposes were those located on the rim and sides of the grand canyon in arizona to prevent the people from gaining free access to the canyon and make them pay to enter it. these claims were shown to be fraudulent since no deposits of any kind were ever found on them. they were canceled by the higher courts and the land reverted to the people. _coal-land laws._ coal lands are mineral lands and as such are subject to entry the same as other mineral lands in the national forests. administrative use of national forest lands lands within national forests may be selected for administrative uses such as supervisor's and ranger's headquarters, gardens, pastures, corrals, planting or nursery sites or rights-of-way. these administrative sites are necessary for the present and probable future requirements of the forest service for fire protection and the transaction of business on the national forests. water power, telephone, telegraph, and power transmission lines along the streams within the national forests are many sites suitable for power development. these are open to occupancy for such purposes and have the advantage of being on streams whose headwaters are protected. the aggregate capacity of the water power sites on the national forests is estimated at 12,000,000 horsepower. [illustration: figure 77. north clear creek falls, rio grande national forest, colorado. the national forests contain about one-third of all the potential water-power resources of the united states.] [illustration: figure 78. the power plant of the colorado power company, on the grand river, holy cross national forest, colorado. every fiscal year there is a substantial increase in water power development on the national forests.] the government does not permit the monopolization of power in any region or allow sites to be held for speculative purposes. the objects of the regulations are to secure prompt and full development and to obtain a reasonable compensation for the use of the land occupied and the beneficial protection given the watershed. permits for power development on the national forests usually run for a term of 50 years and may be renewed at their expiration upon compliance with the regulations then existing. such permits, while granting liberal terms to applicants, contain ample provision for the protection of the public interests. applications for power permits are filed with the district forester of the forest service district in which the desired site is located. preliminary permits are issued to protect an applicant's priority against subsequent applicants until he has had an opportunity to study the proper location and design of the project and to obtain the data necessary for the final application. operation is allowed under the final permit only. the permittee is required to pay an annual rental charge under the preliminary and final power permits and definite periods are specified for the filing of the final application, beginning of construction and of operation. the rental charges are nominal in amount, the maximum being about 1/16 of a cent per kilowatt hour. the amount of annual payment for transmission lines is $5.00 for each mile or fraction thereof if national forest land is crossed by the line. no rental charges are made for small power projects (under 100 horsepower capacity), or for transmission lines used in connection therewith, or for transmission lines which are part of a power project under permit or for any power project in which power is to be used by a municipal corporation for municipal purposes. the secretary of agriculture has authority to permit the use of rights-of-way through the national forests for conduits, reservoirs, power plants, telephone and telegraph lines to be used for irrigation, mining, and domestic purposes and for the production and transmission of electric power. no rental charges are made for the telephone and telegraph rights-of-way, but the applicant must agree to furnish such facilities to forest officers and to permit such reasonable use of its poles or lines as may be determined or agreed upon between the applicant and the district forester. [illustration: figure 79. this is only one of the thousands of streams in the national forests of the west capable of generating electric power. it has been estimated that over 40 per cent. of the water power resources of the western states are included in the national forests. photo by the author.] [illustration: figure 80. view in the famous orange belt of san bernardino county, california. these orchards depend absolutely upon irrigation. the watersheds from which the necessary water comes are in the national forests and are protected by the forest service. some of the smaller watersheds in these mountains are said to irrigate orchards valued at $10,000,000.] appendix table of land areas within the national forest boundaries june 30, 1917 key: dn=district number -------------------+--------------+-----------+-----------+---------- | headquarters | national | patented | total state and | of | forest | and other | area forest | forest | land | lands | (acres) dn | supervisor | (acres) | (acres) | -------------------+--------------+-----------+-----------+---------- alaska | | | | chugach 6 |ketchikan | 5,418,753 | 113,682 | 5,532,435 tongass 6 |ketchikan |15,451,716 | 29,284 | 15,481,000 arizona | | | | apache 3 |springerville | 1,182,782 | 93,618 | 1,276,400 chiricahua[1] 3 |tucson | 348,157 | 10,691 | 358,848 coconino 3 |flagstaff | 1,601,598 | 161,799 | 1,763,397 coronado 3 |tucson | 959,304 | 39,676 | 998,980 crook 3 |safford | 870,130 | 14,870 | 885,000 dixie[1] 4 |st. george, | | | | utah | 17,680 | | 17,680 kaibab 4 |kanab, utah | 1,072,375 | 525 | 1,072,900 manzano[1] 3 |albuquerque, | | | | n. m. | 27,708 | 29,724 | 57,432 prescott 3 |prescott | 1,433,366 | 186,589 | 1,619,955 sitgreaves 3 |snowflake | 659,337 | 234,883 | 893,720 tonto 3 |roosevelt | 1,994,239 | 39,521 | 2,033,760 tusayan 3 |williams | 1,602,750 | 186,068 | 1,788,818 arkansas | | | | arkansas 7 |hot springs | 626,746 | 331,544 | 958,290 ozark 7 |harrison | 291,840 | 237,338 | 529,178 california | | | | angeles 5 |los angeles | 820,980 | 240,723 | 1,061,703 california 5 |oriental | 807,444 | 255,178 | 1,062,622 cleveland 5 |escondido | 547,981 | 265,635 | 813,616 crater[1] 6 |medford, ore. | 46,977 | 10,045 | 57,022 eldorado[1] 5 |placerville | 549,392 | 286,408 | 835,800 inyo[1] 5 |bishop | 1,269,980 | 67,800 | 1,337,780 klamath[1] 5 |yreka | 1,470,841 | 263,824 | 1,734,665 lassen 5 |red bluff | 936,877 | 384,466 | 1,321,343 modoc 5 |alturas | 1,182,986 | 399,873 | 1,532,859 mono[1] 5 |gardnerville, | | | | nev. | 784,620 | 90,241 | 874,861 monterey 5 |king city | 316,058 | 44,436 | 360,494 plumas 5 |quincy | 1,144,835 | 288,025 | 1,432,860 santa barbara 5 |santa barbara | 1,688,571 | 239,723 | 1,928,294 sequoia 5 |bakersfield | 2,194,926 | 274,344 | 2,469,270 shasta 5 |sisson | 803,448 | 783,432 | 1,586,880 sierra 5 |northfork | 1,489,934 | 172,626 | 1,662,560 siskiyou[1] 6 |grants pass, | | | | ore. | 349,069 | 52,726 | 401,795 stanislaus 5 |sonora | 810,399 | 294,013 | 1,104,412 tahoe 5 |nevada city | 542,226 | 666,851 | 1,209,077 trinity 5 |weaverville | 1,430,547 | 315,600 | 1,746,147 colorado | | | | arapaho 2 |hot sulphur | | | | springs | 634,903 | 46,371 | 681,274 battlement 2 |collbran | 651,227 | 26,113 | 677,340 cochetopa 2 |saguache | 905,723 | 24,497 | 930,220 colorado 2 |fort collins | 847,328 | 302,266 | 1,149,594 durango 2 |durango | 614,129 | 89,871 | 704,000 gunnison 2 |gunnison | 908,055 | 43,255 | 951,310 hayden[1] 2 |encampment, | | | | wyo. | 65,598 | 6,402 | 72,000 holy cross 2 |glenwood | | | | springs | 576,905 | 28,795 | 605,700 la sal[1] 4 |moab, utah | 27,444 | 176 | 27,620 leadville 2 |leadville | 934,017 | 122,503 | 1,056,520 montezuma 2 |mancos | 700,082 | 112,018 | 812,100 pike 2 |denver | 1,080,381 | 175,731 | 1,256,112 rio grande 2 |monte vista | 1,136,884 | 84,256 | 1,221,140 routt 2 |steamboat | | | | springs | 833,459 | 86,487 | 919,946 san isabel 2 |westcliffe | 598,912 | 52,288 | 651,200 san juan 2 |pagosa spgs. | 617,995 | 127,005 | 745,000 sopris 2 |aspen | 596,986 | 59,014 | 656,000 uncampahgre 2 |delta | 790,349 | 77,511 | 867,860 white river 2 |meeker | 848,018 | 23,012 | 871,030 florida | | | | florida 7 |pensacola | 308,268 | 367,152 | 675,420 idaho | | | | boise 4 |boise | 1,058,941 | 59,173 | 1,118,114 cache[1] 4 |logan, utah | 513,617 | 31,447 | 545,064 caribou[1] 4 |montpelier | 681,540 | 30,090 | 711,630 challis 4 |challis | 1,259,237 | 10,753 | 1,269,990 clearwater 1 |orofino | 785,103 | 122,743 | 907,846 coeur d'alene | | | | d'alene 1 |coeur d'alene | 662,611 | 127,623 | 790,234 idaho 4 |mccall | 1,193,439 | 15,841 | 1,209,280 kaniksu[1] 1 |newport, | | | | wash. | 198,757 | 260,220 | 458,977 lemhi 4 |mackay | 1,095,924 | 4,638 | 1,100,562 minidoka[1] 4 |oakley | 509,536 | 21,584 | 531,120 nezperce 1 |grangeville | 1,624,582 | 41,497 | 1,666,079 palisade[1] 4 |st. anthony | 283,495 | 9,820 | 293,315 payette 4 |emmett | 831,926 | 31,748 | 863,674 pend oreille 1 |sandpoint | 676,014 | 198,724 | 874,738 st. joe 1 |st. maries | 493,925 | 481,743 | 975,668 salmon 4 |salmon | 1,621,707 | 21,653 | 1,643,360 sawtooth 4 |hailey | 1,203,387 | 16,743 | 1,220,130 selway 1 |kooskia | 1,693,711 | 108,289 | 1,802,000 targhee[1] 4 |st. anthony | 283,495 | 9,820 | 293,315 weiser 4 |weiser | 562,609 | 98,291 | 660,900 michigan | | | | michigan 2 |east tawas | 89,466 | 74,412 | 163,878 minnesota | | | | minnesota 2 |cass lake | 190,602 | 121,874 | 312,476 superior 2 |ely | 857,255 | 411,283 | 1,268,538 montana | | | | absaroka 1 |livingston | 842,467 | 145,243 | 987,710 beartooth 1 |billings | 662,537 | 19,393 | 681,930 beaverhead 1 |dillon | 1,337,223 | 27,777 | 1,365,000 bitterroot 1 |missoula | 1,047,012 | 108,856 | 1,155,868 blackfeet 1 |kalispell | 865,077 | 202,013 | 1,067,090 cabinet 1 |thompson | | | | falls | 830,676 | 195,874 | 1,026,550 custer 1 |miles city | 428,922 | 83,888 | 512,810 deerlodge 1 |anaconda | 833,178 | 130,822 | 964,000 flathead 1 |kalispell | 1,802,905 | 285,815 | 2,088,720 gallatin 1 |bozeman | 564,855 | 344,575 | 909,430 helena 1 |helena | 687,983 | 232,497 | 920,480 jefferson 1 |great falls | 1,039,766 | 135,919 | 1,175,685 kootenai 1 |libby | 1,336,061 | 287,279 | 1,623,340 lewis and | | | | clark 1 |chouteau | 811,161 | 15,199 | 826,360 lolo 1 |missoula | 850,677 | 330,341 | 1,181,018 madison 1 |sheridan | 958,691 | 77,169 | 1,035,860 missoula 1 |missoula | 1,031,529 | 336,662 | 1,368,191 sioux[1] 1 |camp crook, | | | | s. d. | 96,743 | 17,798 | 114,541 nebraska | | | | nebraska 2 |halsey | 206,074 | 11,744 | 217,818 nevada | | | | dixie[1] 4 |st. george, | | | | utah | 282,543 | 7,807 | 290,350 eldorado[1] 5 |placerville, | | | | cal. | 400 | | 400 humboldt 4 |elko | 690,562 | 35,978 | 726,546 inyo[1] 5 |bishop, cal. | 72,817 | 2,513 | 75,330 mono[1] 5 |gardnerville | 464,315 | 19,204 | 483,519 nevada 4 |ely | 1,220,929 | 39,871 | 1,260,800 ruby 4 |elko | 342,405 | 91,165 | 433,570 santa rosa 4 |elko | 269,658 | 30,302 | 299,960 tahoe[1] 5 |nevada city, | | | | cal. | 14,853 | 47,274 | 62,127 toiyabe 4 |austin | 1,907,286 | 17,514 | 1,924,800 new mexico | | | | alamo 3 |alamogordo | 603,779 | 269,877 | 866,656 carson 3 |taos | 856,647 | 68,654 | 925,301 chiricahua[1] 3 |tucson, ariz. | 126,478 | 2,674 | 129,152 datil 3 |magdalena | 2,670,412 | 270,790 | 2,941,202 gila 3 |silver city | 1,463,708 | 136,292 | 1,600,000 lincoln 3 |alamogordo | 551,427 | 81,540 | 632,967 manzano[1] 3 |albuquerque | 754,772 | 488,007 | 1,242,779 santa fé 3 |santa fe | 1,354,545 | 122,148 | 1,476,693 north dakota | | | | dakota 1 |camp crook, | | | | s. d. | 6,054 | 7,866 | 13,920 oklahoma | | | | wichita 7 |cache | 61,480 | 160 | 61,640 oregon | | | | cascade 6 |eugene | 1,021,461 | 73,024 | 1,094,485 crater[1] 6 |medford | 793,044 | 286,281 | 1,079,325 deschutes 6 |bend | 1,292,423 | 217,437 | 1,509,860 fremont 6 |lakeview | 884,494 | 86,782 | 971,366 klamath[1] 5 |yreka, cal. | 4,401 | 4,492 | 8,893 malheur 6 |john day | 1,057,682 | 205,158 | 1,262,840 minam 6 |baker | 430,757 | 49,056 | 479,813 ochoco 6 |prineville | 716,564 | 102,466 | 819,030 oregon 6 |portland | 1,031,926 | 108,994 | 1,140,920 santiam 6 |albany | 607,099 | 112,884 | 719,983 siskiyou[1] 6 |grants pass | 998,044 | 257,206 | 1,255,250 siuslaw 6 |eugene | 544,178 | 289,263 | 833,441 umatilla 6 |pendleton | 485,786 | 79,199 | 564,985 umpqua 6 |roseburg | 1,011,097 | 210,294 | 1,221,391 wallowa 6 |wallowa | 964,601 | 104,810 | 1,069,411 wenaha 6 |walla walla, | | | | wash. | 425,504 | 36,540 | 461,954 whitman 6 |sumpter | 884,485 | 115,008 | 999,493 porto rico | | | | luquillo 7 |none | 12,443 | 53,507 | 65,950 south dakota | | | | black hills[1] 2 |deadwood | 483,403 | 118,608 | 602,011 harney 2 |custer | 548,854 | 79,093 | 627,947 sioux[1] 1 |camp crook | 75,524 | 7,744 | 83,268 utah | | | | ashley[1] 4 |vernal | 982,493 | 9,607 | 992,100 cache[1] 4 |logan | 265,594 | 53,987 | 319,581 dixie[1] 4 |st. george | 432,784 | 26,106 | 458,890 fillmore 4 |ritchfield | 699,579 | 79,711 | 779,290 fishlake 4 |salina | 661,245 | 62,145 | 723,390 la sal[1] 4 |moab | 519,384 | 16,286 | 535,670 manti 4 |ephraim | 781,800 | 65,070 | 846,870 minidoka[1] 4 |oakley, idaho | 72,123 | 20,157 | 92,280 powell 4 |escalante | 689,927 | 14,773 | 704,700 sevier 4 |panguitch | 729,061 | 73,599 | 802,660 uinta 4 |provo | 988,602 | 54,533 | 1,043,135 wasatch 4 |salt lake city| 607,492 | 56,913 | 664,405 washington | | | | chelan 6 |chelan | 677,429 | 46,681 | 724,110 columbia 6 |portland, ore.| 784,498 | 157,702 | 942,200 colville 6 |republic | 754,886 | 61,114 | 816,000 kaniksu[1] 1 |newport | 257,859 | 118,904 | 376,763 okanogan 6 |okanogan | 1,486,325 | 54,675 | 1,541,000 olympic 1 |olympia | 1,534,689 | 117,311 | 1,652,000 rainier 6 |tacoma | 1,315,891 | 245,579 | 1,561,470 snoqualmie 6 |seattle | 698,043 | 343,957 | 1,042,000 washington 6 |bellingham | 1,454,214 | 35,786 | 1,490,000 wenaha[1] 6 |walla walla | 313,434 | 8,397 | 321,831 wenatchee 6 |leavenworth | 665,276 | 491,724 | 1,157,000 wyoming | | | | ashley[1] 4|vernal, utah | 5,987 | 73 | 6,060 bighorn 2|sheridan | 1,119,725 | 16,475 | 1,136,200 black hills[1] 2|deadwood, s.d.| 144,759 | 34,362 | 179,121 bridger 2|pinedale | 710,570 | 7,407 | 717,977 caribou[1] 4|montpelier, | | | | idaho | 6,547 | 813 | 7,360 hayden[1] 2|encampment | 322,175 | 43,445 | 365,620 medicine bow 2|laramie | 469,786 | 41,596 | 511,382 palisade[1] 4|st. anthony, | | | | idaho | 250,501 | 3,119 | 253,620 shoshone 2|cody | 1,576,043 | 32,957 | 1,609,000 targhee[1] 4|st. anthony, | | | | idaho | 84,970 | 480 | 85,450 teton 4|jackson | 1,922,947 | 48,245 | 1,971,192 washakie 2|lander | 852,653 | 12,220 | 864,873 wyoming 4|afton | 899,980 | 12,020 | 912,000 | | | aggregate for the 147 national | | | forests |155,166,619|21,085,541 |176,252,160 ----------------------------------+-----------+-----------+---------- [1] area of national forest in more than one state. printed in the united states of america * * * * * transcriber's notes: simple typographical errors were corrected. punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed. this text uses both 'uncampahgre' and 'uncompahgre'; the latter currently is the preferred spelling. page 55 "sunlight; without it is useless." probably should be "sunlight; without it, it is useless." wood and forest _by_ william noyes, m.a. formerly assistant professor of industrial arts teachers college, columbia university new york city [illustration] the manual arts press peoria, illinois copyright william noyes 1912 _fifth edition, 1921_ _printed in united states of america_ foreword this book has been prepared as a companion volume to the author's _handwork in wood_.[1] it is an attempt to collect and arrange in available form useful information, now widely scattered, about our common woods, their sources, growth, properties and uses. as in the other volume, the credit for the successful completion of the book is to be given to my wife, anna gausmann noyes, who has made the drawings and maps, corrected the text, read the proof, and carried the work thru to its final completion. acknowledgments are hereby thankfully made for corrections and suggestions in the text to the following persons: mr. a. d. hopkins, of the united states department of agriculture, bureau of entomology, for revision of the text relating to insect enemies of the forest, in chapter vi. mr. george g. hedgcock, of the united states bureau of agriculture, bureau of plant industry, for revision of the text relating to the fungal enemies of the forest, in chapter vi. mr. s. t. dana and mr. burnett barrows, of the united states department of agriculture, forest service, for revision of chapters iv, v, vi, vii, and viii. professor charles r. richards, formerly head of the manual training department of teachers college, my predecessor as lecturer of the course out of which this book has grown. professor m. a. bigelow, head of the department of botany of teachers college, for revision of chapter i, on the structure of wood. mr. romeyn b. hough, of lowville, n. y., author of _american woods_ and _handbook of the trees of the northern states and canada_, for suggestions in preparing the maps in chapter iii. the forest service, washington, d. c., for photographs and maps credited to it, and for permission to reprint the key to the identification of woods which appears in forest service bulletin no. 10, _timber_, by filibert roth. the division of publications, u. s. department of agriculture, for permission to copy illustrations in bulletins. the macmillan company, new york, for permission to reproduce fig. 86, portion of the mycelium of dry rot, from _timber and some of its diseases_, by h. m. ward. mrs. katharine golden bitting, of lafayette, indiana, for the photograph of the cross-section of a bud, figure 5. finally and not least i hereby acknowledge my obligations to the various writers and publishers whose books and articles i have freely used. as far as possible, appropriate credit is given in the paged references at the end of each chapter. [footnote 1: william noyes, _handwork in wood_, peoria, ill. the manual arts press, 231 pp., $2.] contents. chapter page general bibliography 4 i the structure of wood 9 ii properties of wood 41 iii the principal species of american woods 57 iv the distribution and composition of the north american forests 197 v the forest organism 211 vi natural enemies of the forest 229 vii the exhaustion of the forest 251 viii the use of the forest 271 appendix 289 index 304 general bibliography apgar, a. g., _trees of the northern united states_. n. y.: american book co., 224 pp. a small book dealing with the botany of trees, giving descriptions of their essential organs, and particularly valuable for the leaf key to the trees. it should be supplemented by keeler or hough's handbook. baterden, j. r., _timber_. n. y.: d. van nostrand co., 1908, 351 pp. a description of the timbers of various countries, discussion of timber defects, timber tests, etc. bitting, k. g., _the structure of wood_. _wood craft_, 5: 76, 106, 144, 172, june-sept., '06. a very scholarly and valuable series of articles on wood structure and growth. excellent microphotographs. britton, nathaniel lord, _north american trees_. n. y.: henry holt & co., 1908, 894 pp. a description of all the kinds of trees growing independently of cultivation in north america, north of mexico, and the west indies. the standard botany of trees. boulger, g. s., _wood_. london: edward arnold, 369 pp. a thoro discussion of wood structure, with chapters on the recognition and classification of woods, defects, preservation, uses, tests, supplies, and sources of wood. good illustrations. bruce, e. s., _frost checks and wind shakes_. _forestry and irrigation_, 8: 159, april, '02. an original study of the splitting of trees by sudden frost and thaw. bruncken, ernest, _north american forests and forestry_. n. y.: g. p. putnam's sons. 265 pp. a comprehensive survey of american forestry conditions including the forest industries, fires, taxation, and management. no illustrations. busbridge, harold, _the shrinkage and warping of timber_. _sci. amer. suppl._, no. 1500, oct. 1, 1904. good photographic illustrations. comstock, j. h. and a. b., _a manual for the study of insects_. ithaca, n. y.: comstock publishing co., 701 pp. valuable for reference in classifying insects injurious to wood. curtis, carleton c., _nature and development of plants_. n. y.: henry holt & co., 1907, 471 pp. chapter iii is a very clear and excellent discussion of the structure of the stem of plants (including wood). encyclopedia brittannica, eleventh edition, cambridge: at the university press. article: _forests and forestry_, vol. 10, p. 645. article: _plants_, anatomy of, vol. 21, p. 741. article: _timber_ vol. 26, p. 978. felt, e. p., _the gypsy and brown tail moths_. n. y. state museum: bulletin 103, entomology, 25. valuable for colored illustrations as well as for detailed descriptions. fernow, b. e., _economics of forestry_. n. y.: t. y. crowell & co. 1902, quarto 520 pp. a treatment of forests and forestry from the standpoint of economics, including a comprehensive exposition of the forester's art, with chapters on forest conditions, silviculture, forest policies, and methods of business conduct, with a bibliography. fernow, b. e., _report upon the forestry investigation of the u. s. department of agriculture_, 1887-1898. fifty-fifth congress, house of representatives, document no. 181. quarto, 401 pp. a review of forests and forestry in the u. s., of forest policies of european nations, particularly of germany, of the principles of silviculture, of a discussion of forest influences, and a section on timber physics. harwood, w. s., _the new earth_. n. y.: the macmillan co., 1906. 378 pp. a recital of the triumphs of modern agriculture. chap. x on modern forestry, describes what has been done in different states in conservative lumbering. hough, romeyn b., _american woods_. lowville, n. y.: the author. an invaluable collection in eleven volumes (boxes) of sections of 275 species of american woods. there are three sections of each species, cross, radial, and tangential, mounted in cardboard panels. accompanied by a list of descriptions and analytical keys. hough, romeyn b., _handbook of the trees of the northern states and canada_. lowville, n. y.: the author. 470 pp. a unique, elegant, and sumptuously illustrated book, with photographs of tree, trunk, leaf, fruit, bud, and sometimes wood, a map of the habitat of each species, and a full and careful description of tree and wood. intended for botanists, foresters and lumbermen. johnson, j. b., _the materials of construction_. n. y.: john wiley & sons. 1898. 775 pp. chapter xiii is identical with forestry bulletin x, roth's _timber_. keeler, harriet, _our native trees_. n. y.: scribner's. 1900. 533 pp. a very attractive and popular book showing great familiarity with the common trees and love of them. numerous photographs and drawings. lounsberry, alice, _a guide to the trees_. n. y.: frederick a. stokes co. 313 pp. a popular description of some 200 common trees, with plentiful illustrations. pinchot, gifford, _a primer of forestry_. parts i and ii, u. s. dept. of agric. for. serv. bull. no. 24. 88 pp. and 88 pp. a concise, clear, and fully illustrated little manual of forestry conditions, forest enemies, forestry principles and practice abroad and in the u. s. pinchot, gifford. _the adirondack spruce._ n. y.: g. p. putnam's sons. a technical account of the author's investigations on a forest estate in northern new york. price, o. w., _saving the southern forests_. _world's work_, 5: 3207, march, '03. a plea for conservative lumbering; excellent illustrations. record, samuel j., _characterization of the grain and texture of wood_. woodcraft, 15: 3, june, 1911. roth, filibert, _a first book of forestry_. boston: ginn & co. 291 pp. a book for young people, giving in an interesting form many valuable facts about american forests and their care and use. it includes a leaf key to the trees. sargent, charles sprague, _forest trees of north america_. u. s. 10th census, vol. 9. quarto, 612 pp. part i deals with the distribution of the forests, and gives a catalog and description of the forest trees of north america, exclusive of mexico. part ii. tables of properties of the woods of the u. s. part iii. the economic aspects of the forests of the u. s. considered geographically, and maps showing distributions and densities. exceedingly valuable. sargent, charles sprague, _jesup collection, the woods of the u. s._ n. y.: d. appleton & co., 203 pp. a detailed description of the jesup collection of north american woods in the american museum of natural history, n. y. city, with valuable tables as to strength, elasticity, hardness, weight, etc. condensed from vol. ix of 10th u. s. census. sargent, charles sprague, _manual of the trees of north america_. boston: houghton, mifflin & co. 826 pp. a compact mine of information, with some errors, about the known trees of north america and their woods, summarized from sargent's larger work, "the silva of north america." (see below.) sargent, charles sprague, _the silva of north america_. boston: houghton, mifflin co. a monumental and sumptuous work of 14 quarto volumes, describing in great detail all the known trees of north america and their woods, with beautiful line drawings of leaves and fruits. shaler, nathaniel s., _the united states of america_. vol. 1, pp. 485-517. n. y.: d. appleton & co. chapter ix is a popular description of american forests and the lumber industry. snow, chas. henry, _the principal species of wood_. n. y.: john wiley & sons. 203 pp. descriptions and data regarding the economically important varieties of wood, with excellent photographs of trees and woods. strasburger, noll, schenck, and schimper. _a text book of botany._ n. y.: macmillan & co. 746 pp. valuable for minute information about the morphology of wood. u. s. tenth census, vol. ix. see sargent. u. s. department of agriculture, _forest service bulletins_. the character of these government pamphlets is well indicated by their titles. no. 10 is an exceedingly valuable summary of the facts about the structure and properties of wood, contains the best available key to identification of common american woods (not trees) and a concise description of each. it is incorporated, as chap. xiii, in johnson's, "_the materials for construction_." n. y.: john wiley & sons. nos. 13 and 22 are large monographs containing much valuable information. no. 10. filibert roth, _timber_. no. 13. charles mohr, _the timber pines of the southern united states_. no. 15. frederick v. coville, _forest growth and sheep grazing in the cascade mountains of oregon_. no. 16. filibert roth, _forestry conditions in wisconsin_. no. 17. george b. sudworth, _check list of the forest trees of the united states_, 1898. no. 18. charles a. keffer, _experimental tree planting on the plains_. no. 22. v. m. spalding and f. h. chittenden, _the white pine_. no. 24. gifford pinchot, _a primer of forestry_. no. 26. henry s. graves, _practical forestry in the adirondacks_. no. 41. herman von schrenck, _seasoning of timber_. no. 45. harold b. kempton, _the planting of white pine in new england_. no. 52. royal s. kellogg, _forest planting in western kansas_. no. 61. _terms used in forestry and logging_. no. 65. george l. clothier, _advice for forest planters in oklahoma and adjacent regions_. no. 74. r. s. kellogg and h. m. hale, _forest products of the u. s._, 1905. u. s. department of agriculture, _forest service circulars_. no. 3. george william hill, _publications for sale_. no. 25. gifford pinchot, _the lumberman and the forester_. no. 26. h. m. suter, _forest fires in the adirondacks in 1903_. no. 36. the forest service: _what it is, and how it deals with forest problems_. also _classified list of publications and guide to their contents_. no. 37. _forest planting in the sand hill region of nebraska_. no. 40. h. b. holroyd, _the utilization of tupelo_. no. 41. s. n. spring, _forest planting on coal lands in western pennsylvania_. no. 45. frank g. miller, _forest planting in eastern nebraska_. no. 81. r. s. kellogg, _forest planting in illinois_. no. 97. r. s. kellogg, _timber supply of the united states_. no. 153. a. h. pierson, _exports and imports of forest products, 1907_. u. s. department of agriculture year books for: 1896. filibert roth, _the uses of wood_. 1898, p. 181. gifford pinchot, _notes on some forest problems_. 1899, p. 415. henry s. graves, _the practice of forestry by private owners_. 1900, p. 199. hermann von schrenck, _fungous diseases of forest trees_. 1902, p. 145. william l. hall, _forest extension in the middle west_. 1902, p. 265. a. d. hopkins, _some of the principal insect enemies of coniferous forests in the united states_. 1902, p. 309. overton, w. price, _influence of forestry on the lumber supply_. 1903, p. 279. james w. toumey, _the relation of forests to stream flow_. 1903, p. 313. a. d. hopkins, _insect injuries to hardwood forest trees_. 1904, p. 133. e. a. sterling, _the attitude of lumbermen toward forest fires_. 1904, p. 381. a. d. hopkins, _insect injuries to forest products_. 1905, p. 455. henry grinell, _prolonging the life of telephone poles_. 1905, p. 483. j. grivin peters, _waste in logging southern yellow pine_. 1905, p. 636. quincy r. craft, _progress of forestry in 1905_. 1907, p 277. raphael zon and e. h. clapp, _cutting timber in the national forests_. u. s. department of agriculture, division of entomology bulletins: no. 11. n. s. l. o. howard, _the gypsy moth in america_. no. 28. a. d. hopkins, _insect enemies of the spruce in the northeast_. no. 32. n. s. a. d. hopkins, _insect enemies of the pine in the black hills forest reserve_. no. 48. a. d. hopkins, _catalog of exhibits of insect enemies of forest and forest products at the louisiana purchase exposition, st. louis, mo._, 1904. no. 56. a. d. hopkins, _the black hills beetle_. no. 58. part 1, a. d. hopkins, _the locust borer_. no. 58. part ii, j. l. webb, _the western pine destroying bark beetle_. u. s. department of agriculture, bureau of plant industry, bulletins: no. 32. herman von schrenck, _a disease of the white ash caused by polyporus fraxinophilus_, 1903. no. 36. hermann von schrenck, _the "bluing" and "red rot" of the western yellow pine_, 1903. _report of the commissioner of corporations on the lumber industry_, part i, _standing timber_, february, 1911. the latest and most reliable investigation into the amount and ownership of the forests of the united states. ward, h. marshall, _timber and some of its diseases_. london: macmillan & co., 295 pp. an english book that needs supplementing by information on american wood diseases, such as is included in the list of government publications given herewith. the book includes a description of the character, structure, properties, varieties, and classification of timbers. chapter i. the structure of wood. when it is remembered that the suitability of wood for a particular purpose depends most of all upon its internal structure, it is plain that the woodworker should know the essential characteristics of that structure. while his main interest in wood is as lumber, dead material to be used in woodworking, he can properly understand its structure only by knowing something of it as a live, growing organism. to facilitate this, a knowledge of its position in the plant world is helpful. all the useful woods are to be found in the highest sub-kingdom of the plant world, the flowering plants or phanerogamia of the botanist. these flowering plants are to be classified as follows: { i. gymnosperms. (naked seeds.) { 1. cycadaceae. (palms, ferns, etc.) { 2. gnetaceae. (joint firs.) { 3. conifers. pines, firs, etc. phanerogamia, { ii. angiosperms. (fruits.) (flowering plants) { 1. monocotyledons. (one seed-leaf.) { (palms, bamboos, grasses, etc.) { 2. dicotyledons. (two seed-leaves.) { a. herbs. { b. broad-leaved trees. under the division of naked-seeded plants (gymnosperms), practically the only valuable timber-bearing plants are the needle-leaved trees or the conifers, including such trees as the pines, cedars, spruces, firs, etc. their wood grows rapidly in concentric annual rings, like that of the broad-leaved trees; is easily worked, and is more widely used than the wood of any other class of trees. of fruit-bearing trees (angiosperms), there are two classes, those that have one seed-leaf as they germinate, and those that have two seed-leaves. the one seed-leaf plants (monocotyledons) include the grasses, lilies, bananas, palms, etc. of these there are only a few that reach the dimensions of trees. they are strikingly distinguished by the structure of their stems. they have no cambium layer and no distinct bark and pith; they have unbranched stems, which as a rule do not increase in diameter after the first stages of growth, but grow only terminally. instead of having concentric annual rings and thus growing larger year by year, the woody tissue grows here and there thru the stem, but mostly crowded together toward the outer surfaces. even where there is radial growth, as in yucca, the structure is not in annual rings, but irregular. these one seed-leaf trees (monocotyledons) are not of much economic value as lumber, being used chiefly "in the round," and to some extent for veneers and inlays; _e.g._, cocoanut-palm and porcupine wood are so used. the most useful of the monocotyledons, or endogens, ("inside growers," as they are sometimes called,) are the bamboos, which are giant members of the group of grasses, fig. 1. they grow in dense forests, some varieties often 70 feet high and 6 inches in diameter, shooting up their entire height in a single season. bamboo is very highly valued in the orient, where it is used for masts, for house rafters, and other building purposes, for gutters and water-pipes and in countless other ways. it is twice as strong as any of our woods. under the fruit-bearing trees (angiosperms), timber trees are chiefly found among those that have two seed-leaves (the dicotyledons) and include the great mass of broad-leaved or deciduous trees such as chestnut, oak, ash and maple. it is to these and to the conifers that our principal attention will be given, since they constitute the bulk of the wood in common use. the timber-bearing trees, then, are the: (1) conifers, the needle-leaved, naked-seeded trees, such as pine, cedar, etc. fig. 45, p. 199. (2) endogens, which have one seed-leaf, such as bamboos, fig. 1. (3) broad-leaved trees, having two seed-leaves, such as oak, beech, and elm. fig. 48, p. 202. the common classifications of trees are quite inaccurate. many of the so-called deciduous (latin, _deciduus_, falling off) trees are evergreen, such as holly, and, in the south, live oak, magnolia and cherry. so, too, some of the alleged "evergreens," like bald cypress and tamarack, shed their leaves annually. [illustration: fig. 1. a bamboo grove, kioto, japan.] not all of the "conifers" bear cones. for example, the juniper bears a berry. the ginko, fig. 2, tho classed among the "conifers," the "evergreens," and the "needle-leaf" trees, bears no cones, has broad leaves and is deciduous. it has an especial interest as being the sole survivor of many species which grew abundantly in the carboniferous age. [illustration: fig. 2. ginko leaf.] also, the terms used by lumbermen, "hard woods" for broad-leaved trees and "soft woods" for conifers, are still less exact, for the wood of some broad-leaved trees, as bass and poplar, is much softer than that of some conifers, as georgia pine and lignum vitae. another classification commonly made is that of "endogens" (inside growers) including bamboos, palms, etc., and exogens (outside growers) which would include both conifers and broad-leaved trees. one reason why so many classifications have come into use is that none of them is quite accurate. a better one will be explained later. see p. 23. as in the study of all woods three sections are made, it is well at the outset to understand clearly what these are. the sections of a tree made for its study are (fig. 3): (1) transverse, a plane at right angles to the organic axis. (2) radial, a longitudinal plane, including the organic axis. [illustration: fig. 3. a. a, b, c, d, transverse section. b, d, e, f, radial section. g, h, i, j, tangential section. b. a, b, c, transverse section. a, b, d, e, radial section. b, c, e, f, tangential section. ] (3) tangential, a longitudinal plane not including the organic axis. if a transverse section of the trunk of a conifer or of a broad-leaved tree is made, it is to be noted that it consists of several distinct parts. see fig. 4. these, beginning at the outside, are: (1) rind or bark (a) cortex (b) bast (2) cambium (3) wood (a) sap-wood (b) heart-wood (4) pith. [illustration: fig. 4. diagram of cross-section of three year old stem of basswood.] (1) the rind or _bark_ is made up of two layers, the outer of which, the "cortex," is corky and usually scales or pulls off easily; while the inner one is a fibrous coat called "bast" or "phloem." together they form a cone, widest, thickest, and roughest at the base and becoming narrower toward the top of the tree. the cortex or outer bark serves to protect the stem of the tree from extremes of heat and cold, from atmospheric changes, and from the browsing of animals. it is made up of a tough water-proof layer of cork which has taken the place of the tender skin or "epidermis" of the twig. because it is water-proof the outside tissue is cut off from the water supply of the tree, and so dries up and peels off, a mass of dead matter. the cork and the dead stuff together are called the bark. as we shall see later, the cork grows from the inside, being formed in the inner layers of the cortex, the outer layers of dry bark being thus successively cut off. the characteristics of the tree bark are due to the positions and kinds of tissue of these new layers of cork. each tree has its own kind of bark, and the bark of some is so characteristic as to make the tree easily recognizable. bark may be classified according to formation and method of separation, as scale bark, which detaches from the tree in plates, as in the willows; membraneous bark, which comes off in ribbons and films, as in the birches; fibrous bark, which is in the form of stiff threads, as in the grape vine; and fissured bark, which breaks up in longitudinal fissures, showing ridges, grooves and broad, angular patches, as in oak, chestnut and locust. the last is the commonest form of bark. the bark of certain kinds of trees, as cherry and birch, has peculiar markings which consist of oblong raised spots or marks, especially on the young branches. these are called lenticels (latin _lenticula_, freckle), and have two purposes: they admit air to the internal tissues, as it were for breathing, and they also emit water vapor. these lenticels are to be found on all trees, even where the bark is very thick, as old oaks and chestnuts, but in these the lenticels are in the bottoms of the deep cracks. there is a great difference in the inflammability of bark, some, like that of the big trees of california, fig. 54, p. 209, which is often two feet thick, being practically incombustible, and hence serving to protect the tree; while some bark, as canoe birch, is laden with an oil which burns furiously. it therefore makes admirable kindling for camp fires, even in wet weather. inside the cork is the "phloem" or "bast," which, by the way, gives its name to the bass tree, the inner bark of which is very tough and fibrous and therefore used for mat and rope making. in a living tree, the bast fibers serve to conduct the nourishment which has been made in the leaves down thru the stem to the growing parts. (2) the _cambium_. inside of the rind and between it and the wood, there is, on living trees, a slimy coat called cambium (med. latin, exchange). this is the living, growing part of the stem, familiar to all who have peeled it as the sticky, slimy coat between the bark and the wood of a twig. this is what constitutes the fragrant, mucilaginous inner part of the bark of slippery elm. cambium is a tissue of young and growing cells, in which the new cells are formed, the inner ones forming the wood and the outer ones the bark. in order to understand the cambium and its function, consider its appearance in a bud, fig. 5. a cross-section of the bud of a growing stem examined under the microscope, looks like a delicate mesh of thin membrane, filled in with a viscid semi-fluid substance which is called "protoplasm" (greek, _protos_, first; _plasma_, form). these meshes were first called "cells" by robert hooke, in 1667, because of their resemblance to the chambers of a honeycomb. the walls of these "cells" are their most prominent feature and, when first studied, were supposed to be the essential part; but later the slimy, colorless substance which filled the cells was found to be the essential part. this slimy substance, called protoplasm, constitutes the primal stuff of all living things. the cell walls themselves are formed from it. these young cells, at the apex of a stem, are all alike, very small, filled with protoplasm, and as yet, unaltered. they form embryonic tissue, _i.e._ one which will change. one change to which an cell filled with protoplasm is liable is division into two, a new partition wall forming within it. this is the way plant cells increase. [illustration: fig. 5. young stem, magnified 18-1/2 diameters, showing primary and secondary bundles. _by courtesy of mrs. katharine golden bitting._ e, epidermis, the single outside layer of cells. c, cortex, the region outside of the bundles. hb, hard bast, the black, irregular ring protecting the soft bast. sb, soft bast, the light, crescent-shaped parts. ca, cambium, the line between the soft bast and the wood. w, wood, segments showing pores. mr, medullary rays, lines between the bundles connecting the pith and the cortex. ms, medullary sheath, the dark, irregular ring just inside the bundles. p, pith, the central mass of cells.] in young plant cells, the whole cavity of the chamber is filled with protoplasm, but as the cells grow older and larger, the protoplasm develops into different parts, one part forming the cell wall and in many cases leaving cavities within the cell, which become filled with sap. the substance of the cell wall is called cellulose (cotton and flax fibers consist of almost pure cellulose). at first it has no definite structure, but as growth goes on, it may become thickened in layers, or gummy, or hardened into lignin (wood), according to the function to be performed. where there are a group of similar cells performing the same functions, the group is called a tissue or, if large enough, a tissue system. when cells are changed into new forms, or "differentiated," as it is called, they become permanent tissues. these permanent tissues of the tree trunk constitute the various parts which we have noticed, viz., the rind, the pith and the wood. the essentially living part of the tree, it should be remembered, is the protoplasm: where there is protoplasm, there is life and growth. in the stems of the conifers and broad-leaved trees--sometimes together called exogens--this protoplasm is to be found in the buds and in the cambium sheath, and these are the growing parts of the tree. if we followed up the sheath of cambium which envelopes a stem, into a terminal bud, we should find that it passed without break into the protoplasm of the bud. in the cross-section of a young shoot, we might see around the central pith or medulla, a ring of wedge-shaped patches. these are really bundles of cells running longitudinally from the rudiments of leaves thru the stem to the roots. they are made of protoplasm and are called the "procambium strands," fig. 6. [illustration: fig. 6. three stages in the development of an exogenous stem. p, pith; pb, primary bast; sb, secondary bast; c, cambium; pr, pith ray; pw, primary wood; sw, secondary wood; ps, procambium strands. _after boulger._] in the monocotyledons (endogens) these procambium strands change completely into wood and bast, and so losing all their protoplasmic cambium, become incapable of further growth. this is why palms can grow only lengthwise, or else by forming new fibers more densely in the central mass. but in the conifers and broad-leaved trees, the inner part of each strand becomes wood and the outer part bast (bark). between these bundles, connecting the pith in the center with the cortex on the outside of the ring of bundles, are parts of the original pith tissue of the stem. they are the primary pith or medullary rays (latin, _medulla_, pith). the number of medullary rays depends upon the number of the bundles; and their form, on the width of the bundles, so that they are often large and conspicuous, as in oak, or small and indeed invisible, as in some of the conifers. but they are present in all exogenous woods, and can readily be seen with the microscope. stretching across these pith rays from the cambium layer in one procambium strand to that in the others, the cambium formation extends, making a complete cylindrical sheath from the bud downward over the whole stem. this is the cambium sheath and is the living, growing part of the stem from which is formed the wood on the inside and the rind (bark) on the outside. in the first year the wood and the bast are formed directly by the growth and change of the inner and outer cells respectively of the procambium strand, and all such material is called "primary;" but in subsequent years all wood, pith rays, and bast, originate in the cambium, and these growths are called "secondary." [illustration: fig. 7. sap-wood and heart-wood, lignum vitae.] (3) the _wood_ of most exogens is made up of two parts, a lighter part called the sap-wood or splint-wood or alburnum, and a darker part called the heart-wood or duramen, fig. 7. sap-wood is really immature heartwood. the difference in color between them is very marked in some woods, as in lignum vitae and black walnut, and very slight in others, as spruce and bass. indeed, some species never form a distinct heart-wood, birch (_betula alba_) being an example. in a living tree, sap-wood and heart-wood perform primarily quite different functions. the sap-wood carries the water from the roots to the leaves, stores away starch at least in winter, and in other ways assists the life of the tree. the proportional amount of sapwood varies greatly, often, as in long-leaf pine, constituting 40 per cent. of the stem. as the sap-wood grows older, its cells become choked so that the sap can no longer flow thru them. it loses its protoplasm and starch and becomes heartwood, in which all cells are dead and serve only the mechanical function of holding up the great weight of the tree and in resisting wind pressures. this is the reason why a tree may become decayed and hollow and yet be alive and bear fruit. in a tree that is actually dead the sap-wood rots first. chemical substances infiltrate into the cell walls of heart-wood and hence it has a darker color than the sap-wood. persimmon turns black, walnut purplish brown, sumac yellow, oak light brown, tulip and poplar yellowish, redwood and cedar brownish red. many woods, as mahogany and oak, darken under exposure, which shows that the substances producing the color are oxidizable and unstable. wood dyes are obtained by boiling and distilling such woods as sumach, logwood, red sanders, and fustic. many woods also acquire distinct odors, as camphor, sandalwood, cedar, cypress, pine and mahogany, indicating the presence of oil. as a rule heart-wood is more valuable for timber, being harder, heavier, and drier than sap-wood. in woods like hickory and ash, however, which are used for purposes that require pliability, as in baskets, or elasticity as in handles of rakes and hoes, sap-wood is more valuable than heart-wood. in a transverse section of a conifer, for example douglas spruce, fig. 8, the wood is seen to lie in concentric rings, the outer part of the ring being darker in color than the inner part. in reality each of these rings is a section of an irregular hollow cone, each cone enveloping its inner neighbor. each cone ordinarily constitutes a year's growth, and therefore there is a greater number of them at the base of a tree than higher up. these cones vary greatly in _thickness_, or, looking at a cross-section, the rings vary in _width_; in general, those at the center being thicker than those toward the bark. variations from year to year may also be noticed, showing that the tree was well nourished one year and poorly nourished another year. rings, however, do not always indicate a year's growth. "false rings" are sometimes formed by a