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Journal of Library and Information Studies 13:2 (December 2015)　　p.107-134 
 doi:10.6182/jlis.2015.13(2).107

Indigenization of Knowledge Organization at the Xwi7xwa Library
Ann M. Doyle1, Kimberley Lawson2, Sarah Dupont3

Abstract
This paper examines the Indigenization of knowledge organization within library and information 

studies through conceptual analysis and a descriptive case study of an Aboriginal academic library, the 
Xwi7xwa Library at the University of British Columbia, Canada. We begin by locating the library in 
place and time, review its historical development in the context of Indigenous education in Canada and 
describe the evolution of its unique Indigenous classification scheme and related Indigenous subject 
headings. This place-based analysis leads to a particular articulation of Indigenization and a conceptual 
framework for Indigenization of knowledge organization at the Xwi7xwa Library, which guide the 
practice of knowledge organization design and modes of mobilization at this particular Aboriginal 
library. The conceptual framework rests on two basic assumptions: firstly, that collection development 
is curatorial in nature and is the seminal step in library knowledge organization, and, secondly, that 
the Indigenized knowledge organization system is critical to effective Indigenous information and 
instructional services, programming and research at the Library. The final section presents future 
possibilities for the Indigenization of knowledge organization through convergences and collaborations 
with emerging networks of Indigenous scholars and Indigenous communities of knowledge within the 
context of new technologies.

Keywords: Indigenous Knowledge Organization; Canadian First Nations Libraries; Cataloguing; 
Aboriginal Classification Systems; Aboriginal Subject Headings

 1,2,3 Xwi7xwa Library, University of British Columbia, Canada
* Corresponding Author: Ann M. Doyle, E-mail: ann.doyle@ubc.ca

1. Introduction
The Indigenization of knowledge organization 

within library and information studies is an 
emergent field that is part of a larger global 
Indigenous cultural renaissance and burgeoning 
I n d i g e n o u s s c h o l a r s h i p (c f. C a l l i s o n, 2014; 
Carter, 2002; Doyle & Metoyer, 2015; Lawson, 
2004, 2014; M o o r c r o f t, 1993; R u s s e l l, 2005; 
Ye h, 1971). I n t h i s p a p e r w e e x a m i n e t h e 
Indigenization of knowledge organization through 
conceptual analysis and a descriptive case study 
of the Xwi7xwa Library, the Aboriginal library 
at the University of British Columbia, Canada. 
T h e b l e n d e d m e t h o d r e f l e c t s t h e d y n a m i c 

interrelationship between theory and practice: 
we learn from our daily professional activities 
t h a t i n t u r n i n f o r m t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k s, 
including concepts, that are then tested in practice 
through an interactive cycle (cf. Ranganathan, 
1967) of applied research. We begin by locating 
the Library in place and time, and provide an 
account of its historical emergence within the 
c o n t e x t o f I n d i g e n o u s e d u c a t i o n i n C a n a d a 
including its associated Indigenous knowledge 
organization systems (KOSs). This place-based 
analysis, conjoined with a conceptualization of 
Indigenization leads to a provisional theoretical 
framework for knowledge organization that guides 



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the current practice of knowledge organization 
design and modes of mobilization at this particular 
Aboriginal library. The framework gives rise to 
our conceptualization of “knowledge organization 
in action” (based on Archibald, 2008) as we 
argue that Indigenous classification and metadata 
are fundamental to Indigenous user-centred 
information and instruction services, including 
teaching, learning and research. 

The final section presents future possibilities 
for Indigenized knowledge organization at the 
Xwi7xwa Library through convergences and 
collaborations with emerging technologies and 
networks of Indigenous scholars and Indigenous 
communities of knowledge. The paper concludes 
that knowledge organization and its practices do 
not constitute an isolated endeavor that takes place 
in the back rooms of a technical services area or as 
decontextualized theoretical research. Rather, we 
argue that knowledge organization is fundamental 
t o t h e X w i7x w a L i b r a r y ’ s k e y s e r v i c e s a n d 
p r o g r a m m i n g, a n d i s d e e p l y e m b e d d e d i n 
organizational, political, and social contexts of a 
particular time and place, and within the global 
relations of those dimensions; its possibilities 
enabled or constrained within those contexts.

1.1 Terminology

Terminology in Indigenous contexts is varied 
and often contentious. We use the term First 
Nations to refer to Indigenous sovereign nations in 
Canada and individuals who identify as members. 
Aboriginal is used as an inclusive category for 
all Indigenous people in Canada, including First 
Nations, Inuit, and Métis people. Métis people are 
distinct Aboriginal peoples whose early ancestors 
were of mixed Aboriginal and European heritage 

and who identify with a distinct Métis culture. 
Indigenous is used both in local and global 
contexts to refer generically to tribal peoples 
and includes Aboriginal people (Canada. Royal 
Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Erasmus, & 
Dussault 1996, pp. xiv-xv). The term wholism 
d e n o t e s I n d i g e n o u s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o f t h e 
interconnectedness of everything in the universe 
as an epistemic and a spiritual principle (Pidgeon, 
2008). This spelling is used to distinguish it from 
the Western philosophical concept of holism.

1.2 Location

The University of British Columbia (UBC) 
is located on traditional and unceded territories 
of the Coast Salish nations of the Musqueam, 
S q u a m i s h a n d Ts l e i l-Wa u t u t h i n t h e c i t y o f 
Vancouver, British Columbia (BC) Canada. BC 
is home to approximately 203 First Nations, 34 
First Nations languages and 59 dialects (First 
Peoples’ Cultural Council, 2015) that generate a 
high degree of Indigenous cultural and linguistic 
diversity, and plurality of Indigenous histories, 
experiences, epistemologies, governance structures 
and knowledge systems. The UBC Library is one 
of the largest academic libraries in Canada with 
14 branches and divisions, two campuses and a 
large multipurpose teaching and learning facility. 
The Xwi7xwa Library is the Aboriginal branch of 
the UBC Library and the only Aboriginal branch 
of a university library system in Canada. Chief 
Simon Baker of the Squamish Nation named the 
library Xwi7xwa (pronounced whei-wha) meaning 
echo in the Squamish language. True to its name, 
the mandate of the Library is to echo the voices 
and philosophies of Indigenous people through its 
collection, services, spaces and programming.



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Indigenization of Knowledge Organization at the Xwi7xwa Library

The Xwi7xwa Library collection is comprised 
a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y o f I n d i g e n o u s m a t e r i a l s 
consisting of approximately 15,000 items in digital 
and traditional formats including monographs, 
media, grey literature, serials, dissertations, 
maps, posters, realia, special collections and 
archival materials. Its catalogue is fully integrated 
with the UBC Library catalogue and supports 
its information services that are dedicated to 
interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary aspects 
of Indigenous studies for a diverse academic 
and community audience of Aboriginal patrons, 
the wider campus community and the general 
public. The unique building architecture reflects a 
traditional Salish circular pit house form and is a 
clear statement of Indigenous presence on campus 
and the sophistication of Indigenous design 
(Kirkness, Archibald, & University of British 
Columbia First Nations House of Learning, 2001). 

I n  M a y  2 0 1 3  w e  c e l e b r a t e d  t h e  2 0 t h 
a n n i v e r s a r y o f t h e X w i7x w a L i b r a r y. T h e 
windows were ribboned with the names of almost 
800 individuals and organizations who have 
sustained the library with gifts of library materials 
and other resources. However, Xwi7xwa is both 
older and younger than 20 years! It began with the 
Indian Education Resource Centre (IERC) (1970-
1977) which was both a resource centre for Native 
education and a lobby group for Indian education 
in BC and across Canada (cf. Wodarczak, 2010). 
It housed the small research collection of the 
British Columbia Native Teachers Association 
(BCNITA), a group of Indigenous educators 
who were working to establish an Indigenous 
teacher-training program in BC. First Nations 
communities, cultures, languages and knowledge 
s y s t e m s h a d b e e n d i s l o c a t e d b y s u c c e s s i v e 

assimilationist government policies and the Indian 
residential school system in Canada. An early 
national survey on First Nations public education 
reported that only four percent of registered 
Indian students completed grade 12 compared to 
88 percent for non-Indian students in 1962-1963 
(Hawthorn, 1967). In response, the National Indian 
Brotherhood (now the Assembly of First Nations) 
prepared a national policy statement asserting 
Indigenous jurisdiction over the education of First 
Nations children, Indian Control of Indian Education 
(National Indian Brotherhood, 1972). It was ratified 
by the Canadian government a year later and 
remains a blueprint for local control in contemporary 
Indigenous education policy frameworks.

I t w a s w i t h i n t h i s n a t i o n a l a n d r e g i o n a l 
context that BCNITA, in cooperation with UBC, 
established the Native Indian Teacher Education 
Program (NITEP) (Note 1) in 1974 in order to get 
First Nations teachers into the classroom (Grant, 
1995). The associated NITEP Resource Centre 
collection, inherited from the IERC, continued 
to grow as the educators scoured North America 
to acquire appropriate curriculum materials for 
First Nations learners and classrooms. In May 
1993, NITEP donated the collection to the new 
First Nations library that opened as part of the 
First Nations House of Learning (FNHL) facility 
composed of a longhouse and a library located 
in a separate building. Although forty years have 
passed since the founding of NITEP, and although 
there is a burgeoning Indigenous scholarship 
within the academy, Aboriginal education remains 
a pressing concern and public policy issue in 
the country (Archibald & DeRose, 2014; White, 
Maxim, & Beavon, 2003). Efforts continue to 
attain equitable educational opportunities, and the 



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integration of Indigenous experience, histories 
and contributions within education curricula – 
and libraries. The Xwi7xwa Library has been 
i n t e g r a l t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f I n d i g e n o u s 
education in BC and in the 21st century plays a 
role in the continuing Indigenization of education, 
decolonization and reconciliation efforts. 