cessation in the growth due to drouth, fire or other accident, followed by renewed growth the same season. [illustration: fig. 8. section of douglas fir, showing annual rings and knots at center of trunk. _american museum of natural history, n. y._] in a radial section of a log, fig. 8, these "rings" appear as a series of parallel lines and if one could examine a long enough log these lines would converge, as would the cut edges in a nest of cones, if they were cut up thru the center, as in fig. 9. [illustration: fig. 9. diagram of radial section of log (exaggerated) showing annual cones of growth.] in a tangential section, the lines appear as broad bands, and since almost no tree grows perfectly straight, these lines are wavy, and give the characteristic pleasing "grain" of wood. fig. 27, p. 35. the annual rings can sometimes be discerned in the bark as well as in the wood, as in corks, which are made of the outer bark of the cork oak, a product of southern europe and northern africa. fig. 10. [illustration: fig. 10. annual rings in bark (cork).] the growth of the wood of exogenous trees takes place thru the ability, already noted, of protoplasmic cells to divide. the cambium cells, which have very thin walls, are rectangular in shape, broader tangentially than radially, and tapering above and below to a chisel edge, fig. 11. after they have grown somewhat radially, partition walls form across them in the longitudinal, tangential direction, so that in place of one initial cell, there are two daughter cells radially disposed. each of these small cells grows and re-divides, as in fig. 12. finally the innermost cell ceases to divide, and uses its protoplasm to become thick and hard wood. in like manner the outermost cambium cell becomes bast, while the cells between them continue to grow and divide, and so the process goes on. in nearly all stems, there is much more abundant formation of wood than of bast cells. in other words, more cambium cells turn to wood than to bast. [illustration: fig. 11. diagram showing grain of spruce highly magnified. pr, pith rays; bp, bordered pits; sp w, spring wood; sw, summer wood; cc, overlapping of chisel shaped ends.] [illustration: fig. 12. diagram showing the mode of division of the cambium cells. the cambium cell is shaded to distinguish it from the cells derived from it. note in the last division at the right that the inner daughter cell becomes the cambium cell while the outer cell develops into a bast cell. _from curtis: nature and development of plants._] in the spring when there is comparatively little light and heat, when the roots and leaves are inactive and feeble, and when the bark, split by winter, does not bind very tightly, the inner cambium cells produce radially wide wood cells with relatively thin walls. these constitute the spring wood. but in summer the jacket of bark binds tightly, there is plenty of heat and light, and the leaves and roots are very active, so that the cambium cells produce thicker walled cells, called summer wood. during the winter the trees rest, and no development takes place until spring, when the large thin-walled cells are formed again, making a sharp contrast with those formed at the end of the previous season. it is only at the tips of the branches that the cambium cells grow much in length; so that if a nail were driven into a tree twenty years old at, say, four feet from the ground, it would still be four feet from the ground one hundred years later. looking once more at the cross-section, say, of spruce, the inner portion of each ring is lighter in color and softer in texture than the outer portion. on a radial or tangential section, one's finger nail can easily indent the inner portion of the ring, tho the outer dark part of the ring may be very hard. the inner, light, soft portion of the ring is the part that grows in the spring and early summer, and is called the "spring wood" while the part that grows later in the season is called "summer wood." as the summer wood is hard and heavy, it largely determines the strength and weight of the wood, so that as a rule, the greater the proportion of the summer growth, the better the wood. this can be controlled to some extent by proper forestry methods, as is done in european larch forests, by "underplanting" them with beech. in a normal tree, the summer growth forms a greater proportion of the wood formed during the period of thriftiest growth, so that in neither youth nor old age, is there so great a proportion of summer wood as in middle age. it will help to make clear the general structure of wood if one imagines the trunk of a tree to consist of a bundle of rubber tubes crushed together, so that they assume angular shapes and have no spaces between them. if the tubes are laid in concentric layers, first a layer which has thin walls, then successive layers having thicker and thicker walls, then suddenly a layer of thin-walled tubes and increasing again to thick-walled ones and so on, such an arrangement would represent the successive annual "rings" of conifers. _the medullary rays._ while most of the elements in wood run longitudinally in the log, it is also to be noted that running at right angles to these and radially to the log, are other groups of cells called pith rays or medullary rays (latin, _medulla_, which means pith). these are the large "silver flakes" to be seen in quartered oak, which give it its beautiful and distinctive grain, fig. 32, p. 38. they appear as long, grayish lines on a cross-section, as broad, shining bands on the radial section, and as short, thick lines tapering at each end on the tangential section. in other words, they are like flat, rectangular plates standing on edge and radiating lengthwise from the center of the tree. they vary greatly in size in different woods. in sycamore they are very prominent, fig. 13. in oak they are often several hundred cells wide (_i.e._, up and down in the tree). this may amount to an inch or two. they are often twenty cells thick, tapering to one cell at the edge. in oak very many are also small, even microscopic. but in the conifers and also in some of the broad-leaved trees, altho they can be discerned with the naked eye on a split radial surface, still they are all very small. in pine there are some 15,000 of them to a square inch of a tangential section. they are to be found in all exogens. in a cross-section, say of oak, fig. 14, it can readily be seen that some pith rays begin at the center of the tree and some farther out. those that start from the pith are formed the first year and are called primary pith rays, while those that begin in a subsequent year, starting at the cambium of that year, are called secondary rays. [illustration: fig. 13. tangential section of sycamore, magnified 37 diameters. note the large size of the pith rays, a, a (end view).] the function of the pith rays is twofold. (1) they transfer formative material from one part of a stem to another, communicating with both wood and bark by means of the simple and bordered pits in them, and (2) they bind the trunk together from pith to bark. on the other hand their presence makes it easier for the wood to split radially. the substance of which they are composed is "parenchyma" (greek, _beside_, to _pour_), which also constitutes the pith, the rays forming a sort of connecting link between the first and last growth of the tree, as the cambium cells form new wood each year. [illustration: fig. 14 cross-section of white oak. the radiating white lines are the pith rays.] if a cambium cell is opposite to a pith ray, it divides crosswise (transversely) into eight or ten cells one above another, which stretch out radially, retaining their protoplasm, and so continue the pith ray. as the tree grows larger, new, or secondary medullary rays start from the cambium then active, so that every year new rays are formed both thinner and shorter than the primary rays, fig. 14. now suppose that laid among the ordinary thin-walled tubes were quite large tubes, so that one could tell the "ring" not only by the thin walls but by the presence of large tubes. that would represent the ring-porous woods, and the large tubes would be called vessels, or _tracheã¦_. suppose again that these large tubes were scattered in disorder thru the layers. this arrangement would represent the diffuse-porous woods. by holding up to the light, thin cross-sections of spruce or pine, fig. 15, oak or ash, fig. 16, and bass or maple, fig. 17, these three quite distinct arrangements in the structure may be distinguished. this fact has led to the classification of woods according to the presence and distribution of "pores," or as they are technically called, "vessels" or "tracheae." by this classification we have: (1) _non-porous_ woods, which comprise the conifers, as pine and spruce. (2) _ring-porous_ woods, in which the pores appear (in a cross-section) in concentric rings, as in chestnut, ash and elm. (3) _diffuse-porous_ woods, in which (in a cross-section) the rings are scattered irregularly thru the wood, as in bass, maple and yellow poplar. in order to fully understand the structure of wood, it is necessary to examine it still more closely thru the microscope, and since the three classes of wood, non-porous, ring-porous and diffuse-porous, differ considerably in their minute structure, it is well to consider them separately, taking the simplest first. [illustration: fig. 15. cross-section of non-porous wood, white pine, full size (top toward pith).] _non-porous woods._ in examining thru the microscope a transverse section of white pine, fig. 18: (1) the most noticeable characteristic is the regularity of arrangement of the cells. they are roughly rectangular and arranged in ranks and files. (2) another noticeable feature is that they are arranged in belts, the thickness of their walls gradually increasing as the size of the cells diminishes. then the large thin-walled cells suddenly begin again, and so on. the width of one of these belts is the amount of a single year's growth, the thin-walled cells being those that formed in spring, and the thick-walled ones those that formed in summer, the darker color of the summer wood as well as its greater strength being caused by there being more material in the same volume. [illustration: fig. 16. cross-section of ring-porous wood, white ash, full size (top toward pith).] [illustration: fig. 17. cross-section of diffuse-porous wood, hard maple, full size (top toward pith).] (3) running radially (up and down in the picture) directly thru the annual belts or rings are to be seen what looks like fibers. these are the pith or medullary rays. they serve to transfer formative material from one part of the stem to another and to bind the tree together from pith to bark. (4) scattered here and there among the regular cells, are to be seen irregular gray or yellow dots which disturb the regularity of the arrangement. these are _resin ducts_. (see cross-section of white pine, fig. 18.) they are not cells, but openings between cells, in which the resin, an excretion of the tree, accumulates, oozing out when the tree is injured. at least one function of resin is to protect the tree from attacks of fungi. looking now at the radial section, fig. 18: (5) the first thing to notice is the straightness of the long cells and their overlapping where they meet endwise, like the ends of two chisels laid together, fig. 11. (6) on the walls of the cells can be seen round spots called "pits." these are due to the fact that as the cell grows, the cell walls thicken, except in these small spots, where the walls remain thin and delicate. the pit in a cell wall always coincides with the pit in an adjoining cell, there being only a thin membrane between, so that there is practically free communication of fluids between the two cells. in a cross-section the pit appears as a canal, the length of which depends upon the thickness of the walls. in some cells, the thickening around the pits becomes elevated, forming a border, perforated in the center. such pits are called bordered pits. these pits, both simple and bordered, are waterways between the different cells. they are helps in carrying the sap up the tree. (7) the pith rays are also to be seen running across and interwoven in the other cells. it is to be noticed that they consist of several cells, one above another. in the tangential section, fig. 18: (8) the straightness and overlapping of the cells is to be seen again, and (9) the numerous ends of the pith rays appear. in a word, the structure of coniferous wood is very regular and simple, consisting mainly of cells of one sort, the pith rays being comparatively unnoticeable. this uniformity is what makes the wood of conifers technically valuable. [illustration: fig. 18.] the cells of conifers are called tracheids, meaning "like _tracheã¦_." they are cells in which the end walls persist, that is, are not absorbed and broken down when they meet end to end. in other words, conifers do not have continuous pores or vessels or "_tracheã¦_," and hence are called "non-porous" woods. but in other woods, the ends of some cells which meet endwise are absorbed, thus forming a continuous series of elements which constitute an open tube. such tubes are known as pores, or vessels, or "tracheã¦," and sometimes extend thru the whole stem. besides this marked difference between the porous and non-porous woods, the porous woods are also distinguished by the fact that instead of being made up, like the conifers of cells of practically only one kind, namely tracheids, they are composed of several varieties of cells. besides the tracheae and tracheids already noted are such cells as "wood fiber," "fibrous cells," and "parenchyma." fig. 19. wood fiber proper has much thickened lignified walls and no pits, and its main function is mechanical support. fibrous cells are like the wood fibers except that they retain their protoplasm. parenchyma is composed of vertical groups of short cells, the end ones of each group tapering to a point, and each group originates from the transverse division of one cambium cell. they are commonly grouped around the vessels (tracheã¦). parenchyma constitutes the pith rays and other similar fibers, retains its protoplasm, and becomes filled with starch in autumn. [illustration: fig. 19. isolated fibers and cells. _a_, four cells of wood parenchyma; _b_, two cells from a pith ray; _c_, a single cell or joint of a vessel, the openings, x, x, leading into its upper and lower neighbors; _d_, tracheid; _e_, wood fiber proper. _after roth._] the most common type of structure among the broad-leaved trees contains tracheã¦, trachã¦ids, woody fiber, fibrous cells and parenchyma. examples are poplars, birch, walnut, linden and locust. in some, as ash, the tracheids are wanting; apple and maple have no woody fiber, and oak and plum no fibrous cells. this recital is enough to show that the wood of the broad-leaved trees is much more complex in structure than that of the conifers. it is by means of the number and distribution of these elements that particular woods are identified microscopically. see p. 289. [illustration: fig. 20.] _ring-porous woods._ looking thru the microscope at a cross-section of ash, a ring-porous wood, fig. 20: (1) the large round or oval pores or vessels grouped mostly in the spring wood first attract attention. smaller ones, but still quite distinct, are to be seen scattered all thru the wood. it is by the number and distribution of these pores that the different oak woods are distinguished, those in white oak being smaller and more numerous, while in red oak they are fewer and larger. it is evident that the greater their share in the volume, the lighter in weight and the weaker will be the wood. in a magnified cross-section of some woods, as black locust, white elm and chestnut, see chap. iii, beautiful patterns are to be seen composed of these pores. it is because of the size of these pores and their great number that chestnut is so weak. (2) the summer wood is also distinguishable by the fact that, as with the conifers, its cells are smaller and its cell walls thicker than those of the spring wood. the summer wood appears only as a narrow, dark line along the largest pores in each ring. (3) the lines of the pith rays are very plain in some woods, as in oak. no. 47, chap. iii. (4) the irregular arrangement and (5) complex structure are evident, and these are due to the fact that the wood substance consists of a number of different elements and not one (tracheids) as in the conifers. looking at the radial section, fig. 20: (6) if the piece is oak, the great size of the medullary rays is most noticeable. fig. 32, p. 38. they are often an inch or more wide; that is, high, as they grow in the tree. in ash they are plain, seen thru the microscope, but are not prominent. (7) the interweaving of the different fibers and the variety of their forms show the structure as being very complex. in the tangential section, fig. 20: (8) the pattern of the grain is seen to be marked not so much by the denseness of the summer wood as by the presence of the vessels (pores). (9) the ends of the pith rays are also clear. in _diffuse porous woods_, the main features to be noticed are: in the transverse section, fig. 21: (1) the irregularity with which the pores are scattered, (2) the fine line of dense cells which mark the end of the year's growth, (3) the radiating pith rays, (4) the irregular arrangement and, (5) the complex structure. in the radial section, fig. 21: (6) the pith rays are evident. in sycamore, no. 53, chap. iii, they are quite large. (7) the interweaving of the fibers is to be noted and also their variety. in the tangential section, fig. 21: (8) the grain is to be traced only dimly, but the fibers are seen to run in waves around the pith rays. (9) the pith rays, the ends of which are plainly visible. [illustration: fig. 21.] the grain of wood. the term "grain" is used in a variety of meanings which is likely to cause confusion. this confusion may be avoided, at least in part, by distinguishing between grain and texture, using the word grain to refer to the arrangement or direction of the wood elements, and the word texture to refer to their size or quality, so far as these affect the structural character of the wood. hence such qualifying adjectives as coarse and fine, even and uneven, straight and cross, including spiral, twisted, wavy, curly, mottled, bird's-eye, gnarly, etc., may all be applied to grain to give it definite meaning, while to texture the proper modifying adjectives are coarse and fine, even and uneven. usually the word grain means the pattern or "figure" formed by the distinction between the spring wood and the summer wood. if the annual rings are wide, the wood is, in common usage, called "coarse grained," if narrow, "fine grained," so that of two trees of the same species, one may be coarse grained and the other fine grained, depending solely on the accident of fast or slow growth. the terms coarse grain and fine grain are also frequently used to distinguish such ring-porous woods as have large prominent pores, like chestnut and ash, from those having small or no pores, as cherry and lignum vitae. a better expression in this case would be coarse and fine textured. when such coarse textured woods are stained, the large pores in the spring wood absorb more stain than the smaller elements in the summer wood, and hence the former part appears darker. in the "fine grained" (or better, fine textured,) woods the pores are absent or are small and scattered, and the wood is hard, so that they are capable of taking a high polish. this indicates the meaning of the words coarse and fine in the mind of the cabinet-maker, the reference being primarily to texture. if the elements of which a wood are composed are of approximately uniform size, it would be said to have a uniform texture, as in white pine, while uniform grain would mean, that the elements, tho of varying sizes, were evenly distributed, as in the diffuse-porous woods. the term "grain" also refers to the regularity of the wood structure. an ideal tree would be composed of a succession of regular cones, but few trees are truly circular in cross-section and even in those that are circular, the pith is rarely in the center, showing that one side of the tree, usually the south side, is better nourished than the other, fig. 14, p. 23. the normal direction of the fibers of wood is parallel to the axis of the stem in which they grow. such wood is called "straight-grained," fig. 22, but there are many deviations from this rule. whenever the grain of the wood in a board is, in whole or in part, oblique to the sides of the board, it is called "cross-grained." an illustration of this is a bend in the fibers, due to a bend in the whole tree or to the presence of a neighboring knot. this bend makes the board more difficult to plane. in many cases, probably in more cases than not, the wood fibers twist around the tree. (see some of the logs in fig. 107, p. 254.) this produces "spiral" or "twisted" grain. [illustration: fig. 22. straight grained long-leaf pine (full size).] often, as in mahogany and sweet gum, the fibers of several layers twist first in one direction and then those of the next few layers twist the other way, fig. 24. such wood is peculiarly cross-grained, and is of course hard to plane smooth. but when a piece is smoothly finished the changing reflection of light from the surface gives a beautiful appearance, which can be enhanced by staining and polishing. it constitutes the characteristic "grain" of striped mahogany, fig. 23. it is rarely found in the inner part of the tree. [illustration: fig. 23. mahogany, showing alternately twisted grain (full size).] [illustration: fig. 24. spiral grain in cypress. _after roth._] sometimes the grain of wood is "cross," because it is "wavy" either in a radial or a tangential section, as in maple, fig. 25, and fig. 26. [illustration: fig. 25. planed surface of wavy-grained maple (full size).] [illustration: fig. 26. split surface of wavy-grained maple (full size).] "curly grain" refers to the figure of circlets and islets and contours, often of great beauty, caused by cutting a flat surface in crooked-grained wood. see fig. 27, curly long-leaf pine, and fig. 28, yellow poplar. when such crookedness is fine and the fibers are contorted and, as it were, crowded out of place, as is common in and near the roots of trees, the effect is called "burl," fig. 29. the term burl is also used to designate knots and knobs on tree trunks, fig. 31. burl is used chiefly in veneers. [illustration: fig. 27. curly grained long-leaf pine (full size).] [illustration: fig. 28. curly yellow poplar (full size).] [illustration: fig. 29. redwood burl (full size).] [illustration: fig. 30. bird's-eye maple (full size.)] [illustration: fig. 31. burl on white oak.] irregularity of grain is often caused by the presence of adventitious and dormant buds, which may be plainly seen as little knobs on the surface of some trees under the bark. in most trees, these irregularities are soon buried and smoothed over by the successive annual layers of wood, but in some woods there is a tendency to preserve the irregularities. on slash (tangent) boards of such wood, a great number of little circlets appear, giving a beautiful grain, as in "bird's-eye maple," fig. 30. these markings are found to predominate in the inner part of the tree. this is not at all a distinct variety of maple, as is sometimes supposed, but the common variety, in which the phenomenon frequently appears. logs of great value, having bird's-eyes, have often unsuspectingly been chopped up for fire wood. the term "grain" may also mean the "figure" formed by the presence of pith rays, as in oak, fig. 32, or beech, or the word "grain" may refer simply to the uneven deposit of coloring matter as is common in sweet gum, fig. 33, black ash, or circassian walnut. [illustration: fig. 32. figure formed by pith rays in oak (full size).] [illustration: fig. 33. sweet gum, showing uneven deposit of coloring matter (full size.)] the presence of a limb constitutes a knot and makes great irregularity in the grain of wood, fig. 34. in the first place, the fibers on the upper and lower sides of the limb behave differently, those on the lower side running uninterruptedly from the stem into the limb, while on the upper side the fibers bend aside making an imperfect connection. consequently to split a knot it is always necessary to start the split from the lower side. on the other hand it is easier to split around a knot than thru it. the texture as well as the grain of wood is modified by the presence of a branch. the wood in and around a knot is much harder than the main body of the trunk on account of the crowding together of the elements. knots are the remnants of branches left in the trunk. these once had all the parts of the trunk itself, namely bark, cambium, wood, and pith. normally, branches grow from the pith, tho some trees, as jack pine and redwood, among the conifers, and most of the broad-leaf trees have the power of putting out at any time adventitious buds which may develop into branches. when a branch dies, the annual layer of wood no longer grows upon it, but the successive layers of wood on the trunk itself close tighter and tighter around it, until it is broken off. then, unless it has begun to decay, it is successively overgrown by annual layers, so that no sign of it appears until the trunk is cut open. a large trunk perfectly clean of branches on the outside may have many knots around its center, remnants of branches which grew there in its youth, as in fig. 34, and fig. 8, p. 18. the general effect of the presence of a knot is, that the fibers that grow around and over it are bent, and this, of course, produces crooked grain. following are the designations given to different knots by lumbermen: a _sound_ knot is one which is solid across its face and is as hard as the wood surrounding it and fixed in position. a _pin_ knot is sound, but not over 1/4" in diameter. a _standard_ knot is sound, but not over 1-1/2" in diameter. a _large_ knot is sound, and over 1-1/2" in diameter. a _spike_ knot is one sawn in a lengthwise position. a _dead_, or, _loose_ knot is one not firmly held in place by growth or position. (4) _pith._ at the center or axis of the tree is the pith or _medulla_, fig. 34. in every bud, that is, at the apex of every stem and branch, the pith is the growing part; but as the stem lengthens and becomes overgrown by successive layers of wood the pith loses its vital function. it does not grow with the plant except at the buds. it varies in thickness, being very small,--hardly more than 1/16", in cedar and larch,--and so small in oak as to be hardly discernible; and what there is of it turns hard and dark. in herbs and shoots it is relatively large, fig. 5, p. 15, in a three-year old shoot of elder, for example, being as wide as the wood. in elder, moreover, it dies early and pulverizes, leaving the stem hollow. its function is one of only temporary value to the plant. [illustration: fig. 34. section thru the trunk of a seven year old tree, showing relation of branches to main stem. a, b, two branches which were killed after a few years' growth by shading, and which have been overgrown by the annual rings of wood; c, a limb which lived four years, then died and broke off near the stem, leaving the part to the left of xy a "sound" knot, and the part to the right a "dead" knot, which unless rotting sets in, would in time be entirely covered by the growing trunk; d, a branch that has remained alive and has increased in size like the main stem; p, p, pith of both stem and limb.] the structure of wood. references:[a] roth, _forest bull._ no. 10, pp. 11-23. boulger, pp. 1-39. sickles, pp. 11-20. pinchot, _forest bull._ no. 24, i, pp. 11-24. keeler, pp. 514-517. curtis, pp. 62-85. woodcraft, 15: 3, p. 90. bitting, _wood craft_, 5: 76, 106, 144, 172, (june-sept. 1906). ward, pp. 1-38. _encyc. brit._, 11th ed., "plants," p. 741. strasburger, pp. 120-144 and part ii, sec. ii. snow, pp. 7-9, 183. [footnote a: for general bibliography, see p. 4.] chapter ii. properties of wood. there are many properties of wood,--some predominant in one species, some in another,--that make it suitable for a great variety of uses. sometimes it is a combination of properties that gives value to a wood. among these properties are hygroscopicity, shrinkage, weight, strength, cleavability, elasticity, hardness, and toughness. the hygroscopicity[1] of wood. it is evident that water plays a large part in the economy of the tree. it occurs in wood in three different ways: in the sap which fills or partly fills the cavities of the wood cells, in the cell walls which it saturates, and in the live protoplasm, of which it constitutes 90 per cent. the younger the wood, the more water it contains, hence the sap-wood contains much more than the heart-wood, at times even twice as much. in fresh sap-wood, 60 per cent. of the water is in the cell cavities, 35 per cent. in the cell walls, and only 5 per cent. in the protoplasm. there is so much water in green wood that a sappy pole will soon sink when set afloat. the reason why there is much less water in heart-wood is because its cells are dead and inactive, and hence without sap and without protoplasm. there is only what saturates the cell walls. even so, there is considerable water in heart-wood.[2] the lighter kinds have the most water in the sap-wood, thus sycamore has more than hickory. curiously enough, a tree contains about as much water in winter as in summer. the water is held there, it is supposed, by capillary attraction, since the cells are inactive, so that at all times the water in wood keeps the cell walls distended. the shrinkage of wood. when a tree is cut down, its water at once begins to evaporate. this process is called "seasoning."[a] in drying, the free water within the cells keeps the cell walls saturated; but when all the free water has been removed, the cell walls begin to yield up their moisture. water will not flow out of wood unless it is forced out by heat, as when green wood is put on a fire. ordinarily it evaporates slowly. [footnote a: see _handwork in wood_, chapter iii.] the water evaporates faster from some kinds of wood than from other kinds, _e.g._, from white pine than from oak, from small pieces than from large, and from end grain than from a longitudinal section; and it also evaporates faster in high than in low temperatures. evaporation affects wood in three respects, weight, strength, and size. the weight is reduced, the strength is increased, and shrinkage takes place. the reduction in weight and increase in strength, important as they are, are of less importance than the shrinkage, which often involves warping and other distortions. the water in wood affects its size by keeping the cell walls distended. if all the cells of a piece of wood were the same size, and had walls the same thickness, and all ran in the same direction, then the shrinkage would be uniform. but, as we have seen, the structure of wood is not homogeneous. some cellular elements are large, some small, some have thick walls, some thin walls, some run longitudinally and some (the pith rays) run radially. the effects will be various in differently shaped pieces of wood but they can easily be accounted for if one bears in mind these three facts: (1) that the shrinkage is in the cell wall, and therefore (2) that the thick-walled cells shrink more than thin-walled cells and (3) that the cells do not shrink much, if any, lengthwise. (1) the shrinkage of wood takes place in the walls of the cells that compose it, that is, the cell walls become thinner, as indicated by the dotted lines in fig. 35, which is a cross-section of a single cell. the diameter of the whole cell becomes less, and the opening, or lumen, of the cell becomes larger. [illustration: fig. 35. how cell walls shrink.] (2) thick-walled cells shrink more than thin-walled cells, that is, summer cells more than spring cells. this is due to the fact that they contain more shrinkable substance. the thicker the wall, the more the shrinkage. consider the effects of these changes; ordinarily a log when drying begins to "check" at the end. this is to be explained thus: inasmuch as evaporation takes place faster from a cross than from a longitudinal section, because at the cross-section all the cells are cut open, it is to be expected that the end of a piece of timber, fig. 36, a, will shrink first. this would tend to make the end fibers bend toward the center of the piece as in b, fig. 36. but the fibers are stiff and resist this bending with the result that the end splits or "checks" as in c, fig. 36. but later, as the rest of the timber dries out and shrinks, it becomes of equal thickness again and the "checks" tend to close. [illustration: fig. 36. the shrinkage and checking at the end of a beam.] (3) for some reason, which has not been discovered, the cells or fibers of wood do not shrink in length to any appreciable extent. this is as true of the cells of pith rays, which run radially in the log, as of the ordinary cells, which run longitudinally in it. in addition to "checking" at the end, logs ordinarily show the effect of shrinkage by splitting open radially, as in fig. 37. this is to be explained by two factors, (1) the disposition of the pith (or medullary) rays, and (2) the arrangement of the wood in annual rings. [illustration: fig. 37. the shrinkage and splitting of a log.] (1) the cells of the pith rays, as we have seen in chapter i, run at right angles to the direction of the mass of wood fibers, and since they shrink according to the same laws that other cells do, viz., by the cell wall becoming thinner but not shorter, the strain of their shrinkage is contrary to that of the main cells. the pith rays, which consist of a number of cells one above the other, tend to shrink parallel to the length of the wood, and whatever little longitudinal shrinkage there is in a board is probably due mostly to the shrinkage of the pith rays. but because the cells of pith rays do not appreciably shrink in their length, this fact tends to prevent the main body of wood from shrinking radially, and the result is that wood shrinks less radially than tangentially. tangentially is the only way left for it to shrink. the pith rays may be compared to the ribs of a folding fan, which keep the radius of unaltered length while permitting comparative freedom for circumferential contraction. (2) it is evident that since summer wood shrinks more than spring wood, this fact will interfere with the even shrinkage of the log. consider first the tangential shrinkage. if a section of a single annual ring of green wood of the shape a b c d, in fig. 38, is dried and the mass shrinks according to the thickness of the cell walls, it will assume the shape a' b' c' d'. when a number of rings together shrink, the tangential shrinkage of the summer wood tends to contract the adjoining rings of spring wood more than they would naturally shrink of themselves. since there is more of the summer-wood substance, the spring-wood must yield, and the log shrinks circumferentially. the radial shrinkage of the summer-wood, however, is constantly interrupted by the alternate rows of spring-wood, so that there would not be so much radial as circumferential shrinkage. as a matter of fact, the tangential or circumferential shrinkage is twice as great as the radial shrinkage. [illustration: fig. 38. diagram to show the greater shrinkage of summer cells, a, b, than of spring cells, c, d.] putting these two factors together, namely, the lengthwise resistance of the pith rays to the radial shrinkage of the mass of other fibers, and second, the continuous bands of summer wood, comparatively free to shrink circumferentially, and the inevitable happens; the log splits. if the bark is left on and evaporation hindered, the splits will not open so wide. there is still another effect of shrinkage. if, immediately after felling, a log is sawn in two lengthwise, the radial splitting may be largely avoided, but the flat sides will tend to become convex, as in fig. 39. this is explained by the fact that circumferential shrinkage is greater than radial shrinkage. [illustration: fig. 39. shrinkage of a halved log.] if a log is "quartered,"[a] the quarters split still less, as the inevitable shrinkage takes place more easily. the quarters then tend to assume the shape shown in fig. 40, c. if a log is sawed into timber, it checks from the center of the faces toward the pith, fig. 40, d. sometimes the whole amount of shrinkage may be collected in one large split. when a log is slash-sawed, fig. 40, i, each board tends to warp so that the concave side is away from the center of the tree. if one plank includes the pith, fig. 40, e and h, that board will become thinner at its edges than at its center, _i.e._, convex on both faces. other forms assumed by wood in shrinking are shown in fig. 40. in the cases a-f the explanation is the same; the circumferential shrinkage is more than the radial. in j and k the shapes are accounted for by the fact that wood shrinks very little longitudinally. [footnote a: see _handwork in wood_, p. 42.] [illustration: fig. 40. shapes assumed by wood in shrinking.] warping is uneven shrinkage, one side of the board contracting more than the other. whenever a slash board warps under ordinary conditions, the convex side is the one which was toward the center of the tree. however, a board may be made to warp artificially the other way by applying heat to the side of the board toward the center of the tree, and by keeping the other side moist. the board will warp only sidewise; lengthwise it remains straight unless the treatment is very severe. this shows again that water distends the cells laterally but not longitudinally. the thinning of the cell walls due to evaporation, is thus seen to have three results, all included in the term "working," viz.: _shrinkage_, a diminution in size, _splitting_, due to the inability of parts to cohere under the strains to which they are subjected, and _warping_, or uneven shrinkage. in order to neutralize warping as much as possible in broad board structures, it is common to joint the board with the annual rings of each alternate board curving in opposite directions, as shown in _handwork in wood_, fig. 280, _a_, p. 188. under warping is included bowing. bowing, that is, bending in the form of a bow, is, so to speak, longitudinal warping. it is largely due to crookedness or irregularity of grain, and is likely to occur in boards with large pith rays, as oak and sycamore. but even a straight-grained piece of wood, left standing on end or subjected to heat on one side and dampness on the other, will bow, as, for instance a board lying on the damp ground and in the sun. [illustration: fig. 41. _a_, star shakes; _b_, heart shakes; _c_, cup shakes or ring shakes; _d_, honeycombing.] splitting takes various names, according to its form in the tree. "check" is a term used for all sorts of cracks, and more particularly for a longitudinal crack in timber. "shakes" are splits of various forms as: _star shakes_, fig. 41, _a_, splits which radiate from the pith along the pith rays and widen outward; _heart shakes_, fig. 41, _b_, splits crossing the central rings and widening toward the center; and _cup_ or _ring shakes_, fig. 41, _c_, splits between the annual rings. _honeycombing_, fig. 41, _d_, is splitting along the pith rays and is due largely to case hardening. these are not all due to shrinkage in drying, but may occur in the growing tree from various harmful causes. see p. 232. wood that has once been dried may again be swelled to nearly if not fully its original size, by being soaked in water or subjected to wet steam. this fact is taken advantage of in wetting wooden wedges to split some kinds of soft stone. the processes of shrinking and swelling can be repeated indefinitely, and no temperature short of burning, completely prevents wood from shrinking and swelling. rapid drying of wood tends to "case harden" it, _i.e._, to dry and shrink the outer part before the inside has had a chance to do the same. this results in checking separately both the outside and the inside, hence special precautions need to be taken in the seasoning of wood to prevent this. when wood is once thoroly bent out of shape in shrinking, it is very difficult to straighten it again. woods vary considerably in the amounts of their shrinkage. the conifers with their regular structure shrink less and shrink more evenly than the broad-leaved woods.[3] wood, even after it has been well seasoned, is subject to frequent changes in volume due to the varying amount of moisture in the atmosphere. this involves constant care in handling it and wisdom in its use. these matters are considered in _handwork in wood_, chapter iii, on the seasoning of wood. the weight of wood. wood substance itself is heavier than water, as can readily be proved by immersing a very thin cross-section of pine in water. since the cells are cut across, the water readily enters the cavities, and the wood being heavier than the water, sinks. in fact, it is the air enclosed in the cell cavities that ordinarily keeps wood afloat, just as it does a corked empty bottle, altho glass is heavier than water. a longitudinal shaving of pine will float longer than a cross shaving for the simple reason that it takes longer for the water to penetrate the cells, and a good sized white pine log would be years in getting water-soaked enough to sink. as long as a majority of the cells are filled with air it would float. in any given piece of wood, then, the weight is determined by two factors, the amount of wood substance and the amount of water contained therein. the amount of wood substance is constant, but the amount of water contained is variable, and hence the weight varies accordingly. moreover, considering the wood substance alone, the weight of wood substance of different kinds of wood is about the same; namely, 1.6 times as heavy as water, whether it is oak or pine, ebony or poplar. the reason why a given bulk of some woods is lighter than an equal bulk of others, is because there are more thin-walled and air-filled cells in the light woods. many hard woods, as lignum vitae, are so heavy that they will not float at all. this is because the wall of the wood cells is very thick, and the lumina are small. in order, then, to find out the comparative weights of different woods, that is, to see how much wood substance there is in a given volume of any wood, it is necessary to test absolutely dry specimens. the weight of wood is indicated either as the weight per cubic foot or as specific gravity. it is an interesting fact that different parts of the same tree have different weights, the wood at the base of the tree weighing more than that higher up, and the wood midway between the pith and bark weighing more than either the center or the outside.[4] the weight of wood has a very important bearing upon its use. a mallet-head, for example, needs weight in a small volume, but it must also be tough to resist shocks, and elastic so as to impart its momentum gradually and not all at once, as an iron head does. weight is important, too, in objects of wood that are movable. the lighter the wood the better, if it is strong enough. that is why spruce is valuable for ladders; it is both light and strong. chestnut would be a valuable wood for furniture if it were not weak, especially in the spring wood. the weight of wood is one measure of its strength. heavy wood is stronger than light wood of the same kind, for the simple reason that weight and strength are dependent upon the number and compactness of the fibers.[5] the strength of wood. strength is a factor of prime importance in wood. by strength is meant the ability to resist stresses, either of tension (pulling), or of compression (pushing), or both together, cross stresses. when a horizontal timber is subjected to a downward cross stress, the lower half is under tension, the upper half is under compression and the line between is called the neutral axis, fig. 42. [illustration: fig. 42. a timber under cross stress, showing neutral axis, and the lines of tension and compression. a knot occurring in such a timber should be in the upper half, as at a.] wood is much stronger than is commonly supposed. a hickory bar will stand more strain under tension than a wrought iron bar of the same length and weight, and a block of long-leaf pine a greater compression endwise than a block of wrought iron of the same height and weight. it approaches the strength of cast iron under the same conditions. strength depends on two factors: the strength of the individual fibers, and the adhesive power of the fibers to each other. so, when a piece of wood is pulled apart, some of the fibers break and some are pulled out from among their neighbors. under compression, however, the fibers seem to act quite independently of each other, each bending over like the strands of a rope when the ends are pushed together. as a consequence, we find that wood is far stronger under tension than under compression, varying from two to four times. woods do not vary nearly so much under compression as under tension, the straight-grained conifers, like larch and longleaf pine, being nearly as strong under compression as the hard woods, like hickory and elm, which have entangled fibers, whereas the hard woods are nearly twice as strong as the conifers under tension. moisture has more effect on the strength of wood than any other extrinsic condition. in sound wood under ordinary conditions, it outweighs all other causes which affect strength. when thoroly seasoned, wood is two or three times stronger, both under compression and in bending, than when green or water soaked.[6] the tension or pulling strength of wood is much affected by the direction of the grain, a cross-grained piece being only 1/10th to 1/20th as strong as a straight-grained piece. but under compression there is not much difference; so that if a timber is to be subjected to cross strain, that is the lower half under tension and the upper half under compression, a knot or other cross-grained portion should be in the upper half. [illustration: fig. 43. shearing strength is measured by the adhesion of the portion a, b, c, d or to the wood on both sides of it.] strength also includes the ability to resist shear. this is called "_shearing strength_." it is a measure of the adhesion of one part of the wood to an adjoining part. shearing is what takes place when the portion of wood beyond a mortise near the end of a timber, a b c d, fig. 43, is forced out by the tenon. in this case it would be shearing along the grain, sometimes called detrusion. the resistance of the portion a b c d, _i.e._, its power of adhesion to the wood adjacent to it on both sides, is its shearing strength. if the mortised piece were forced downward until it broke off the tenon at the shoulder, that would be shearing across the grain. the shearing resistance either with or across the grain is small compared with tension and compression. green wood shears much more easily than dry, because moisture softens the wood and this reduces the adhesion of the fibers to each other.[7] cleavability of wood. closely connected with shearing strength is cohesion, a property usually considered under the name of its opposite, cleavability, _i.e._, the ease of splitting. when an ax is stuck into the end of a piece of wood, the wood splits in advance of the ax edge. see _handwork in wood_, fig. 59, p. 52. the wood is not cut but pulled across the grain just as truly as if one edge were held and a weight were attached to the other edge and it were torn apart by tension. the length of the cleft ahead of the blade is determined by the elasticity of the wood. the longer the cleft, the easier to split. elasticity helps splitting, and shearing strength and hardness hinder it. a normal piece of wood splits easily along two surfaces, (1) along any radial plane, principally because of the presence of the pith rays, and, in regular grained wood like pine, because the cells are radially regular; and (2) along the annual rings, because the spring-wood separates easily from the next ring of summer-wood. of the two, radial cleavage is 50 to 100 per cent. easier. straight-grained wood is much easier to split than cross-grained wood in which the fibers are interlaced, and soft wood, provided it is elastic, splits easier than hard. woods with sharp contrast between spring and summer wood, like yellow pine and chestnut, split very easily tangentially. all these facts are important in relation to the use of nails. for instance, the reason why yellow pine is hard to nail and bass easy is because of their difference in cleavability. elasticity of wood. elasticity is the ability of a substance when forced out of shape,--bent, twisted, compressed or stretched, to regain its former shape. when the elasticity of wood is spoken of, its ability to spring back from bending is usually meant. the opposite of elasticity is brittleness. hickory is elastic, white pine is brittle. stiffness is the ability to resist bending, and hence is the opposite of pliability or flexibility. a wood may be both stiff and elastic; it may be even stiff and pliable, as ash, which may be made into splints for baskets and may also be used for oars. willow sprouts are flexible when green, but quite brittle when dry. elasticity is of great importance in some uses of wood, as in long tool handles used in agricultural implements, such as rakes, hoes, scythes, and in axes, in archery bows, in golf sticks, etc., in all of which, hickory, our most elastic wood, is used.