1.3 Indigenization: The vision 

The Xwi7xwa Library shares a unique logo 
with the First Nations House of Learning: created 
by Tsimshian artist, Glen Wood, it consists of a 
human face surrounded by two ravens, which 
also form the frame of a longhouse. The face 
represents First Nations people, and the house 
design represents the university, or “House of 
Learning.” In many First Nations cultures, Raven 
is a symbol of creativity and learning and is also 
known as a trickster or transformer. The logo 
represents Raven transforming the university to 
reflect First Nations cultures and philosophies, 
linking the university to First Nations. It evokes a 
two dimensional vision of Indigenization within 
the academy: a focus on Indigenous values and 
knowledge, and a commitment to institutional and 
social change. These dual aspects are manifest 
at the Xwi7xwa Library through its professional 
practice and scholarship.

We p r o f i l e I n d i g e n o u s k n o w l e d g e a n d 
experience through the Library’s collections, 
services, and programming; we also develop 
conceptual analyses and theoretical frameworks to 
Indigenize the discipline of library and information 
studies (LIS) -adapting professional tools to 
serve Indigenous purposes and incorporating 
Indigenous methods to (re)shape the discipline 
and the profession. Balancing the responsibilities 

of an academic branch library within a university 
l i b r a r y s y s t e m w e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y e x p l o r e 
methods and seek partnerships to ensure the 
integrity of an Aboriginal library in continuously 
changing pedagogical, social, and institutional 
environments. 

The Xwi7xwa Library has long maintained 
this fine balance. Shortly after opening in 1993, 
t h e q u e s t i o n a r o s e w h e t h e r t o p r o p o s e t h a t 
the Xwi7xwa Library become a branch of the 
UBC Library system. At stake was Indigenous 
a u t o n o m y, i n c l u d i n g X w i7x w a ’ s u n i q u e 
Indigenous classification and metadata. This was 
weighed against the benefits that might accrue 
from the strong infrastructure and resources of a 
well-established research library. First Nations 
students were surveyed and a student discussion 
was held at the First Nations House of Learning. 
The student consultations informed the decision 
by staff to work toward becoming a branch of the 
university library system. Over the next decade 
many people were involved in negotiating the 
financial and staffing resources required to further 
the Xwi7xwa initiative to gain branch status (Lin, 
2006). Ultimately, the Senate Library Committee 
recommended a proposal, submitted jointly by 
the First Nations House of Learning and the 
UBC Library, to create the Xwi7xwa Library as 
a branch of the UBC Library that was accepted 
by the University President on June 23, 2005 
(Allen, 2005).

A joint agreement provided core funding for 
collections and staff positions, and secured the 
Xwi7xwa classification system and the FNHL 
Subject Headings. The University recognized that 
the Indigenous knowledge organization systems 
(KOSs) play a significant role in the intellectual 



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Indigenization of Knowledge Organization at the Xwi7xwa Library

integrity of the Xwi7xwa Library and this role 
was acknowledged and protected in the formal 
Agreement (MacIvor, 2005). A full history of 
t h e X w i7x w a L i b r a r y h a s y e t t o b e w r i t t e n, 
however, as this summary indicates, Xwi7xwa 
is a product of Indigenous vision, persistence, 
innovation, and perhaps social justice. It is not (yet) 
a mature academic library that was established, 
administered and funded by the university for 
many decades to meet the information, research 
and curriculum needs of its students, faculty and 
staff. As a UBC branch library in 2015, Xwi7xwa 
is barely 10 years old ... and full of possibilities. 
L i k e t h e l i b r a r y i t s e l f, t h e X w i7x w a K O S 
developed gradually over time within a broader 
national context. The KOS development was 
guided through the leadership of two First Nations 
librarians, Gene Joseph and A. Brian Deer.

1.4 Colonial classification: A problem

Gene Joseph, Wet’suwet’en/Dakelh First 
N a t i o n, f o u n d i n g l i b r a r i a n o f t h e X w i7x w a 
Library, did not need to undertake a research study 
to identify problems with dominant universal 
classification systems and subject vocabularies. 
Her deep understanding was based on experiential 
knowledge: the terminology and arrangements 
i n u s e i n l i b r a r i e s t o o rg a n i z e m a t e r i a l s o n 
Aboriginal topics reflected the views and values 
of newcomers to First Nations territories including 
early anthropologists, missionaries, government 
a g e n t s, a n d t r a v e l l e r s, a n d n o t I n d i g e n o u s 
perspectives or values. As Joseph states, 

… in the late ’70s and early ’80s, a lot 
of our people were bringing back the use 
of our own names, of our own nations, 

as well as bringing back the names of 
our own villages, our terminology, our 
spellings … And it became a point of 
pride to be able to access information 
by our own name, rather than something 
that, you know, we at times felt could 
be derogatory, or that we just plain and 
simple didn’t identify with. (personal 
communication, April 20, 2009 cited in 
Doyle, 2013, p. 191) 

Joseph’s statement alludes to the significant 
collections of historic and contemporary materials 
written about First Nations and Aboriginal people 
held in libraries across Canada, as well as other 
settler societies.  For example, in Australia, 
Lynette Russell (2005, p. 169) describes these 
types of collections as the documentary result 
of the “surveillance of Indigenous people and 
their cultures. ... [as] archival texts within which 
Indigenous people were the object (and subject) of 
the gaze of colonial authorities and ‘experts’, and 
from which Indigenous knowledge, perspectives 
and voice were excluded.”

A f u n d a m e n t a l c h a l l e n g e f o r k n o w l e d g e 
organization (KO) of Indigenous materials is that 
the dominant KO infrastructure is based on literary 
warrant of historic (and contemporary) colonial 
literatures and the Western epistemological 
assumptions of the 19th century. KO processes 
that rely on this kind of exogenous literary 
warrant tend to produce colonial classification 
and description, which are widely critiqued 
in Indigenous contexts due to historicization, 
omission, marginalization, lack of recognition of 
sovereign nations, lack of specificity, and lack 
of relevance (Carter, 2002; Duarte & Belarde-



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Lewis, 2015;  Moorcroft, 1993; Olson & Schlegl, 
2001; Webster & Doyle, 2008; Yeh, 1971).  A 
conundrum is that historic colonial documents 
may be highly relevant to First Nations and 
Aboriginal people in reclaiming culture, language, 
knowledge, and territory, although the documents 
are well hidden through the misrepresentation 
and omissions of their contents in the dominant 
knowledge organization systems. Gene Joseph 
drew upon her knowledge of these complexities 
in designing and developing Indigenous KOSs 
for NITEP and the Xwi7xwa Library, including 
leveraging the seminal classification work of 
Kahnawake Mohawk librarian, A. Brian Deer.

1.5 Indigenous classification, naming, and 
collaborations

As newly graduated librarian, A. Brian Deer 
t o o k a r a d i c a l d e p a r t u r e f r o m c o n v e n t i o n a l 
practice: He rejected the dominant KOSs for 
h i s w o r k i n o rg a n i z i n g t h e N a t i o n a l I n d i a n 
Brotherhood (NIB) Library (1974-1976), and 
instead designed his own classification system, 
t h e B r i a n D e e r C l a s s i f i c a t i o n (B D C).  T h e 
structure was based on the areas of activity of the 
NIB, a national Indigenous political organization 
representing Aboriginal interests, rights and 
title. The design reflected Indigenous values and 
perspectives, and unlike the dominant systems, it is 
not discipline-based but designed for action. Deer 
worked as the NIB librarian for only two years 
however his legacy continues to inspire the field.

Following Deer, librarian Keltie McCall (Note 
2) took on the role at the NIB and when the Chief 
of the NIB, George Manuel, moved to BC to serve 
as the President of the Union of British Columbia 
Indian Chiefs (UBCIC) (1977-1981) (Note 3), 

he recruited McCall to the UBCIC Resource 
Centre. From 1978 to 1980 Keltie McCall and 
Gene Joseph worked together at the UBCIC 
and collaborated on revising the Brian Deer 
classification for British Columbia producing 
the (BDC-BC). Later from 1984 to 1986 when 
Gene Joseph was organizing the NITEP Resource 
Centre, she again rejected the dominant KOS and 
instead began to expand and adapt the UBCIC 
version of the BDC for the NITEP education 
collection (Doyle, 2013). The creativity and 
i n n o v a t i o n o f B r i a n D e e r i n d e v e l o p i n g a 
classification specifically designed for Indigenous 
purposes and audiences has inspired a number of 
variants and new iterations across Canada. The 
BDC demonstrates ways in which theoretical 
innovation transforms practice across space and 
time, and continues to generate scholarly study of 
the topic and the classification scheme (cf. Cherry, 
2015; Duarte & Belarde-Lewis, 2015). 

Gene Joseph continued to pursue her interest 
in KO at graduate school (1980-1982) where she 
conducted a research project to collect and analyze 
subject headings used by First Nations libraries 
across Canada. The unique research product, a 
collation of thousands of First Nations subject 
terms, became disseminated in various forms 
across the country. It served as a basis for Joseph’s 
future work in organizing First Nations libraries in 
Canada, including Xwi7xwa, and in her role as the 
librarian for the Delgamuukw and Gisdaywa court 
case (Burns, Doyle, Joseph, & Krebs, 2009). As 
the Xwi7xwa librarian Joseph further developed 
the subject headings and BDC-BC classification 
for the expanded scope of the new Aboriginal 
academic library. Then between 1996 and 1998 
we (Joseph and Doyle) mapped the Xwi7xwa 



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Indigenization of Knowledge Organization at the Xwi7xwa Library

bibliographic database to MARC format, migrated 
the data to the UBC Library catalogue, and 
barcoded the entire library collection to enable 
o n l i n e c i r c u l a t i o n o f X w i7x w a m a t e r i a l s t o 
all borrowers with a UBC Library card. The 
Xwi7xwa Library catalogue was freely available 
to all on the web: Xwi7xwa was connected to 
the world!