[8] hardness of wood. hardness is the ability of wood to resist indentations, and depends primarily upon the thickness of the cell walls and the smallness of the cell cavities, or, in general, upon the density of the wood structure. summer wood, as we have seen, is much harder than spring wood, hence it is important in using such wood as yellow pine on floors to use comb-grain boards, so as to present the softer spring wood in as narrow surfaces as possible. see _handwork in wood_, p. 41, and fig. 55. in slash-grain boards, broad surfaces of both spring and summer wood appear. maple which is uniformly hard makes the best floors, even better than oak, parts of which are comparatively soft. the hardness of wood is of much consequence in gluing pieces together. soft woods, like pine, can be glued easily, because the fibers can be forced close together. as a matter of fact, the joint when dry is stronger than the rest of the board. in gluing hard woods, however, it is necessary to scratch the surfaces to be glued in order to insure a strong joint. it is for the same reason that a joint made with liquid glue is safe on soft wood when it would be weak on hard wood.[9] toughness of wood. toughness may be defined as the ability to resist sudden shocks and blows. this requires a combination of various qualities, strength, hardness, elasticity and pliability. the tough woods, _par excellence_, are hickory, rock elm and ash. they can be pounded, pulled, compressed and sheared. it is because of this quality that hickory is used for wheel spokes and for handles, elm for hubs, etc. in the selection of wood for particular purposes, it is sometimes one, sometimes another, and more often still, a combination of qualities that makes it fit for use.[10] it will be remembered that it was knowledge of the special values of different woods that made "the one horse shay," "the deacon's masterpiece." "so the deacon inquired of the village folk where he could find the strongest oak, that couldn't be split nor bent nor broke,- that was for spokes and floor and sills; he sent for lancewood to make the thills; the cross bars were ash, from the straightest trees, the panels of whitewood, that cuts like cheese, but lasts like iron for things like these. the hubs of logs from the "settler's ellum,"- last of its timber,--they couldn't sell 'em. never an ax had seen their chips, and the wedges flew from between their lips, their blunt ends frizzled like celery tips; step and prop-iron, bolt and screw, spring, tire, axle and linch pin too, steel of the finest, bright and blue; thorough brace, bison skin, thick and wide; boot, top dasher from tough old hide, found in the pit when the tanner died. that was the way to "put her through." 'there!' said the deacon, 'naow she'll dew!'" [footnote 1: hygroscopicity, "the property possessed by vegetable tissues of absorbing or discharging moisture and expanding or shrinking accordingly."--_century dictionary._] [footnote 2: this is shown by the following table, from forestry bulletin no. 10, p. 31, _timber_, by filibert roth: pounds of water lost in drying 100 pounds of green wood in the kiln. sap-wood or heart-wood outer part. or interior. 1. pines, cedars, spruces, and firs 45-65 16-25 2. cypress, extremely variable 50-65 18-60 3. poplar, cottonwood, basswood 60-65 40-60 4. oak, beech, ash, elm, maple, birch, hickory, chestnut, walnut, and sycamore 40-50 30-40 ] [footnote 3: the following table from roth, p. 37, gives the approximate shrinkage of a board, or set of boards, 100 inches wide, drying in the open air: shrinkage inches. 1. all light conifers (soft pine, spruce, cedar, cypress) 3 2. heavy conifers (hard pine, tamarack, yew, honey locust, box elder, wood of old oaks) 4 3. ash, elm, walnut, poplar, maple, beech, sycamore, cherry, black locust 5 4. basswood, birch, chestnut, horse chestnut, blue beech, young locust 6 5. hickory, young oak, especially red oak up to 10 the figures are the average of radial and tangential shrinkages.] [footnote 4: how much different woods vary may be seen by the following table, taken from filibert roth, _timber_, forest service bulletin no. 10, p. 28: weight of kiln-dried wood of different species. ------------------------------------+-------------------------------- | approximate. +-----------+-------------------- | | weight of | +---------+---------- | specific | 1 cubic | 1,000 feet | weight. | foot. | of lumber. ------------------------------------+-----------+---------+---------- | | pounds | pounds (a) very heavy woods: | | | hickory, oak, persimmon, | | | osage, orange, black | | | locust, hackberry, blue | | | beech, best of elm, and ash | 0.70-0.80 | 42-48 | 3,700 (b) heavy woods: | | | ash, elm, cherry, birch, | | | maple, beech, walnut, sour | | | gum, coffee tree, honey | | | locust, best of southern | | | pine, and tamarack | .60-.70 | 36-42 | 3,200 (c) woods of medium weight: | | | southern pine, pitch pine, | | | tamarack, douglas spruce, | | | western hemlock, sweet gum, | | | soft maple, sycamore, light | | | sassafras, mulberry, | | | grades of birch and cherry | .50-.60 | 30-36 | 2,700 (d) light woods: | | | norway and bull pine, red | | | cedar, cypress, hemlock, | | | the heavier spruce and fir, | | | redwood, basswood, chestnut, | | | butternut, tulip, catalpa, | | | buckeye, heavier grades of | | | poplar | .40-.50 | 24-30 | 2,200 (e) very light woods: | | | white pine, spruce, fir, white | | | cedar, poplar | .30-.40 | 18-24 | 1,800 ------------------------------------+-----------+---------+---------- ] [footnote 5: for table of weights of different woods see sargent, _jesup collection,_ pp. 153-157.] [footnote 6: see forestry bulletin no. 70, pp. 11, 12, and forestry circular no. 108.] [footnote 7: for table of strengths of different woods, see sargent, _jesup collection_, pp. 166 ff.] [footnote 8: for table of elasticity of different woods, see sargent, _jesup collection_, pp. 163 ff.] [footnote 9: for table of hardnesses of different woods, see sargent, _jesup collection_, pp. 173 ff.] [footnote 10: for detailed characteristics of different woods see chapter iii.] the properties of wood. references[a] moisture and shrinkage. roth, _for. bull._, no. 10, pp. 25-37. busbridge, _sci. am. sup._ no. 1500. oct. 1, '04. weight, strength, cleavability, elasticity and toughness. roth, _for. bull._, 10, p. 37-50. boulger, pp. 89-108, 129-140. roth, _first book_, pp. 229-233. sargent, _jesup collection_, pp. 153-176. forest circulars nos. 108 and 139. [footnote a: for general bibliography, see p. 4.] chapter iii. the principal species of american woods. notes. the photographs of tangential and radial sections are life size. the microphotographs are of cross-sections and are enlarged 37-1/2 diameters. following the precedent of u. s. forest bulletin no. 17, sudworth's _check list of the forest trees of the united states_, the complicated rules for the capitalization of the names of species are abandoned and they are uniformly not capitalized. on pages 192-195 will be found lists of the woods described, arranged in the order of their comparative weight, strength, elasticity, and hardness. these lists are based upon the figures in sargent's _the jesup collection_. in the appendix, p. 289, will be found a key for distinguishing the various kinds of wood. information as to current wholesale prices in the principal markets of the country can be had from the u. s. dept. of agriculture, the forest service, washington, d. c., _record of wholesale prices of lumber, list a._ these lists are published periodically. no attempt is made in this book to give prices because: (1) only lists of wholesale prices are available; (2) the cuts and grades differ considerably, especially in soft woods (conifers); (3) prices are constantly varying; (4) the prices differ much in different localities. 1 white pine, weymouth pine. named for lord weymouth, who cultivated it in england. _pinus strobus_ linnaeus. _pinus_, the classical latin name; _strobus_ refers to the cone, or strobile, from a greek word, _strobus_, meaning twist. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); now best in michigan, wisconsin and minnesota. characteristics of the tree: height, 100'-120', even 200'; diameter, 2'-4'; branches in whorls, cleans poorly; bark, dark gray, divided by deep longitudinal fissures into broad ridges; leaves in clusters of 5, 3"-5" long; cone drooping, 4"-10" long. appearance of wood: color, heart-wood, very light brown, almost cream color, sap-wood, nearly white; non-porous; rings, fine but distinct; grain, straight; pith rays, very faint; resin ducts, small, inconspicuous. [illustration: leaf.] physical qualities: weight, very light (59th in this list); 27 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.3854; strength, medium (55th in this list); elasticity, medium (47th in this list); soft (57th in this list); shrinkage 3 per cent.; warps very little; durability, moderate; works easily in every way; splits easily but nails well. common uses: doors, window sashes and other carpentry, pattern-making, cabinet-work, matches. remarks: this best of american woods is now rapidly becoming scarce and higher in price. its uses are due to its uniform grain, on account of which it is easily worked and stands well. known in the english market as yellow pine. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 2 western white pine. _pinus monticola_ douglas. _pinus_, the classical latin name; _monticola_ means mountain-dweller. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); grows at great elevations, 7,000'-10,000'. best in northern idaho. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 100'-160'; diameter, 4' to even 8'; branches, slender, spreading; bark, gray and brown, divided into squarish plates by deep longitudinal and cross fissures; leaves, 5 in sheath; cones, 12"ã�18" long. appearance of wood: color, light brown or red, sap-wood nearly white; non-porous; rings, summer wood, thin and not conspicuous; grain, straight; rays, numerous, obscure; resin ducts, numerous and conspicuous tho not large. physical qualities: weight, very light (58th in this list); 24 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.3908; strength, medium (56th in this list); elastic (35th in this list); soft (63d in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps little; moderately durable; easy to work; splits readily but nails well. common uses: lumber for construction and interior finish. remarks: closely resembles _pinus strobus_ in appearance and quality of wood. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 3 sugar pine. sugar refers to sweetish exudation. _pinus lambertiana_ douglas. _pinus_, the classical latin name; _lambertiana_, from the botanist, a. b. lambert, whose chief work was on pines. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); grows on high elevations (5,000'), best in northern california. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 100'-300'; diameter, 15"-20"; branches, in remote regular whorls; bark, rich purple or brown, thick, deep irregular fissures making long, flaky ridges; leaves, stout, rigid, in bundles of five; cones, 10"-18" long. appearance of wood: color, pinkish brown, sap-wood, cream white; non-porous; rings, distinct; grain, straight; rays, numerous, obscure; resin ducts, numerous, large and conspicuous. physical qualities: weight, very light (61st in this list); 22 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.3684; strength, weak (59th in this list); elasticity, medium (56th in this list); soft (53d in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps little; durable; easily worked; splits little, nails well. common uses: carpentry, interior finish, doors, blinds, shingles, barrels, etc. remarks: exudes a sweet substance from heart-wood. a magnificent and important lumber tree on pacific coast. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 4 norway pine. red pine. red refers to color of bark. _pinus resinosa_ solander. _pinus_, the classical latin name; _resinosa_ refers to very resinous wood. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); grows best in northern michigan, wisconsin, and minnesota. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 70'-90'; diameter, 2'-3'; tall, straight; branches in whorls, low; bark, thin, scaly, purplish and reddish-brown; longitudinal furrows, broad flat ridges; leaves, in twos in long sheaths; cones, 2". appearance of wood: color of wood, pale red, sap-wood, wide, whitish; non-porous; rings summer wood broad, dark; grain, straight; rays, numerous, pronounced, thin; very resinous, but ducts small and few. physical qualities: weight, light, (43d in this list); 31 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4854; strong (39th in this list); elastic (16th in this list); soft (48th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps moderately; not durable; easy to work; splits readily, nails well. common uses: piles, electric wire poles, masts, flooring. remarks: often sold with and as white pine. resembles scotch pine (_pinus sylvestris_). bark used to some extent for tanning. grows in open groves. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 5 western yellow pine. bull pine. bull refers to great size of trunk. _pinus ponderosa_ lawson. _pinus_, the classical latin name; _ponderosa_ refers to great size of trunk. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in rocky mountains. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 100' to 300'; diameter, 6' to even 12'; branches, low, short trunk; bark, thick, dark brown, deep, meandering furrows, large, irregular plates, scaly; leaves, in twos or threes, 5" to 11" long; cones 3" to 6" long. appearance of wood: color, light red, sap-wood, thick, nearly white, and very distinct; non-porous; rings, conspicuous; grain, straight; rays, numerous, obscure; very resinous but ducts small. physical qualities: weight, light (44th in this list); 25-30 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4715; strength, medium (45th in this list); elasticity, medium (41st in this list); hardness, medium (42nd in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent.; warps ...........; not durable; hard to work, brittle; splits easily in nailing. common uses: lumber, railway ties, mine timbers. remarks: forms extensive open forests. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 6 long-leaf pine. georgia pine. _pinus palustris_ miller. _pinus_, the classical latin name; _palustris_ means swampy, inappropriate here. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in louisiana and east texas. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 80'-100'; diameter, 2'-3'; trunk, straight, clean, branches high; bark, light brown, large, thin, irregular papery scales; leaves 8"-12" long, 3 in a sheath; cones 6"-10" long. appearance of wood: heart-wood, spring wood light yellow, summer wood, red brown; sap wood, lighter; non-porous; rings, very plain and strongly marked; grain, straight; rays, numerous, conspicuous; very resinous, but resin ducts few and not large. physical qualities: heavy (18th in this list); 38 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.6999; very strong (7th in this list); very elastic (4th in this list); hardness, medium (33d in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent.; warps very little; quite durable; works hard, tough; splits badly in nailing. common uses: joists, beams, bridge and building trusses, interior finish, ship building, and general construction work. remarks: almost exclusively the source of turpentine, tar, pitch and resin in the united states. known in the english market as pitch pine. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 7 short-leaf pine. yellow pine. _pinus echinata_ miller. _pinus_, the classical latin name; _echinata_ refers to spiny cones. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in lower mississippi basin. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: straight, tall trunk, sometimes 100' high; branches high; diameter 2'-4'; bark, pale grayish red-brown, fissures, running helter-skelter, making large irregular plates, covered with small scales; leaves in twos, 3" long; cones small. appearance of wood: color, heartwood, summer wood, red, spring-wood, yellow; sap-wood, lighter; non-porous; annual rings very plain, sharp contrast between spring and summer wood; grain, straight, coarse; rays, numerous, conspicuous; very resinous, ducts large and many. physical qualities: weight, medium (32nd in this list); 32 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6104; very strong (18th in this list); very elastic (8th in this list); soft (38th in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent.; warps little; durable; troublesome to work; likely to split along annual rings in nailing. common uses: heavy construction, railroad ties, house trim, ship building, cars, docks, bridges. remarks: wood hardly distinguishable from long-leaf pine. often forms pure forests. the most desirable yellow pine, much less resinous and more easily worked than others. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 8 loblolly pine. old field pine. _loblolly_ may refer to the inferiority of the wood; old field refers to habit of spontaneous growth on old fields. _pinus taeda_ linnaeus. _pinus_, the classical latin name; _taeda_, the classical latin name for pitch-pine, which was used for torches. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); grows best in eastern virginia, and eastern north carolina. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 100'-150'; diameter, often 4'-5'; branches high; bark, purplish brown, shallow, meandering fissures, broad, flat, scaly ridges; leaves, 3 in sheath, 4"-7" long; cones 3"-5" long. appearance of wood: color, heart-wood orange, sap-wood lighter; non-porous; rings very plain, sharp contrast between spring wood and summer wood; grain, straight, coarse; rays conspicuous; very resinous, but ducts few and small. physical qualities: weight, medium (39th in this list); 33 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.5441; strong (26th in this list); elastic (17th in this list); medium hard (43d in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent.; warps little; not durable; difficult to work, brittle; splits along rings in nailing. common uses: heavy construction, beams, ship building, docks, bridges, flooring, house trim. remarks: resembles long-leaf pine, and often sold as such. rarely makes pure forests. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 9 slash pine. cuban pine. _pinus caribaea_ morelet. _pinus heterophylla_ (ell.) sudworth. _pinus_, the classical latin name; _caribaea_ refers to the caribbean islands; _heterophylla_ refers to two kinds of leaves. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); grows best in alabama, mississippi, and louisiana. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, sometimes 110', straight, tall, branching high; diameter 1'-3'; bark, dark red and brown, shallow irregular fissures; leaves, 2 or 3 in a sheath, 8"-12" long; cones, 4"-5" long. appearance of wood: color, dark orange, sapwood lighter; non-porous; annual rings, plain, sharp contrast between spring wood and summer wood; grain, straight; rays numerous, rather prominent; very resinous, but ducts few. physical qualities: heavy (7th in this list); 39 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.7504; very strong (6th in this list); very elastic (3d in this list); hard (24th in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent.; warps little; quite durable; troublesome to work; splits along annual rings in nailing. common uses: heavy construction, ship building, railroad ties, docks, bridges, house trim. remarks: similar to and often sold as long-leaf pine. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 10 tamarack. larch. hackmatack. _larix laricina_ (du roi) koch. _larix americana_ michaux. _larix_, the classical latin name. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); prefers swamps, "tamarack swamps." [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 50'-60' and even 90', diameter 1'-3'; intolerant; tall, slender trunk; bark, cinnamon brown, no ridges, breaking into flakes; leaves, deciduous, pea-green, in tufts; cone, 1/2"-3/4", bright brown. appearance of wood: color, light brown, sapwood hardly distinguishable; non-porous; rings, summer wood, thin but distinct, dark colored; grain, straight, coarse; rays, numerous, hardly distinguishable; very resinous, but ducts few and small. physical qualities: weight, medium (29th in this list); 39 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.6236; strong (24th in this list); elastic (11th in this list); medium hard (40th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps .........; very durable; easy to work; splits easily. common uses: ship building, electric wire poles, and railroad ties; used for boat ribs because of its naturally crooked knees; slenderness prevents common use as lumber. remarks: tree desolate looking in winter. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 11 western larch. tamarack. _larix occidentalis_ nuttall. _larix_, the classical latin name; _occidentalis_ means western. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in northern montana and idaho, on high elevations. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 90'-130', even 250'; diameter 6'-8'; tall, slender, naked trunk, with branches high; bark, cinnamon red or purplish, often 12" thick, breaking into irregular plates, often 2' long; leaves, in tufts; deciduous; cones small. appearance of wood: color, light red, thin, whitish, sap-wood; non-porous; grain, straight, fine; rays numerous, thin; very resinous, but ducts small and obscure. physical qualities: weight, heavy (11th in this list); 46 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.7407; very strong (3d in this list); very elastic (1st in this list); medium hard (35th in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent.; warps ..........; very durable; rather hard to work, takes fine polish; splits with difficulty. common uses: posts, railroad ties, fencing, cabinet material and fuel. remarks: a valuable tree in the northwest. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 12 white spruce. _picea canadensis_ (miller) b. s. p. _picea alba_ link. _picea_, the classical latin name; white and _alba_ refers to the pale color of the leaves, especially when young, and to the whitish bark. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map). [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 60'-100' and even 150'; diameter, 1'-2' and even 4'; long, thick branches; bark, light grayish brown, separating into thin plate-like scales, rather smooth appearance, resin from cuts forms white gum; leaves, set thickly on all sides of branch, finer than red spruce, odor disagreeable; cones, 2" long, cylindrical, slender, fall during second summer. appearance of wood: color, light yellow, sap-wood, hardly distinguishable; non-porous; rings, wide, summer wood thin, not conspicuous; grain, straight; rays, numerous, prominent; resin ducts, few and minute. physical qualities: weight, light (51st in this list); 25 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.4051; medium strong (42d in this list); elastic (29th in this list); soft (58th in this list); shrinks 3 per cent.; warps ........; fairly durable; easy to work, satiny surface; splits readily. common uses: lumber and paper pulp; (not distinguished from red and black spruce in market). remarks: wood very resonant, hence used for sounding boards. the most important lumber tree of the sub-arctic forest of british columbia. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 13 red spruce.[a] _picea rubens_ sargent. _picea_, the classical latin name for the pitch pine; _rubens_ refers to reddish bark, and perhaps to the reddish streaks in the wood. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); stunted in north. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 70'-80', even 100'; diameter, 2'-3', grows slowly; trunk, straight, columnar, branches in whorls, cleans well in forest; bark, reddish brown with thin irregular scales; leaves, needle-shaped, four-sided, pointing everywhere; cones, 1-1/4"-2" long, pendent, fall during the first winter. appearance of wood: color, dull white with occasional reddish streaks; sap-wood not distinct; non-porous; rings, summer rings thin, but clearly defined; grain, straight; rays, faintly discernible; resin ducts, few and small. physical qualities: weight, light (47th in this list); 28 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.4584; medium strong (41st in this list); elastic (21st in this list); soft (54th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps little; not durable; easy to plane, tolerably easy to saw, hard to chisel neatly; splits easily in nailing. common uses: sounding boards, construction, paper pulp, ladders. remarks: the exudations from this species are used as chewing gum. bark of twigs is used in the domestic manufacture of beer. the use of the wood for sounding boards is due to its resonance, and for ladders to its strength and lightness. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] [footnote a: not distinguished in the jesup collection from _picea nigra_.] 14 black spruce.[a] _picea mariana_ (miller) b. s. p. _picea nigra_ link. _picea_, the classical latin name for the pitch pine; _mariana_ named for queen mary; black and _nigra_ refer to dark foliage. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in canada. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 50'-80' and even 100'; diameter, 6"-1' even 2'; branches, whorled, pendulous with upward curve; bark, gray, loosely attached flakes; leaves, pale blue-green, spirally set, pointing in all directions; cones, small, ovate-oblong, persistent for many years. appearance of wood: color, pale, reddish, sap-wood, thin, white, not very distinct; non-porous; rings, summer wood, small thin cells; grain, straight; rays, few, conspicuous; resin ducts, few and minute. physical qualities: weight, light (47th in this list); 33 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.4584; medium strong (41st in this list); elastic (21st in this list); soft (54th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps little; not durable; easy to work; splits easily in nailing. common uses: sounding boards, lumber in manitoba. remarks: not distinguished from red spruce commercially. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] [footnote a: not distinguished in jesup collection from _picea rubens_.] 15 white spruce. engelmann's spruce. _picea engelmanni_ (parry) engelmann. named for george engelmann, an american botanist. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); grows at very high elevations, forming forest at 8,000'-10,000'; best in british columbia. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 75'-100', even 150'; diameter, 2'-3', even 5'; branches whorled, spreading; bark, deeply furrowed, red-brown to purplish brown, thin, large, loose scales; leaves, blue-green, point in all directions; cones, 2" long, oblong, cylindrical. appearance of wood: color, pale yellow or reddish, sap-wood hardly distinguishable; non-porous; rings, very fine, summer wood, narrow, not conspicuous; grain, straight, close; rays, numerous, conspicuous; resin ducts, small and few. physical qualities: weight, very light (57th in this list); 22 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.3449; weak (61st in this list); elasticity medium (55th in this list); soft (56th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps .........; durable; easy to work; splits easily. common uses: lumber. remarks: a valuable lumber tree in the rocky mountains and the cascades. bark used for tanning. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters]. [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 16 tideland spruce. sitka spruce. _picea sitchensis_ (bongard) carriã¨re. _picea_, the classical latin name for the pitch pine. tideland refers to its habit of growth along the sea coast; _sitchensis_, named for sitka. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best on pacific slope of british columbia and northwestern united states. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 100'-150' and even 200' high; diameter 3'-4' and even 15'; trunk base enlarged; bark, thick, red-brown, scaly; leaves, standing out in all directions; cones, 2-1/2"-4" long, pendent, cylindrical, oval. appearance of wood: color, light brown, sap-wood whitish; non-porous; rings, wide, summer wood, thin but very distinct, spring wood, not plain; grain, straight, coarse; rays, numerous, rather prominent; resin ducts, few and small. physical qualities: weight, light (52d in this list); 27 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4287; medium strong (53d in this list); elastic (31st in this list); soft (59th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps ...........; durable; easy to work; splits easily. common uses: interior finish, boat building and cooperage. remarks: largest of the spruces. common in the coast belt forest. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 17 hemlock. _tsuga canadensis_ (linnaeus) carriã¨re. _tsuga_, the japanese name latinized; _canadensis_ named for canada. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in north carolina and tennessee. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 60'-70', sometimes 100'; diameter, 2'-3'; branches, persistent, making trunk not very clean; bark, red-gray, narrow, rounded ridges, deeply and irregularly fissured; leaves, spirally arranged, but appear two-ranked; cones, 3/4" long, graceful. appearance of wood: color, reddish brown, sap-wood just distinguishable; non-porous; rings, rather broad, conspicuous; grain, crooked; rays, numerous, thin; non-resinous. physical qualities: weight, light (53d in this list); 26 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4239; medium strong (44th in this list); elasticity, medium (40th in this list); soft (51st in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps and checks badly; not durable; difficult to work, splintery, brittle; splits easily, holds nails well. common uses: coarse, cheap lumber, as joists, rafters, plank walks and laths. remarks: the poorest lumber. bark chief source of tanning material. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 18 western hemlock. black hemlock. _tsuga heterophylla_ (rafinesque) sargent. _tsuga_, the japanese name latinized; _heterophylla_ refers to two kinds of leaves. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best on coast of washington and oregon. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 150'-200'; diameter, 6'-10'; branches, pendent, slender; bark, reddish gray, deep, longitudinal fissures between, broad, oblique, flat ridges; leaves, dark green, two-ranked; cones, small, like eastern hemlock. appearance of wood: color, pale brown, sap-wood thin, whitish; non-porous; rings, narrow, summer wood thin but distinct; grain, straight, close; rays, numerous, prominent; non-resinous. physical qualities: light in weight, strong, elastic, hard;[a] shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps ..........; durable, more so than other american hemlocks; easier to work than eastern variety; splits badly. common uses: lumber for construction. remarks: coming to be recognized as a valuable lumber tree. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] [footnote a: not in jesup collection.] 19 douglas spruce. oregon pine. red fir. douglas fir. _pseudotsuga mucronata_ (rafinesque) sudworth. _pseudotsuga taxifolia_ (lambert) britton. _pseudotsuga_ means false hemlock; _mucronata_ refers to abrupt short point of leaf; _taxifolia_ means yew leaf. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in puget sound region. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 175'-300'; diameter, 3'-5', sometimes 10'; branches high, leaving clean trunk; bark, rough, gray, great broad-rounded ridges, often appears braided; leaves, radiating from stem; cones, 2"-4" long. appearance of wood: color, light red to yellow, sap-wood white; non-porous; rings, dark colored, conspicuous, very pronounced summer wood; grain, straight, coarse; rays, numerous, obscure; resinous. physical qualities: weight, medium (41st in this list); 32 lbs. per cu. ft, sp. gr. 0.5157; strong (21st in this list); very elastic (10th in this list); medium hard (45th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent. or 4 per cent.;, warps ...............; durable; difficult to work, flinty, splits readily. common uses: heavy construction, masts, flag poles, piles, railway ties. remarks: one of the greatest and the most valuable of the western timber trees. forms extensive forests. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 20 grand fir. white fir. lowland fir. silver fir. _abies grandis_ lindley. _abies_, the classical latin name. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in puget sound region. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, in interior 100'; diameter, 2'; on coast, 250'-300' high; diameter, 2'-5'; long pendulous branches; bark, quite gray or gray brown, shallow fissures, flat ridges; leaves, shiny green above, silvery below, 1-1/2"-2" long, roughly two-ranked; cones, cylindrical, 2"-4" long. appearance of wood: color, light brown, sap-wood lighter; non-porous; rings, summer cells broader than in other american species, dark colored, conspicuous; grain straight, coarse; rays, numerous, obscure; resinous. physical qualities: very light (62d in this list); 22 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.3545; weak (62d in this list); elastic (34th in this list); soft (65th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps little; not durable; works easily; splits readily. common uses: lumber and packing cases. remarks: no resin ducts. not a very valuable wood. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 21 big tree. sequoia. giant sequoia. _sequoia washingtoniana_ (winslow) sudworth. _sequoia gigantea_, decaisne. _sequoia_ latinized from sequoiah, a cherokee indian; _washingtoniana_, in honor of george washington. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); in ten groves in southern california, at high elevation. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 275', sometimes 320'; diameter, 20', sometimes 35'; trunk, swollen and often buttressed at base, ridged, often clear for 150'; thick horizontal branches; bark, 1'-2' thick, in great ridges, separates into loose, fibrous, cinnamon red scales, almost non-combustible; leaves, very small, growing close to stem; cones, 2"-3" long. appearance of wood: color, red, turning dark on exposure, sap-wood thin, whitish; non-porous; rings, very plain; grain straight, coarse; rays, numerous, thin; non-resinous. physical qualities: light (65th in this list); 18 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.2882; weak (63d in this list); brittle (62d in this list); very soft (61st in this list); shrinks little; warps little; remarkably durable; easy to work, splits readily, takes nails well. common uses: construction, lumber, coffins, shingles. remarks: dimensions and age are unequalled; big tree and redwood survivors of a prehistoric genus, once widely distributed. some specimens 3600 years old. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 22 redwood. coast redwood. sequoia. _sequoia sempervirens_ (lambert) endlicher. _sequoia_, latinized from sequoiah, a cherokee indian; _sempervirens_ means ever living. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in southern oregon and northern california, near coast. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 200'-340'; diameter, 10'-15', rarely 25'; clean trunk, much buttressed and swollen at base, somewhat fluted, branches very high; bark, very thick, 6"-12", rounded ridges, dark scales falling reveal inner red bark; leaves, small, two-ranked; cones, small, 1" long. appearance of wood: color, red, turning to brown on seasoning, sap-wood whitish; non-porous; rings, distinct; grain, straight; rays, numerous, very obscure; non-resinous. physical qualities: light in weight (55th in this list); 26 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4208; weak (58th in this list); brittle (60th in this list); soft (55th in this list); shrinks little; warps little; very durable; easily worked; splits readily; takes nails well. common uses: shingles, construction, timber, fence posts, coffins, railway ties, water pipes, curly specimens used in cabinet work. remarks: low branches rare. burns with difficulty. chief construction wood of pacific coast. use determined largely by durability. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 23 bald cypress. bald refers to leaflessness of tree in winter. _taxodium distichum_ (linnaeus) l. c. richard. _taxodium_ means yew-like; _distichum_ refers to the two-ranked leaves. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in south atlantic and gulf states. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 75', occasionally 150'; diameter, 4'-5'; roots project upward into peculiar knees; trunk strongly buttressed at base, straight, majestic and tapering; bark, light red, shallow fissures, flat plates, peeling into fibrous strips; leaves, long, thin, two-ranked, deciduous; cones, nearly globular, 1" in diameter. appearance of wood: color, heart-wood, reddish brown, sap-wood, nearly white; non-porous; rings, fine and well marked; grain, nearly straight, burl is beautifully figured; rays, very obscure; non-resinous. physical qualities: light in weight (48th in this list); 29 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4543; medium strong (48th in this list); elastic (28th in this list); soft (52d in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps but little, likely to check; very durable; easy to work, in splitting, crumbles or breaks; nails well. common uses: shingles, posts, interior finish, cooperage, railroad ties, boats, and various construction work, especially conservatories. remarks: forms forests in swamps; subject to a fungous disease, making wood "peggy" or "pecky"; use largely determined by its durability. in new orleans 90,000 fresh water cisterns are said to be made of it. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 24 western red cedar. canoe cedar. giant arborvitae. _thuja plicata_ d. don. _thuya gigantea_ nuttall. _thuya_ or _thuja_, the classical greek name; _plicata_ refers to the folded leaves; _gigantea_ refers to the gigantic size of the tree. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in puget sound region. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 100'-200'; diameter, 2'-10', even 15'; trunk has immense buttresses, often 16' in diameter, then tapers; branches, horizontal, short, making a dense conical tree; bark, bright cinnamon red, shallow fissures, broad ridges, peeling into long, narrow, stringy scales; leaves, very small, overlapping in 4 ranks, on older twigs, sharper and more remote; cones, _1/2"_ long, small, erect. appearance of wood: color, dull brown or red, thin sap-wood nearly white; non-porous; rings, summer bands thin, dark colored, distinct; grain, straight, rather coarse; rays, numerous, obscure; non-resinous. physical qualities: very light in weight (60th in this list); medium strong (40th in this list); elastic (26th in this list); soft (60th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps and checks little; very durable; easy to work; splits easily. common uses: interior finish, cabinet making, cooperage, shingles, electric wire poles. remarks: wood used by indians for war canoes, totems and planks for lodges; inner bark used for ropes and textiles. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 25 white cedar. _chamaecyparis thyoides_ (linnaeus) b. s. p. _chamaecyparis_ means low cypress; _thyoides_ means like _thuya_ (_aborvitae_). [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in virginia and north carolina. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 60'-80'; diameter, 2'-4'; branches, low, often forming impenetrable thickets; bark, light reddish brown, many fine longitudinal fissures, often spirally twisted around stem; leaves, scale-like, four-ranked; cones, globular, 1/4" diameter. appearance of wood: color, pink to brown, sap-wood lighter; non-porous; rings, sharp and distinct; grain, straight; rays, numerous, obscure; non-resinous. physical qualities: very light in weight (64th in this list); 23 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.3322); weak (64th in this list); brittle (63d in this list; soft (62d in this list); shrinkage 3 per cent.; warps little; extremely durable; easily worked; splits easily; nails well. common uses: boats, shingles, posts, railway ties, cooperage. remarks: grows chiefly in swamps, often in dense pure forests. uses determined largely by its durability. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 26 lawson cypress. port orford cedar. oregon cedar. white cedar. _chamaecyparis lawsoniana_ (a. murray) parlatore. _chamaecyparis_ means low cypress. [illustration: habitat.] [illustration: leaf.] habitat: (see map); best on coast of oregon. characteristics of the tree: height, 100'-200'; diameter, 4'-8', even 12'; base of trunk abruptly enlarged; bark, very thick, even 10" at base of trunk, inner and outer layers distinct, very deep fissures, rounded ridges; leaves, very small, 1/16" long, four-ranked, overlapped, flat sprays; cones, small, 1/4", globular. appearance of wood: color, pinkish brown, sap-wood hardly distinguishable; non-porous; rings, summer wood thin, not conspicuous; grain, straight, close; rays, numerous, very obscure; non-resinous. physical qualities: light in weight (46th in this list); 28 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4621; strong (25th in this list); elastic (12th in this list); soft (50th in this list); shrinkage 3 or 4 per cent.; warps little; durable; easily worked; splits easily. common uses: matches (almost exclusively on the pacific coast), interior finish, ship and boat building. remarks: resin, a powerful diuretic and insecticide. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 27 red cedar. _juniperus virginiana_ linnaeus. _juniperus_, the classical latin name; _virginiana_, in honor of the state of virginia. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in gulf states in swamps, especially on the west coast of florida. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 40'-50', even 80'; diameter, 1'-2'; trunk, ridged, sometimes expanded; branches, low; bark, light brown, loose, ragged, separating into long, narrow, persistent, stringy scales; leaves, opposite, of two kinds, awl-shaped, and scale-shaped; fruit, dark blue berry. appearance of wood: color, dull red, sap-wood white; non-porous; rings, easily distinguished; grain, straight; rays, numerous, very obscure; non-resinous. physical qualities: very light in weight (42d in this list); 30 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4826; medium strong (43d in this list); brittle (61st in this list); medium hard (34th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps little; very durable; easy to work; splits readily, takes nails well. common uses: pencils, chests, cigar boxes, pails, interior finish. remarks: fragrant. pencils are made almost exclusively of this wood, because it is light, strong, stiff, straight and fine-grained and easily whittled; supply being rapidly depleted. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 28 black willow. _salix nigra_ marshall. _salix_, from two celtic words meaning near-water; _nigra_ refers to the dark bark. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); grows largest in southern illinois, indiana and texas, on moist banks. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 30'-40', sometimes 120'; diameter, 1'-2', rarely 3'-4'; stout, upright, spreading branches, from common base; bark, rough and dark brown or black, often tinged with yellow or brown; leaves, lanceolate, often scythe-shaped, serrate edges; fruit, a capsule containing small, hairy seeds. appearance of wood: color, light reddish brown, sap-wood, thin, whitish; diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, close and weak; rays, obscure. physical qualities: light in weight (51st in this list); 27.77 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4456; weak (65th in this list); very brittle (64th in this list); soft (46th in this list); shrinks considerably; warps and checks badly; soft, weak, indents without breaking; splits easily. common uses: lap-boards, baskets, water wheels, fuel and charcoal for gunpowder. remarks: its characteristic of indenting without breaking has given it use as lining for carts and as cricket bats. of the many willows, the most tree like in proportion in eastern north america. bark contains salycylic acid. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 29 butternut. white walnut. butternut, because the nuts are rich in oil. _juglans cinerea_ linnaeus. _juglans_ means jove's nut; _cinerea_ refers to ash-colored bark. [illustration: habitat.] habitat:: (see map); best in ohio basin. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 75'-100'; diameter, 2'-4'; branches low, broad spreading deep roots; bark, grayish brown, deep fissures broad ridges; leaves 15"-30" long, compound 11 to 17 leaflets, hairy and rough; fruit, oblong, pointed, edible, oily nut. appearance of wood: color, light brown, darkening with exposure, sap-wood whitish; diffuse, porous; rings, not prominent; grain, fairly straight, coarse, takes high polish; rays, distinct, thin, obscure. physical qualities: light in weight (56th in this list); 25 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4086; weak (57th in this list); elasticity, medium (52d in this list); soft (47th in this list); shrinkage ....... per cent.; warps little; durable; easy to work; splits easily. common uses: cabinet work, inside trim. remarks: green husks of fruit give yellow dye. sugar made from sap. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 30 black walnut. _juglans nigra_ linnaeus. _juglans_ means jove's nut; _nigra_ refers to the dark wood. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in western north carolina and tennessee. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 90'-120', even 150'; diameter, 3' to even 8'; clean of branches for 50' to 60'; bark, brownish, almost black, deep fissures, and broad, rounded ridges; leaves, 1'-2' long, compound pinnate, 15 to 23 leaflets, fall early; fruit, nut, with adherent husk, and edible kernel. appearance of wood: color, chocolate brown, sap-wood much lighter; diffuse-porous; rings, marked by slightly larger pores; grain, straight; rays, numerous, thin, not conspicuous. physical qualities: weight, medium (31st in this list); 38 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.6115; strong (32d in this list); elastic (23d in this list); hard (21st in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps little; very durable; easy to work; splits with some difficulty, takes and holds nails well. common uses: gun stocks (since 17th century), veneers, cabinet making. remarks: formerly much used for furniture, now scarce. plentiful in california. most valuable wood of north american forests. wood superior to european variety. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 31 mockernut. black hickory. bull-nut. big-bud hickory. white-heart hickory. king nut. mockernut refers to disappointing character of nuts. _hicoria alba_ (linnaeus) britton. _carya tomentosa_ nuttall. _hicoria_, shortened and latinized from _pawcohicora_, the indian name for the liquor obtained from the kernels; _alba_ refers to the white wood, _carya_, the greek name for walnut; _tomentosa_ refers to hairy under surface of leaf. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in lower ohio valley, missouri and arkansas. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 75', rarely 100'; diameter, 2'-3'; rises high in forest; bark, dark gray, shallow, irregular interrupted fissures, rough but not shaggy in old trees; leaves, 8"-12" long, compound, 7-9 leaflets, fragrant when crushed; fruit, spherical nut, thick shell, edible kernel. appearance of wood: color, dark brown, sap-wood nearly white; ring-porous; rings, marked by few large regularly distributed open ducts; grain, usually straight, close; rays, numerous, thin, obscure. physical qualities: very heavy (3d in this list); 53 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.8218; very strong (11th in this list); very elastic (14th in this list); very hard (3d in this list); shrinkage, 10 per cent.; warps ..........; not durable; very hard to work; splits with great difficulty, almost impossible to nail. common uses: wheels, runners, tool and axe handles, agricultural implements. remarks: confounded commercially with shellbark hickory. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 32 shellbark hickory. shagbark hickory. _hicoria ovata_ (millar) britton. _carya alba_ nuttall. _hickory_ is shortened and latinized from _pawcohicora_, the indian name for the liquor obtained from the kernels; _ovata_ refers to oval nut; _carya_, the greek name for walnut. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in lower ohio valley. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 70'-90' and even 120'; diameter, 2'-3', even 4'; straight, columnar trunk; bark, dark gray, separates into long, hard, plate-like strips, which cling to tree by middle, on young trees very smooth and close; leaves, 8"-20" long, compound 5 or (7) leaflets; nuts, globular, husk, four-valved, split easily, thin-shelled, edible. appearance of wood: color, reddish brown, sap-wood whitish; ring-porous; rings, clearly marked; grain, straight; rays, numerous, thin. physical qualities: very heavy (1st in this list); 51 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.8372; very strong (5th in this list); very elastic (7th in this list); very hard (5th in this list); shrinkage, 10 per cent.; warps badly; not very durable under exposure; hard to work, very tough; hard to split, very difficult to nail. common uses: agricultural implements, handles, wheel spokes. remarks: american hickory is famous both for buggies and ax handles, because it is flexible and very tough in resistance to blows. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 33 pignut. nuts eaten by swine. _hicoria glabra_ (miller) britton. _carya porcina._ _hicoria_ is shortened and latinized from _pawcohicora_, the indian name for the liquor obtained from the kernel; _glabra_ refers to smooth bark; _carya_ the greek name for walnut; _porcina_ means pertaining to hogs. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in lower ohio valley. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 80'-100'; diameter 2'-4'; trunk often forked; bark, light gray, shallow fissures, rather smooth, rarely exfoliates; leaves, 8"-12" long, compound 7 leaflets, sharply serrate; fruit, a thick-shelled nut, bitter kernel. appearance of wood: color, light or dark brown, the thick sap-wood lighter, often nearly white; ring-porous; rings marked by many large open ducts; grain, straight; rays, small and insignificant. physical qualities: very heavy (4th in this list); 56 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.8217; very strong (15th in this list); elastic (27th in this list); very hard (2d in this list); shrinkage, 10 per cent.; warps ..........; hard to work; splits with difficulty, hard to drive nails into. common uses: agricultural implements, wheels, runners, tool handles. remarks: wood not distinguished from shellbark hickory in commerce. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 34 blue beech. hornbeam. water beech. iron-wood. blue refers to color of bark; the trunk resembles beech; horn refers to horny texture of wood. _carpinus caroliniana_ walter. _carpinus_, classical latin name; _caroliniana_, named from the state. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best on western slopes of southern allegheny mountains and in southern arkansas and texas. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, a small tree, 30'-50' high; diameter, 6"-2'; short, fluted, sinewy trunk; bark, smooth, bluish gray; leaves, falcate, doubly serrate; fruit, small oval nut, enclosed in leaf-like bract. appearance of wood: color, light brown, sap-wood thick, whitish; diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, close; rays, numerous, broad. physical qualities: heavy (13th in this list); 45 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.7286; very strong (9th in this list); very stiff (15th in this list); hard (14th in this list); shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps and checks badly; not durable; hard to work; splits with great difficulty. common uses: levers, tool handles. remarks: no other wood so good for levers, because of stiffness. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 35 canoe birch. white birch. paper birch. all names refer to bark. _betula papyrifera_ marshall. _betula_, the classical latin name; _papyrifera_ refers to paper bearing bark. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best west of rocky mountains. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 60'-80'; diameter, 2'-3'; stem rarely quite straight; bark, smooth, white, exterior marked with lenticels, peeling freely horizontally into thin papery layers, showing brown or orange beneath, contains oil which burns hotly, formerly used by indians for canoes, very remarkable (see keeler, page 304); leaves, heart-shaped, irregularly serrate; fruit, pendulous strobiles. appearance of wood: color, brown or reddish, sap-wood white; diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, fairly straight; rays, numerous, obscure. physical qualities: weight, medium (33d in this list); 37 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.5955; very strong (14th in this list); very elastic (2d in this list); medium hard (39th in this list); shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps, .........; not durable, except bark; easy to work; splits with difficulty, nails well, tough. common uses: spools, shoe lasts and pegs, turnery, bark for canoes. remarks: forms forests. sap yields syrup. bark yields starch. valuable to woodsmen in many ways. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 36 red birch. river birch. red refers to color of bark; river, prefers river bottoms. _betula nigra_ linnaeus. _betula_, the classical latin name. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in florida, louisiana and texas. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 30'-80', and even higher; diameter, 1', even 5'; trunk, often divided low; bark, dark brown, marked by horizontal lenticels, peels into paper plates, curling back; leaves, doubly serrate, often almost lobed; fruit, pubescent, erect, strobiles. appearance of wood: color, light brown, thick sap-wood, whitish; diffuse-porous; rings, not plain; grain, close, rather crooked; rays, numerous, obscure. physical qualities: weight, medium (36th in this list); 35 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.5762; strong (22d in this list); very elastic (19th in this list); medium hard (37th in this list); shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps, .......; not durable when exposed; hard to work, tough; splits with difficulty, nails well. common uses: shoe lasts, yokes, furniture. remarks: prefers moist land. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 37 cherry birch. sweet birch. black birch. mahogany birch. cherry, because bark resembles that of cherry tree; sweet, refers to the taste of the spicy bark. _betula lenta_ linnaeus. _betula_, the classical latin name; _lenta_, meaning tenacious, sticky, may refer to the gum which exudes from the trunk. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in tennessee mountains. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 50'-80'; diameter, 2'-5'; trunk, rarely straight; bark, dark reddish brown, on old trunks deeply furrowed and broken into thick, irregular plates, marked with horizontal lenticels; resembles cherry; spicy, aromatic; leaves, ovate, oblong, 2"-6" long, irregularly serrate; fruit, erect strobiles. appearance of wood: color, dark, reddish brown; diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, close, satiny, polishes well, often stained to imitate mahogany; rays, numerous, obscure. physical qualities: heavy (6th in this list); 47 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.7617; very strong (4th in this list); very elastic (6th in this list); hard (11th in this list); shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps, little; not durable if exposed; rather hard to work; splits hard, tough. common uses: dowel pins, wooden ware, boats and ships. remarks: the birches are not usually distinguished from one another in the market. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 38 yellow birch. gray birch. yellow and gray, both refer to the color of the bark. _betula lutea_ f. a. michaux. _betula_, the classical latin name; _lutea_ refers to the yellow color of the bark. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in northern new york and new england. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 60'-100'; diameter, 3'-4'; branches, low; bark, silvery, yellow, gray, peeling horizontally into thin, papery, persistent layers, but on very old trunks, there are rough, irregular, plate-like scales; leaves, ovate, sharply, doubly serrate; fruit, erect, 1" strobiles. appearance of wood: color, light reddish brown, sap-wood white; diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, close, fairly straight; rays, numerous, obscure. physical qualities: heavy (21st in this list); 40 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6553; very strong (2nd in this list); very elastic (2d in this list); medium hard (22d in this list); shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps .........; not durable; rather hard to work, polishes well; splits with difficulty, holds nails well. common uses: furniture, spools, button molds, shoe lasts, shoe pegs, pill boxes, yokes. remarks: the birches are not usually distinguished from one another in the market. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 39 beech. _fagus grandifolia_ ehrhart. _fagus americana_ sweet. _fagus ferruginea_ aiton. _fagus atropunicea_ (marshall) sudworth. _fagus_ (greek _phago_ means to eat), refers to edible nut; _ferruginea_, refers to the iron rust color of the leaves in the fall; _atropunicea_, meaning dark red or purple, may refer to the color of the leaves of the copper beech. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in southern alleghany mountains and lower ohio valley. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 70'-80' and even 120'; diameter, 3'-4'; in forest, trunk tall, slender, sinewy; bark, smooth, ashy gray; leaves, feather-veined, wedge-shaped, serrate; leaf buds, long, pointed; fruit, 2 small triangular nuts, enclosed in burr, seeds about once in 3 years. appearance of wood: color, reddish, variable, sap-wood white; diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, straight; rays, broad, very conspicuous. physical qualities: heavy (20th in this list); 42 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6883; very strong (10th in this list); elastic (13th in this list); hard (22d in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps and checks during seasoning; not durable; hard to work, takes fine polish; splits with difficulty, hard to nail. common uses: plane stocks, shoe lasts, tool handles, chairs. remarks: often forms pure forests. uses due to its hardness. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters]. [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 40 chestnut. _castanea dentata_ (marshall) borkhausen. _castanea_, the classical greek and latin name; _dentata_, refers to toothed leaf. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in western north carolina, and eastern tennessee. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 75'-100'; diameter, 3'-4', and even 12'; branches, low; bark, thick, shallow, irregular, fissures, broad, grayish brown ridges; leaves, lanceolate, coarsely serrate, midribs and veins prominent; fruit, nuts, thin-shelled, sweet, enclosed in prickly burrs. appearance of wood: color, reddish brown, sap-wood lighter; ring-porous; rings, plain, pores large; grain, straight; rays, numerous, obscure. physical qualities: weight, light (50th in this list); 28 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.4504; medium strong (46th in this list); elasticity, medium (46th in this list); medium hard (44th in this list); shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps badly; very durable, especially in contact with soil, fairly easy to plane, chisel and saw; splits easily. common uses: railway ties, fence posts, interior finish. remarks: grows rapidly, and lives to great age. wood contains much tannic acid. uses depend largely upon its durability. lately whole regions depleted by fungous pest. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 41 red oak. _quercus rubra_ linnaeus. _quercus_, the classical latin name; _rubra_, refers to red color of wood. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in massachusetts and north of the ohio river. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 70'-100', even 150'; diameter, 3'-6'; a tall, handsome tree, branches rather low; bark, brownish gray, broad, thin, rounded ridges, rather smooth; leaves, 7 to 9 triangular pointed lobes, with rounded sinuses; acorns, characteristically large, in flat shallow cups. appearance of wood: color, reddish brown, sap-wood darker; ring-porous; rings, marked by several rows of very large open ducts; grain, crooked, coarse; rays, few, but broad, conspicuous. physical qualities: heavy (23d in this list); 45 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6540; strong (21st in this list); elastic (18th in this list); hard (26th in this list); shrinkage 6 to 10 per cent.; warps and checks badly; moderately durable; easier to work than white oak; splits readily, nails badly. common uses: cooperage, interior finish, furniture. remarks: grows rapidly. an inferior substitute for white oak. bark used in tanning. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 42 black oak. yellow bark oak. black refers to color of outer bark; yellow bark, refers to the inner bark, which is orange yellow. _quercus velutina_ lamarck. _quercus tinctoria_ michaux. _quercus_, the classical latin name; _velutina_, refers to the velvety surface of the young leaf; _tinctoria_, refers to dye obtained from inner bark. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in lower ohio valley. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 70'-80', even 150'; diameter 3'-4'; branches, low; bark, dark gray to black, deep fissures, broad, rounded, firm ridges, inner bark, yellow, yielding dye; leaves, large, lustrous, leathery, of varied forms; acorns, small; kernel, yellow, bitter. appearance of wood: color, reddish brown, sap-wood lighter; ring-porous; rings, marked by several rows of very large open ducts; grain, crooked; rays, thin. physical qualities: heavy (17th in this list); 45 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.7045; very strong (17th in this list); elastic (25th in this list); hard (18th in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent. or more; warps and checks in drying; durable; rather hard to work; splits readily, nails badly. common uses: furniture, interior trim, cooperage, construction. remarks: foliage handsome in fall; persists thru winter. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 43 basket oak. cow oak. cow refers to the fact that its acorns are eaten by cattle. _quercus michauxii_ nuttall. _quercus_, the classical latin name; _michauxii_, named for the botanist michaux. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in arkansas and louisiana, especially in river bottoms. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 80'-100'; diameter 3', even 7'; trunk, often clean and straight for 40' or 50'; bark, conspicuous, light gray, rough with loose ashy gray, scaly ridges; leaves, obovate, regularly scalloped; acorns, edible for cattle. appearance of wood: color, light brown, sap-wood light buff; ring-porous; rings, marked by few rather large, open ducts; grain, likely to be crooked; rays, broad, conspicuous. physical qualities: very heavy (5th in this list); 46 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.8039; very strong (12th in this list); elastic (33d in this list); hard (10th in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent. or more; warps unless carefully seasoned; durable; hard and tough to work; splits easily, bad to nail. common uses: construction, agricultural implements, wheel stock, baskets. remarks: the best white oak of the south. not distinguished from white oak in the market. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 44 bur oak. mossy-cup oak. over-cup oak. _quercus macrocarpa_ michaux. _quercus_, the classical latin name; _macrocarpa_, refers to the large acorn. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in southern indiana, illinois and kansas. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 70'-130', even 170'; diameter, 5'-7'; branches, high; corky wings on young branches; bark, gray brown, deeply furrowed; deep opposite sinuses on large leaves; acorns, half enclosed in mossy-fringed cup. appearance of wood: color, rich brown, sap-wood, thin, lighter; ring-porous; rings, marked by 1 to 3 rows of small open ducts; grain, crooked; rays, broad, and conspicuous. physical qualities: heavy (9th in this list); 46 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.7453; very strong (16th in this list); elastic (37th in this list); hard (9th in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent. or more; warps, ..........; hard, and tough to work; splits easily, resists nailing. common uses: ship building, cabinet work, railway ties, cooperage. remarks: good for prairie planting. one of the most valuable woods of north america. not distinguished from white oak in commerce. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 45 white oak (western). _quercus garryana_ douglas. _quercus_, the classical latin name; _garryana_, named for garry. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in western washington and oregon. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 60'-70', even 100'; diameter, 2'-3'; branches, spreading; bark, light brown, shallow fissures, broad ridges; leaves, coarsely pinnatified, lobed; fruit, large acorns. appearance of wood: color, light brown, sap-wood whitish; ring-porous; rings, marked by 1 to 3 rows of open ducts; grain, close, crooked; rays, varying greatly in width, often conspicuous. physical qualities: heavy (10th in this list); 46 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.7449; strong (28th in this list); elasticity medium (54th in this list); hard (8th in this list); shrinkage, 5 or 6 per cent.; warps, unless carefully seasoned; durable; hard to work, very tough; splits badly in nailing. common uses: ship building, vehicles, furniture, interior finish. remarks: best of pacific oaks. shrubby at high elevations. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 46 post oak. _quercus stellata_ wangenheim. _quercus minor_ (marsh) sargent. _quercus obtusiloba_ michaux. _quercus_, the classical latin name; _stellata_, refers to the stellate hairs on upper side of leaf; _minor_, refers to size of tree, which is often shrubby; _obtusiloba_, refers to the blunt lobes of leaves. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in mississippi basin. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 50'-75', even 100'; but often a shrub; diameter, 2'-3'; branches, spreading into dense round-topped head; bark, red or brown, deep, vertical, almost continuous, fissures and broad ridges, looks corrugated; leaves, in large tufts at ends of branchlets; acorns, small, sessile. appearance of wood: color, brown, thick, sap-wood, lighter; ring-porous; rings, 1 to 3 rows of not large open ducts; grain, crooked; rays, numerous, conspicuous. physical qualities: very heavy (2d in this list); 50 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.8367; strong (29th in this list); medium elastic (50th in this list); very hard (4th in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent. or more; warps and checks badly in seasoning; durable; hard to work; splits readily, bad to nail. common uses: cooperage, railway ties, fencing, construction. remarks: wood often undistinguished from white oak. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 47 white oak. stave oak. _quercus alba_ linnaeus. _quercus_, the classical latin name; white and _alba_, refer to white bark. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best on western slopes of southern alleghany mountains, and in lower ohio river valley. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 80'-100'; diameter, 3'-5'; trunk, in forest, tall, in open, short; bark, easily distinguished, light gray with shallow fissures, scaly; leaves, rounded lobes, and sinuses; acorns, 3/4" to 1" long, ripen first year. appearance of wood: color, light brown, sap-wood paler; ring-porous; rings, plainly defined by pores; grain crooked; rays, broad, very conspicuous and irregular. physical qualities: heavy (8th in this list); 50 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.7470; strong (23d in this list); elastic (32d in this list); hard (13th in this list); shrinkage, from 4 to 10 per cent.; warps and checks considerably, unless carefully seasoned; very durable, hard to work; splits somewhat hard, very difficult to nail. common uses: interior finish, furniture, construction, ship building, farm implements, cabinet making. remarks: the most important of american oaks. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 48 cork elm. rock elm. hickory elm. white elm. cliff elm. cork refers to corky ridges on branches. _ulmus thomasi_ sargent. _ulmus racemosa_ thomas. _ulmus_, the classical latin name; _racemosa_, refers to racemes of flowers. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in ontario and southern michigan. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 80'-100'; diameter, 2'-3', trunk often clear for 60'; bark, gray tinged with red, corky, irregular projections, give shaggy appearance; leaves, obovate, doubly serrate, 3"-4" long; fruit, pubescent, samaras. appearance of wood: color, light brown or red; sap-wood yellowish; ring-porous; rings, marked with one or two rows of small open ducts; grain, interlaced; rays, numerous, obscure. physical qualities: heavy (15th in this list); 45 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.7263; very strong (13th in this list); elastic (22d in this list); hard (15th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps, ........; very durable; hard to work; splits and nails with difficulty. common uses: hubs, agricultural implements, sills, bridge timbers. remarks: the best of the elm woods. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 49 white elm. american elm. water elm. water, because it flourishes on river banks. _ulmus americana_ linnaeus. _ulmus_, the classical latin name. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best northward on river bottoms. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 90', even 120'; diameter, 3'-8'; trunk, usually divides at 30'-40' from ground into upright branches, making triangular outline; bark, ashy gray, deep longitudinal fissures, broad ridges; leaves, 4"-6" long, oblique obovate, doubly serrate, smooth one way; fruit, small, roundish, flat, smooth, samaras. appearance of wood: color, light brown, sap-wood yellowish; ring-porous; rings, marked by several rows of large open ducts; grain, interlaced; rays, numerous, thin. physical qualities: heavy (24th in this list); 34 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6506; strong (33d in this list); elasticity, medium (59th in this list); medium hard (28th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps .........; not durable; hard to work, tough, will not polish; splits with difficulty. common uses: cooperage, wheel stock, flooring. remarks: favorite ornamental tree, but shade light, and leaves fall early. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 50 cucumber tree. mountain magnolia. cucumber, refers to the shape of the fruit. _magnolia acuminata_ linnaeus. _magnolia_, named for pierre magnol, a french botanist; _acuminata_, refers to pointed fruit. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best at the base of mountains in north carolina and south carolina and tennessee. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 60'-90'; diameter, 3'-4'; in forest, clear trunk for 2/3 of height (40' or 50'); bark, dark brown, thick, furrowed; leaves, large, smooth; flowers, large greenish yellow; fruit, dark red "cones" formed of two seeded follicles. appearance of wood: color, yellow brown, thick sapwood, lighter; diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, very straight, close, satiny; rays, numerous thin. physical qualities: light (45th in this list); .... lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.4690; medium strong (49th in this list); elastic (38th in this list); medium hard (41st in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps .........; very durable; easy to work; splits easily, takes nails well. common uses: pump logs, cheap furniture, shelving. remarks: wood similar to yellow poplar, and often sold with it. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 51 yellow poplar. whitewood. tulip tree. poplar, inappropriate, inasmuch as the tree does not belong to poplar family. white, refers inappropriately to the color of the wood, which is greenish yellow. _liriodendron tulipifera_ linnaeus. _liriodendron_, means lily-tree; _tulipifera_ means tulip-bearing. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in lower ohio valley and southern appalachian mountains. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 70'-90'; even 200'; diameter, 6'-8', even 12'; tall, magnificent trunk, unsurpassed in grandeur by any eastern american tree; bark, brown, aromatic, evenly furrowed so as to make clean, neat-looking trunk; leaves, 4 lobed, apex, peculiarly truncated, clean cut; flowers, tulip-like; fruit, cone, consisting of many scales. appearance of wood: color, light greenish or yellow brown, sap-wood, creamy white; diffuse-porous; rings, close but distinct; grain, straight; rays, numerous and plain. physical qualities: light (54th in this list); 26 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.4230; medium strong (51st in this list); elastic (39th in this list); soft (49th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps little; durable; easy to work; brittle and does not split readily, nails very well. common uses: construction work, furniture, interiors, boats, carriage bodies, wooden pumps. remarks: being substituted largely for white pine. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 52 sweet gum. gum, refers to exudations. _liquidambar styraciflua_ linnaeus. _liquidambar_, means liquid gum; _styraciflua_, means fluid resin (storax). [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in the lower mississippi valley. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 80'-140'; diameter, 3'-5'; trunk, tall, straight; bark, light brown tinged with red, deeply fissured; branchlets often having corky wings; leaves, star-shaped, five pointed; conspicuously purple and crimson in autumn; fruit, multi-capsular, spherical, persistent heads. appearance of wood: color, light red brown, sap-wood almost white; diffuse-porous; rings, fine and difficult to distinguish; grain, straight, close, polishes well; rays, numerous, very obscure. physical qualities: weight, medium (34th in this list); 37 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.5909; medium strong (52d in this list); elasticity medium (44th in this list); medium hard (36th in this list); shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps and twists badly in seasoning; not durable when exposed; easy to work; crumbles in splitting; nails badly. common uses: building construction, cabinet-work, veneering, street pavement, barrel staves and heads. remarks: largely used in veneers, because when solid it warps and twists badly. exudations used in medicine to some extent. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 53 sycamore. buttonwood. button ball. water beech. sycamore, from two greek words meaning fig and mulberry; buttonwood and button-ball, refer to fruit balls. _platanus occidentalis_ linnaeus. _platanus_, refers to the broad leaves; _occidentalis_, western, to distinguish it from european species. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in valley of lower ohio and mississippi. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 70'-100', and even 170'; diameter, 6'-12'; trunk, commonly divides into 2 or 3 large branches, limbs spreading, often dividing angularly; bark, flakes off in great irregular masses, leaving mottled surface, greenish gray and brown, this peculiarity due to its rigid texture; leaves, palmately 3 to 5 lobed, 4"-9" long, petiole enlarged, enclosing buds; fruit, large rough balls, persistent through winter. appearance of wood: color, reddish brown, sap-wood lighter; diffuse-porous; rings, marked by broad bands of small ducts; grain, cross, close; rays, numerous, large, conspicuous. physical qualities: weight, medium (38th in this list); 35 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.5678; medium strong (54th in this list); elasticity, medium (43d in this list); medium hard (30th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps little; very durable, once used for mummy coffins; hard to work; splits very hard. common uses: tobacco boxes, yokes, furniture, butcher blocks. remarks: trunks often very large and hollow. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 54 wild black cherry. _padus serotina_ (ehrhart) agardh. _prunus serotina_ ehrhart. _padus_, the old greek name; _prunus_, the classical latin name; _serotina_, because it blossoms late (june). [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best on southern allegheny mountains. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 40'-50', even 100'; diameter, 2'-4'; straight, columnar trunk, often free from branches for 70'; bark, blackish and rough, fissured in all directions, broken into small, irregular, scaly plates, with raised edges; leaves, oblong to lanceolate, deep, shiny green; fruit, black drupe, 1/2". appearance of wood: color, light brown or red, sap-wood yellow; diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, straight, close, fine, takes fine polish; rays, numerous. physical qualities: weight, medium (35th in this list); 36 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.5822; strong (35th in this list); elasticity medium (45th in this list); hard (16th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps, little; durability .........; easily worked; splits easily, must be nailed with care. common uses: cabinet-work, costly interior trim. remarks: grows rapidly. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 55 black locust. locust. yellow locust. yellow, from color of sap-wood. _robinia pseudacacia_ linnaeus. _robinia_, in honor of jean robin, of france; _pseudacacia_, means false acacia. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best on western allegheny mountains in west virginia. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 50'-80'; diameter, 3'-4'; bark, strikingly deeply furrowed, dark brown; prickles on small branches, grows fast, forms thickets, on account of underground shoots; leaves, 8"-14" long, pinnately compound; 7 to 9 leaflets, close at night and in rainy weather; fruit, pod 3"-4" long. appearance of wood: color, brown, sap-wood thin, yellowish; ring-porous; rings, clearly marked by 2 or 3 rows of large open ducts; grain, crooked, compact. physical qualities: heavy (12th in this list); 45 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.7333; very strong (1st in this list); elastic (9th in this list); very hard (6th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps badly, very durable; hard to work, tough; splits in nailing. common uses: shipbuilding, construction, "tree-nails" or pins, wagon hubs. remarks: widely planted and cultivated east and west. likely to be infested with borers. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 56 mahogany. _swietenia mahagoni_ jacquin. _swietenia_, in honor of dr. gerard van swieten of austria; _mahagoni_, a south american word. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); only on florida keys in the united states. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 40'-50'; diameter, 2' or more, foreign trees larger; immense buttresses at base of trunk; bark, thick, dark red-brown, having surface of broad, thick scales; leaves, 4"-6" long, compound, 4 pairs of leaflets; fruit, 4"-5" long, containing seeds. appearance of wood: color, red-brown, sap-wood, thin, yellow; diffuse-porous; rings, inconspicuous; grain, crooked; rays, fine and scattered, but plain. physical qualities: heavy (14th in this list); 45 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.7282; very strong (20th in this list); elastic (24th in this list); very hard (1st in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps very little; very durable; genuine mahogany, hard to work; especially if grain is cross; somewhat brittle, and comparatively easy to split, nails with difficulty; polishes and takes glue well. common uses: chiefly for cabinet-making, furniture, interior finishes and veneers. remarks: mahogany, now in great demand in the american market for fine furniture and interior trim comes from the west indies, central america and west africa. the so-called spanish mahogany, the most highly prized variety, came originally from the south of hayti. the honduras mahogany was often called baywood. botanically the varieties are not carefully distinguished; in the lumber yard the lumber is known by its sources. the cuba wood can be partly distinguished by the white chalk-like specks in the pores and is cold to the touch, while the honduras wood can be recognized by the black specks or lines in the grain. both the honduras and west india woods have a softer feel than the african wood, when rubbed with the thumb. the cuba and st. domingo wood are preferred to the honduras, and still more to the african, but even experts have difficulty in distinguishing the varieties. spanish cedar, or furniture cedar (_cedrela odorata_) belongs to the same family as mahogany and is often sold for it. it is softer, lighter, and easier to work. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 57 oregon maple. white maple. large leaved maple. _acer macrophyllum_ pursh. _acer_, the classical latin name; _macrophyllum_, refers to the large leaves. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in southern oregon. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 70'-100'; diameter, 3'-5'; stout, often pendulous branches, making a handsome tree; bark, reddish brown, deeply furrowed, square scales; leaves, very large, 8"-12" and long petioles, deep, narrow sinuses; fruit, hairy samaras. appearance of wood: color, rich brown and red, sap-wood thick, nearly white; diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, close, fibres interlaced, sometimes figured, polishes well; rays, numerous and thin. physical qualities: light in weight (26th in this list); 30 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4909; medium strong (47th in this list); elasticity medium (57th in this list); medium hard (31st in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent.; warps ..........; not durable; rather hard to work; splits with difficulty. common uses: tool and ax handles, furniture, interior finish. remarks: a valuable wood on the pacific coast. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 58 soft maple. white maple. silver maple. silver, refers to white color of underside of leaf. _acer saccharinum_ linnaeus. _acer dasycarpum_ ehrhart. _acer_, the classical latin name; _saccharinum_, refers to sweetish juice; _dasycarpum_, refers to the wooliness of the fruit when young. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in lower ohio valley. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 50'-90', even 120'; diameter, 3'-5'; form suggests elm; bark, reddish brown, furrowed, surface separating into large, loose scales; leaves, palmately 5 lobed, with narrow, acute sinuses, silvery white beneath, turn only yellow in autumn; fruit, divergent, winged samaras. appearance of wood: color, brown and reddish, sap-wood, cream; diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, twisted, wavy, fine, polishes well; rays, thin, numerous. physical qualities: weight, medium (40th in this list); 32 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.5269; very strong (19th in this list); very elastic (20th in this list); hard (25th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps, ............; not durable under exposure; easily worked; splits in nailing. common uses: flooring, furniture, turnery, wooden ware. remarks: grows rapidly. curly varieties found. sap produces some sugar. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 59 red maple. _acer rubrum_ linnaeus. _acer_, the classical latin name; _rubrum_, refers to red flowers and autumn leaves. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in lower ohio valley. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 80'-120'; diameter, 2'-4'; branches, low; bark, dark gray, shaggy, divided by long ridges; leaves, palmately 5 lobed, acute sinuses; fruit, double samaras, forming characteristic maple key. appearance of wood: color, light reddish brown, sap-wood, lighter; diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, crooked; rays, numerous, obscure. physical qualities: weight, medium (30th in this list); 38 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6178; strong (36th in this list); elastic (36th in this list); hard (27th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps .......; not durable; fairly hard to work; splits with difficulty, splits badly in nailing. common uses: flooring, turning, wooden ware. remarks: grows rapidly. has red flowers, red keys, red leaf stems, and leaves scarlet or crimson in autumn. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 60 hard maple. sugar maple. rock maple. _acer saccharum_ marshall. _acer_, the classical latin name; _saccharum_, refers to sweet sap. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in regions of great lakes. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 100'-120'; diameter, 1-1/2'-3', even 4'; often trees in forest are without branches for 60'-70' from ground, in the open, large impressive tree; bark, gray brown, thick, deep, longitudinal fissures, hard and rough; leaves, opposite, 3 to 5 lobed, scarlet and yellow in autumn; fruit, double, slightly divergent samaras. appearance of wood: color, light brown tinged with red; diffuse-porous rings, close but distinct; grain, crooked, fine, close, polishes well; rays, fine but conspicuous. physical qualities: heavy (19th in this list); 43 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6912; very strong (8th in this list); very elastic (5th in this list); very hard (7th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps badly; not durable when exposed; hard to work; splits badly in nailing. common uses: school and other furniture, car construction, carving, wooden type, tool handles, shoe lasts, piano actions, ships' keels. remarks: tree very tolerant. the uses of this wood are chiefly due to its hardness. bird's-eye maple and curly maple are accidental varieties. pure maple sugar is made chiefly from this species. its ashes yield large quantities of potash. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 61 basswood. linden. bass, refers to bast or inner bark. _tilia americana_ linnaeus. _tilia_, the classical latin name. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in bottom lands of lower ohio river. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 60'-70', even 130'; diameter, 2'-4'; trunk, erect, pillar-like, branches spreading, making round heads; bark, light brown, furrowed, scaly surface, inner bark fibrous and tough, used for matting; leaves, oblique, heart-shaped, side nearest branch larger; fruit clustered on long pendulous stem, attached to vein of narrow bract. appearance of wood: color, very light brown, approaching cream color, sap-wood, hardly distinguishable; diffuse-porous; rings, fine and close but clear; grain, straight; rays, numerous, obscure. physical qualities: light in weight (49th in this list); 28 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.4525; weak (60th in this list); elasticity, medium (49th in this list); soft (64th in this list); shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps comparatively little; quite durable; very easily worked; somewhat tough to split, nails well. common uses: woodenware, carriage bodies, etc., picture molding, paper pulp, etc. remarks: may be propagated by grafting as well as by seed. is subject to attack by many insects. wood used for carriage bodies because flexible and easily nailed. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 62 sour gum. tupelo. pepperidge. black gum. tupelo, the indian name. _nyssa sylvatica_ marshal. _nyssa_, from nysa, the realm of moist vegetation and the home of _dio-nysus_ (bacchus) (the tree grows in low wet lands); _sylvatica_, refers to its habit of forest growth. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in southern appalachian mountains. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 40'-50', even 100'; diameter, 1'6"-3'6", even 5'; variable in form; bark, brown, deeply fissured and scaly; leaves, in sprays, short, petioled, brilliant scarlet in autumn; fruit, bluish black, sour, fleshy drupe. appearance of wood: color, pale yellow, sap-wood, white, hardly distinguishable; diffuse-porous; rings, not plain; grain fine, twisted and interwoven; rays, numerous, thin. physical qualities: medium heavy (25th in this list); 39 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6356; strong (34th in this list); elasticity, medium (51st in this list); hard (20th in this list); shrinkage, 5 or 6 per cent.; warps and checks badly; not durable if exposed; hard to work; splits hard, tough. common uses: wagon hubs, handles, yokes, wooden shoe soles, docks and wharves, rollers in glass factories. remarks: the best grades closely resemble yellow poplar. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 63 black ash. hoop ash. hoop, refers to its use for barrel hoops. _fraxinus nigra_ marshall. _fraxinus sambucifolia._ _fraxinus_, from a greek word (_phraxis_) meaning split, refers to the cleavability of the wood; _sambucifolia_, refers to the fact that the leaves are in odor like those of elder (sambucus). [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in moist places. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 80'-90'; diameter, 1'-1-1/2'; slenderest of the forest trees, upright branches; bark, gray tinged with red, irregular plates, with thin scales; leaves, 10"-16" long, compound, 7 to 11 leaflets, in autumn rusty brown; fruit, single samaras in panicles. appearance of wood: color, dark brown, sap-wood light; ring-porous; rings, well defined; grain, straight, burls often form highly prized veneers; rays, numerous and thin. physical qualities: medium heavy (27th in this list); 39 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6318; strong (38th in this list); elasticity, medium (12th in this list); hard (23d in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps, but not very much; not durable when exposed; hard to work; separates easily in layers, hence used for splints. common uses: interior finish, cabinet work, fencing, barrel hoops. remarks: the flexibility of the wood largely determines its uses. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 64 oregon ash. _fraxinus oregona_ nuttall. _fraxinus_, from a greek word (_phraxis_) meaning split, refers to the cleavability of the wood; _oregona_, named for the state of oregon. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in southern oregon. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 50'-80'; diameter, 1'-1-1/2', even 4'; branches, stout, erect; bark, grayish brown, deep interrupted fissures, broad, flat ridges, exfoliates; leaves, 5"-14" long; pinnately compound, 5 to 7 leaflets; fruit, single samaras in clusters. appearance of wood: color, brown, sap-wood thick, lighter; ring-porous; rings, plainly marked by large, open, scattered pores; grain, coarse, straight; rays, numerous, thin. physical qualities: weight, medium (37th in this list); 35 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.5731; medium strong (50th in this list); elasticity, medium (48th in this list); medium hard (29th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps,............; not durable; hard to work, tough; splits with difficulty. common uses: furniture, vehicles, cooperage. remarks: a valuable timber tree of the pacific coast. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 65 blue ash. blue, refers to blue dye obtained from inner bark. _fraxinus quadrangulata_ michaux. _fraxinus_, from a greek word (_phraxis_) meaning split, refers to the cleavability of the wood; _quadrangulata_, refers to four-angled branchlets. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in lower wabash valley. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 60'-70', even 120'; diameter, 1'-2'; tall, slender, four-angled, branchlets; bark, light gray, irregularly divided into large plate-like scales, inside bark, bluish, yielding dye; leaves, 8"-12" long, compound pinnate, 5 to 9 leaflets; fruit, winged samaras in panicles. appearance of wood: color, light yellow, streaked with brown, sap-wood lighter; ring-porous; rings, clearly marked by 1 to 3 rows of large, open ducts; grain, straight; rays, numerous, obscure. physical qualities: heavy (16th in this list); 44 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.7184; strong (37th in this list); elasticity, medium (58th in this list); hard (12th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps, ............; most durable of the ashes; hard to work; splits readily, bad for nailing. common uses: carriage building, tool handles. remarks: blue ash pitchfork handles are famous. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 66 red ash. red, from color of inner bark. _fraxinus pennsylvanica_ marshall. _fraxinus pubescens_ lambert. _fraxinus_, from a greek word (_phraxis_) meaning split, refers to the cleavability of the wood; _pennsylvanica_, in honor of the state of pennsylvania; _pubescens_, refers to down on new leaves and twigs. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best east of alleghany mountains. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 40'-60'; diameter, 12"-18"; small, slim, upright branches; bark, brown or ashy, great, shallow, longitudinal furrows; leaves, 10"-12" long, pinnately compound, 7 to 9 leaflets, covered with down; fruit, single samara. appearance of wood: color, light brown, sap-wood lighter and yellowish; ring porous; rings, marked by pores; grain, straight, coarse; rays, numerous, thin. physical qualities: weight, medium (28th in this list); 39 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6251; strong (30th in this list); elasticity, medium (53d in this list); hard (17th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps little; not durable; hard to work; splits in nailing. common uses: agricultural implements, oars, handles, boats. remarks: often sold with and as the superior white ash. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] 67 white ash. white, refers to whitish color of wood. _fraxinus americana_ linnaeus. _fraxinus_, from a greek word (_phraxis_) meaning split, refers to the cleavability of the wood. [illustration: habitat.] habitat: (see map); best in the bottom lands of lower ohio valley. [illustration: leaf.] characteristics of the tree: height, 70'-80', even 120'; diameter, 3'-6'; branches rather high, tree singularly graceful; bark, gray, narrow furrows, clean, neat trunk; leaves, 8"-15" long, compound, tufted, smooth, turns in autumn to beautiful purples, browns and yellows; fruit, panicles of samaras, persistent till midwinter. appearance of wood: color, light reddish brown, sap-wood whitish; ring-porous, rings clearly marked by pores; straight-grained; pith rays obscure. physical qualities: heavy (22d in this list); 39 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6543; strong (31st in this list); elastic (30th in this list); hard (17th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps little; not durable in contact with soil; hard and tough; splits readily, nails badly. common uses: inside finish, farm implements, barrels, baskets, oars, carriages. remarks: forms no forests, occurs scattered. its uses for handles and oars determined by combination of strength, lightness and elasticity. [illustration: radial section, life size.] [illustration: cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.] [illustration: tangential section, life size.] list of 66 common woods arranged in the order of their weight. 1. shellbark hickory. 2. post oak. 3. mockernut. 4. pignut. 5. basket oak. 6. cherry birch. 7. slash pine. 8. white oak. 9. bur oak. 10. western white oak. 11. western larch. 12. black locust. 13. blue beech. 14. mahogany. 15. cork elm. 16. blue ash. 17. black oak. 18. longleaf pine. 19. hard maple. 20. beech. 21. yellow birch. 22. white ash. 23. red oak. 24. white elm. 25. sour gum. 26. oregon maple. 27. black ash. 28. red ash. 29. tamarack. 30. red maple. 31. black walnut. 32. shortleaf pine. 33. canoe birch. 34. sweet gum. 35. wild black cherry. 36. red birch. 37. oregon ash. 38. sycamore. 39. loblolly pine. 40. soft maple. 41. douglas spruce. 42. red cedar. 43. norway pine. 44. western yellow pine. 45. cucumber tree. 46. lawson cypress. 47. black spruce and red spruce. 48. bald cypress. 49. basswood. 50. chestnut. 51. black willow. 52. tideland spruce. 53. hemlock. 54. yellow poplar. 55. redwood. 56. butternut. 57. white spruce. 58. western white pine. 59. white pine. 60. western red cedar. 61. sugar pine. 62. grand fir. 63. engelmann's spruce. 64. white cedar. 65. big tree. list of 66 common woods arranged in the order of their strength. 1. black locust. 2. yellow birch. 3. western larch. 4. cherry birch. 5. shellbark hickory. 6. slash pine. 7. longleaf pine. 8. hard maple. 9. blue beech. 10. beech. 11. mockernut. 12. basket oak. 13. cork elm. 14. canoe birch. 15. pignut hickory. 16. bur oak. 17. black oak. 18. shortleaf pine. 19. soft maple. 20. mahogany. 21. red oak. 22. red birch. 23. white oak. 24. tamarack. 25. lawson cypress. 26. loblolly pine. 27. douglas spruce. 28. western white oak. 29. post oak. 30. red ash. 31. white ash. 32. black walnut. 33. white elm. 34. sour gum. 35. wild black cherry. 36. red maple. 37. blue ash. 38. black ash. 39. norway pine. 40. western red cedar. 41. black spruce and red spruce. 42. white spruce. 43. red cedar. 44. hemlock. 45. western yellow pine. 46. chestnut. 47. oregon maple. 48. bald cypress. 49. cucumber tree. 50. oregon ash. 51. yellow poplar. 52. sweet gum. 53. tideland spruce. 54. sycamore. 55. white pine. 56. western white pine. 57. butternut. 58. redwood. 59. sugar pine. 60. basswood. 61. engelmann's spruce. 62. grand fir. 63. big tree. 64. white cedar. 65. black willow. list of 66 common woods arranged in the order of their elasticity. 1. western larch. 2. canoe birch and yellow birch. 3. slash pine. 4. longleaf pine. 5. hard maple. 6. cherry birch. 7. shortleaf pine. 8. shellbark hickory. 9. black locust. 10. douglas spruce. 11. tamarack. 12. lawson cypress. 13. beech. 14. mockernut. 15. blue beech. 16. norway pine. 17. loblolly pine. 18. red oak. 19. red birch. 20. soft maple. 21. red spruce and black spruce. 22. cork elm. 23. black walnut. 24. mahogany. 25. black oak. 26. western red cedar. 27. pignut hickory. 28. bald cypress. 29. white spruce. 30. white ash. 31. tideland spruce. 32. white oak. 33. basket oak. 34. grand fir. 35. western white pine. 36. red maple. 37. bur oak. 38. cucumber tree. 39. yellow poplar. 40. hemlock. 41. western yellow pine. 42. black ash. 43. sycamore. 44. sweet gum. 45. wild black cherry. 46. chestnut. 47. white pine. 48. oregon ash. 49. bass. 50. post oak. 51. sour gum. 52. butternut. 53. red ash. 54. western white oak. 55. engelmann's spruce. 56. sugar pine. 57. oregon maple. 58. blue ash. 59. white elm. 60. redwood. 61. red cedar. 62. big tree. 63. white cedar. 64. black willow. list of 66 common woods arranged in the order of their hardness. 1. mahogany. 2. pignut. 3. mockernut. 4. post oak. 5. shellbark hickory. 6. black locust. 7. hard maple. 8. western white oak. 9. bur oak. 10. basket oak. 11. cherry birch. 12. blue ash. 13. white oak. 14. blue beech. 15. cork elm. 16. wild black cherry. 17. red ash. 18. black oak. 19. white ash. 20. sour gum. 21. black walnut. 22. beech. 23. black ash. 24. slash pine. 25. soft maple. 26. red oak. 27. red maple. 28. white elm. 29. oregon ash. 30. sycamore. 31. oregon maple. 32. yellow birch. 33. long leaf pine. 34. red cedar. 35. western larch. 36. sweet gum. 37. red birch. 38. short leaf pine. 39. canoe birch. 40. tamarack. 41. cucumber tree. 42. western yellow pine. 43. loblolly pine. 44. chestnut. 45. douglas spruce. 46. black willow. 47. butternut. 48. norway pine. 49. yellow poplar. 50. lawson cypress. 51. hemlock. 52. bald cypress. 53. sugar pine. 54. red spruce and black spruce. 55. redwood. 56. engelmann's spruce. 57. white pine. 58. white spruce. 59. tideland spruce. 60. western white cedar. 61. big tree. 62. white cedar. 63. western white pine. 64. basswood. 65. grand fir. the principal species of woods. references:[a] sargent, _jesup collection_. sargent, _manual_. britton. roth, _timber_. hough, _handbook_. keeler. apgar. mohr. _for. bull._, no. 22. fernow, _forestry investigations_. lumber trade journals. baterden. sargent, _silva_. sargent, _forest trees_, 10th census, vol. ix. boulger. hough, _american woods_. snow. lounsberry. spaulding. _for. bull._, no. 13. sudworth. _for. bull._, no. 17. forest service _records of wholesale prices of lumber_, list. a. for particular trees consult for. serv., bulletins and circulars. see for. service _classified list of publications_. [footnote a: for general bibliography, see p. 4.] chapter iv. the distribution and composition of the north american forests. the forests of the united states, map, fig. 44, may be conveniently divided into two great regions, the eastern or atlantic forest, and the western or pacific forest. these are separated by the great treeless plains which are west of the mississippi river, and east of the rocky mountains, and which extend from north dakota to western texas.[1] [illustration: fig. 44. forest regions of the united states. _u. s. forest service._] the eastern forest once consisted of an almost unbroken mass, lying in three quite distinct regions, (1) the northern belt of conifers, (2) the southern belt of conifers, and (3) the great deciduous (hardwood) forest lying between these two. (1) the northern belt of conifers or "north woods" extended thru northern new england and new york and ran south along the appalachians. it reappeared again in northern michigan, wisconsin and minnesota. white pine, fig. 45, was the characteristic tree in the eastern part of this belt, tho spruce was common, fig. 56, p. 213, and white and norway pine and hemlock distinguished it in the western part. altho the more valuable timber, especially the pine, has been cut out, it still remains a largely unbroken forest mainly of spruce, second growth pine, hemlock and some hardwood. [illustration: fig. 45. interior of dense white pine forest, cass lake, minn. _u. s. forest service._] (2) the southern pine forest formerly extended from the potomac river in a belt from one to two hundred miles wide along the atlantic coast, across the florida peninsula, and along the gulf of mexico, skipping the mississippi river and reappearing in a great forest in louisiana and eastern texas. it was composed of almost pure stands of pine, the long-leaf, fig. 46, the short-leaf, and the loblolly, with cypress in the swamps and bottom lands. in southern florida the forest is tropical, fig. 47, like that of the west indies, and in southern texas it partakes of the character of the mexican forest. [illustration: fig. 46. long-leaf pine forest. oscilla, georgia. _u. s. forest service._] [illustration: fig. 47. semi-tropical forest, florida. live oak, surrounded by cabbage palmetto, and hung with spanish moss. _u. s. forest service._] (3) between these north and south coniferous belts, lay the great broad-leaf or hardwood forest, fig. 48, which constituted the greater part of the eastern forest and characterized it. it was divided into two parts by an irregular northeast and southwest line, running from southern new england to missouri. the southeast portion consisted of hardwoods intermixed with conifers. the higher ridges of the appalachian range, really a leg of the northern forest, were occupied by conifers, mainly spruce, white pine, and hemlock. the northwest portion of the region, particularly ohio, indiana, and illinois, was without the conifers. it was essentially a mixed forest, largely oak, with a variable mixture of maples, beech, chestnut, yellow poplar, hickory, sycamore, elm, and ash, with birch appearing toward the north and pine toward the south. [illustration: fig. 48. broad-leaf forest, protected from cattle and fire. hancock co., indiana. _u. s. forest service._] taking the eastern forest as a whole, its most distinguishing feature was the prevalence of broad-leaved trees, so that it might properly be called a deciduous forest. the greatest diversity of trees was to be found in kentucky, tennessee and north carolina, and this region is still the source of the best hardwood lumber. this great eastern forest, which once extended uninterruptedly from the atlantic to the mississippi and beyond, has now been largely lumbered off, particularly thru the middle or hardwood portion, making way for farms and towns. the north and south coniferous belts are still mainly unbroken, and are sparsely settled, but the big timber is cut out, giving place to poorer trees. this is particularly true of the white pine, "the king of american trees," only a little of which, in valuable sizes, is left in michigan, wisconsin and minnesota. in the same way in the south, the long-leaf pine, once the characteristic tree, is fast being lumbered out. [illustration: fig. 49. irrigated ranch on treeless alkali plain. rio blanco co., colorada. _u. s. forest service._] the western or pacific forest extends two great legs, one down the rocky mountain range, and the other along the pacific coast. between them lies the great treeless alkali plain centering around nevada, fig. 49. in these two regions coniferous trees have almost a monopoly. broad-leaved trees are to be found there, along the river beds and in ravines, but they are of comparatively little importance. the forest is essentially an evergreen forest. another marked feature of this western forest, except in the puget sound region, is that the trees, in many cases, stand far apart, their crowns not even touching, so that the sun beats down and dries up the forest floor, fig. 50. there is no dense "forest cover" or canopy as in the eastern forest. moreover these western forests are largely broken up, covering but a part of the mountains, many of which are snow-clad, and interrupted by bare plains. along the creeks there grow a variety of hardwoods. it was never a continuous forest as was the eastern forest. the openness of this forest on the rockies and on the eastern slopes of the sierra nevadas is in marked contrast to the western slopes of the sierras, where there are to be seen the densest and most remarkable woods of the world, fig. 51. this is due to the peculiar distribution of the rainfall of the region. the precipitation of the moisture upon the northwest coast where the trees are dripping with fog a large part of the time, is unequaled by that of any other locality on the continent. but the interior of this region, which is shut off by the high sierra nevadas from the western winds, has a very light and irregular rainfall. where the rainfall is heavy, the forests are dense; and where the rainfall is light, the trees are sparse. [illustration: fig. 50. open western forest, bull pine. flagstaff, arizona. _u. s. forest service._] along the rockies the characteristic trees are engelmann's spruce, bull pine, douglas fir, and lodgepole pine. as one goes west, the variety of trees increases and becomes, so far as conifers are concerned, far greater than in the east. of 109 conifers in the united states, 80 belong to the western forests and 28 to the eastern. the pacific forest is rich in the possession of half a dozen leading species--douglas fir, western hemlock, sugar pine, bull pine, cedar and redwood. [illustration: fig. 51. dense forest of puget sound region, red fir and red cedar. pierce co., washington. _u. s. forest service._] but the far western conifers are remarkable, not only for their variety, but still more for the density of their growth, already mentioned, and for their great size, fig. 52. the pines, spruces and hemlocks of the puget sound region make eastern trees look small, and both the red fir and the redwood often grow to be over 250 feet high, and yield 100,000 feet, b.m., to the acre as against 10,000 feet, b.m., of good spruce in maine. the redwood, fig. 53, occupies a belt some twenty miles wide along the coast from southern oregon to a point not far north of san francisco and grows even taller than the famous big trees. the big trees are the largest known trees in diameter, occasionally reaching in that measurement 35 feet. [illustration: fig. 52. virgin forest of red fir, red cedar, western hemlock, and oregon maple. ashford, washington. _u. s. forest service._] [illustration: fig. 53. redwood forest. santa cruz co., calif. _u. s. forest service._] the big tree, fig. 54, occurs exclusively in groves, which, however, are not pure, but are scattered among a much larger number of trees of other kinds. [illustration: fig. 54. big tree forest. sierra national forest, california. _u. s. forest service._] the great and unsurpassed puget sound forest is destined to be before long the center of the lumber trade of this country. these two great forests of the east and the west both run northward into british america, and are there united in a broad belt of subarctic forest which extends across the continent. at the far north it is characterized by the white spruce and aspen. the forest is open, stunted, and of no economic value. taking all the genera and species together, there is a far greater variety in the eastern than in the western forests. a considerable number of genera, perhaps a third of the total, grow within both regions, but the species having continental range are few. they are the following: larch (_larix laricina_), white spruce (_picea canadensis_), dwarf juniper (_juniperus communis_), black willow (_salix nigra_), almond leaf willow (_salix amygdaloides_), long leaf willow (_salix fluviatilis_), aspen (_populus tremuloides_), balm of gilead (_populus balsamifera_), and hackberry (_celtis occidentalis_). [footnote 1: original forest regions of the united states. area area thousand acres per cent. northern forest 158,938 8.4 hardwood forest 328,183 17.3 southern forest 249,669 13.1 rocky mountains forest 155,014 8.1 pacific forest 121,356 6.4 treeless area 887,787 46.7 -------- ---- total land area 1,900,947 100.0 ] the distribution and composition of north american forests. references:[a] sargent, _forest trees_, intro., pp. 3-10. bruncken, pp. 5-16. roth, _first book_, pp. 209-212. shaler, i, pp. 489-498. fernow, _for. inves._, pp. 45-51. fernow, _economics_, pp. 331-368. [footnote a: for general bibliography, see p. 4.] chapter v. the forest organism. the forest is much more than an assemblage of different trees, it is an organism; that is, the trees that compose it have a vital relation to each other. it may almost be said to have a life of its own, since it has a soil and a climate, largely of its own making. without these conditions, and without the help and hindrance which forest trees give to each other, these trees would not have their present characteristics, either in shape, habits of growth or nature of wood grain. indeed, some of them could not live at all. since by far the greater number of timber trees grow in the forest, in order to understand the facts about trees and woods, it is necessary to know something about the conditions of forest life. a tree is made up of three distinct parts: (1) the roots which anchor it in the ground, and draw its nourishment from the moist soil; (2) the trunk, or bole, or stem, which carries the weight of the branches and leaves, and conveys the nourishment to and from the leaves; (3) the crown, composed of the leaves, the branches on which they hang, and the buds at the ends of the branches. as trees stand together in the forest, their united crowns make a sort of canopy or cover, fig. 55, which, more than anything, determines the factors affecting forest life, viz., the soil, the temperature, the moisture, and most important of all, the light. [illustration: fig. 55. the forest cover. spruce forest, bavaria, germany. _u. s. forest service._] on the other hand, every species of tree has its own requirements in respect to these very factors of temperature,--moisture, soil and light. these are called its _silvical characteristics_. soil. some trees, as black walnut, flourish on good soil, supplanting others because they are better able to make use of the richness of the soil; while some trees occupy poor soil because they alone are able to live there at all. spruce, fig. 56, will grow in the north woods on such poor soil that it has no competitors, and birches, too, will grow anywhere in the north woods. in general, it is true that mixed forests, fig. 57, _i.e._, those having a variety of species, grow on good loamy soil. the great central, deciduous atlantic forest grew on such soil until it was removed to make room for farms. on the other hand, pure stands--_i.e._, forests made up of single varieties--of pine occupy poor sandy soil. within a distance of a few yards in the midst of a pure stand of pine in the south, a change in the soil will produce a dense mixed growth of broad-leaves and conifers. [illustration: fig. 56. virgin stand of red spruce. white mountains, new hampshire. _u. s. forest service._] [illustration: fig. 57. typical mixed forest,--red spruce, hemlock, white ash, yellow birch, balsam fir, and red maple. raquette lake, new york. _u. s. forest service._] the soil in the forest is largely determined by the forest itself. in addition to the earth, it is composed of the fallen and decayed leaves and twigs and tree trunks, altogether called the _forest floor_. it is spongy and hence has the ability to retain moisture, a fact of great importance to the forest. moisture. some trees, as black ash and cypress, fig. 58, and cotton gum, fig. 59, grow naturally only in moist places; some, as the piã±on and mesquite, a kind of locust, grow only in dry places; while others, as the juniper and douglas fir, adapt themselves to either. both excessively wet and dry soils tend to diminish the number of kinds of trees. in many instances the demand for water controls the distribution altogether. in the puget sound region, where there is a heavy rain-fall, the densest forests in the world are found, whereas on the eastern slopes of the same mountains, altho the soil is not essentially different, there are very few trees, because of the constant drouth. [illustration: fig. 58. cypress and cypress "knees." jasper co., texas. _u. s. forest service._] [illustration: fig. 59. cotton gums, showing buttresses. st. francis river, arkansas. _u. s. forest service._] temperature. the fact that some trees, as paper birch and white spruce, grow only in cold regions, and some, as rubber trees and cypress, only in the tropics, is commonplace; but a fact not so well known is that it is not the average temperature, but the extremes which largely determine the habitat of trees of different kinds. trees which would not live at all where there is frost, might flourish well in a region where the average temperature was considerably lower. on the other hand, provided the growing season is long enough for the species, there is no place on earth too cold for trees to live. fig. 60. [illustration: fig. 60. northern forest,--young spruce growing under yellow birch. santa clara, new york. _u. s. forest service._] in general, cold affects the forest just as poor soil and drought do, simplifying its composition and stunting its growth. in canada there are only a few kinds of trees, of which the hardwoods are stunted; south of the great lakes, there is a great variety of large trees; farther south in the southern appalachian region, there is a still greater variety, and the trees are just as large; and still farther south in tropical florida, there is the greatest variety of all. the slopes of a high mountain furnish an illustration of the effect of temperature. in ascending it, one may pass from a tropical forest at the base, thru a belt of evergreen, broad-leaved trees, then thru a belt of deciduous broad-leaved trees, then thru a belt of conifers and up to the timber line where tree life ceases. figs. 61, and 62. [illustration: fig. 61. mixed hardwoods on lower levels. spruce and balsam dominate on higher elevations. mt. mcintyre, adirondack mountains, new york. _u. s. forest service._] [illustration: fig. 62. scrub growth on mountain top. mt. webster, new hampshire. _u. s. forest service._] light. more than by any other factor, the growth of trees in a forest is determined by the effect of light. all trees need light sooner or later, but some trees have much more ability than others to grow in the shade when young. such trees, of which maple and spruce are examples, are called _tolerant_, while others, for instance, larch, which will endure only a comparatively thin cover or none at all, are called _intolerant_. the leaves of tolerant trees endure shade well, so that their inner and lower leaves flourish under the shadow of their upper and outer leaves, with the result that the whole tree, as beech and maple, makes a dense shadow; whereas the leaves of intolerant trees are either sparse, as in the larch, or are so hung that the light sifts thru them, as in poplar and oak. the spruces and balsam fir have the remarkable power of growing slowly under heavy shade for many years, and then of growing vigorously when the light is let in by the fall of their overshadowing neighbors. this can plainly be seen in the cross-section of balsam fir, fig. 63, where the narrow annual rings of the early growth, are followed by the wider ones of later growth. a common sight in the dense woods is the maple sending up a long, spindly stem thru the trees about it and having at its top a little tuft of leaves, fig. 64. by so doing it survives. the fact that a tree can grow without shade often determines its possession of a burnt-over tract. the order in the north woods after a fire is commonly, first, a growth of fire weed, then raspberries or blackberries, then aspen, a very intolerant tree whose light shade in turn permits under it the growth of the spruce, to which it is a "nurse," fig. 65. in general it may be said that all seedling conifers require some shade the first two years, while hardwoods in temperate climates, as a rule, do not. [illustration: fig. 63. cross section of balsam fir, showing fast growth after years of suppression. notice the width of the annual rings in later age compared with early. _u. s. forest service._] [illustration: fig. 64. tolerant maple. the trees are too slender to stand alone. _u. s. forest service._] [illustration: fig. 65. intolerant aspen, a "nurse" of tolerant spruce._ u. s. forest service._] this matter of tolerance has also much to do with the branching of trees. the leaves on the lower branches of an intolerant tree will not thrive, with the result that those branches die and later drop off. this is called "cleaning," or natural pruning. intolerant trees, like aspen and tulip, fig. 66, clean themselves well and hence grow with long, straight boles, while tolerant trees, like spruce and fir, retain their branches longer. [illustration: fig. 66. intolerant tulip. notice the long, straight boles. _u. s. forest service._] the distribution of a species may also be determined by geographical barriers, like mountain ranges and oceans. this is why the western forests differ radically from the eastern forests and why the forest of australasia is sharply distinct from any other forest in the world. any one or several of these factors, soil, moisture, heat, and light, may be the determining factor in the make-up of a forest, or it may be that a particular tree may survive, because of a faster rate of growth, thus enabling it to overtop its fellows and cut off their light. the struggle for survival is constant, and that tree survives which can take the best advantage of the existent conditions. besides these topographical and climatic factors which help determine the distribution of trees, a very important factor is the historical one. for example, the only reason by which the location of the few isolated groves of big trees in california can be accounted for is the rise and fall of glacial sheets, which left them, as it were, islands stranded in a sea of ice. as the glaciers retreated, the region gradually became re-forested, those trees coming up first which were best able to take advantage of the conditions, whether due to the character of their seeds, their tolerance, their endurance of moisture or whatever. this process is still going on and hardwoods are probably gaining ground. besides these external factors which determine the composition and organic life of the forest, the trees themselves furnish an important factor in their methods of reproduction. these, in general, are two, (1) by sprouts, and (2) by seeds. (1) most conifers have no power of sprouting. the chief exceptions are pitch pine and, to a remarkable degree, the redwood, fig. 67. this power, however, is common in broad-leaved trees, as may be seen after a fire has swept thru second growth, hardwood timber. altho all the young trees are killed down to the ground, the young sprouts spring up from the still living roots. this may happen repeatedly. coppice woods, as of chestnut and oak, which sprout with great freedom, are the result of this ability. the wood is poor so that it is chiefly used for fuel. [illustration: fig. 67. sprouting redwood stumps. glen blair, calif. _u. s. forest service._] (2) most trees, however, are reproduced by seeds. trees yield these in great abundance, to provide for waste,--nature's method. many seeds never ripen, many perish, many are eaten by animals, many fall on barren ground or rocks, and many sprout, only to die. the weight of seeds has much to do with their distribution. heavy seeds like acorns, chestnuts, hickory and other nuts, grow where they fall, unless carried down hill by gravity or by water, or scattered by birds and squirrels. trees with winged seeds, however, fig. 68, as bass, maple and pine, or with light seeds, as poplar, often have their seeds carried by the wind to great distances. [illustration: fig. 68. winged seeds. 1, basswood; 2, box-elder; 3, elm; 4, fir; 5, 6, 7, 8, pines. _u. s. forest service._] again some trees, as spruce, are very fertile, while others, like beech, have only occasional seed-bearing seasons, once in three or four years. willow seeds lose their power of germination in a few days, and hence, unless they soon reach ground where there is plenty of moisture, they die. this is why they grow mostly along water courses. on the other hand, black locust pods and the cones of some pines keep their seeds perfect for many years, often until a fire bursts them open, and so they live at the expense of their competitors. it is such facts as these that help to account for some of the acts of forest composition,--why in one place at one time there is a growth of aspens, at another time pines, at still another oaks; and why beeches spring up one year and not another. that red cedars grow in avenues along fences, is explained by the fact that the seeds are dropped there by birds, fig. 69. [illustration: fig. 69. red cedar avenue. seeds dropped by birds which perched on the fences. indiana. _u. s. forest service._] the fact that conifers, as the longleaf pine, fig. 46, p. 200, and spruce, fig. 55, p. 212, are more apt to grow in pure stands than broad-leaved trees, is largely accounted for by their winged seeds; whereas the broad-leaved trees grow mostly in mixed stands because their heavy seeds are not plentifully and widely scattered. this is a rule not without exceptions, for beech sometimes covers a whole mountain side, as slide mountain in the catskills, and aspens come in over a wide area after a fire; but later other trees creep in until at length it becomes a mixed forest. the essential facts of the relation of trees to each other in the forest has been clearly stated by gifford pinchot thus:[1] the history of the life of a forest is a story of the help and harm which trees receive from one another. on one side every tree is engaged in a relentless struggle against its neighbors for light, water and food, the three things trees need most. on the other side each tree is constantly working with all its neighbors, even those which stand at some distance, to bring about the best condition of the soil and air for the growth and fighting power of every other tree. the trees in a forest help each other by enriching the soil in which they stand with their fallen leaves and twigs, which are not quickly blown or washed away as are those under a tree in the open. this collection of "duff" or "the forest floor" retains the moisture about their roots, and this moist mass tends to keep the temperature of the forest warmer in winter and cooler in summer. the forest cover, fig. 55, p. 212, consisting largely of foliage, has the same effect, and in addition protects the bark, the roots, and the seedlings of the trees from the direct and continuous hot rays of the sun. without the shade of the leaves, many trees, as white pine, would quickly die, as may readily be seen by transplanting them to the open. the mass of standing trees tempers the force of the wind, which might overthrow some of them, and hinders the drying up of the duff. [illustration: fig. 70. shallow roots of hemlock. bronx park, new york, n. y.] but trees hinder as well as help each other. there is a constant struggle between them for nourishment and light. to get food and water, some trees, as spruces and hemlocks, fig. 70, spread their roots out flat; others, as oak and pine, send down a deep tap root. those succeed in any environment that find the nourishment they need. still more evident is the struggle for light and air. however well a tree is nourished thru its roots, unless its leaves have an abundance of light and air it will not thrive and make wood. [illustration: fig. 71. long-bodied white oak of the forest. _u. s. forest service._] even the trees most tolerant of shade in youth, like spruce, must have light later or perish, and hence in a forest there is the constant upward reach. this produces the characteristic "long-bodied" trunk of the forest tree, fig. 71, in contrast to the "short-bodied" tree of the open, where the branches reach out in all directions, fig. 72. in this constant struggle for existence is involved the persistent attempt of scattered seeds to sprout whenever there is an opening. the result is that a typical forest is one in which all sizes and ages of trees grow together. scattered among these are bushes and scrubby trees, called "forest weeds," such as mountain maple and dogwood, fig. 80, p. 234, which do not produce timber. [illustration: fig. 72. short-bodied white oak of the open. fort lee, n. j.] by foresters the trees themselves are classified according to their size into: seedlings, less than 3' high, saplings, small, 3'-10' high. large, 4" in diameter, at breast height (4' 6"). poles, small, 4"-8" in diameter, at breast height. large, 8"-12" in diameter, at breast height. standards, 1'-2' in diameter, at breast height. veterans, over 2' in diameter, at breast height. every age has its own dangers. many seeds never germinate, many seedlings perish because they do not reach soil, or are killed by too much or too little moisture, or by heat or cold, or shade. at the sapling age, the side branches begin to interfere with those of other saplings. buds are bruised and lower branches broken by thrashing in the wind, and their leaves have less light. only the upper branches have room and light, and they flourish at the expense of lower ones, which gradually die and are thus pruned off. some trees naturally grow faster than others, and they attain additional light and room to spread laterally, thus overtopping others which are suppressed and finally killed, beaten in the race for life. if the growth should remain about even so that the trees grew densely packed together, the whole group would be likely to be of a poorer quality, but ordinarily the few outgrow the many and they are called dominant trees. even then, they still have to struggle against their neighbors, and at this, the large sapling stage, many perish, and of those that survive there are great differences in size. trees make their most rapid growth in height, and lay on the widest yearly "rings," at the large sapling and small pole age, fig. 114, p. 263. it is at this stage, too, if the growth is at all dense, that the young trees (poles) clean themselves most thoroly of their branches. the growth in diameter continues to the end of the tree's life, long after the height growth has ceased. when trees become "standards," and reach the limit of height growth, thru their inability to raise water to their tops, their branches must perforce grow sidewise, or not at all. the struggle for life thus takes a new form. how trees are able to raise water as high as they do is still unexplained, but we know that the chief reason why some trees grow taller than others, is due to their ability to raise water. the most remarkable in this respect are the california redwoods, the big trees, and certain eucalypts in australia. this inability of trees to grow above a certain height results in a flattening of the crown, fig. 73, and at this stage, the trees struggle against each other by crowding at the side. [illustration: fig. 73. flattened crown of red pine. _u.s. forest service._] inasmuch as trees grow more sensitive to shade with advancing age, the taller trees have the advantage. each survivor is one of a thousand, and has outlived the others because it is best fitted for the place. this fact has its effect upon the next generation, because it is these dominant surviving trees which bear seed most abundantly. after the tree has finished growing in height and diameter most vigorously--the pole stage--and proved to be fitted for the place, its energy is largely spent in raising seed. as this process goes on generation after generation, only the best coming to maturity in each, the poorer sorts are sifted out, and each region and continent has those species best fitted to meet the conditions of life there. this is the reason why exotics are very likely to be sensitive and perhaps succumb to influences to which native trees are immune. standards and veterans are the survivors of all the lower stages, each of which has had its especial dangers. if left alone, the tree gradually dies and at last falls and decays, adding somewhat to the fertility of the forest soil. from the point of view of human use, it would far better have been cut when ripe and turned into lumber. it is a mistake to suppose that the natural virgin forest is the best possible forest, and that it should therefore be left alone. in the national forests the ripe lumber is sold and a considerable revenue is thus available. but nature's way with the dead tree is to use it to produce more life. how she does so will be explained in the next chapter, on the enemies of the forest. [footnote 1: gifford pinchot, _primer of forestry_, p. 44.] the forest organism. references:[a] pinchot, _for. bull._ no. 24, i, pp. 25-66. bruncken, pp. 13-31. _for. circ._ no. 36, p. 8. fernow, _economics_, pp. 140-164. [footnote a: for general bibliography, see p. 4] chapter vi. natural enemies of the forest. the natural enemies of the forest--as distinct from its human enemies--fall into three groups: (1) meteorological, (2) vegetable, (3) animal. meteorological forces. [illustration: fig. 74. effect of wind, july, 1902, cass county, minnesota. _u. s. forest service._] _wind._ "windfalls" are not an uncommon sight in any forest. frequently only small areas are blown down, one large tree upsetting a few others, or again a vast region is destroyed by great storms, fig. 74. an area of many square miles in florida covered with long-leaf pine was thus destroyed several years ago. the "slash" thus formed, when well dried, is particularly liable to catch fire and burn furiously. windfalls are especially common among shallow-rooted trees, as hemlock, basswood and spruce, on sandy soil and on shallow soil underlaid with solid stone, especially where open spaces give the wind free sweep. it follows that an unbroken forest is a great protection to itself. the only precautions against wind therefore, that can be taken by the forester, are to keep the forest unbroken by selecting only the larger trees for felling or to cut down a given tract by beginning at the side opposite the direction of prevailing storms and working toward them. in sandy regions, the wind does immense harm by blowing the sand to and fro in constantly shifting dunes, figs. 75 and 76. these dunes occupy long stretches of the atlantic coast and the shore of lake michigan. such dunes have been estimated to cover 20,000 square miles of europe. along the bay of biscay in france, the sand dunes formerly drifted in ridges along the shore, damming up the streams and converting what was once a forest into a pestilential marsh. this region has been reclaimed at great expense by building fences along the shore to break the wind and thus keep the moving sand within limits. in this way a million acres of productive forest have been obtained. [illustration: fig. 75. sand-dunes, cape may, new jersey. _u.s. forest service._] [illustration: fig. 76. sand-dune. oregon. _u.s. forest service._] on the other hand winds are beneficial to the forest in scattering seeds, weeding out weak trees, and developing strength in tree trunks. _drouth_ both injures the foliage of trees and causes defects in the grain of wood, the latter appearing as "false rings." these arise from the effort of the tree to resume growth when the water supply is restored. see p. 19. _water._ certain trees have become accustomed to living in much water, as cedar and cypress have in swamps, and certain trees have become accustomed to periodical floods, but other trees are killed by much water. so when lumbermen make a pond which overflows forest land, the trees soon die, fig. 77. [illustration: fig. 77. effect of flooding. first connecticut lake, new hampshire. _u. s. forest service._] _lightning_ frequently blasts single trees, and in dry seasons may set fire to forests. this is a much more important factor in the west than in the east,--in the rockies, for instance, where there are electrical storms without rain. _fires_ will be considered later under man's relation to the forest. [illustration: fig. 78. slim trees bent over by snow; stouter trees unharmed. zurich, switzerland. _u. s. forest service._] _snow and ice_ often bring serious harm to saplings by permanently bending them over, fig. 78, or by breaking off tops and branches. _frost_ kills young plants; and sudden changes in temperature seriously affect grown timber, producing "frost checks" and "wind shakes." when there is a sudden fall in temperature, the outside layers of the tree, which are full of sap, contract more rapidly than the inner portions, with the result that the tree splits with a sudden pistol-like report, the check running radially up and down the tree. this is called a "frost check" or "star shake," fig. 41._a_, p. 47, and such wounds rarely heal, fig. 79. on the other hand when the temperature rapidly rises, the outside layers of the tree expand so much more rapidly than the inside, that they separate with a dull muffled chug, the check extending in a circular direction following the annual rings. such checks are often called "wind shakes" and "cup shakes," fig. 41._c_, p. 47. these injuries are found in regions where sudden changes of temperature occur, rather than in the tropics or in very cold climates. [illustration: fig. 79. contraction frost check. _u. s. forest service._] vegetable enemies. under this head may be classed, in addition to fungi, a number of unrelated plants, including such as: moosewood and dogwood, fig. 80, which crowd out young trees; vines, like bitter-sweet, which wind about trees and often choke them by pressure, cutting thru the bark and cambium; saprophytes, which smother the foliage of trees, of which spanish moss, fig. 47, p. 201, is an example; and finally such parasites as the mistletoes, which weaken and deform the trees. [illustration: fig. 80. a "forest weed," flowering dogwood. north carolina. _u.s. forest service._] the most important of the vegetable enemies of trees are fungi. it should be remembered, however, that, without the decay produced by them, the fallen trees would soon cover the ground, and prevent any new growth, thus destroying the natural forest. every tree, as has been noted (p. 17), is composed of two parts, one part, including leaves, young branches, roots and sap-wood, living, and the other part, namely, the heart-wood, practically dead. fungi that attack the live parts of a tree are called parasites, while those that live on dead trunks and branches are designated as saprophytes. the line, however, between these two classes of fungi is not well defined, since some parasites live on both living and dead wood. the parasites are of first importance, for, since they kill many trees, they control to a large extent the supply of living timber. nearly all parasitic fungi have two portions, an external fruiting portion which bears the spores--which correspond to the seeds of flowering plants--and an internal portion consisting of a tangle of threads or filaments, which ramify the tissues of the tree and whose function is to absorb nutriment for the fungus. fungi are classified botanically according to the spore-bearing bodies, their form, color, etc. the parasitic fungi which are especially destructive to wood are those that have naked spores growing on exposed fruiting surfaces (the _hymenomycetes_). in toadstools (the _agarics_) these exposed surfaces are thin, flat plates called gills. in the polypores, which include the shelf fungi, the spore surfaces are tubes whose openings constitute the pores. in the dry-rot, or tear fungus (_merulius lacrymans_), the spore surfaces are shallow cavities. some varieties, called _true_ parasites, develop in uninjured trees, while others, called _wound_ parasites, can penetrate the tissues of trees, only where a cut or injury makes a suitable lodgment for the spores. some fungi attack only a single species of trees, others whole genera; some attack only conifers, others deciduous trees, while a few attack trees of nearly all kinds alike. fungal spores when brought in contact with a wound on a tree or other suitable place, and provided with suitable conditions of growth, germinate, penetrate the tissues and grow very rapidly. these spores send out long threads or filaments which run thru the cells lengthwise and also pierce them in all directions, soon forming a network in the wood called the mycelium. rotting, in a large number of cases, is due to the ravages of fungi. this sometimes shows in the color, as the "red rot" of pine or the "bluing" of ash. sometimes as in "pecky" or "peggy" cypress, the decayed tracts are tubular. more commonly the decayed parts are of irregular shape. the decay of wood is due to the ravages of low forms of plant life, both bacteria and fungi. a few of the more destructive forms may be noted. _trametes pini_ (brot.) fr. foremost among the timber destroying fungi is the large brown "punk" or "conch" found in its typical development on the long-leaf and short-leaf pines, _pinus palustris_ and _pinus echinata_, fig. 81. the fruiting bodies form large masses which grow out from a knot, oftentimes as large as a child's head. they are cinnamon brown on the lower surface, and much fissured and broken, on the black charcoal-like upper surface. this fungus probably causes four-fifths of the destruction brought about by the timber destroying fungi. it occurs on most of the conifers in the united states which have any value as lumber trees, and brings about a characteristic white spotting of the wood, fig. 82, which varies with the kind of tree attacked. (von schrenk, _agric. yr. bk._, 1900, p. 206.) [illustration: fig. 81. a "conch," the fruiting body of _trametes pini_, on sugar pine. [_agric. year book, 1900_, pl. xxii, fig. 2.]] [illustration: fig. 82. effect of fungus. (_trametes pini._) _u. s. dept. agric._] [illustration: fig. 83. "shelf" fungus on pine. _a._ sound wood; _b._ resinous "light" wood; _c._ partly decayed wood or punk; _d._ layer of living spore tubes; _e._ old filled-up spore tubes; _f._ fluted upper surface of the fruiting body of the fungus, which gets its food thru a great number of fine threads (the mycelium), its vegetative tissue penetrating the wood and causing its decay. [_after hartig._]] of the shelf fungi, which project like brackets from the stems of trees, and have their pores on their under surfaces, one of the commonest in many localities is the yellow cheese-like _polyporus sulphureus_, fig. 83. this is found on oak, poplar, willow, larch, and other standing timber. its spawnlike threads spread from any exposed portion of cambium into the pith-rays and between the annual rings, forming thick layers of yellowish-white felt, and penetrating the vessels of the wood, which thereupon becomes a deep brown color and decays. of the umbrella-shaped gill-bearing fungi, a yellow toadstool, called the honey mushroom (_agaricus melleus_), is a good example, fig. 84. [illustration: fig. 84. honey mushroom. _agaricus melleus._ 1. cluster of small sporophores. 2. larger sporophore with root-like organ of attachment. _forestry bulletin 22._ plate xii, figs. 1 and 2.] this fungus, of common occurrence in the united states as well as in europe, is exceedingly destructive to coniferous trees, the white pine in particular suffering greatly from its attacks. it also fastens upon various deciduous species as a parasite, attacking living trees of all ages, but living as well upon dead roots and stumps and on wood that has been cut and worked up, occurring frequently on bridges, railroad ties, and the like, and causing prompt decay wherever it has effected an entrance. the most conspicuous part of the fungus is found frequently in the summer and fall on the diseased parts of the tree or timber infested by it. it is one of the common toadstools, this particular species being recognized by its yellowish color, gills extending downward upon the stem, which is encircled a little lower down by a ring, and by its habit of growing in tufts or little clumps of several or many individuals together. it is also particularly distinguished by the formation of slender, dark-colored strings, consisting of compact mycelium, from which the fruiting parts just described arise. these hard root-like strings (called rhizomorphs) extend along just beneath the surface of the ground, often a distance of several feet, and penetrate the roots of sound trees. by carefully removing the bark from a root thus invaded the fungus is seen in the form of a dense, nearly white, mass of mycelium, which, as the parts around decay, gradually produces again the rhizomorphs already described. these rhizomorphs are a characteristic part of the fungus. occurring both in the decayed wood from which they spread to the adjacent parts, and extending in the soil from root to root, they constitute a most effective agency in the extension of the disease. * * * external symptoms, to be observed especially in young specimens recently attacked, consist in a change of the leaves to a pale sickly color and often the production of short stunted shoots. a still more marked symptom is the formation of great quantities of resin, which flow downward thru the injured parts and out into the ground. (_forestry bulletin_ no. 22, p. 51.) of the irregular shaped fungi, one of the most destructive is a true parasite, _i.e._, one that finds lodgment without help, called _polyporus annosus_ and also _trametes radiciperda_, fig. 85. it is peculiar in developing its fructifications on the exterior of roots, beneath the soil. its pores appear on the upper side of the fructifications. it attacks only conifers. its spores, which can be readily conveyed in the fur of mice or other burrowing animals, germinate in the moisture around the roots: the fine threads of "spawn" penetrate the cortex, and spread thru and destroy the cambium, extending in thin, flat, fan-like, white, silky bands, and, here and there, bursting thru the cortex in white, oval cushions, on which the subterranean fructifications are produced. each of these is a yellowish-white, felt-like mass, with its outer surface covered with crowded minute tubes or "pores" in which the spores are produced. the wood attacked by this fungus first becomes rosy or purple, then turns yellowish, and then exhibits minute black dots, which surround themselves with extending soft white patches. (boulger, p. 73.) [illustration: fig. 85. 