This achievement was followed by a setback 
in May 2004 when a UBC Library ILS conversion 
resulted in the loss of the ability to browse 
Xwi7xwa’s local subject headings (MARC 690) 
in the UBC Library catalogue. Consequently the 
Xwi7xwa Library collection, comprising less 
than one percent of the UBC Library 6 million 
record catalogue relied on ineffectual keyword 
search for access to its holdings. This presented 
significant challenges for Xwi7xwa reference and 
instructional services for several years, and subject 
heading development almost ceased during this 
time. Working towards a solution, UBC Library 
principal cataloguer, Susan Andrews, suggested 
a successful strategy: We applied to the Library 
of Congress (LC) MARC Standards Office to 
have the Xwi7xwa subject headings recognized 
a s a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y a u t h o r i z e d t h e s a u r u s. 
The application was accepted in 2005 and the 
newly named First Nations House of Learning 
(FNHL) Subject Headings were established as 
an Indigenous thesaurus, which could then be 
fully indexed in the authorized subject headings 
MARC field (650) with full subfield coding, thus 
enabling both browseable indexes and faceted 
searching by subtopic. 

Protracted discussions with the ILS vendor 
followed in order to make the FNHL subject 
headings uniquely identifiable in the public 

catalogue. Many months of negotiation (and a 
transfer of ownership of the ILS company) finally 
led to success. The subject heading conversion 
r e q u i r e d d e c i s i o n s r e g a r d i n g n e w n a m i n g 
conventions and syntax, such as facet order, free 
floating subdivisions, distinctions between nations 
as names and nations as topics, and determining 
which headings subdivide geographically. This 
process occurred gradually between 2009-2010 
during which time data entry staff were hired 
to rekey all of the unstructured local subject 
headings within each Xwi7xwa bibliographic 
record to incorporate each newly designed FNHL 
Subject Heading.

1.6 A Xwi7xwa framework for Indigenizing 
knowledge organization

Reflecting on this unlikely library journey 
over the years gives rise to an appreciation of 
the persistence of the First Nations political and 
educational leadership and the commitment to 
Indigenous education, the ongoing support of 
the wider Aboriginal community, the intellectual 
l e g a c y o f F i r s t N a t i o n s l i b r a r i a n s, a n d t h e 
individual and collective efforts of many who 
advocated for an unknown entity – an Aboriginal 
academic library! This inheritance conjoined 
with experience gained in serving the diverse 
c l i e n t e l e o f t h e X w i7x w a L i b r a r y, a n d t h e 
ongoing development of its KOS, leads to the 
formation of a provisional theoretical framework 
for Indigenizing knowledge organization at the 
Xwi7xwa Library. It is grounded in Indigenous 
e p i s t e m o l o g y, a c o m m i t m e n t t o I n d i g e n o u s 
education (broadly defined), and rests on two 
basic assumptions: firstly, that collecting is 
both curatorial in nature and is the seminal step 



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Journal of Library and Information Studies 13:2 (December 2015)

in library KO, and secondly, that Indigenized 
KOSs are fundamental to effective Indigenous 
i n f o r m a t i o n a n d i n s t r u c t i o n a l s e r v i c e s, 
programming and research.

Historically, libraries, archives and museums 
(LAMs) developed with different mandates, 
professional cultures, and collections although 
t h e y s h a r e d c o r e f u n c t i o n s o f c o l l e c t i n g, 
conservation, public service and research (Duff, 
Carter, Cherry, MacNeil, & Howarth, 2013). 
Wi t h i n I n d i g e n o u s c o n t e x t s c o n v e rg e n c e i s 
nothing new (Lawson, 2004): a wholistic view 
of knowledge combined with a requirement for 
efficient use of resources often results in integrated 
memory institutions of library-archive-museum 
collections, and common access systems as is the 
case at the Xwi7xwa Library. Although Indigenous 
diversity precludes generalization, knowledge in 
Indigenous contexts is frequently characterized 
a s w h o l i s t i c, i n t e r r e l a t i o n a l, i n t e r a c t i o n a l, 
and broad-based (Kovach, 2009). Xwi7xwa’s 
foundational collection of photographs, prints, 
artwork, monographs, grey literature, curriculum 
kits, realia, and archival materials manifests an 
Indigenous inclusive aesthetic that values diverse 
forms and modes of knowledge and a wide range 
of documentary expressions (i.e. documents). 
We view the uniquely curated integrated LAM 
collection of documents at the Xwi7xwa Library 
as the heart of its knowledge organization system.

1.7 Indigenizing document theory

At a general level, knowledge organization 
systems (KOSs) may be defined as social systems 
and institutions that organize knowledge. For 
example, they are manifest in the structure of 
universities and the scientific disciplines. They 

may also be embodied in the built forms of 
material discourse, such as architecture, or enacted 
through social institutions such as ceremony and 
storytelling. Within LIS, knowledge organization 
is understood as the practice of creating indexes, 
thesauri and classifications, semantic networks and 
ontologies, however, it is also understood more 
broadly as playing a central role in the production 
and communication of knowledge within social, 
cultural, and historical contexts (Bowker & 
Star, 1999). Thus, we view KOSs as socially 
constructed, shaped by purpose and cultural 
context, as well as by location in place and time. 
They are intrinsic to broader institutional, social, 
and political processes. 