1. stump of norway spruce, with a sporophore of _polyporus annosus_ several years old; the inner portions of the stump wholly decayed. 2. roots of a diseased spruce tree, with numerous small sporophores of _polyporus annosus_ attached. _forestry bulletin 22_, plate xiii, figs. 1 and 2.] of the fungi which attack converted timber, the most important is "dry rot" or "tear fungus" (_merulius lachrymans_), fig. 86. it flourishes on damp wood in still air, especially around stables and ill ventilated cellars. it gets its name lachrymans (weeping) from its habit of dripping moisture. the fungus destroys the substance of the timber, lessening its weight and causing it to warp and crack; until at length it crumbles up when dry into a fine brown powder, or, readily absorbing any moisture in its neighborhood, becomes a soft, cheese-like mass. * * * imperfectly seasoned timber is most susceptible to dry rot: the fungus can be spread either by its spawn or by spores, and these latter can be carried even by the clothes or saws of workmen, and are, of course, only too likely to reach sound wood if diseased timber is left about near it; but on the other hand dry timber kept dry is proof against dry rot, and exposure to really dry air is fatal to the fungus. (boulger, p. 75.) [illustration: fig. 86. portion of the mycelium of dry rot or tear fungus, _merulius lachrymans_. this cakelike mass spreads over the surface of the timber. in a moist environment pellucid drops or "tears" distil from its lower surface: hence its name. [ward: _timber_; fig. 21.]] about all that can be done to protect the forest against fungi is to keep it clean, that is, to clear out fallen timber and slash, and in some cases to dig trenches around affected trees to prevent spreading or to cut them out and destroy them. such methods have heretofore been too expensive to employ in any ordinary american forest, but the time is at hand when such action will prove profitable in many localities. for the preservation of cut timber from decay, several methods are used. fungi need heat, air, moisture and food. if any one of these is lacking the fungus cannot grow. air and heat are hard to exclude from wood, but moisture and food can be kept from fungi. the removal of moisture is called seasoning, and the poisoning of the food of fungi is a process of impregnating wood with certain chemicals. both these processes are described in _handwork in wood_, chapter iii. animal enemies. the larger animals working damage to our forests are chiefly rodents and grazing animals. beavers gnaw the bark, while mice and squirrels rob the forest of seed and consequently of new trees. the acorns of white oak are particularly liable to be devoured because of their sweetness, while those of red and black oak, which afford timber of comparatively little value, are allowed to sprout, and thus come to possess the land. hogs annually consume enormous quantities of "mast," _i.e._, acorns or other nuts, by pasturing in oak and other forests. they, together with goats and sheep, figs. 87 and 88, deer and cattle, work harm by trampling and browsing. browsing destroys the tender shoots, especially of deciduous trees, but trampling entirely kills out the seedlings. the cutting up of the soil by the sharp cleft hoofs injures the forest floor, by pulverizing it and allowing it to be readily washed away by storms until deforestation may result, as was the case in france after the revolution. it has cost the french people from thirty to forty million dollars to repair the damage begun by the sheep. in this country, this matter has become a very serious one on the pacific coast, where there are enormous flocks of sheep, and therefore the government is trying to regulate the grazing on public lands there, especially on steep slopes, where erosion takes place rapidly.[1] [footnote 1: the evils of grazing are increased by the fact that fires are sometimes started intentionally in order to increase the area of grazing land.] [illustration: fig. 87. goats eating foliage, new mexico. _u.s. forest service._] [illustration: fig. 88. sheep grazing in forest, idaho. _u.s. forest service._] the most destructive animal enemies of the forest are the insects. the average annual loss of trees in the united states from this cause alone has been estimated to be one hundred million dollars. insects have two objects in their attack on trees, one is to obtain food, as when they are in the larval stage, and the other is to provide for offspring, as do certain beetles. the number of insect enemies of the forest is enormous. at the st. louis exposition, there were on exhibit nearly three hundred such insects. these belong to some twenty orders, of which the beetles (_coleoptera_), which have horny wings and biting mouth parts, and the moths and butterflies (_lepidoptera_), with membraneous wings and sucking mouth parts, are the most destructive. insects attack every part of the tree, the seed, the shoot, the flower, the root, the leaf, the bark and the wood, both standing and cut. of the fruit and seed pests, the most destructive are weevils, worms and gall insects. of the twig and shoot pests, beetles, weevils and caterpillars are the worst. among insects that attack roots, the periodical cicada (17 year old locust) may be noted. the leaf pests are far more serious. they include the true and false caterpillars, moths, gall insects and plant lice. of the bark pests, the bark beetles are the most destructive. these are also called engraver beetles from the smoothly cut figures which are their burrows under the bark, figs. 89, 90, 91. [illustration: fig. 89. work of the spruce destroying beetle: _a._ primary gallery; _b._ borings packed in side; _c._ entrance and central burrow thru the packed borings; _d._ larval mines. note how the eggs are grouped on the sides. [_agric. year book_, 1902, fig. 24, p. 268.]] [illustration: fig. 90. complete brood galleries of the hickory bark beetle in surface of wood. [_agric. year book_, 1903, fig. 28, p. 316.]] [illustration: fig. 91. brood galleries of the oak bark beetle, showing character of primary gallery at _b_; larval or brood mines at _a._ [_agric. year book_, 1903, fig. 30, page 318.]] many pairs of beetles make a simultaneous attack on the lower half of the main trunk of medium-sized to large trees. they bore thru the outer bark to the inner living portion, and thru the inner layers of the latter; they excavate long, irregular, longitudinal galleries, and along the sides of these at irregular intervals, numerous eggs are closely placed. the eggs soon hatch and the larvae at once commence to feed on the inner bark, and as they increase in size, extend and enlarge their food burrows in a general transverse but irregular course, away from the mother galleries (see illustration). when these young and larval forms are full grown, each excavates a cavity or cell at the end of its burrow and next to the outer corky bark. (hopkins, _agric. yr. bk._, 1902.) some of the species attack living trees, causing their rapid death, and are among the most destructive enemies of american forests. all of the above indirectly affect both the quantity and quality of the wood supply. they can be studied more in detail in the publications of the u.s. bureau of entomology. of the insects directly attacking wood, the most important are the ambrosia or timber beetles, the borers, the ants, and the carpenter bees. the most remarkable feature of the beetle is the manner of its boring into the harder parts of the wood. its jaws are particularly constructed for this work, being heavy and strong. the boring is done something after the manner of countersinking, and the jaws are believed to be self-sharpening, by reason of the peculiar right to left and left to right motion. _ambrosia_ or _timber beetles_, fig. 92. this class of insects attacks living, dead, and felled trees, sawlogs, green lumber, and stave-bolts, often causing serious injury and loss from the pin-hole and stained-wood defects caused by their brood galleries. the galleries are excavated by the parent beetles in the sound sap-wood sometimes extending into the heart-wood, and the young stages feed on a fungus growth which grows on the walls of galleries. (hopkins, entom. bulletin no. 48, p. 10.) the growth of this ambrosia-like fungus is induced or controlled by the parent beetles and the young are dependent on it for food. (hopkins, _agric. yr. bk._, 1904.) [illustration: fig. 92. work of ambrosia beetle, _xyloborus celsus_, in hickory wood: _a_, larva; _b_, pupa; _c_, adult beetle; _d_, character of work in lumber cut from injured log; _e_, bark; _f_, sap wood; _g_, heartwood. [_agric. year book_, 1904, fig. 44, p. 384.]] [illustration: fig. 93. work of ambrosia beetles in oak: _a_, _monarthum mali_, and work; _b_, _platypus compositus_, and work; _c_, bark; _d_, sap-wood; _e_, heart-wood; _f_, character of work in lumber from injured log. [_agric. year book_, 1904, fig. 45, p. 384.]] there are two general types or classes of these galleries, one in which the broods develop together in the main burrows, the other, in which the individuals develop in short separate side chambers extending at right angles from the primary gallery, fig. 93. the galleries of the latter type are usually accompanied by a distinct staining of the wood, while those of the former are not. (hopkins, _agric. yr. bk._, 1904, p. 383.) _bark_ and _wood borers_, fig. 94. this class of enemies differs from the preceding in the fact that the parent beetles do not burrow into the wood or bark, but deposit their eggs on the surface. the elongate, whitish, round-headed (_cerambycid_), flat-headed (_buprestid_), or short, stout (_curculionid_) grubs hatching from these eggs cause injury by burrowing beneath the bark, or deep into the sap-wood and heart-wood of living, injured and dead trees, sawlogs, etc. some of the species infest living trees, fig. 95, causing serious injury or death. others attack only dead or dying bark and wood, but this injury often results in great loss from the so-called wormhole defects. (a. d. hopkins, _entom. bull._, no. 48, p. 10.) [illustration: fig. 94. work of round-headed and flat-headed borers in pine: _a_, work of round-headed borers, "sawyer," _monohamnus_ sp.; _b_, _ergates spiculatus_; _c_, work of flat-headed borer, _buprestis_, larva and adult. [_agric. year book_, 1904, fig. 46, p. 385.]] [illustration: fig. 95. hemlock killed by buprestid worms. hoquiam, washington. _u.s. forest service._] the pine sawyers are among the most troublesome pests in the mill yard, and their large, white larvae often do much damage to logs by eating great holes thru their solid interior. while burrowing in the wood the larvae make a peculiar grating sound that may be heard on quiet nights at a considerable distance. this is a familiar sound in the lumber camps of the north, and has probably given rise to the name of the pine sawyers by which these insects are known. (_forestry bulletin_, no. 22, p. 58.) _powder-post beetles_, fig. 96. this is a class of insects representing two or three families of beetles, the larvae of which infest and convert into fine powder many different kinds of dry and seasoned wood products, such as hickory and ash handles, wagon spokes, lumber, etc., when wholly or in part from the sap-wood of trees. oak and hemlock tan-bark is sometimes injured to a great extent, and the structural timbers of old houses, barns, etc., are often seriously injured, while hop poles and like products are attacked by one set of these insects, the adults of which burrow into the wood for the purpose of depositing their eggs. (hopkins, _forestry bulletin_ no. 48, p. 11.) [illustration: fig. 96. work of powder post beetle, _sinoxylon basilare_, in hickory pole: _a_, character of work by larvae; _b_, exit holes made by emerging broods. [_agric. year book_, 1904, fig. 49.]] _timber worms_, fig. 97. this class of true wood-boring "worms," or grubs, are the larvae of beetles. they enter the wood from eggs deposited in wounds in living trees, from which they burrow deep into the heart-wood. generation after generation may develop in the wood of a tree without affecting its life but the wood is rendered worthless for most purposes by the so-called wormhole and pinhole defects resulting from their burrows. the same species also breed in the wood of dying and dead standing trees, and in the stumps and logs of felled ones, often for many years after the trees are felled. one species sometimes attacks freshly sawed oak lumber, new stave bolts, etc. they are among the most destructive enemies of hardwood forest trees, especially in reducing the value of the wood of the best part of the trunks. (hopkins, _forestry bulletin_ no. 48, p. 10.) [illustration: fig. 97. work of timber worms in oak: _a_, work of oak timber worm, _eupsalis minuta_; _b._ barked surface; _c._ bark; _d._ sap-wood timber worm, _hylocaetus lugubris_, and its work; _e._ sap-wood. [_agric. year book_, 1904, fig. 47, p. 386.]] the _carpenter worms_, fig. 98. these are large pinkish caterpillars which are the larvae of stout-bodied moths. they enter the bark and wood of living oak, locust, poplar and other trees, from eggs deposited by the moths in the crevices of uninjured bark, or in the edges of wounds. they burrow deep into the solid wood, where they live for two or three years before transforming to the adult. the wood is seriously injured by the very large wormhole defects, and while the life of the tree is but slightly, if at all, affected by the earlier attacks, the continued operations of this class of borers year after year, finally results in the decay of the heart-wood, or a hollow trunk and a dead top. (hopkins, _forestry bulletin_, no. 48, p. 11.) [illustration: fig. 98. worm holes in red oak, work of the oak carpenter worm. [_agric. year book_, 1903, fig. 37, p. 324.]] _columbian timber-beetle_ one of the commonest wormhole defects in white oak, rock oak, beech, and tulip ("whitewood" or "yellow poplar") is one known to the lumber trade as grease spots, patch-worm, or black holes, fig. 99, steam boats, fig. 100, etc., caused by the columbian timber beetle (_corthylus columbianus hopk_.) the characteristic feature of this wormhole defect, which will enable it to be readily recognized in oak and beech, is transverse series of two or more black holes about the size of the lead in an ordinary lead pencil, with a streak of stained wood extending with the grain two or three or more inches each side, as in fig. 99. in quarter-sawed oak or split or sawed staves, a short longitudinal section of one of these black holes is seen attended by the stained streak on one side of a thick or curly growth or grain, fig. 100. it is this form which is called "steamboats." in whitewood (yellow poplar) the black holes are attended by very long black, greenish, or bluish streaks, sometimes five or six feet long. when this is common in the lumber it is called "calico poplar." fig. 101 represents the characteristic appearance of this defect greatly reduced. (hopkins, _agric. yr. bk._, 1903, p. 327.) [illustration: fig. 99. work of the columbian timber beetle: black holes and "grease spots" in white oak. [_agric. year book_, 1903, fig. 38, p. 325.]] [illustration: fig. 100. work of the columbian timber beetle: "steamboats" in quartered or split white oak. [_agric. year book_, 1903, fig. 39, p. 326.]] [illustration: fig. 101. work of the columbian timber beetle in tulip wood, "calico poplar," [_agric. year book_ 1903, fig. 40, p. 326.]] _carpenter bees._ the work of this class of woodboring bees is shown in fig. 102. the injury consists of large augerlike tunnels in exposed, solid dry wood of buildings and other structures. it is most common in soft woods, such as pine, poplar, redwood and the like. (hopkins, _agric. yr. bk._, 1904, p. 390.) [illustration: fig. 102. work of the carpenter bee, _xylocopa orpifex_, in redwood lumber: _a_, entrance; _b_, galleries; _c_, cells; _d_, larva; _e_, adult. [_agric. year book_, 1904, fig. 53, p. 390.]] _horn tails._ this is a class of borers which are the larvae of the so-called wood wasps. they may enter the exposed dead wood of wounds of living trees, but more commonly attack the wood of dead standing conifers and hard woods, in the sap-wood of which they excavate irregular burrows, which are packed with their borings. when the adults emerge they leave the surface perforated with numerous round holes. water and fungi entering these holes cause a very rapid decay of the wood. (hopkins, _entom. bull._ no. 48, p. 11.) the tunnels of these various wood pests are most frequently to be seen in chestnut, ash, hickory, oak, tulip, and cypress. one would think that with such an array of enemies, the forest would hardly survive, but on the other hand there are many enemies of these pests. the most destructive are the predaceous and parasitic insects. many insects are simply predaceous, pouncing upon and destroying such other insects as they can overcome. still others are parasites, some external, but most of them living within the bodies of their victims where they pass their entire larval life. the eggs are laid on or in the body of the victim, so that as soon as one hatches, it has suitable food. the ichneumon fly, fig. 103, is such a parasite; it destroys millions of insect pests. it has a long and peculiar ovipositor with which it drills a hole into the tree and deposits the egg in a burrow of the pigeon horntail, a wood wasp that burrows into deciduous trees. the larva soon finds its victim, the grub of the pigeon horntail, and lives on it to its destruction. [illustration: fig. 103. ichneumon fly whose larva feeds on the larva of the pigeon horn-tail.] it would seem that it is a hopeless task to control the insect enemies of forest trees and forest products or to prevent losses from their ravages, but the writer is informed by dr. a. d. hopkins, the expert in the bureau of entomology in charge of forest insect investigations, that the results of their investigations show conclusively that there are many practical and inexpensive methods of control now available thru the suggestions and recommendations in recent department publications on forest insects, as well as thru direct correspondence with the department. these methods are based on the principle of prevention and not on that of extermination. it has been shown that thru proper adjustment of the details in management of forests and of the business of manufacturing, storing, transporting, and utilizing the products a large percentage of the losses can be prevented at small additional expense, and that even when considerable cost is involved the amount saved will often represent a handsome profit. the natural enemies of the forest. references:[a] (1) meterological. pinchot, _primer_ i, pp. 75-76. roth, _first book_, _pp._ 198-202. bruncken, pp. 27-29. water. roth, _first book_, p. 27. snow, ice and frost. pinchot, _primer_, i, p. 76. bruce, _for. and irr._, 8: 159, ap. '02. (2) vegetable. roth, _first book_, p. 4. boulger, pp. 70-75. spaulding, _for. bull._, no. 22. ward, chaps. v, vi, vii. sickles, pp. 41-45. von schrenck, _for. bull._, no. 41, pl. iii. sherfesee. _for. circ._ no. 139. von schrenck, _bur. plant ind. bull._ no. 36. von schrenck, _bur. plant ind. bull._ no. 32. von schrenck, _agric. yr. bk._, 1900, p. 199. (3) animal. grazing. pinchot, _primer i_, pp. 69-73, ii, p. 73. pinchot, _agric. yr. bk._, 1898, p. 187 coville, _for. bull._ no. 15, pp. 28-31. roth, _first bk._, p. 130, 178. insects. comstock, passim. hopkins, _agric. yr. bk._, 1902, pp. 265-282. roth, _first book_, pp. 115-130. howard, _entom. bull._, no. 11, n. s. hopkins, spaulding, _entom. bull._, no. 28. hopkins, _entom. bull._, no. 48. hopkins, _agric. yr. bk._, 1903, pp. 313-329. hopkins, _agric. yr. bk._, 1904, pp. 382-389, figs. 43-56. pinchot, _primer_, i, p. 73. felt, n. y. _state museum bull._, 103, ent. 25. hopkins, _entom. bull._ no. 32. hopkins, _entom. bull._ no. 56. hopkins, _entom. bull._ no. 58. spaulding and chittenden, _for. bull._ no. 22, pp. 55-61. [footnote a: for general bibliography, see p. 4.] chapter vii. the exhaustion of the forest. the exhaustion of the forest in the united states is due to two main causes: (1) fire, and (2) destructive lumbering. fire. it is not commonly realized that forest fires are almost entirely the result of human agency. when cruisers first began to locate claims in this country, practically no regions had been devastated by fire. now such regions are to be seen everywhere. altho lightning occasionally sets fire to forests, especially in the rocky mountains, the losses from this cause are trifling compared with the total loss. [illustration: fig. 104. slash, left in the woods, and ready to catch fire. _u. s. forest service._] _opportunities for fire._ there are a number of facts that make the forest peculiarly liable to fire. especially in the fall there are great quantities of inflammable material, such as dry leaves, twigs, and duff lying loose ready for ignition. the bark of some trees, as "paper birch," and the leaves of others, as conifers, are very inflammable. it follows that fires are more common in coniferous than in deciduous forests. after lumbering or windfalls, the accumulated "slash" burns easily and furiously, fig. 104. moreover a region once burned over, is particularly liable to burn again, on account of the accumulation of dry trunks and branches. see fig. 107. long dry seasons and high wind furnish particularly favorable conditions for fire. on the other hand, the wind by changing in direction may extinguish the fire by turning it back upon its track. indeed the destructive power of fires depends largely upon the wind. [illustration: fig. 105. forest fire. _u. s. forest service._] _causes of fire._ forest fires are due to all sorts of causes, accidental and intentional. dropped matches, smouldering tobacco, neglected camp fires and brush fires, locomotive sparks, may all be accidental causes that under favorable conditions entail tremendous loss. there is good reason to believe that many forest fires are set intentionally. the fact that grass and berry bushes will soon spring up after a fire, leads sheep men, cattle and pig owners, and berry pickers to set fires. vast areas are annually burned over in the united states for these reasons. most fires run only along the surface of the ground, doing little harm to the big timber, and if left alone will even go out of themselves; but if the duff is dry, the fire may smoulder in it a long time, ready to break out into flame when it reaches good fuel or when it is fanned by the wind, fig. 105. even these ground fires do incalculable damage to seeds and seedlings, and the safest plan is to put out every fire no matter how small. [illustration: fig. 106. burned forest of engelmann spruce. foreground, lodgepole pine coming in. _u. s. forest service._] altho it is true that the loss of a forest is not irremediable because vegetation usually begins again at once, fig. 106, yet the actual damage is almost incalculable. the tract may lie year after year, covered with only worthless weeds and bushes, and if hilly, the region at once begins to be eroded by the rains. after the fire, may come high winds that blow down the trunks of the trees, preparing material for another fire, fig. 107. [illustration: fig. 107. effect of fire and wind. colorado. _u. s. forest service._] the statistics of the actual annual money loss of the timber burned in the united states are not gathered. in 1880 professor sargent collected much information, and in the census of that year (10th census, vol. ix) reported 10,000,000 acres burned that year at a value of $25,000,000. in 1891, the division of forestry collected authentic records of 12,000,000 acres burned over in a single year, at an estimated value of $50,000,000. in the adironacks in the spring of 1903, an unprecedentedly dry season, fire after fire caused a direct loss of about $3,500,000. in 1902, a fire on the dividing line between washington and oregon destroyed property amounting to $12,000,000. within comparatively recent years, the pacific coast states have lost over $100,000,000 worth of timber by fire alone. during september, 1908, forest fires raged in minnesota, michigan, wisconsin, maine, new york and pennsylvania. the estimates of loss for northern michigan alone amounted to $40,000,000. for two weeks the loss was set at $1,000,000 a day. the two towns of hibbing and chisholm were practically wiped out of existence, and 296 lives were lost. certain forest fires have been so gigantic and terrible as to become historic. one of these is the miramichi fire of 1825. it began its greatest destruction about one o'clock in the afternoon of october 7th of that year, at a place about sixty miles above the town of newcastle, on the miramichi river, in new brunswick. before ten o'clock at night it was twenty miles below new castle. in nine hours it had destroyed a belt of forest eighty miles long and twenty-five miles wide. over more than two and a half million acres almost every living thing was killed. even the fish were afterwards found dead in heaps on the river banks. many buildings and towns were destroyed, one hundred and sixty persons perished, and nearly a thousand head of stock. the loss from the miramichi fire is estimated at $300,000, not including the value of the timber. (pinchot, part 1. p. 79-80.) of such calamities, one of the worst that is on record is that known as the peshtigo fire, which, in 1871, during the same month, october, when chicago was laid in ashes, devastated the country about the shores of green bay in wisconsin. more than $3,000,000 worth of property was burnt, at least two thousand families of settlers were made homeless, villages were destroyed and over a thousand lives lost. (bruncken, p. 110.) the most destructive fire of more recent years was that which started near hinckley, minn., september 1, 1894. while the area burned over was less than in some other great fires, the loss of life and property was very heavy. hinckley and six other towns were destroyed, about 500 lives were lost, more than 2,000 persons were left destitute, and the estimated loss in property of various kinds was $25,000,000. except for the heroic conduct of locomotive engineers and other railroad men, the loss of life would have been far greater. this fire was all the more deplorable, because it was wholly unnecessary. for many days before the high wind came and drove it into uncontrollable fury, it was burning slowly close to the town of hinckley and could have been put out. (pinchot, part i, 82-83.) one of the most remarkable features of these "crown fires," is the rapidity with which they travel. the miramichi fire traveled nine miles an hour. to get an idea of the fury of a forest fire, read this description from bruncken. after describing the steady, slow progress of a duff fire, he proceeds: but there comes an evening when nobody thinks of going to bed. all day the smoke has become denser and denser, until it is no longer a haze, but a thick yellowish mass of vapor, carrying large particles of sooty cinders, filling one's eyes and nostrils with biting dust, making breathing oppressive. there is no escape from it. closing windows and doors does not bar it out of the houses; it seems as if it could penetrate solid walls. everything it touches feels rough, as if covered with fine ashes. the heat is horrible altho no ray of sunshine penetrates the heavy pall of smoke. in the distance a rumbling, rushing sound is heard. it is the fire roaring in the tree tops on the hill sides, several miles from town. this is no longer a number of small fires, slowly smouldering away to eat up a fallen log; nor little dancing flames running along the dry litter on the ground, trying to creep up the bark of a tree, where the lichens are thick and dry, but presently falling back exhausted. the wind has risen, fanning the flames on all sides, till they leap higher and higher, reaching the lower branches of the standing timber, enveloping the mighty boles of cork pine in a sheet of flame, seizing the tall poles of young trees and converting them into blazing beacons that herald the approach of destruction. fiercer and fiercer blows the wind, generated by the fire itself as it sends currents of heated air rushing upward into infinity. louder and louder the cracking of the branches as the flames seize one after the other, leaping from crown to crown, rising high above the tree tops in whirling wreaths of fire, and belching forth clouds of smoke hundreds of feet still higher. as the heated air rises more and more, rushing along with a sound like that of a thousand foaming mountain torrents, burning brands are carried along, whirling on across the firmament like evil spirits of destruction, bearing the fire miles away from its origin, then falling among the dry brush heaps of windfall or slashing, and starting another fire to burn as fiercely as the first. * * * there is something horrible in the slow, steady approach of a top fire. it comes on with the pitiless determination of unavoidable destiny, not faster than a man can walk. but there is no stopping it. you cannot fight a fire that seizes tree top after tree top, far above your reach, and showers down upon the pigmy mortals that attempt to oppose it an avalanch of burning branches, driving them away to escape the torture and death that threatens them. (bruncken, _american forests and forestry_, 106-109.) [illustration: fig. 108. fighting forest fire. _u. s. forest service._] real forest fires are not usually put out; men only try to limit them. a common method of limitation is to cut trenches thru the duff so that the fire cannot pass across, fig. 108. in serious cases back fires are built on the side of the paths or roads or trenches toward the fire, in the expectation that the two fires will meet. in such cases great care has to be taken that the back fire itself does not escape. small fires, however, can sometimes be beaten out or smothered with dirt and sand, since water is usually unavailable. [illustration: fig. 109. fire lane. worcester co., mass. _u. s. forest service._] but "an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure." one of the best of these preventions is a system of fire lanes. even narrow paths of dirt will stop an ordinary fire. roads, of course, are still better. systems of fire lanes, fig. 109, are made great use of in europe and british india. belts of hardwood trees are also cultivated along railways, and to break up large bodies of conifers. if in lumbering, the slash were destroyed or even cut up so as to lie near the ground and rot quickly, many fires would be prevented. some states, as new york, have a fairly well organized system of fire wardens, who have the authority to draft as much male help as they need at $2.00 a day to fight forest fires. unfortunately "ne'er-do-wells" sometimes set fire to the woods, in order to "make work" for themselves. much preventive work is also done by educating the public in schools and by the posting of the fire notices,[1] fig. 110. [illustration: fig. 110. look out for fire. rules and laws.] destructive lumbering. how the reckless and destructive methods of lumbering common in america came into vogue, is worth noting.[2] the great historical fact of the first half century of our country was the conquest of the wilderness. that wilderness was largely an unbroken forest. to the early settler, this forest was the greatest of barriers to agriculture. the crash of a felled tree was to him a symbol of advancing civilization. the woods were something to be got rid of to make room for farms, fig. 111. in virginia, for example, where the soil was soon exhausted by tobacco culture and modern fertilizers were unknown, there was a continual advance into the woods to plant on new and richer land. the forest was also full of enemies to the settler, both animals and indians, and was a dreaded field for fire. so there grew up a feeling of hate and fear for the forest. [illustration: fig. 111. forest giving place to farm land. north carolina. _u. s. forest service._] more than that the forest seemed exhaustless. the clearings were at first only specks in the woods, and even when they were pushed farther and farther back from the seacoast, there was plenty of timber beyond. the idea that the area of this forest could ever be diminished by human hands to any appreciable extent so that people would become afraid of not having woodland enough to supply them with the needed lumber, would have seemed an utter absurdity to the backwoodsman. * * * thus the legend arose of the inexhaustible supply of lumber in american forests, a legend which only within the last twenty years has given place to juster notions. (bruncken, p. 57.) this tradition of abundant supply and the feeling of hostility to the forest lasted long after the reasons for them had disappeared. when we remember that every farm in the eastern united states, is made from reclaimed forest land and that for decades lumber was always within reach up the rivers, down which it was floated, it is not strange that reckless and extravagant methods of cutting and using it prevailed. following the settler came the lumberman, who continued the same method of laying waste the forest land. the lumber market grew slowly at first, but later developed by leaps and bounds, until now the output is enormous. lumbering in america has come to be synonymous with the clearing off of all the marketable timber, regardless of the future. it treats the forest as tho it were a mine, not a crop, fig. 112. since 1880 the total cut has been over 700,000,000 feet, enough to make a one inch floor over vermont, massachusetts, connecticut, rhode island and delaware, or one-half of the state of new york, an area of 25,000 square miles. [illustration: fig. 112. redwood forest turned into pasture. california. _u. s. forest service._] other countries, too, have devastated their forests. portugal has a forest area of only 5 per cent. of the total land area, spain and greece, each 13 per cent., italy 14 per cent. and turkey 20 per cent. whether the destruction of the american forests shall go as far as this is now a live question which has only just begun to be appreciated. another reason for the reckless american attitude toward the forest is the frequency and severity of forest fires. this has led to the fear on the part of lumbermen of losing what stumpage they had, and so they have cleared their holdings quickly and sold the timber. their motto was "cut or lose." a third incentive to devastative methods was the levy of what were considered unjust taxes. hundreds of thousands of acres in the white pine region, notably in michigan, wisconsin, and minnesota, have been cut over, abandoned, sold for taxes, and finally reduced by fire to a useless wilderness because of the shortsighted policy of heavy taxation. to lay heavy taxes on timber land is to set a premium on forest destruction, a premium that is doing more than any other single factor to hinder the spread of conservative lumbering among the owners of large bodies of timber land. * * * heavy taxes are responsible for the barrenness of thousands of square miles which should never have ceased to be productive, and which must now lie fallow for many decades before they can be counted again among the wealth-making assets of the nation. (pinchot, _agric. yr. bk._, 1898, pp. 184-185.) on the treatment of the questions of fire and taxes depends the future of american forest industries. (bruncken, p. 226.) undoubtedly much waste has been caused by sheer ignorance of forest conditions and methods, which, if followed, would secure successive crops instead of one, but it is safe to say that the desire for immediate profits has been the dominant cause of reckless lumbering. so short-sighted has the policy of private owners proved itself, that it is a question whether any large extent of forest land can safely be left in private hands. no individual lives long enough to reap more than one forest crop. only corporations and states can be expected to have an interest long enough continued to justify the methods of conservative lumbering. as a matter of fact, nearly one-half of the privately owned timber of the united states is held by 195 great holders, the principal ones being the southern pacific company, the weyerhauser timber company, and the northern pacific railway company, which together own nearly 11 per cent. of the privately owned forests of the country. these large holders are cutting little of their timber, their object, however, being not so much to conserve the forests as to reserve to themselves the incalculable private profits which are expected to come with the future enormous increase in the value of timber. over against this policy, stands that of the united states forest service of increasing the area of the national forests in order to conserve them for the public welfare. the pity is that the government ever let the forests pass out of its hands. only forty years ago seventy-five per cent. of the timber now standing was publicly owned. now about eighty per cent. of it is privately owned. in the meanwhile its value has increased anywhere from ten to fifty fold, according to locality.[3] some large corporations, however, like the pennsylvania railroad, the kirby lumber company, of texas, and the international paper company, have entered upon a policy of conservative lumbering. of the actual practices which distinguish destructive lumbering, a few may be cited. stumps are cut too high and tops too low. good lumber is wasted on lumber roads and bridges, fig. 113. saplings are torn down in dragging out logs. slash is left in condition to foster fires and left with no shade protection. seedlings are smothered with slash. seed trees are all cut out leaving no chance for reproduction. only poorer sorts of trees are left standing, thus insuring deterioration. paper pulp cutting goes even farther than lumbering, and ordinarily leaves nothing behind but a howling wilderness. [illustration: fig. 113. red spruce used in building skidway, and left in the woods. hamilton co., new york.] the production of turpentine from the long-leaf pine, fig. 114, at the annual rate of 40,000 barrels has meant the devastation of 70,000 acres of virgin forest. [illustration: fig. 114. turpentine boxing, cup system. georgia. _u. s. forest service._] in view of this wholesale destruction it becomes of interest to know how much still remains of the timber supply of the united states. the latest and most authoritative estimate of standing timber in continental united states, excluding alaska, gives a total of 2,800,000,000 m feet b.m.,[4] of which 2,200,000,000 m feet are privately owned, about 539,000,000 m feet are in the national forests (fig. 119, p. 271,) and 90,000,000 m feet are on the unreserved public lands, national parks, state lands and indian reservations. earlier estimates were hardly more than guesses. for example the census of 1880 estimated the stumpage of the u. s. at 856,290,100 m feet, while the census of 1900 gives a total of 1,390,000,000 m feet. the discrepancy appears still greater when it is remembered that in the meantime 700,000,000 m feet were cut. of this amount 500,000,000 m feet were of conifers or 80,000,000 m feet more than were included in the estimate of 1880. the simple fact is of course that the earlier estimates were gross underestimates, due to the fact that they were based on entirely inadequate data, and therefore can not be used to obscure the now unquestionable fact that the timber supply of this country is surely and rapidly melting away. the forest service estimates that the present annual cut of saw timber is about 50,000,000 m feet. at this rate the present stand would last about 55 years and the privately owned timber only 44 years. this estimate does not allow for growth and decay. while the population of the united states increased 52 per cent. from 1880 to 1900, during the same period the lumber-cut increased 94 per cent. in other words the yearly increase in use is 20 to 25 per cent. per capita, that is, fast as the population grows, the lumber consumption increases nearly twice as fast. this increase in the lumber-cut far overbalances the growth of trees. it is also to be remembered that this increase in the use of lumber is in spite of the enormous increase of substitutes for lumber, such as brick, cement and steel for building, and steel for bridges, vehicles, fences, machinery, tools, and implements of all kinds. how lavishly we use lumber may further be appreciated from the fact that we consume 260 cubic feet[5] per capita, while the average for 13 european countries is but 49 cubic feet per capita. in other words every person in the u. s. is using five times as much wood as he would use if he lived in europe. it is estimated that on an average each person in this country uses annually the product of 25 acres of forest. _the country as a whole, cuts every year, between three and four times more wood than all the forests grow in the meantime._ by contrast, the principal countries of europe, cut just the annual growth, while russia, sweden and japan, cut less than the growth. in other words, the 2,800,000,000,000 feet b.m. of the stumpage of the united states is a capital which is constantly drawn upon, whereas, the 944,700,000,000 board feet of the forest of the german empire is a capital which is untouched but produces annually 300 board feet per acre. [illustration: fig. 115. (lumber production by regions, 1907). southern states include: virginia, north carolina, south carolina, georgia, florida, alabama, mississippi, louisiana, arkansas, texas and oklahoma. pacific states include: washington, oregon and california. north atlantic states include: new england, new york, pennsylvania, new jersey, delaware, and maryland. lake states include: michigan, wisconsin, and minnesota. central states include: ohio, west virginia, kentucky, tennessee, indiana, illinois, and missouri. rocky mountain states include: montana, idaho, wyoming, nevada, utah, colorado, arizona, and new mexico.] one striking evidence of the decrease of the timber supply is the shifting of its sources. once the northeastern states produced over half of the lumber product. they reached their relative maximum in 1870 when they produced 36 per cent. at that time the lake states produced about 24 per cent. by 1890 the lake states came to their maximum of 36 per cent. today the southern states are near their maximum with 41 per cent., but the center will soon shift to the pacific states. their product rose from less than 10 per cent. of the whole in 1900 to 17 per cent. in 1908, figs. 115 and 116. when that virgin forest has been cut off, there will be no new region to exploit; whereas, heretofore, when a region was exhausted, the lumbermen have always had a new one to which to move. at the annual meeting of the northern pine manufacturers' association in minneapolis, minn., january 22, 1907, secretary j. e. rhodes made this striking statement: since 1895, 248 firms, representing an annual aggregate output of pine lumber of 4-1/4 billion feet, have retired from business, due to the exhaustion of their timber supply. plants representing approximately 500 million feet capacity, which sawed in 1906, will not be operated in 1907. the shifting of the chief sources of supply has, of course, been accompanied by a change in the kinds of lumber produced. there was a time when white pine alone constituted one-half of the total quantity. in 1900 this species furnished but 21.5 per cent., in 1904 only 15 per cent., of the lumber cut.[6] we do not use less pine because we have found something better, but because we have to put up with something worse. [illustration: fig. 116. (lumber production by states).] the present annual cut of southern yellow pine is about 13-1/4 million m feet, or a little less than one-third of the total cut of all the species. at the present rate of consumption, it is evident that within ten or fifteen years, there will be a most serious shortage of it. meanwhile the cut of douglas fir on the pacific coast has increased from 5 per cent. of the total lumber cut in 1900 to 12 per cent. in 1905. this increase is in spite of the fact, already noted (p. 262) that the great timber owning companies of the northwest are holding their stumpage for an expected great increase in value. another evidence of shortage is the almost total disappearance of certain valuable species. hickory, which once made american buggies famous, is getting very scarce, and black walnut once commonly used for furniture, is available now for only fine cabinet work, veneers, gun stocks, etc. hardwoods that are fit for the saw are rapidly decreasing. the hardwood cut of 1900 of 8,634,000 m feet diminished in 1904 to 6,781,000 m feet. [illustration: fig. 117. (lumber production by species).] a still further evidence of the decreasing supply, is the rising scale of prices. white pine, which sold for $45.00 per m during 1887-1892, sold for $100.00 f.o.b. n. y., jan. 1, 1911. yellow poplar went up in the same period, 1887-1911, from $29.00 to $63.00. yellow pine rose from $18.00 in 1896 to $47.00 in 1911, and hemlock, the meanest of all woods, from $11.50 in 1889 to $21.00 in 1911, fig. 118. [illustration: fig. 118. wholesale lumber prices, 1887-1911. the qualities of lumber shown in the above chart are as follows: white ash, 1st and 2d, 1" and 1-1/2" x 8" and up by 12'-16'. basswood, 1st and 2d, 1" x 8" and up by x 00". white oak, quarter-sawed, 1st and 2d, all figured, 1" x 6" and up x 10'-16'. yellow poplar, 1st and 2d, 1" x 7"-17" x 12'-16'. hemlock, boards spruce, no. 1 and clear, 1" and 1-1/4" x 4" x 13'. white pine, rough uppers, 1" x 8" and up x 00'. yellow pine, edge grain flooring. the curve is approximately correct, for the standard of quality has been changed several times.] it is to be remembered, moreover, that as the timber in any region becomes scarcer, the minimum cutting limit is constantly lowered, and the standard of quality constantly depreciated. poorer species and qualities and smaller sizes, which were once rejected, are now accepted in the market. for example, 6 inches is now a common cutting diameter for pine and spruce, whereas 12 inches was the minimum limit, and on the pacific coast there is still nothing cut below 18 inches. this cutting of smaller sizes is largely due to the capacious maw of the pulp mill, which swallows even the poorest stuff. altho the amount of wood used for paper pulp is small in comparison with the total lumber production, being about 5.4 per cent., yet this cutting of young growth keeps the forest land devastated. in 1906 nearly 9,000,000 tons of wood were used for paper pulp in the united states. no one who is at all familiar with the situation doubts for an instant that we are rapidly using up our _forest capital_. in fact it is unquestionably safe to say that our present annual consumption of wood in all forms is _from three to four times as great as the annual increment of our forests_. even by accepting the highest estimate of the amount of timber standing we postpone for only a few years the time when there must be a great curtailment in the use of wood, if the present methods of forest exploitation are continued. every indication points to the fact that under present conditions the maximum annual yield of forest products for the country as a whole has been reached, and that in a comparatively short time, there will be a marked decrease in the total output, as there is now in several items. (kellogg, _forestry circular_, no. 97, p. 12.) on the other hand, it is to be remembered that there are influences which tend to save and extend the forest area. these will be considered in the next chapter, on the use of the forest. [footnote 1: look out for fire! rules and laws. fires for clearing land near a forest must not be started until the trees are in full leaf. before lighting such fires three days' notice, at least, must be given to the firewarden and occupants of adjoining lands. after such fires are lighted, competent persons must remain to guard them until the fire is completely extinguished, and the persons starting such fires will be held responsible for all damages notwithstanding notice had been given to the firewarden. fires will be permitted for the purposes of cooking, warmth and insect smudges, but before such fires are kindled, sufficient space around the spot where the fire is to be lighted must be cleared from all combustible material; and before the place is abandoned, fires so lighted must be thoroly quenched. all fires other than those hereinbefore mentioned are absolutely prohibited. hunters and smokers are cautioned against allowing fires to originate from the use of firearms, cigars and pipes. especial care should be taken that lighted matches are extinguished before throwing them down. all persons are warned that they will be held responsible for any damage or injury to the forest which may result from their carelessness or neglect. girdling and peeling bark from standing trees on state land is prohibited. fallen timber only may be used for firewood. all citizens are requested to report immediately any cases which may come to their knowledge of injury to woodlands arising from a violation of these rules. then follow quotations from the laws of the state of new york. ] [footnote 2: for the common methods of logging see _handwork in wood_, chapter i.] [footnote 3: see summary of report of the commissioner of corporations on the lumber industry. february 13, 1911. washington, d. c.] [footnote 4: a board foot is one foot square and one inch thick.] [footnote 5: 167 cubic feet equal about 1000 board feet.] [footnote 6: _forestry circular_, no. 97.] the exhaustion of the forest references:[a] (1) fires. bruncken, pp. 183-207. pinchot, _agric. yr. bk._, p. 189. suter, _for. circ._ no. 36. u. s. tenth census, vol. ix, p. 491 ff. pinchot, _primer_, pp. 77-88. roth, _first book_, pp. 104-112. sterling, _agric. yr. bk._, 1904, p. 133. (2) destructive lumbering. the settler's tradition. bruncken, pp. 40-59, 94. roth, _first book_, pp. 41-45. pinchot, _primer_, ii, p. 82. taxation. _for. and irr._, april, '06. pinchot, _agric. yr. bk._, 1898, p. 184. reckless practices. pinchot, _primer_ ii, 42-47. pinchot, _agric. yr. bk._, 1898, p. 184. pinchot, _for. circ._, no. 25, p. 11. price, _agric. yr. bk._, 1902, p. 310. fox, _for. bull._, no. 34, p. 40. peters, _agric. yr. bk._, 1905, pp. 483-494. graves, _agric. yr. bk._, 1899, p. 415. suter, _for. bull._, 26, pp. 58, 69, 76. mohr, _for. bull._ no. 13, p. 61. bruncken, pp. 90-98. the timber supply. kellogg, _for. circ._, no. 97 ... zon, _for. bull._, no. 83. fernow, _economics_, pp. 35-45. report of the commissioner of corporations on the lumber industry. part i, feb. 13, 1911. [footnote a: for general bibliography, see p. 4.] chapter viii. the use of the forest. man's relation to the forest has not been entirely destructive and injurious. he has exerted and is more and more exerting influences which while still enabling him to use the forest, also preserve and improve it. these activities may all be included under the term forestry. the objects of modern forestry then are threefold: 1. the _utilization_ of the forest and its products, the main object; 2. the _preservation_ of the forest, _i.e._, its continued reproduction; 3. the _improvement_ of the forest. utilization. the uses of the forest are threefold: (1) protective, (2) productive, and (3) esthetic. (1) _protective._ the forest may be used as a protection against floods, wind, shifting sand, heat, drought, etc. the national forests of the united states, fig. 119, with the state forests, which include one-fifth of the total forest area, are largely treated as "protection forests" to maintain the head waters of streams, fig. 120, used for irrigation, for power or for commerce. the attempt now being made to reserve large areas in the white mountains and southern appalachians is chiefly for this purpose of protection. [illustration: fig. 119. national forests in the united states.] a comparison of figs. 120 and 121 shows clearly the difference between a region protected by forest and one unprotected.[1] [illustration: fig. 120. a protection forest, maintaining the headwaters of streams. north carolina. _u. s. forest service._] [illustration: fig. 121. hillside erosion. north carolina. _u. s. forest service_] (2) _productive._ all practical foresters have as their first aim the _yield_ of the forest. this distinguishes forestry from landscape architecture, the object of which may equally be the preservation and improvement of a given tract. the crop to be produced is as truly the prime concern of the forester as the raising of agricultural crops is the prime concern of the farmer. it is for this reason that forestry is said to be the same thing as conservative lumbering, fig. 122. the prejudice of lumbermen against forestry has arisen from a misunderstanding of its aim. its aim is not to prevent the cutting down of trees, but to direct their cutting in such ways that in the future there will still be trees to cut. "thru use to a greater use," is the motto of the forest service. the difference between destructive lumbering and conservative lumbering is that the former cuts one crop regardless of the future; while the latter plans to cut crop after crop indefinitely. in other words, in conservative lumbering, the trees to be cut are not selected solely with reference to their immediate market value. not one crop, but many, is the forester's motto. [illustration: fig. 122. conservative lumbering. black hills national forest, south dakota. note the brush, cord-wood, and logs piled separately,--a fine clean-up. nothing cut below 12" diameter. _u. s. forest service._] so long as the supply seemed exhaustless, forests might be and were treated as mines are, _i.e._, exploited for the sake of immediate profit; but now that lumbermen begin to realize that the end of the supply is in sight, more conservative methods are being adopted. we cannot afford to kill the goose that lays the golden eggs. in order then to obtain as rich harvests as possible, the modern forester makes use of various methods, some negative, some positive. waste is avoided in all possible ways, stumps are cut low and tops high on the trunk, first class trees are not used for skids, bridges, roads, etc., care is taken in "falling" trees and in dragging out logs, that they will not injure other trees. just as economical disposal of the log has already been carried to a high degree of perfection in the saw-mill, (see _handwork in wood_, chapter ii,) so one object of forestry is to carry this economy back into the woods. one of the underlying ideas in conservative lumbering is that the "yield," _i.e._, the amount of wood taken out of a healthy forest in a given time, shall be equal to the amount grown during the same period. if less is taken out than grows, some trees will overmature and decay; if more is taken out than grows, the forest will ultimately be exhausted. this principle may be carried out in a number of ways; but in any case it is necessary to know how fast the forest is reproducing itself, and this is one of the functions of the forester. the united states forest service makes a definite offer of cooperation with farmers and lumbermen and owners of forests to provide them with skilled foresters for direction in this matter. in the united states, the most practicable way of determining the yield is by area, _i.e._, a certain fraction of a forest is to be cut over once in a given length of time, a year or longer. the time between two successive cuttings on the same area must be long enough to allow the young trees left standing to ripen. in a word, conservative lumbering involves (1) the treatment of the forest as a source of crops, (2) systematic gathering, and (3) young growth so left as to replace the outgo. the important place that forests fill in the national economy may be realized partly by the citation of a few facts as to the forest products. the lumber industry is the fourth in value of products among the great manufacturing industries of the united states, being exceeded only by the iron and steel, the textile, and the meat industries. it turns out a finished product worth $567,000,000.00. and yet lumber constitutes only about one-half of the value of the total output of forest products. its annual value is three-fourths of a billion dollars, ($666,641,367 in 1907,) while the annual value of wood fuel, is $350,000,000. more than two-thirds of the people burn wood for fuel. the next largest single item in the list is shingles and laths, $32,000,000. (see _forestry bulletin_ no. 74, p. 7.) outside of food products, no material is so universally used and so indispensable in human economy as wood. (fernow, _econ._, p. 21.) the importance of forest products may also be learned from a mere list of the varied uses to which they are put. such a list would include: fuel, wood and charcoal; houses (over half the population of the united states live in wooden houses); the wooden parts of masonry and steel buildings; scaffolding; barns, sheds and outhouses; ships, with all their parts, and the masts and trim of steel ships, boats and canoes; oars and paddles; railway ties (annual expenditure $50,000,000), railway cars, a million in number; trestles and bridges (more than 2,000 miles in length); posts and fencing; cooperage stock (low estimate, $25,000,000 annually); packing crates, including coffins; baskets; electric wire poles (annual cost about $10,000,000); piles and submerged structures, like canal locks and water-wheels; windmills; mining timbers (yearly cost, $7,500,000), indispensable in all mining operations (for every 100 tons of coal mined, 2 tons of mining timber are needed); street paving; veneers ($5,000,000.00 worth made annually); vehicles, including carriages, wagons, automobiles and sleighs; furniture; machines and their parts; patterns for metal molding; tools and tool handles; musical instruments; cigar boxes; matches; toothpicks; pencils; (315 million a year in the u. s., requiring over 7 million cubic feet of wood); engraving blocks; shoe lasts, shoe trees and parts of shoes; hat blocks; agricultural implements; hop and bean poles; playthings and toys, for both children and adults; christmas trees and decorations; pipes; walking sticks; umbrella handles; crutches and artificial limbs; household utensils; excelsior. products other than wood: turpentine and resin (worth $20,000,000 a year); tar; oils; tan-bark, 1-1/2 million cords (worth $13,000,000 a year); wood alcohol; wood pulp (worth $15,000,000 a year); nuts; cellulose for collars, combs and car wheels; balsam, medicines; lampblack; dyes; paper fiber (xylolin) for textiles; shellac and varnish ($8,500,000 worth imported in 1907); vinegar and acetic acid; confections (including maple sugar and syrup at $2,500,000 a year). (3) the _esthetic_ and sentimental uses of the forest, tho not to be estimated in dollars and cents, are nevertheless of incalculable benefit to the community. they would include the use of the forest as pleasure grounds, for hunting, fishing, camping, photography, and general sightseeing. notable instances of the growing appreciation of these uses of the forest are the reservation of the yellowstone and yosemite parks as pleasure grounds. preservation. the second object of forestry is the preservation of the forest, or continued reproduction. in addition to obtaining crops of trees, the forester plans to keep the forest in such condition that it will constantly reproduce itself and never become exhausted. this does not mean that no forests are to be cut down, or that a given area, once a forest, is to be always a forest. just as the individual farmer needs some land for fields, some for pasture, and some for woodlots, so the nation needs some for cities, some for farms, some for pleasure grounds, and some for forests. but it does mean that fruitful forests shall not be turned into wildernesses as thousands of square miles now are, by the methods of destructive lumbering. in general, better land is necessary for agriculture than for forestry, and it is therefore only the part of wisdom to use the better land for fields and reserve the poorer land for forests. there are in the united states enormous regions that are fit for nothing but forests, but many of these, as in wisconsin, minnesota, and michigan, have simply been denuded of their trees and no provision has been made for their reproduction. this then is the second aim of forestry,--to treat the forest so that it will continue to reproduce itself. in order to obtain this result, certain forest conditions have to be preserved. what these conditions are, we have already noticed (see chap. v, the forest organism). they are partly topographical and climatic and partly historical. they include such factors as, soil, moisture, temperature, and light, the forest cover, the forest floor, the density and mixture of growth, all conditions of forest growth. it is only as the forester preserves these conditions, or to put it otherwise, it is only as he obeys the laws of the forest organism that he can preserve the forest. for a long period of our national history, we americans were compelled to conform our life and institutions to the presence of the primeval forest, but by long observation of what happens naturally in the forest, there have been developed in europe and in america certain ways of handling it so as to make it our servant and not our master. these ways are called silvicultural systems. they are all based on the nature of the forest itself, and they succeed only because they are modifications of what takes place naturally in the woods. as we have seen above (p. 220) trees reproduce themselves either by sprouts or by seeds. this fact gives rise to two general methods of reproduction, called the coppice systems and the seed systems. [illustration: fig. 123. chestnut coppice. _u. s. forest service._] _coppice_, fig. 123. in the simpler form of this system, the forest is divided into a certain number of parts, say thirty, and one part is cut down each year. new sprouts at once start up, which will mature a year later than those in the part cut the previous year. where the trees of each part are thirty years old at cutting, thirty years is called the "rotation period." the coppice is said to be managed on a thirty-year rotation. the system is widely used in eastern united states, for fuel, posts, charcoal, railway ties, and other small stuff, as well as for tan-bark. this system is modified by maintaining an overwood composed of seedling trees or selected sprouts above a stand of sprouts. this is called the reserve sprout method and is used with admirable results by the french. _seed forests._ in contrast with coppice forests, those raised from seeds produce the best class of timber, such as is used for saw logs. [illustration: fig. 124. seeding from the side. white pine. new hampshire. _u. s. forest service._] _seeding from the side_, fig. 124. many forests naturally spread at their borders from the scattering of their seeds. "old field pine" is so called from its tendency to spread in this way on old fields. this natural "seeding from the side" has given rise to the "group system," in which an area of ripe trees is cut off and the trees alongside are depended upon to reproduce new ones on the cut-over area. the openings are gradually enlarged until all the old timber is cut out, and the young growth has taken its place. in its best form there is a definite "rotation period," say eighty years. this system is simple, safe, and very useful, especially for small openings in woodlots. a modification of this is the "strip system," in which long narrow openings, say seventy-five yards wide, are cut out and gradually widened. the strips are cut in the proper direction so that the prevailing winds will cross them, both for the sake of avoiding windfalls and to help scatter the seed. where the soil is very dry, the strips may run east and west to protect the seedlings from the sun. [illustration: fig. 125. virgin forest, trees of all ages. jackson co., north carolina. _u.s. forest service._] _selection forests._ the typical virgin forest, fig. 125, is one in which trees of all ages are closely intermingled, and it may be either "mixed" or "pure." if a farmer had a woodlot of this character and every year went over it with the ax, cutting out such trees as he needed for his purpose, and also trees whose removal would improve the woods, but taking care not to cut out each year more than the amount of the average growth, he would be using the "selection system." this system is the best way of keeping a forest dense and of preserving one which is difficult to start afresh, as on a mountain slope; it is practicable where the woods are small or under a high state of care, as in europe, where this system has been in use for seven centuries. but the cost of road maintenance and of logging is high and it is therefore impracticable in most lumber regions in the united states, except for woods of especial value, like black walnut. _localized selection._ if instead of the whole forest being treated in this way every year, it were divided up into perhaps twenty parts, and from each part there were taken out each year as much lumber as would equal the annual growth of the whole forest, such a system would be called "localized selection." the cost of logging would be greatly reduced and if care were taken to leave standing some seed trees and to cut no trees below a determined size, as twelve inches, the forest would maintain itself in good condition. this system has been applied with great success in certain private forests in the adirondacks. _regular seed forest or high forest._ in the system already mentioned above of seeding from the side, the trees near the cut areas are depended upon to seed these areas. moreover, no especial pains are taken to preserve the forest floor and the forest cover. but all trees do not bear seeds annually, nor do their seedlings thrive under such conditions. in other words, in some forests especial pains must be taken to secure reproduction, and the forest conditions must be maintained with special reference to the growing crop. for this purpose, the cuttings take place thru a series of years, sometimes lasting even twenty years. these reproduction cuttings have reference, now to a stimulus to the seed trees, now to the preparation of the seed bed, now to the encouragement of the seedlings. then later, the old crop is gradually cut away. later still, in twenty or thirty years, the new forest is thinned, and when it reaches maturity, perhaps in one hundred or two hundred years, the process is repeated. this is called the "regular seed forest." it produces very valuable timber, and has been used for a long time in switzerland, especially for beech and balsam. the system is complicated and therefore unsafe in ignorant hands, and the logging is expensive. _two-storied seed forest._ a modification of the system of regular seed forest is the planting of another and a tolerant species of tree under older intolerant trees to make a cover for the soil, to prevent the growth of grass and weeds, and to improve the quality of the upper growth.[2] an illustration of a natural two-storied seed forest is shown in fig. 126. [illustration: no. 126. two-storied seed forest. fir under beech, germany. _u. s. forest service._] _planting._ the planting of forest trees is a comparatively unimportant part of modern forestry. it is a mistaken idea, not uncommon, that the usual way of reproducing forests is to plant trees. it is true that in the pineries of north germany and in the spruce forests of saxony, it is common to cut clean and then replant, but it is absurd to conclude, as some have done, that forestry consists of planting a tree every time one is cut. even if planting were the best method, many more than one tree would have to be planted for each one cut, in order to maintain the forest. so far as america is concerned, not for a long time will planting be much used for reproduction. the greater portion of american woodlands is in the condition of culled forests, that is, forests from which the merchantable trees have been cut, leaving the younger individuals, as well as all trees belonging to unmarketable species. even on the areas where the lumbermen have made a clean cut of the original timber, new trees will come up of themselves from seeds blown from the surrounding forests or falling from occasional individuals left standing. (bruncken, p. 133.) the usefulness of planting in america is mainly for reclaiming treeless regions, as in the west, and where timber is high priced. the area of planted timber in the middle west aggregates many hundred thousand acres, once waste land, now converted into useful woods.[3] planting has been made possible in the far west by extensive irrigation systems, and farther east by the lessening of prairie fires, which once set the limit to tree growth in the prairie states. in many parts of illinois, southern wisconsin and other prairie states, there is much more forest land than there was twenty-five years ago. what planting can do, may be seen on some worn out pastures in new england, fig. 127. with the western movement of agriculture, the abandoned farms of new england are to some extent becoming re-forested, both naturally and by planting, as with white pine, which grows even on sandy soil. between 1820 and 1880, there was a period of enthusiastic white-pine planting in new england, and tho the interest died on account of the cheap transportation of western lumber, those early plantations prove that white pine can be planted at a profit even on sand barrens. once worn out and useless pastures are now worth $150 an acre and produce yearly a net income of $3 or more an acre. [illustration: fig. 127. planted white pine, fifty years old, bridgewater, mass. _u. s. forest service._] improvement. besides utilization and preservation, the third main object of forestry is the improvement of the forest. it is not an uncommon mistake to suppose that the virgin forest is the best forest for human purposes. it is a comparatively new idea, especially in america, that a forest can be improved; that is, that better trees can be raised than those which grow naturally. lumbermen commonly say, "you never can raise a second growth of white pine as good as the first growth." as if this "first growth" were not itself the successsor of thousands of other generations! there is even a legend that white pine will not grow in its old habitat. says bruncken, many people probably imagine that a primeval wood, "by nature's own hand planted," cannot be surpassed in the number and size of its trees, and consequently in the amount of wood to be derived from it. but the very opposite is true. no wild forest can ever equal a cultivated one in productiveness. to hope that it will, is very much as if a farmer were to expect a full harvest from the grain that may spring up spontaneously in his fields without his sowing. a tract of wild forest in the first place does not contain so many trees as might grow thereon, but only so many as may have survived the struggle for life with their own and other species of plants occupying the locality. many of the trees so surviving never attain their best development, being suppressed, overshadowed, and hindered by stronger neighbors. finally much of the space that might be occupied by valuable timber may be given up to trees having little or no market value. the rule is universal that the amount and value of material that can be taken from an area of wild forest remains far behind what the same land may bear if properly treated by the forester. it is certain, therefore, that in the future, when most american forests shall be in a high state of cultivation, the annual output of forests will, from a much restricted area, exceed everything known at the present day. (bruncken, _north american forests and forestry_, pp. 134-135.) it is probable that the virgin forest produces but a tithe of the useful material which it is capable of producing. (fernow, p. 98.) mr. burbank has demonstrated that trees can be bred for any particular quality,--for largeness, strength, shape, amount of pitch, tannin, sugar and the like, and for rapidity of growth; in fact that any desirable attribute of a tree may be developed simply by breeding and selecting. he has created walnut trees, by crossing common varieties, that have grown six times as much in thirteen years as their ancestors did in twenty-eight years, preserving at the same time, the strength, hardness and texture of their forebears. the grain of the wood has been made more beautiful at the same time. the trees are fine for fuel and splendidly adapted to furniture manufacture. (harwood, _the new earth_, p. 179.) nature provides in the forest merely those varieties that will survive. man, by interfering in nature's processes but obeying her laws, raises what he wants. nature says: those trees that survive are fit and does not care whether the trees be straight or crooked, branched or clear. man says: those trees shall survive which are fit for human uses. man raises better grains and fruits and vegetables than nature, unaided, can, and, in europe, better trees for lumber. in america there has been such an abundance of trees good enough for our purposes that we have simply gone out and gathered them, just as a savage goes out to gather berries and nuts. some day our descendants will smile at our treatment of forests much as we smile at root-digging savages, unless, indeed, we so far destroy the forests that they will be more angered than amused. in europe and japan, the original supply of trees having been exhausted, forests have been cultivated for centuries with the purpose of raising crops larger in quantity and better in quality. there are various methods used in forest improvement. improvement cuttings, as the name implies, are cuttings made to improve the quality of the forest, whether by thinning out poor species of trees, unsound trees, trees crowding more valuable ones, or trees called "wolves"; that is, trees unduly overshadowing others. improvement cuttings are often necessary as a preliminary step before any silvicultural system can be applied. indeed, many of the silvicultural systems involve steady improvement of the forest. the pruning of branches is a method of improvement, carrying on the natural method by which trees in a forest clean themselves of their branches. seeds of valuable species are often sowed, when the conditions are proper, in order to introduce a valuable species, just as brooks and ponds are stocked with fine fish. in general it may be said that improvement methods are only in their infancy, especially in america. [footnote 1: a concise and interesting statement of the relation of the forest to rain and floods is to be found in pinchot: _primer of forestry_, bulletin no. 24, part ii, chap. iii.] [footnote 2: for an interesting account of an application of this method, see ward, p. 35.] [footnote 3: to encourage such forest extension, the forest service is doing much by the publication of bulletins recommending methods and trees suited to special regions, as, e.g., on forest planting in illinois, in the sand hill region of nebraska, on coal lands in western pennsylvania, in western kansas, in oklahoma and adjacent regions, etc.] the use of the forest. references:[a] i utilization. pinchot, _primer_, ii, pp. 14-18, 38-48. bruncken, pp. 121-131, _for. bull._ no. 61. (1) protective. pinchot, _primer_, ii, pp. 66-73. craft, _agric. yr. bk._, 1905, pp. 636-641, (map. p. 639.) toumey, _agric. yr. bk._, 1903, p. 279. bruncken, pp. 166-173. _for. and irrig._, passim. shaler, i, pp. 485-489. (2) productive. kellogg, _for. bull._, no. 74, fernow, _for. invest._, p. 9. roth, _first book_, p. 133. zon & clark, _agric. yr. bk._, 1907, p. 277. boulger, pp. 60-76. roth, _agric. yr. bk._, 1896, p. 391. fernow, _economics_, pp. 23-33. (3) esthetic. roth, _first book_, p. 180. ii preservation. pinchot, _primer_, ii, pp. 18-36. bruncken, pp. 95, 190. graves, _for. bull._, no. 26, pp. 67-70. roth, _first book_, pp. 41-76, 193-194. roth, _for. bull._, no. 16, pp. 8, 9. fernow, _economics_, 165-196. planting. roth, _first book_, pp. 76-94, 195-198. hall, _agric. yr. bk._, 1902, pp. 145-156. _for. circs._, nos. 37, 41, 45, 81. bruncken, pp. 92, 133. _forestry bulletins_ nos. 18, 45, 52, 65. iii improvement. bruncken, pp. 134-135, 152-160. graves, _for. bull._, no. 26, p. 39. pinchot, _adirondack spruce_, p. 4. harwood, pp. 143-181. [footnote a: for general bibliography, see p. 4.] appendix. how to distinguish the different kinds of wood.[a] by b. e. fernow and filibert roth. the carpenter or other artisan who handles different woods, becomes familiar with those he employs frequently, and learns to distinguish them thru this familiarity, without usually being able to state the points of distinction. if a wood comes before him with which he is not familiar, he has, of course, no means of determining what it is, and it is possible to select pieces even of those with which he is well acquainted, different in appearance from the general run, that will make him doubtful as to their identification. furthermore, he may distinguish between hard and soft pines, between oak and ash, or between maple and birch, which are characteristically different; but when it comes to distinguishing between the several species of pine or oak or ash or birch, the absence of readily recognizable characters is such that but few practitioners can be relied upon to do it. hence, in the market we find many species mixed and sold indiscriminately. to identify the different woods it is necessary to have a knowledge of the definite, invariable differences in their structure, besides that of the often variable differences in their appearance. these structural differences may either be readily visible to the naked eye or with a magnifier, or they may require a microscopical examination. in some cases such an examination can not be dispensed with, if we would make absolutely sure. there are instances, as in the pines, where even our knowledge of the minute anatomical structure is not yet sufficient to make a sure identification. in the following key an attempt has been made--the first, so far as we know, in english literature--to give a synoptical view of the distinctive features of the commoner woods of the united states, which are found in the markets or are used in the arts. it will be observed that the distinction has been carried in most instances no further than to genera or classes of woods, since the distinction of species can hardly be accomplished without elaborate microscopic study, and also that, as far as possible, reliance has been placed only on such characteristics as can be distinguished with the naked eye or a simple magnifying glass, in order to make the key useful to the largest number. recourse has also been taken for the same reason to the less reliable and more variable general external appearance, color, taste, smell, weight, etc. the user of the key must, however, realize that external appearance, such, for example, as color, is not only very variable but also very difficult to describe, individual observers differing especially in seeing and describing shades of color. the same is true of statements of size, when relative, and not accurately measured, while weight and hardness can perhaps be more readily approximated. whether any feature is distinctly or only indistinctly seen will also depend somewhat on individual eyesight, opinion, or practice. in some cases the resemblance of different species is so close that only one other expedient will make distinction possible, namely, a knowledge of the region from which the wood has come. we know, for instance, that no longleaf pine grows in arkansas and that no white pine can come from alabama, and we can separate the white cedar, giant arbor vitã¦ of the west and the arbor vitã¦ of the northeast, only by the difference of the locality from which the specimen comes. with all these limitations properly appreciated, the key will be found helpful toward greater familiarity with the woods which are more commonly met with. the features which have been utilized in the key and with which--their names as well as their appearance--therefore, the reader must familiarize himself before attempting to use the key, are mostly described as they appear in cross-section. they are: (1) sap-wood and heart-wood (see p. 17), the former being the wood from the outer and the latter from the inner part of the tree. in some cases they differ only in shade, and in others in kind of color, the heart-wood exhibiting either a darker shade or a pronounced color. since one can not always have the two together, or be certain whether he has sap-wood or heart-wood, reliance upon this feature is, to be sure, unsatisfactory, yet sometimes it is the only general characteristic that can be relied upon. if further assurance is desired, microscopic structure must be examined; in such cases reference has been made to the presence or absence of tracheids in pith rays and the structure of their walls, especially projections and spirals. (2) annual rings, their formation having been described on page 19. (see also figs. 128-130.) they are more or less distinctly marked, and by such marking a classification of three great groups of wood is possible. (3) spring wood and summer wood, the former being the interior (first formed wood of the year), the latter the exterior (last formed) part of the ring. the proportion of each and the manner in which the one merges into the other are sometimes used, but more frequently the manner in which the pores appear distributed in either. (4) pores, which are vessels cut thru, appearing as holes in cross-section, in longitudinal section as channels, scratches, or identifications. (see p. 23 and figs. 129 and 130.) they appear only in the broad-leaved, so called, hard woods; their relative size (large, medium, small, minute, and indistinct when they cease to be visible individually by the naked eye) and manner of distribution in the ring being of much importance, and especially in the summer wood, where they appear singly, in groups, or short broken lines, in continuous concentric, often wavy lines, or in radial branching lines. (5) resin ducts (see p. 26 and fig. 128) which appear very much like pores in cross-section, namely, as holes or lighter or darker colored dots, but much more scattered. they occur only in coniferous woods, and their presence or absence, size, number, and distribution are an important distinction in these woods. (6) pith rays (see p. 21 and figs. 129 and 130), which in cross-section appear as radial lines, and in radial section as interrupted bands of varying breadth, impart a peculiar luster to that section in some woods. they are most readily visible with the naked eye or with a magnifier in the broad-leaved woods. in coniferous woods they are usually so fine and closely packed that to the casual observer they do not appear. their breadth and their greater or less distinctness are used as distinguishing marks, being styled fine, broad, distinct, very distinct, conspicuous, and indistinct when no longer visible by the naked (strong) eye. (7) concentric lines, appearing in the summer wood of certain species more or less distinct, resembling distantly the lines of pores but much finer and not consisting of pores. (see fig. 129.) of microscopic features, the following only have been referred to: (8) tracheids, a description of which is to be found on page 28. (9) pits, simple and bordered, especially the number of simple pits in the cells of the pith rays, which lead into each of the adjoining tracheids. for standards of weight, consult table on pages 50 and 192; for standards of hardness, table on page 195. unless otherwise stated the color refers always to the fresh cross-section of a piece of dry wood; sometimes distinct kinds of color, sometimes only shades, and often only general color effects appear. [footnote a: from forestry bulletin no. 10, _u. s. department of agriculture_.] how to use the key. nobody need expect to be able to use successfully any key for the distinction of woods or of any other class of natural objects without some practice. this is especially true with regard to woods, which are apt to vary much, and when the key is based on such meager general data as the present. the best course to adopt is to supply one's self with a small sample collection of woods, accurately named. small, polished tablets are of little use for this purpose. the pieces should be large enough, if possible, to include pith and bark, and of sufficient width to permit ready inspection of the cross-section. by examining these with the aid of the key, beginning with the better-known woods, one will soon learn to see the features described and to form an idea of the relative standards which the maker of the key had in mind. to aid in this, the accompanying illustrations will be of advantage. when the reader becomes familiar with the key, the work of identifying any given piece will be comparatively easy. the material to be examined must, of course, be suitably prepared. it should be moistened; all cuts should be made with a very sharp knife or razor and be clean and smooth, for a bruised surface reveals but little structure. the most useful cut may be made along one of the edges. instructive, thin, small sections may be made with a sharp penknife or razor, and when placed on a piece of thin glass, moistened and covered with another piece of glass, they may be examined by holding them toward the light. finding, on examination with the magnifier, that it contains pores, we know it is not coniferous or non-porous. finding no pores collected in the spring-wood portion of the annual ring, but all scattered (diffused) thru the ring, we turn at once to the class of "diffuse-porous woods." we now note the size and manner in which the pores are distributed thru the ring. finding them very small and neither conspicuously grouped, nor larger nor more abundant in the spring-wood, we turn to the third group of this class. we now note the pith rays, and finding them neither broad nor conspicuous, but difficult to distinguish, even with the magnifier, we at once exclude the wood from the first two sections of this group and place it in the third, which is represented by only one kind, cottonwood. finding the wood very soft, white, and on the longitudinal section with a silky luster, we are further assured that our determination is correct. we may now turn to the list of woods and obtain further information regarding the occurrence, qualities, and uses of the wood. sometimes our progress is not so easy; we may waver in what group or section to place the wood before us. in such cases we may try each of the doubtful roads until we reach a point where we find ourselves entirely wrong and then return and take up another line; or we may anticipate some of the later mentioned features and finding them apply to our specimen, gain additional assurance of the direction we ought to travel. color will often help us to arrive at a speedy decision. in many cases, especially with conifers, which are rather difficult to distinguish, a knowledge of the locality from which the specimen comes is at once decisive. thus, northern white cedar, and bald cypress, and the cedar of the pacific will be identified, even without the somewhat indefinite criteria given in the key. key to the more important woods of north america. i. non-porous woods--pores not visible or conspicuous on cross-section, even with magnifier. annual rings distinct by denser (dark colored) bands of summer wood (fig. 128). [illustration: fig. 128. "non-porous" woods. _a_, fir; _b_, "hard" pine; _c_, soft pine; _ar_, annual ring; _o.e._, outer edge of ring; _i.e._, inner edge of ring; _s.w._, summer wood; _sp.w._, spring wood; _rd._, resin ducts.] ii. ring-porous woods--pores numerous, usually visible on cross-section without magnifier. annual rings distinct by a zone of large pores collected in the spring wood, alternating with the denser summer wood (fig. 129). [illustration: fig. 129. "ring-porous" woods white oak and hickory. _a. r._, annual ring; _su. w._, summer wood; _sp. w._, spring wood; _v_, vessels or pores; _c. l._, "concentric" lines; _rt_, darker tracts of hard fibers forming the firm part of oak wood; _pr_, pith rays.] iii. diffuse-porous woods--pores numerous, usually not plainly visible on cross-section without magnifier. annual rings distinct by a fine line of denser summer wood cells, often quite indistinct; pores scattered thru annual ring, no zone of collected pores in spring wood (fig. 130). [illustration: fig. 130. "diffuse-porous" woods. _ar_, annual ring; _pr_, pith rays which are "broad" at _a_, "fine" at _b_, "indistinct" at _d_.] note.--the above described three groups are exogenous, i.e., they grow by adding annually wood on their circumference. a fourth group is formed by the endogenous woods, like yuccas and palms, which do not grow by such additions. i.--non-porous woods. (includes all coniferous woods.) a. resin ducts wanting.[1] 1. no distinct heart-wood. _a._ color effect yellowish white; summer wood darker yellowish (under microscope pith ray without tracheids)..........firs. _b._ color effect reddish (roseate) (under microscope pith ray with tracheids) ................................hemlock. 2. heart-wood present, color decidedly different in kind from sap-wood. _a._ heart-wood light orange red; sap-wood, pale lemon; wood, heavy and hard .........................................yew. _b._ heartwood purplish to brownish red; sap-wood yellowish white; wood soft to medium hard, light, usually with aromatic odor, ...................................red cedar. _c._ heart-wood maroon to terra cotta or deep brownish red; sap-wood light orange to dark amber, very soft and light, no odor; pith rays very distinct, specially pronounced on radial section ..................................redwood. 3. heart-wood present, color only different in shade from sap-wood, dingy-yellowish brown. _a._ odorless and tasteless ........................bald cypress. _b._ wood with mild resinous odor, but tasteless ....white cedar. _c._ wood with strong resinous odor and peppery taste when freshly cut, ................................incense cedar. b. resin ducts present. 1. no distinct heartwood; color white, resin ducts very small, not numerous ............................................spruce. 2. distinct heart-wood present. _a._ resin ducts numerous, evenly scattered thru the ring. _a.'_ transition from spring wood to summer wood gradual; annual ring distinguished by a fine line of dense summer-wood cells; color, white to yellowish red; wood soft and light .......................soft pines.[2] _b.'_ transition from spring wood to summer wood more or less abrupt; broad bands of dark-colored summer wood; color from light to deep orange; wood medium hard and heavy ............................hard pines.[2] _b._ resin ducts not numerous nor evenly distributed. _a'._ color of heart-wood orange-reddish, sap-wood yellowish (same as hard pine); resin ducts frequently combined in groups of 8 to 30, forming lines on the cross-section (tracheids with spirals), ..............douglas spruce. _b'._ color of heart-wood light russet brown; of sap-wood yellowish brown; resin ducts very few, irregularly scattered (tracheids without spirals) ........tamarack. [footnote 1: soft and hard pines are arbitrary distinctions and the two not distinguishable at the limit.] [footnote 2: to discover the resin ducts a very smooth surface is necessary, since resin ducts are frequently seen only with difficulty, appearing on the cross-section as fine whiter or darker spots normally scattered singly, rarely in groups, usually in the summer wood of the annual ring. they are often much more easily seen on radial, and still more so on tangential sections, appearing there as fine lines or dots of open structure of different color or as indentations or pin scratches in a longitudinal direction.] ==== additional notes for distinctions in the group. spruce is hardly distinguishable from fir, except by the existence of the resin ducts, and microscopically by the presence of tracheids in the medullary rays. spruce may also be confounded with soft pine, except for the heart-wood color of the latter and the larger, more frequent, and more readily visible resin ducts. in the lumber yard, hemlock is usually recognized by color and the silvery character of its surface. western hemlocks partake of this last character to a less degree. microscopically the white pine can be distinguished by having usually only one large pit, while spruce shows three to five very small pits in the parenchyma cells of the pith ray communicating with the tracheid. the distinction of the pines is possible only by microscopic examination. the following distinctive features may assist in recognizing, when in the log or lumber pile, those usually found in the market: the light, straw color, combined with great lightness and softness, distinguishes the white pines (white pine and sugar pine) from the hard pines (all others in the market), which may also be recognized by the gradual change of spring wood into summer wood. this change in hard pines is abrupt, making the summer wood appear as a sharply defined and more or less broad band. the norway pine, which may be confounded with the shortleaf pine, can be distinguished by being much lighter and softer. it may also, but more rarely, be confounded with heavier white pine, but for the sharper definition of the annual ring, weight, and hardness. the longleaf pine is strikingly heavy, hard, and resinous, and usually very regular and narrow ringed, showing little sap-wood, and differing in this respect from the shortleaf pine and loblolly pine, which usually have wider rings and more sap-wood, the latter excelling in that respect. the following convenient and useful classification of pines into four groups, proposed by dr. h. mayr, is based on the appearance of the pith ray as seen in a radial section of the spring wood of any ring: section i. walls of the tracheids of the pith ray with dentate projections. _a._ one to two large, simple pits to each tracheid on the radial walls of the cells of the pith ray.--group 1. represented in this country only by _p. resinosa_. _b._ three to six simple pits to each tracheid, on the walls of the cells of the pith ray.--group 2. _p. taeda_, _palustris_, etc., including most of our "hard" and "yellow" pines. section ii. walls of tracheids of pith ray smooth, without dentate projections. _a._ one or two large pits to each tracheid on the radial walls of each cell of the pith ray.--group 3. _p. strobus, lambertiana_, and other true white pines. _b._ three to six small pits on the radial walls of each cell of the pith ray. group 4. _p. parryana_, and other nut pines, including also _p. balfouriana_. ==== ii.--ring-porous woods. (some of group d and cedar elm imperfectly ring-porous.) a. pores in the summer wood minute, scattered singly or in groups, or in short broken lines, the course of which is never radial. 1. pith rays minute, scarcely distinct. _a._ wood heavy and hard; pores in the summer wood not in clusters. _a.'_ color of radial section not yellow.................ash. _b.'_ color of radial section light yellow; by which, together with its hardness and weight, this species is easily recognized, ............osage orange. _b._ wood light and soft; pores in the summer wood in clusters of 10 to 30 .......................................catalpa. 2. pith rays very fine, yet distinct; pores in summer wood usually single or in short lines; color of heart-wood reddish brown; of sap-wood yellowish white; peculiar odor on fresh section .....................................sassafras. 3. pith rays fine, but distinct. _a._ very heavy and hard; heart-wood yellowish brown. black locust. _b._ heavy; medium hard to hard. _a.'