We define KO as a field “concerned with the 
design, study, and critique of the processes of 
organizing and representing documents” (Tennis, 
2008, p. 103), which are deemed important to 
preserve within a particular time and cultural 
context. As previously noted, we hold an inclusive 
view of the term document that includes all forms 
of media, from artistic and musical creations to 
visual images, three-dimensional objects (realia), 
and electronic media, as well as text, building 
upon the work of Native American scholars, such 
as Mahsetky Poolaw’s analysis of Comanche 
women’s dress as historical document (Mahsetky- 
Poolaw, 2000). Just as KOSs are products of 
particular social processes, so too are documents 
products of particular times and circumstances. 
Intellectual and cultural forces impel the creation 
of documents, and in this sense we can think 
of them as a type of cultural artifact, in fact, an 
Indigenous knowledge artifact (cf. Smiraglia, 
2008), which are also part of larger relations within 
and among disciplines and social institutions.



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The Xwi7xwa approach to KO is informed 
by Indigenous understandings of relationship, 
including interconnectedness and reciprocity. 
It recognizes a continuum between knowledge 
creation, curation, dissemination, and use in the 
knowledge life cycle, and the interrelationships 
among its actors. Originating communities often 
generate Xwi7xwa documents, and there may 
be personal and professional interrelationships 
between creators, librarian-curators, and reader-
s c h o l a r s (Callison, 2014; Lawson, 2014). KO 
requires locating a document within its socio-
cultural context within the collection, and eliciting its 
relationship to a particular discourse or knowledge 
community. Contextualized location then might 
become generative in the sense of presenting 
connections, and thereby enable different or new 
connections in the use of recorded knowledge.

Another relational aspect of Indigenizing KO 
entails examining possible intersections between 
Indigenous frameworks and the information 
p r o f e s s i o n s. We s e e k t h e s e i n t e r s e c t i o n s i n 
order to explore ways in which KO might serve 
I n d i g e n o u s i n t e r e s t s, a n d w a y s i n w h i c h t o 
Indigenize the discipline of KO itself; this is both 
a critical and constructive undertaking. It involves 
critical analysis of the ways in which various 
processes of KO produce particular outcomes, 
s u c h a s t h e w a y s i n w h i c h t h e y p o s i t i o n 
Indigenous knowledge as inferior knowledge. 
I t i s c o n s t r u c t i v e i n d e m o n s t r a t i n g w a y s i n 
which Indigenous knowledge (i.e. Indigenous 
c o n c e p t s, m e t h o d o l o g i e s, a n d f r a m e w o r k s) 
contribute to creating new knowledge and new 
understandings within the fields of KO and LIS, 
and more broadly.

1.8 Indigenous warrant

I n f o r m e d b y I n d i g e n o u s p r i n c i p l e s t h e 
Xwi7xwa KO framework recognizes multiple 
t y p e s o f w a r r a n t (j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r d e s i g n 
d e c i s i o n s), i n c l u d i n g I n d i g e n o u s l i t e r a r y, 
c u l t u r a l, p e d a g o g i c a l a n d e t h i c a l w a r r a n t. 
Indigenous literary warrant serves as evidence 
for classificatory structure and as a source of 
terminology and is based on Indigenous-authored 
or Indigenous-informed literature guided by 
the primary principle of Indigenous authority 
(Doyle, 2013). Indigenous cultural warrant is 
used, for example, in identifying Indigenous 
self-representation of names of nations, tribal 
councils and other forms of governance, as well 
as contemporary terminology for issues and 
movements. We may draw upon non-academic 
sources such as First Nations official websites, 
the Aboriginal press or e-media, contemporary art 
installations, film, or political movements in order 
to ensure relevance. As an academic library in a 
public university, Indigenous pedagogical warrant 
is an important basis for design decision-making. 
We describe documents in ways that are relevant 
to the interests of Indigenous and Indigenous 
studies students and faculty, however, at the same 
time, we design pathways and linkages intended to 
educate users and support intercultural education. 

The misrepresentation of Aboriginal names 
and concepts engenders mistrust and damages 
librarians’ credibility with knowledgeable library 
users. Inaccurate names are disrespectful and may 
be considered offensive as well as inaccurate. 
Offensive representation can cause harm by 
normalizing and authorizing misinformation, 
therefore we establish Indigenous ethical warrant 
g u i d e d b y t h e p r i n c i p l e o f r e s p e c t f o r s e l f-



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representation of individuals, collectives, and 
their concepts, and to clearly acknowledge the 
potential for harm in KO design. Administrative 
t r a n s p a r e n c y i n d o c u m e n t i n g s o u r c e s o f 
terminology is one element integral to Indigenous 
ethical warrant and methodology (cf. Mai, 2010). 

2. The Xwi7xwa Framework: 
Framing Practice
T h e X w i7x w a K O f r a m e w o r k d r a w s o n 

these four types of Indigenous warrant, which 
are formative in Xwi7xwa collection design; 
d e v e l o p i n g a n d a p p l y i n g t h e F i r s t N a t i o n s 
House of Learning Subject Headings, Xwi7xwa 
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s c h e m e, a n d t h e X w i7x w a 
cataloguing standard; and the reference and 
instructional services for the diverse audiences at 
the Xwi7xwa Library. 

2.1 The collection

X w i7x w a c o l l e c t s m a t e r i a l s c r e a t e d b y 
Aboriginal scholars, and materials produced by 
First Nations, First Nations organizations, tribal 
councils, schools, publishers, researchers, and 
writers, as well as materials respectful of First 
Nations perspectives. We collect the unique, the 
local, the emergent and historic, and small and 
often ephemeral serial publications, in conjunction 
w i t h t h e s c h o l a r l y -- I n d i g e n o u s s c h o l a r l y 
communications and productions of Indigenous 
knowledge communities. Indigenous publishing 
is often characterized by small print runs with 
limited distribution, and minimal publicity in 
mainstream information channels. As a result the 
material collected by Xwi7xwa is often rare and in 
many cases unique to a publicly accessible library. 
The Xwi7xwa collection serves as a documentary 

record of living traditions manifest in a wide 
range of disciplinary areas that support Indigenous 
interests in cultural continuity, revitalization, and 
innovation. The collection also serves to both 
enhance, and to provide counternarratives to, the 
wider collection of historic and anthropological 
materials about Indigenous people within the UBC 
Library holdings.

While the Xwi7xwa collection focuses on 
First Nations in British Columbia, it also includes 
contextual materials on national and international 
Indigenous issues, such as, residential schools, the 
apprehension of Aboriginal children, Aboriginal 
rights and title, endangered languages, and global 
Indigenous activism. Increasingly, there is a 
focus on contemporary Indigenous scholarship 
in emergent disciplines, creative expression, and 
new media. The collection and its knowledge 
organization systems are designed for Xwi7xwa’s 
primary clientele of First Nations and Aboriginal 
students, faculty and staff, First Nations and 
A b o r i g i n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d c o m m u n i t y 
members. However, perhaps paradoxically, the 
library’s largest clientele is non-Aboriginal and 
impels a strong secondary focus on intercultural 
e d u c a t i o n, a n d s e r v i n g t h e g e n e r a l s t u d e n t 
population who may be registered in any of 108 
courses with significant Indigenous content in 
32 departments at the university (Note 4), the 
wider campus community and the general public 
(Xwi7xwa Library, 2015).

2.2 The First Nations House of Learning Subject 
Headings

The FNHL Subject Headings were created to 
provide subject metadata for cataloguing Xwi7xwa 
Library materials. They evidence Indigenous 



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theory and practice over time and the shifting 
complexities of Indigenous scholarship, which is 
ongoing.  Although they are not fully developed or 
applied, currently there are approximately 11,000 
subject headings that are freely available online 
for study and use via the UBC Catalogue using a 
subject browse or keyword search. 

Syntax 
The FNHL Subject Headings are structured 

using the following syntax in MARC coding: 
650 -7 $a main heading $x topic $z geographic 

$y chronology $v form $2 fnhl
Example
$a First Nations $x Art $z British Columbia $y 

1950- $v Bibliography $2 fnhl

T h e m a i n s u b d i v i s i o n (650$a) i n c l u d e s 
Indigenous generic terms such as, First Nations, 
Indigenous peoples, Métis, Inuit or specific 
First Nation or Aboriginal group names. The 
development of a comprehensive authority file 
for names of First Nations represents an applied 
research project that would include understanding 
historical emergences, terminological changes and 
contentious issues related to naming; documenting 
decisions regarding naming conventions and 
relationships; and identifying alternate spellings, 
and non-preferred terms with possible mapping 
to other. The topic heading (650$x) is a recurring 
s u b f i e l d. T h e g e o g r a p h i c h e a d i n g (650$z) 
includes a basic table of provinces, regions, 
towns and reserves in Canada, as well as local 
Indigenous place names if they are considered 
p u b l i c. T h e c h r o n o l o g i c a l h e a d i n g (650$y) 
awaits development of periodization according 
to Indigenous perspectives and is considered a 

research project awaiting resources. The form 
subdivision is guided by a locally developed list 
of form divisions used at the Xwi7xwa library. 
The level of subject headings work is dependent 
on available resources in a given year and is 
a dynamic ongoing undertaking driven by the 
growing collection and emergent discourses.

2.3 The Xwi7xwa classification scheme

Over the past forty years from the 1970s to 
2015 at UBC, the classification scheme used at 
Xwi7xwa has undergone (at least) two major 
version changes, in addition to incremental 
expansions. Each version of the classification 
s c h e m e w a s b a s e d o n t h e m a n d a t e o f t h e 
collection and that of the parent unit (Note 5). 
Gene Joseph developed the first version of the 
UBC Deer classification for the NITEP Resource 
Centre, and the second version for the Xwi7xwa 
Library. The latter has been further expanded 
over the years to include new classes relevant 
t o c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n t e x t s a n d s c h o l a r s h i p, 
such as Indian residential schools, Indigenous 
intellectuals, two spirit people, and health related 
classes. The current Xwi7xwa classification 
remains as an enumerative system guided by 
classificatory principles of collocation, specificity, 
and relevance. The following discussion presents 
some examples of the classification scheme as it 
was originally designed, however, as discussed 
there have been constraints that have limited 
its full development or redevelopment and the 
exploration of the benefits of faceted design for 
Xwi7xwa and for Indigenized KO in general. 
2.3.1 Collocation

The Interior Salish and Coast Salish are two 
related cultural groups within which there are 



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multiple First Nations. The following example 
demonstrates collocation, bringing like materials 
together, based on socio-linguistic and geo-spatial 
relationships as the principle of division.