_ pores in summer wood very minute, usually in small clusters of 3 to 8; heart-wood light orange brown. red mulberry. _b.'_ pores in summer wood small to minute, usually isolated; heart-wood cherry red ..........coffee tree. 4. pith rays fine but very conspicuous, even without magnifier. color of heart-wood red; of sap-wood pale lemon ...honey locust. b. pores of summer wood minute or small, in concentric wavy and sometimes branching lines, appearing as finely-feathered hatchings on tangential section. 1. pith rays fine, but very distinct; color greenish white. heart-wood absent or imperfectly developed ...........hackberry. 2. pith rays indistinct; color of heart-wood reddish brown; sap-wood grayish to reddish white .........................elms. c. pores of summer wood arranged in radial branching lines (when very crowded radial arrangement somewhat obscured). 1. pith rays very minute, hardly visible .................chestnut. 2. pith rays very broad and conspicuous .......................oak. d. pores of summer wood mostly but little smaller than those of the spring wood, isolated and scattered; very heavy and hard woods. the pores of the spring wood sometimes form but an imperfect zone. (some diffuse-porous woods of groups a and b may seem to belong here.) 1. fine concentric lines (not of pores) as distinct, or nearly so, as the very fine pith rays; outer summer wood with a tinge of red; heart-wood light reddish brown ....................hickory. 2. fine concentric lines, much finer than the pith rays; no reddish tinge in summer wood; sap-wood white; heart-wood blackish .............................................persimmon. ==== additional notes for distinctions in the group. sassafras and mulberry may be confounded but for the greater weight and hardness and the absence of odor in the mulberry; the radial section of mulberry also shows the pith rays conspicuously. honey locust, coffee tree, and black locust are also very similar in appearance. the honey locust stands out by the conspicuousness of the pith rays, especially on radial sections, on account of their height, while the black locust is distinguished by the extremely great weight and hardness, together with its darker brown color. [illustration: fig. 131. wood of coffee tree.] the ashes, elms, hickories, and oaks may, on casual observation, appear to resemble one another on account of the pronounced zone of porous spring wood. (figs. 129, 132, 135.) the sharply defined large pith rays of the oak exclude these at once; the wavy lines of pores in the summer wood, appearing as conspicuous finely-feathered hatchings on tangential section, distinguish the elms; while the ashes differ from the hickory by the very conspicuously defined zone of spring wood pores, which in hickory appear more or less interrupted. the reddish hue of the hickory and the more or less brown hue of the ash may also aid in ready recognition. the smooth, radial surface of split hickory will readily separate it from the rest. [illustration: fig. 132. _a_, black ash; _b_, white ash; _c_, green ash.] the different species of ash may be identified as follows (fig. 132): 1. pores in the summer wood more or less united into lines. _a._ the lines short and broken, occurring mostly near the limit of the ring .......................................white ash. _b._ the lines quite long and conspicuous in most parts of the summer wood .......................................green ash. 2. pores in the summer wood not united into lines, or rarely so. _a._ heart-wood reddish brown and very firm ..............red ash. _b._ heart-wood grayish brown, and much more porous ....black ash. in the oaks, two groups can be readily distinguished by the manner in which the pores are distributed in the summer wood. (fig. 133.) in the white oaks the pores are very fine and numerous and crowded in the outer part of the summer wood, while in the black or red oaks the pores are larger, few in number, and mostly isolated. the live oaks, as far as structure is concerned, belong to the black oaks, but are much less porous, and are exceedingly heavy and hard. [illustration: fig. 133. wood of red oak. (for white oak see fig. 129, p. 291.)] [illustration: fig. 134. wood of chestnut.] [illustration: fig. 135. wood of hickory.] ==== iii.--diffuse-porous woods. (a few indistinctly ring-porous woods of group ii, d, and cedar elm may seem to belong here.) a. pores varying in size from large to minute; largest in spring wood, thereby giving sometimes the appearance of a ring-porous arrangement. 1. heavy and hard; color of heart-wood (especially on longitudinal section) chocolate brown ..........................black walnut. 2. light and soft; color of heart-wood light reddish brown butternut. b. pores all minute and indistinct; most numerous in spring wood, giving rise to a lighter colored zone or line (especially on longitudinal section), thereby appearing sometimes ring-porous; wood hard, heart-wood vinous reddish; pith rays very fine, but very distinct. (see also the sometimes indistinct ring-porous cedar elm, and occasionally winged elm, which are readily distinguished by the concentric wavy lines of pores in the summer wood) .........cherry. c. pores minute or indistinct, neither conspicuously larger nor more numerous in the spring wood and evenly distributed. 1. broad pith rays present. _a._ all or most pith rays broad, numerous, and crowded, especially on tangential sections, medium heavy and hard, difficult to split. ................................sycamore. _b._ only part of the pith rays broad. _a.'_ broad pith rays well defined, quite numerous; wood reddish white to reddish ....................beech. _b.'_ broad pith rays not sharply defined, made up of many small rays, not numerous. stem furrowed, and therefore the periphery of section, and with it the annual rings sinuous, bending in and out, and the large pith rays generally limited to the furrows or concave portions. wood white, not reddish .....................blue beech. 2. no broad pith rays present. _a._ pith rays small to very small, but quite distinct. _a.'_ wood hard. _a."_ color reddish white, with dark reddish tinge in outer summer wood ...........................maple. _b."_ color white, without reddish tinge ...........holly. _b.'_ wood soft to very soft. _a."_ pores crowded, occupying nearly all the space between pith rays. _a.'"_ color yellowish white, often with a greenish tinge in heart-wood ........................tulip poplar. cucumber tree. _b.'"_ color of sap-wood grayish, of heart-wood light to dark reddish brown ......................sweet gum. _b."_ pores not crowded, occupying not over one-third the space between pith rays; heart-wood brownish white to very light brown .........................basswood. _b._ pith rays scarcely distinct, yet if viewed with ordinary magnifier, plainly visible. _a.'_ pores indistinct to the naked eye. _a."_ color uniform pale yellow; pith rays not conspicuous even on the radial section .....buckeye. _b."_ sap-wood yellowish gray, heart-wood grayish brown; pith rays conspicuous on the radial section. sour gum. _b.'_ pores scarcely distinct, but mostly visible as grayish specks on the cross-section; sap-wood whitish, heart-wood reddish ..............................birch. d. pith rays not visible or else indistinct, even if viewed with magnifier. 1. wood very soft, white, or in shades of brown, usually with a silky luster .................................cottonwood (poplar). ==== additional notes for distinctions in the group. cherry and birch are sometimes confounded, the high pith rays on the cherry on radial sections readily distinguishes it; distinct pores on birch and spring wood zone in cherry as well as the darker vinous-brown color of the latter will prove helpful. two groups of birches can be readily distinguished, tho specific distinction is not always possible. 1. pith rays fairly distinct, the pores rather few and not more abundant in the spring wood: wood heavy, usually darker, cherry birch and yellow birch. 2. pith rays barely distinct, pores more numerous and commonly forming a more porous spring wood zone; wood of medium weight, canoe or paper birch. [illustration: fig. 136. wood of beech, sycamore and birch.] the species of maple may be distinguished as follows: 1. most of the pith rays broader than the pores and very conspicuous ........................................sugar maple. 2. pith rays not or rarely broader than the pores, fine but conspicuous. _a._ wood heavy and hard, usually of darker reddish color and commonly spotted on cross-section ...............red maple. _b._ wood of medium weight and hardness, usually light colored. silver maple. [illustration: fig. 137. wood of maple.] red maple is not always safely distinguished from soft maple. in box elder the pores are finer and more numerous than in soft maple. the various species of elm may be distinguished as follows: 1. pores of spring wood form a broad band of several rows; easy splitting, dark brown heart ............................red elm. 2. pores of spring wood usually in a single row, or nearly so. _a._ pores of spring wood large, conspicuously so white elm. _b._ pores of spring wood small to minute. _a.'_ lines of pores in summer wood fine, not as wide as the intermediate spaces, giving rise to very compact grain rock elm. _b.'_ lines of pores broad, commonly as wide as the intermediate spaces .........................winged elm. _c._ pores in spring wood indistinct, and therefore hardly a ring-porous wood .................................cedar elm. [illustration: fig. 138. wood of elm. _a_ red elm; _b_, white elm; _c_, winged elm.] [illustration: fig. 139. walnut. _p.r._, pith rays; _c.l._, concentric lines; _v_, vessels or pores; _su. w._, summer wood; _sp. w._, spring wood.] [illustration: fig. 140. wood of cherry.] index. _abies grandis_, 96. _acer dasycarpum_, 172. _acer macrophyllum_, 170. _acer rubrum_, 174. _acer saccharinum_, 172. _acer saccharum_, 176. _agaricus melleus_, 236. _agarics_, 234, 236. alburnum, 17. ambrosia beetles, 242. angiosperms, 9. animal enemies, 239. arborvitae, giant, 104. ash, 182-191, 296. ash, black, 182, 298. ash, blue, 186. ash, hoop, 182. ash, oregon, 184. ash, red, 188, 298. ash, white, 25, 190, 298. bamboo, 10, 11. bark, 10, 13, 14. bark borers, 243. basswood, 14, 178, 301. bast, 13, 15, 16, 20. beech, 134, 300. beech, blue, 124, 300. beech, water, 124. beech, water, 162. bees, carpenter, 246. beetles, 241-246. _betula lenta_, 130. _betula lutea_, 132. _betula nigra_, 128. _betula papyrifera_, 126. big tree, 98, 208, 209, 220. birch, black, 130. birch, canoe, 126. birch, cherry, 130. birch, gray, 132. birch, mahogany, 130. birch, paper, 126. birch, red, 128. birch, river, 128. birch, sweet, 130. birch, white, 126. birch, yellow, 132. bird's eye maple, 36. bluing, 234. bole, 211, 218. borers, 243-246. bowing, 47. branches, 37, 218, 226, 286. brittleness, 53. broad-leaved trees. see trees, broad-leaved. browsing, 240. buckeye, 301. bud, 14, 16, 36. buds, adventitious, 36, 37. bullnut, 118. _buprestid_, 243. burl, 35. butternut, 144, 300. button ball, 162. buttonwood, 162. calico poplar, 246. cambium, 10, 13, 14, 15, 16, 22, 237. canopy, 204, 211, 212. carpenter worms, 245. carpenter bees, 246. _carpinus caroliniana_, 124. catalpa, 296. _castanea dentata_, 136. case-hardening, 48. _carya tomentosa_, 118. _carya porcina_, 122. _carya alba_, 120. cedar, canoe, 104. cedar incense, 295. cedar, oregon, 108. cedar, port orford, 108. cedar, red, 110, 223, 295. cedar, western red, 104, 206, 207. cedar, white, 106, 295. cedar, white, 108. cells, wood, 15, 19, 20, 21, 24, 26, 41, 42. cells, fibrous, 28. cellulose, 15. _cerambycid_, 243. _chamaecyparis lawsoniana_, 108. _chamaecyparis thyordes_, 106. checks, 43, 47, 232. cherry, wild black, 164, 300. chestnut, 136, 298. cleaning, 218, 286. cleavability of wood, 41, 53. coffee tree, 297. color of wood, 18. cold, 214, 216. _coleoptera_, 241. colors of woods, 17, 18, 290. columbian timber beetle, 245. comb-grain, 54. composition of forest, 197-210, 223. compression, 51, 52. conch, 235. cones, annual, 19. conifers, 9, 10, 12, 24-26, 29, 30, 48, 58-111, 205, 220, 237, 251. conservation of forests, 262. coppice, 220, 278, 279. cork, 13, 19. cortex, 13, 15. _corthylus columbianus_, 245. cottonwood, 301. cover, 211. crop, the forest, 274. crown, 211, 227. cucumber tree, 156, 301. _curculionid_, 243. cypress, bald, 102, 215, 295. cypress, lawson, 108. decay, 235. deciduous trees, 10. dicotoledons, 9, 10. differentiation of cells, 16. diffuse-porous. see wood, diffuse-porous. distribution of species, 218. distribution of forests, 197-210. drouth, 213, 231. dry-rot, 234, 238. duff, 224, 251. duramen, 17. elasticity of wood, 41, 53. elm, 152-155, 298. elm, american, 154. elm, cedar, 303. elm, cliff, 152. elm, cork, 152. elm, hickory, 152. elm, red, 302. elm, rock, 152, 303. elm, slippery, 14. elm, water, 154. elm, white, 152. elm, white, 154, 302. elm, winged, 303. endogens, 10, 17. see monocotoledons. enemies of the forest, 229-249. engraver beetles, 241. entomology, bureau of, 247. epidermis, 13, 15. erosion, 273. evaporation, 42, 47. evergreens, 10. exotics, 227. exogens, 12, 16. _fagus americana_, 134. _fagus atropunicea_, 134. _fagus ferruginea_, 134. _fagus grandifolia_, 134. figure, 37. fir, 96, 294. fir, douglas, 94. fir, grand, 96. fir, lowland, 96. fir, red, 94, 206, 207. fir, silver, 96. fir, white, 96. fire, 232, 251-258. fire lanes, 257. fire losses, 253. fire notice, 258. fire trenches, 256. fire wardens, 257. fires, causes of, 252. fires, control of, 256-258. fires, crown, 255. fires, description of, 254-256. fires, fear of, 261. fires, opportunities for, 251. fires, statistics of, 253. fires, surface, 252. floor, forest, 213, 224. forest, abundance of, 260. forest, appalachian, 204. forest, atlantic, 197. forest, broadleaf, 202. forest, eastern, 197-204. forest, enemies of, 229-249. forest, exhaustion of, 241-270. forest, esthetic use of, 277. forest, fear of, 260. forest, hardwood, 197. forest, high, 281. forest, hostility toward, 260. forest, mixed, 204, 213, 214. forest, northern, 197, 216. forest, pacific, 197, 204-208. forest, productive, 274-277. forest, protective, 271-274. forest, puget sound, 206. forest, regular seed, 281. forest, rocky mountain, 197, 204, 205. forest, seed, 297-282. forest, selection, 280-281. forest, southern, 197. forest, subarctic, 209. forest, two-storied seed, 282. forest, use of, 271-287. forest, utilization of, 271-277. forest, virgin, 280. forest, western, 197. forestry, 271-287. forests, composition of north american, 197. forests, national, 228. forests and agriculture, 258, 277. forest conditions, 211-228, 278. forest conservation, 262. forest cover, 204, 211, 212, 224. forest crop, 274, 276. forest devastation, 261. forest fires, 251-258, 261. forest floor, 213, 224. forest improvement, 284-286. forest map, 198. forest organism, the, chapter v., pp. 211-228. forest ownership, 262. forest planting, 282-284. forest preservation, 277-284. forest products, 276. forest service, u. s., 262, 264, 275. _fraxinus americana_, 190. _fraxinus nigra_, 182. _fraxinus oregona_, 184. _fraxinus pennsylvanica_, 188. _fraxinus quadrangulata_, 186. frost, 232. frost-check, 232. fungi, 20, 233-239. ginko, 12. gluing, 54. goats, 240. grain of wood, 19, 30, 31, 32-37, 53. grain, bird's eye. grain, coarse, 32. grain, cross, 33, 53. grain, curly, 35. grain, fine, 32. grain, spiral, 33. grain, straight, 33, 53. grain, twisted, 33. grain, wavy, 34. grazing, 239. group system, 279. grubs, 243, 244. gum, black, 180. gum, sour, 180, 301. gum, sweet, 160, 301. gymnosperms, 9. hackberry, 297. hackmatack, 76. hardness of wood, 41, 54. hardwoods, 12. heart-wood, 13, 17, 18, 19, 290. hemlock, 90, 295. hemlock, black, 92. hemlock, western, 92, 206. _hicoria alba_, 118. _hicoria glabra_, 122. _hicoria ovata_, 120. hickory, 118-123, 298. hickory, big-bud, 118. hickory, black, 118. hickory, shagbark, 120. hickory, shellbark, 120. hickory, white-heart, 118. high forest, 281. holly, 301. honeycombing, 48. hornbeam, 124. horn-tails, 246. hygroscopicity of wood, 41. _hymenomycetes_, 234. ice, 232. ichneumon fly, 247. identification of woods, 289-303. improvement of forests, 284-286. inflammability of bark, 14, 251. insects, 240-248. insects, parasitic, 247. insects, predaceous, 247. intolerance, 216, 219, 221. iron-wood, 124. _juglans cinerea_, 114. _juglans nigra_, 116. _juniperus virginiana_, 110. key for the distinction of woods, 292-303. king-nut, 118. knot, 35, 37, 38. larch, 76. larch, western, 78. _larix americana_, 76. _larix laricina_, 76. _larix occidentales_, 78. leaves, 14, 216. lenticels, 14. _lepidoptera_, 241. light, 216-218. lightning, 231, 251. lignin, 16. linden, 178. _liquidambar styraciflua_, 160. _liriodendron tulipifera_, 158. localized selection system, 281. locust, 166. locust, black, 166, 296. locust, honey, 166, 297. locust, yellow, 166. long-bodied trunk, 225. lumber consumption, 264. lumber, 9, 10. lumber prices, 267, 268. lumber production, 265-267. lumber, substitutes for, 264. lumbering, conservative, 274, 276. lumbering, destructive, 251, 258-263. lumberman, 260. _magnolia acuminata_, 156. magnolia, mountain, 156. mahogany, 168. maple, 170-177, 301. maple, hard, 25, 176. maple, large leaved, 170. maple, oregon, 170, 207. maple, red, 174, 302. maple, rock, 25, 176. maple, silver, 172, 302. maple, soft, 172. maple, sugar, 176. maple, white, 170. maple, white, 172. medullary rays. see rays. medullary sheath. see sheath. _merulius lachrymans_, 234, 238. meteorological enemies, 229-233. mice, 237. microscope, 14, 24-31, 290. mine, forest treated as, 261, 274. mockernut, 118. moisture, 213. moisture in wood, 41, 52. monocotoledons, 9, 10, 17. see also endogens. mountain, 216. mulberry, red, 297. mushroom, 236. mutual aid, 224. nailing, 53. needle-leaf trees, 12. non-porous. see wood, non-porous. north woods, 197, 218. nurse, 218, 219. _nyssa sylvatica_, 180. oak, 138-151, 298. oak, basket, 142. oak, black, 140. oak, bur, 144. oak, cow, 142. oak, live, 201. oak, mossy-cup, 144. oak, over-cup, 144. oak, post, 148. oak, red, 138. oak, stave, 150. oak, white, 150. oak, white (western), 146. oak, yellow bark, 140. odors of wood, 18. osage orange, 296. organism, forest, 211. _padus serotina_, 164. palm, 9, 17. paper pulp, 263. parasites, 233. parenchyma, 23, 28. pecky cypress, 234. peggy cypress, 234. pepperidge, 180. persimmon, 298. phanerogamia, 9. phloem, 13. _picea alba_, 80. _picea canadensis_, 80. _picea engelmanni_, 86. _picea mariana_, 84. _picea nigra_, 84. _picea rubens_, 82. _picea sitchensis_, 88. pigeon horn-tail, 247. pignut, 122. pines, 58-75, 295. pine, bull, 66, 205, 282. pine, cuban, 74. pine, georgia, 68. pine, loblolly, 72. pine, long-leaf, 68, 200. pine, norway, 64. pine, old field, 72. pine, oregon, 94. pine, red, 64. pine, short-leaf, 70. pine, slash, 74. pine, sugar, 62. pine, western white, 60. pine, western yellow, 66. pine, weymouth, 58. pine, white, 24, 58, 199. pine, yellow, 70. pine sawyers, 244. _pinus caribaea_, 74. _pinus echinata_, 70. _pinus heterophylla_, 74. _pinus lambertiana_, 62. _pinus monticola_, 60. _pinus palustris_, 68. _pinus ponderosa_, 66. _pinus resinosa_, 64. _pinus strobus_, 58. _pinus taeda_, 72. pith, 10, 13, 15, 16, 23, 32, 39. pith ray. see ray, medullary. pits, 26, 292. planting, 282-284. _platanus occidentalis_, 162. poles, 225. polypores, 234 _polyporus annosus_, 237. _polyporus sulphureus_, 236. poplar, yellow, 158, 221, 245, 246, 301. pores, 23, 28, 29, 291. powder-post beetles, 244. preservation of forests, 277-284. prices of lumber, 267, 268. primary growth, 17, 22. procambium strands, 16. protection against fungi, 239. protection against insects, 247. properties of wood, chap ii., p. 41. protoplasm, 14, 16, 23, 41. pruning of branches, 286. _prunus serotina_, 164. _pseudotsuga mucronata_, 94. _pseudotsuga taxifolia_, 94. quartering a log, 45. quartered oak, 22. _quercus alba_, 150. _quercus garryana_, 146. _quercus macrocarpa_, 144. _quercus michauxii_, 142. _quercus minor_, 148. _quercus obtusiloba_, 148. _quercus rubra_, 138. _quercus stellata_, 148. _quercus tinctoria_, 140. _quercus velutina_, 140. rainfall, effect on forest, 205, 213. rays, medullary, 15, 16, 17, 21, 22, 23, 26, 30, 31, 37, 44, 53, 291. red rot, 234. redwood, 100, 207, 208, 222, 295. regularity of cells, 24. reproduction, 220. reserve sprout method, 279. resin ducts, 26, 291. rhizomorphs, 236. rind, 13. ring-porous. see wood, ring-porous. rings, annual, 9, 18, 19, 21, 23, 44, 226, 290. rings, false, 19, 231. _robinia pseudacacia_, 166. rodents, 239. roots, 211, 224. rotation period, 279. rotting, 234. _salix nigra_, 112. sand dunes, 230, 231. saplings, 225, 226. saprophytes, 233. sap-wood, 13, 17, 18, 41, 42, 290. sassafras, 296. sawyers, pine, 244. secondary growth, 17. section, cross, 21, 22, 29. see also section, transverse. section, radial, 19, 22, 26, 30, 31. section, tangential, 19, 22, 26, 30, 31. section, transverse, 19, 24, 29, 30. seasoning, 42. sections, transverse, radial and tangential, 12. seed forests, 279-282. seeding from the side, 279. seedlings, 225, 226. seeds, 220-223, 226. sequoia, 98. sequoia, 100. sequoia, giant, 98. _sequoia gigantea_, 98. _sequoia sempervirens_, 100. _sequoia washingtoniana_, 98. settler, 258. shake, 47, 232, 233. shearing strength, 52. sheep, 240. shelf fungus, 234, 236. short-bodied trunk, 225, 226. shrinkage of wood, 41, 42-47. silver flakes, 22. see rays, medullary. silvical characteristics, 211. silvicultural systems, 278-284. slash, 229, 251, 257. slash-grain, 54. snow, 232. slash-sawing, 45, 47. softwoods, 12. soil, 211, 213. specific gravity. see weight. splint-wood, 17. splitting. see cleavability. spores, 234. spring-wood, 20, 21, 24, 30, 32, 44, 53, 54, 291. sprouts, 220, 222. spruce, 80-89, 295. spruce, black, 84. spruce, douglas, 94, 296. spruce, engelmann's, 86. spruce, red, 82, 213. spruce, sitka, 88. spruce, tideland, 88. spruce, western white, 86. spruce, white, 80. stand, mixed, 213, 223. stand, pure, 213, 223. standards, 225, 226. steamboats, 246. stem, diagram of cross section, fig. 4, p. 13, fig. 5, p. 15, 211. strength of wood, 41, 51-53. strip system, 279. structure of wood, 9-40, 29, 30, 32. struggle for existence, 224, 226, 227. summer-wood, 20, 21, 24, 30, 32, 44, 53, 54, 291. _swietenia mahagoni_, 168. sycamore, 22, 162, 300. tamarack, 76, 296. tamarack, western, 78. taxes on forests, 261. _taxodium distichum_, 102. tear fungus, 234, 238. temperature, 214. tension, 51, 52. texture of wood, 32. _thuja gigantea_, 104. _thuja plicata_, 104. _tilia americana_, 178. timber beetles, 242, 245. timber supply of u. s., 264-269. timber trees, 10. timber worms, 244. tissue, 16. toadstools, 234. tolerance, 216, 219. toughness of wood, 41, 54. tracheae, 23, 28. tracheid, 28, 30, 290, 292. _trametes pini_, 235. _trametes radiciperda_, 237. tree, parts of, 211. treeless area, 197, 203. trees, broad-leaved, 9, 10, 28, 29. trees, deciduous, 10. trunk, 13, 211. long-bodied, 225. short-bodied, 225. _tsuga canadensis_, 90. _tsuga heterophylla_, 92. tulip tree, 158. see poplar yellow tupelo, 180. turpentine, 263. two-storied seed forest, 282. _ulmus americana_, 154. _ulmus racemosa_, 152. _ulmus thomasi_, 152. utilization of forests, 271-277. vegetable enemies, 233-239. veneer, 10, 35. vessels, 23, 28, 29. veterans, 225. walnut, black, 116, 300. walnut, white, 114. warping, 45-47. waste, avoidance of, 274. waste in lumbering, 263. water, 41, 42, 226, 231. weeds, forest, 225. weight of wood, 41, 49-51. whitewood, 158. wilderness, conquest of, 258. willow, black, 112. wind, 229, 252, 253. windfalls, 229. wood, diffuse-porous, 23, 30, 300-303. wood, non-porous, 24-26, 58-111, 294-296. wood, primary, 17. wood, properties of, chap. ii., 41-56. wood, ring-porous, 23, 29, 296-299. wood, spring, 20, 21, 24, 30, 32, 44, 53, 54, 291. wood, structure of, 9-40. wood, secondary, 17. wood, summer, 20, 21, 24, 30, 32, 44, 53, 54, 291. wood borers, 243. wood cells. see cells. wood. see sap-wood, heart wood. wood dyes, 18. wood fiber, 28. woods, color of, 17, 18, 290. woods, the distinguishing of, 289-303. working, 47. worm-holes, 243. worms, carpenter, 245. worms, timber, 244. wound parasites, 234. yew, 295. yield, 275. yucca, 10. books on the manual arts design and construction in wood. by william noyes. a book full of charm and distinction and the first to give due consideration to the esthetic side of wood-working. it is intended to give to beginners practice in designing simple projects in wood and an opportunity to acquire skill in handling tools. the book illustrates a series of projects and gives suggestions for other similar projects together with information regarding tools and processes for making. a pleasing volume abundantly and beautifully illustrated. handwork in wood. by william noyes. a handbook for teachers and a textbook for normal school and college students. a comprehensive and scholarly treatise, covering logging, saw-milling, seasoning and measuring, hand tools, wood fastenings, equipment and care of the shop, the common joints, types of wood structures, principles of joinery, and wood finishing. 304 illustrations--excellent pen drawings and many photographs. wood and forest. by william noyes. a companion volume to "handwork in wood," by the same author. especially adapted as a reference book for teachers of woodworking. not too difficult for use as a textbook for normal school and college students. treats of wood, distribution of american forests, life of the forest, enemies of the forest, destruction, conservation and uses of the forest, with a key to the common woods by filibert roth. describes 67 principal species of wood with maps of the habitat, leaf drawings, life size photographs and microphotographs of sections. contains a general bibliography of books and articles on wood and forest. profusely illustrated with photographs from the united states forest service and with pen and ink drawings by anna gausmann noyes and photographs by the author. 309 pages. woodwork for beginners. by ira s. griffith. a remarkably simple treatment of elementary woodworking for students in the seventh and eighth grades. it deals with tools, processes and materials and includes only such subject matter as should be taught to grammar grade students. it meets the requirements of students working in large classes and devoting the minimum of time to manual training. a practical and unusually attractive textbook and one that can be used with any course of models and in any order. beginning woodwork, at home and in school. by clinton s. vandeusen. a full and clear description in detail of the fundamental processes of elementary benchwork in wood. this description is given thru directions for making a few simple, useful articles, suitable either for school or home problems. the book contains more than one hundred original sketches and ten working drawings. problems in farm woodwork. by samuel a. blackburn. a book of working drawings of 100 practical problems relating to agriculture and farm life. especially valuable to the student or teacher of agriculture or manual arts in rural schools and in high schools in agricultural communities, and to the boy on the farm. there are 60 full-page plates of working drawings, each accompanied by a page or more of text treating of "purpose," "material," "bill of stock," "tools," "directions," and "assembly." a wonderfully practical book. problems in furniture making. by fred d. crawshaw. this book, revised and enlarged, consists of 43 plates of working drawings suitable for use in grammar and high schools, and 36 pages of text, including chapters on design, construction and finishes, and notes on the problems. furniture design for schools and shops. by fred d. crawshaw. a manual on furniture design. a book that will stimulate and encourage designing and initiation on the part of the student. it contains a collection of plates showing perspective drawings of typical designs, representing particular types of furniture. each perspective is accompanied by suggestions for rearrangement and the modeling of parts. the text discusses and illustrates principles of design as applied to furniture. a practical and helpful book that should be in the hands of every teacher of cabinet making and designing. problems in woodworking. by m. w. murray. a convenient collection of good problems consisting of forty plates of working drawings, of problems in benchwork that have been successfully worked out by boys in grades seven to nine inclusive. shop problems. (on tracing paper). by albert f. siepert. a collection of working drawings of a large variety of projects printed on tracing paper and ready for blue printing. the projects have all been worked out in manual arts classes and have proved their value from the standpoint of design, construction, use, human interest, etc. they are of convenient size, 6x9-inch, and are enclosed in a portfolio. to the teacher, in search of additional projects to supplement and enrich his course these tracings are worth far more than the price asked. published in series. nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7. workshop note-book--woodworking. by george g. greene. a small-size textbook and notebook combined. it furnishes a few general and extremely important directions about tools and processes; and provides space for additional notes and working drawings of exercises and articles which the pupil is to construct. it is essentially a collection of helps, ideas, hints, suggestions, questions, facts, illustrations, etc., which have been prepared by a practical teacher to meet a real need in his own shop. the notebook is full of suggestions; shows a keen insight into subject matter and teaching methods and is an effective teaching tool. problems in wood-turning. by fred d. crawshaw. in the first place this is a book of problems--25 plates covering spindle, face-plate, and chuck turning. in the second place it is a textbook on the science and art of wood-turning illustrated by fifty pen sketches. it gives the mathematical basis for the cuts used in turning. in the third place it is a helpful discussion of the principles of design as applied to objects turned in wood. it is a clear, practical and suggestive book on wood-turning. wood pattern-making. by horace t. purfield. this book was written expressly for use as a textbook for high school, trade school, technical school, and engineering college students. it is a revised, enlarged, and newly illustrated edition. correlated courses in woodwork and mechanical drawing. by ira s. griffith. this book is designed to meet the every-day need of the teacher of woodworking and mechanical drawing for reliable information concerning organization of courses, subject matter and methods of teaching. it covers classification and arrangement of tool operations for grades, 7, 8, 9, and 10, shop organization, allotment of time design, shop excursions, stock bills, cost of material, records, shop conduct, the lesson, maintenance, equipment, and lesson outlines for grammar and high schools. it is based on sound pedagogy, thoro technical knowledge and successful teaching experience. it is practical. essentials of woodworking. by ira s. griffith. a textbook written especially for the use of grammar and high school students. a clear and comprehensive treatment of woodworking tools, materials, and processes, to supplement, but not to take the place of the instruction given by the teacher. the book does not contain a course of models; it may be used with any course. it is illustrated with photographs and numerous pen drawings. projects for beginning woodwork and mechanical drawing. by ira s. griffith. a work book for the use of students in grammar grade classes. it consists of working drawings and working directions. the projects are such as have proven of exceptional service where woodworking and mechanical drawing are taught in a thoro, systematic manner in the seventh and eighth grades. the aim has been to provide successful rather than unique problems. the 50 projects in the book were selected and organized with the constant aim of securing the highest educational results. the book is especially suited for use in connection with "essentials of woodworking," by the same author. furniture making. (advanced projects in woodwork.) by ira s. griffith. this book is similar to "projects for beginning woodwork and mechanical drawing," but is suited to high school needs. it consists of fifty plates of problems and accompanying notes. it is essentially a collection of problems in furniture making selected or designed with reference to school use. on the plate with each working drawing is a good perspective sketch of the completed object. in draftsmanship and refinement of design these problems are of superior quality. it is in every respect an excellent collection. problems in mechanical drawing. by charles a. bennett. this book consists of 80 plates and a few explanatory notes. its purpose is to furnish teachers of classes beginning mechanical drawing with a large number of simple, practical problems. these have been selected with reference to the formation of good habits in technique, the interest of the pupils, and the subjects generally included in a grammar and first-year high school course. each problem given is unsolved and therefore in proper form to hand to the pupil for solution. mechanical drawing problems. by edward berg and emil f. kronquist. a direct and concise text adapted for high school students beginning mechanical drawing. it covers two year's work and contains 128 full-page plates--excellent examples of draftsmanship. text accompanies each plate, giving necessary facts and helpful hints wherever needed. the underlying principles of drafting are thoroly covered and the practical applications, which are abundant, have been most skilfully chosen and admirably presented. the plates tell what to do, almost at a glance, yet prevent mere copy work. each problem tests the ability of the student to think and execute graphically and unconsciously develops an excellent technique. mechanical drafting. by w. h. miller. (revised edition). a textbook for advanced high school students which presents drafting room practice in practical textbook form. it is so written that it may be used with any course of exercises or problems and supplements the instruction of the teacher in such a way as to reduce lecture work to a minimum. it is a direct and simple treatment of mechanical drafting, giving due consideration to the needs of the student, the beginning draftsman and the requirements of the best teaching methods. it is complete, yet condensed and is well adapted for handbook use by the student and draftsman. it is well illustrated and is bound in flexible binding, pocket size. a thoroughly practical, modern textbook. grammar grade problems in mechanical drawing. by charles a. bennett. a remarkably simple and carefully graded treatment of the fundamentals of mechanical drawing for the use of students in the 7th and 8th grades. it combines an abundance of text and simple problems, accompanied by notes and directions. its use insures the early formation of correct habits of technique and makes possible the development of a standard in grammar grade mechanical drawing parallel with woodworking. abundantly and well illustrated. mechanical drawing for beginners. by charles h. bailey. a textbook suitable wherever this subject is taught to beginners, in junior high schools, high and continuation schools. it successfully combines instructions which are minute and complete, with problems, gradually leading the student to learn with little or no other help, the essentials and technique of the work. the matter is condensed but leaves no important points not covered. progressive steps in architectural drawing. by george w. seaman. a textbook and practical handbook, describing and illustrating every successive step in drawing of floor plans, elevations and various details for successful dwellings. numerous plates illustrate details of doors, windows, mouldings, cornices, porches, etc. architectural orders shown in practical working forms. "single line sketches" illustrate method of practical designer in planning a house. architectural drawing plates. by franklin g. elwood. a collection of 15 plates showing the various details included in the plans for frame houses. names and typical sizes are given and much information helpful to the student or draftsman. one plate shows eleven "plan studies," another "how elevations are worked up from plans and sections." a wonderfully convenient help in architectural drawing. simplified mechanical perspective. by frank forrest frederick. a book of simple problems covering the essentials of mechanical perspective. it is planned for pupils of high school age who have already received some elementary training in mechanical drawing. it is simple, direct and practical. woodwork for secondary schools. by ira s. griffith. the most complete and comprehensive textbook on secondary school woodworking ever published. treats of common woods, tools and processes, woodworking machines, joinery, wood-turning, inlaying and wood carving, wood finishing, furniture construction, pattern-making. although written for the student, every teacher of high school or normal school woodwork will find this text a valuable and necessary volume for reference use. it contains 370 pages and 580 special illustrations. carpentry. by ira s. griffith. a well illustrated textbook for use in vocational schools, trade schools, technical schools, and by apprentices to the trade, presenting the principles of house construction in a clear and fundamental way. it treats of the "everyday" practical problems of the carpenter and house builder from the "laying of foundations" to the completion of the "interior finish." it meets every requirement as a textbook and is also well adapted for reference use. it is well illustrated by photographs taken "on the job." boy activity projects. by samuel a. blackburn. a book of full-page plates and accompanying text giving complete directions for making 86 projects of interest to the energetic american boy. the projects are for the school, the home, the playground, the camp, the out-of-doors, and include a complete wireless telegraph apparatus. the plates give every required dimension, and show each project complete and in detail. the text is in reality working directions telling just "how to make," including bills of material, lists of tools required, etc. a thoroly practical and suggestive book for school use and rich in inspiration for the boy in his own home shop. seat weaving. by l. day perry. a handbook for teacher or student. tells how to cane chairs, how to use cane webbing, how to do rush seating, how to do reed and splint weaving, how to make seats of reeds and splints, how to prepare raw materials, how to stain, finish and refinish, etc. also treats of the use of cane and other seating materials as a decorative element in furniture construction. well illustrated, practical and authoritative. furniture upholstery for schools. by emil a. johnson. the only text and reference book on upholstery written for school use. contains detailed, practical instructions telling how to upholster a variety of articles, also how to re-upholster old furniture and how to do spring-edge upholstery work. describes necessary tools and materials. abundantly and beautifully illustrated. practical typography. by george e. mcclellan. a remarkable textbook for students of printing. it contains a course of exercises ready to place in the hands of pupils, and explains and illustrates the most approved methods used in correct composition. a valuable feature of the book lies in the fact that in the early stages of the course the pupil sets up in type a description of what he is doing with his hands. it contains 63 exercises, treating of composition from "correct spacing" to the "making up of a book," and the "composition of tables." art metalwork. by arthur f. payne. a textbook written by an expert craftsman and experienced teacher. it treats of the various materials and their production, ores, alloys, commercial forms, etc.; of tools and equipments suitable for the work, the inexpensive equipment of the practical craftsman; and of the correlation of art metalwork with design and other school subjects. it describes in detail all the processes involved in making articles ranging from a watch fob to a silver loving-cup. it gives new methods of construction, new finishes, new problems. it is abundantly and beautifully illustrated, showing work done by students under ordinary school conditions in a manual training shop. the standard book on the subject. teaching the manual and industrial arts. by ira s. griffith. a text for normal schools or colleges and a reference for manual and vocational teachers. presents the philosophy of teaching manual and vocational education in terms of psychology, social science, and economics. it gives the conclusions of thorndike, judd, bagley, dewey and others, and illustrates them so they serve the teacher as a basis for evaluating the manual and industrial arts. a book of value to the beginning teacher, the experienced supervisor or the educational expert; an exceptional source of information on the theory and practice of its subject. the manual arts. by charles a. bennett. a treatise on the selection and organization of subject matter in the manual arts and on the methods of teaching. it states what manual arts should be taught in the schools, their place as concerns general and vocational education, principles underlying the making of courses of instruction and methods of teaching, and shows the place of the factory system in industrial schools, etc. heretofore no book has dealt with the pedagogy of the manual arts in so definite and clear cut a manner. the author has brought together, with ripened judgment, the result of years of experience. it is especially adapted for normal class and reading circle use and should be read and studied by every teacher or prospective teacher of the manual arts. educational toys. by louis c. petersen. a comprehensive book on toy-making for the school or home. shows 57 toys including animals, wheeled toys, stationary toys, moving toys, puzzles, etc., made chiefly from thin wood, with the coping saw and easily constructed in the ordinary school room or in the home. tells how to make each toy, how to finish and color, about the few simple tools and materials required. well illustrated with photographs and full-size pattern drawings. toy patterns. by michael c. dank. a portfolio of toy patterns. among them are animals, animal rocking toys, wheeled platform toys, string toys, lever toys, freak toys and novelties. each toy is shown complete and each part is also shown full-size. they are designed to be made with the coping saw out of thin wood. twelve sheets, size 10-1/2" x 14", enclosed in a portfolio with an attractive color design. bird houses boys can build. by albert f. siepert. a book of rare interest to boys. it is written in the boy spirit and combines the charm of nature with the allurements of continuation work in wood. it illustrates hundreds of bird houses and shows working drawings of various designs, also feeders, shelters, sparrow traps, and other bird accessories. the common house nesting birds are pictured and described with information regarding houses, foods, etc., suitable for each. a pleasing and practical book for wide-awake boys. manual training toys. for the boys' workshop. by harris w. moore. a popular boys' book that is truly educational. it is a collection of forty-two projects overflowing with "boy" interest and new in the manual training shop. full-page working drawings show each project in detail and the text gives instructions for making, together with information on tools and tool processes. kitecraft and kite tournaments. by charles m. miller. an authoritative and comprehensive treatment of kitecraft. the book deals with the construction and flying of all kinds of kites, and the making and using of kite accessories. also aeroplanes, gliders, propellers, motors, etc. four chapters are devoted to presenting a detailed description of kite flying tournaments. abundantly illustrated and attractively bound. the construction and flying of kites. by charles m. miller. this contains seven full-page plates of drawings of kites, and fifteen figures--over forty kites shown. details of construction given; a kite tournament is described. full of interesting suggestions. coping saw work. by ben w. johnson. contains working drawings and suggestions for teaching a course of work in thin wood that is full of fun for the children, and affords ample means for training in form study, construction, invention and careful work. has been called "applied mechanics for the fourth grade." selected shop problems. by george a. seaton. a collection of sixteen problems in woodworking made to meet the needs of busy teachers of manual training. each problem has been put to the test and has proven satisfactory to the teacher who designed it and to the pupil who made it. manual training magazine. a magazine of "quality." the professional journal of the teachers of manual, vocational and industrial education. it publishes practical articles on the ways and means of "doing things." it discusses vital problems in teaching the manual arts and presents the best current thought on the development of manual training and vocational education. to the inexperienced teacher, it is valuable in solving numerous problems, and to the experienced teacher, it is a means of keeping abreast of the times. it is ably edited, attractively printed, and well illustrated with photographs and drawings made especially for its pages. published monthly. $1.50 a year; canada, $1.80; foreign, $2.00. * * * * * _published by_ manual arts press :: peoria, illinois we can supply you with any book on the manual arts * * * * * transcriber's note: transcriber's note: 'm', in the context of lumber measurement, means '1000 feet'. from 'handwork in wood', chapter iii, page 48. also (ibid): "there are several methods of measuring lumber. the general rule is to multiply the length in feet by the width and thickness in inches and divide by 12, thus: 1" ã� 6" ã� 15' ã· 12 = 7â½ feet." in the interests of clarity, some illustrations have been moved closer to their descriptive text. hyphenation and spelling are not uniform throughout this book, e.g., 'sapwood' and 'sap-wood' both occur; '_columbian timber-beetle_' and 'columbian timber beetle' occur in the same paragraph. chapter ii has three types of footnotes, with different notations. references to the author's previous book, being short, are placed at the end of the paragraph; numbered technical or tabular footnotes, or footnotes referencing other publications are collected at the end of the chapter, before the chapter bibliography; and chapter bibliography footnotes are placed at the end of the chapter bibliography. in later chapters, numbered footnotes are placed either at the end of the chapter (before the bibliography) or at the end of a relevant section of a chapter. chapter iii lists 67 trees; the (following) lists from the jesup collection list 66 trees, including the 'tied place' trees. the tree missing from the jesup collection is no. 18: western hemlock, or black hemlock. damaged or missing punctuation has been repaired. page 18: 'sumac' and 'sumach'. both spellings correct. also 'sumak', shoomak. from arabic 'summ[=a]q'. page 19: 'charactistic' corrected to 'characteristic' ... "and give the characteristic pleasing "grain" of wood." page 23: inconsistent spelling--_tracheã¦_, tracheae. the two spellings occur in the book; also trachã¦ids, tracheids. all have been retained. the author's bibliography is extensive. page 124 etc.: the allegheny mountain range (also spelled alleghany and allegany, ~wikipedia). page 143: 'distinguised' corrected to 'distinguished' ... "not distinguished from white oak in the market." page 180: diameter, '1"-6", even 5';' corrected to 'diameter, 1'6"-3'6", even 5';' (wikipedia) page 182: 'scambucifolia' corrected to 'sambucifolia' ... "_fraxinus nigra_ marshall. _fraxinus sambucifolia._" page 186: 'cleavabilty' corrected to 'cleavability' ... "refers to the cleavability of the wood;" page 268: fig. 118 text: basswood, 1st and 2d, 1" x 8" and up by x 00". and: white pine, rough uppers, 1" x 8" and up x 00'. this is as printed; the transcriber has no idea what was meant by '00"' and '00'', or what it should have been. page 292: 'miscroscopic' corrected to 'microscopic' ... "of microscopic features, the following only have been referred to:" page 304: 'agaricus mellens' corrected to 'agaricus melleus'. the (archaic) u.s. american spellings, 'drouth' (='drought'), 'thoroly', 'tho', 'altho', 'tire' (='tyre'), etc., are correct. 