Notation Topic
BK Interior Salish
BKD   Stl’atl’imx (Lillooet)
BKE   Secwepemc (Shuswap)
BKN   Nlaka’pamux (Thompson)
BKO   Okanagan

The BK Interior Salish class also demonstrates 
two principles of warrant: the privileging of 
Indigenous authority (self-representation), as 
well as pedagogical warrant. The bracketed 
name is the anthropological equivalent used 
by LCSH and models a design decision based 
on pedagogical warrant -- a commitment to 
intercultural education, as well as a syndetic 
(cross) reference to alternative entry points in 
the UBC catalogue that uses LCSH. At that same 
time, we recognize that any classification is an 
approximation because geo-political boundaries 
may be contentious or considered fluid, and some 
nations and communities may be described as 
belonging to one or more entities depending on 
time and perspective. 
2.3.2 Alphabetical scattering

By comparison the Library of Congress does 
not show spatial, social or cultural relationships 
among First Nations/Native American peoples. We 
draw on Hope Olson’s metaphor of the ghetto and 
diaspora (Olson, 1998) to describe the dynamic: 
The LC E99 class places Aboriginal people in 
an historical ghetto, the History of the Americas 
class, and then alphabetically scatters Indigenous 

tribes and nations across the class. There is 
n o c l a s s i f i c a t o r y p r i n c i p l e a p p l i e d t o s h o w 
interrelationships other than the vagaries of the 
alphabet (alphabetical scattering) (Ranganathan, 
1967).

E99 – Library of Congress – History of the 
Americas – Indian Tribes & Cultures

Ghetto Alphabetical Diaspora 
 Scattering 

E99.T8 Tsimshian British  
  Columbia

E99.T83 Tubatulabal California
E99.T845 Tukkuth Kutchin Yukon
E99. T986 Tzotzil Mexico

Tsimshian materials from the Pacific North 
West Coast of BC Canada, sit beside materials 
relating to the Tubatulabal people of the interior 
mountains of California, USA, which are beside 
those relating to the Tukkuth Kutchin people of 
the Yukon in northern Canada, which are beside 
the Tzotzil people of the Chiapas highlands in 
southern Mexico. This dynamic of dispersal of 
Indigenous groups through library classification 
is reminiscent of the dispersal of First Nations 
children, communities, and lands through colonial 
government policies. 
2.3.3 Principles of division

Reflecting the historical development of the 
Library, the Indigenous education class is the 
largest and subdivides geographically by 13 
provinces and territories in Canada. It includes 
a subclass for curriculum development (ES) that 
contains dissertations and theses devoted to the 
development of culturally relevant curriculum and 



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curriculum materials, it also includes research, 
methodology, assessment informed by Indigenous 
values and Indigenous knowledge, as well as 
critical analyses. It is followed by a classification 
for curriculum materials (ET) that is subdivided 
b y K-12 (k i n d e r g a r t e n t o g r a d e 12) s c h o o l 
level: kindergarten and pre-school; elementary; 
and secondary. This rudimentary arrangement 
implemented quickly to accommodate growing 
c u r r i c u l u m m a t e r i a l s w a s r e c o g n i z e d a s 
insufficient when it was designed. However, at the 
time there were no resources to further refine and 
expand it, for example, by subject, grade level, 
student audience, or genre.

ET  Curriculum materials
ETA Kindergarten and pre-school
ETE Elementary
ETS Secondary

T h e c u r r i c u l u m r e s o u r c e s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n 
raises an interesting question about the tension 
between different types of user warrant: warrant 
designed to serve Indigenous cultural integrity 
might classify curriculum resources developed by 
or about a particular nation with the nation. For 
example, elementary curriculum or curriculum 
resources about Secwepemc would shelve within 
BKE (Secwepemc) – subclass – curriculum. On 
the other hand, user warrant based on learners 
in teacher training programs might classify 
curriculum materials and curriculum resources 
together, preferably within school level, then by 
subject or nation. 
2.3.4 Relevance

Sections of the classification reflect economic 
and corporate activities and interests relevant to 
First Nations such as forestry, fishery, agriculture, 

hunting and trapping. The political realities of 
First Nations are reflected in separate classes for 
constitutional law, the Indian Act, and taxation. 
There are large classes of materials for self-
government, and Aboriginal title and rights that 
subdivide by province. The burgeoning Indigenous 
literature class subdivides by genre: poetry, drama, 
and fiction. It also includes a growing section of 
literary criticism and comparative literature. The 
children’s literature class contains subclasses that 
are unique to Xwi7xwa and are not found in the 
McCall-Joseph UBCIC version of the BDC or 
the most recent UBCIC classification by Cherry 
(2014). T h e X w i7x w a C h i l d re n ’s L i t e r a t u re 
Model Collection is intended for materials that 
have been selected as appropriate for use with 
Indigenous children and for use in public school 
classrooms: it subdivides by genre and level 
including primary-intermediate, intermediate-
junior, junior-secondary.

Children’s Literature Model Collection
YUA  Primary-Intermediate – recommended
YUB Intermediate-Junior – recommended
YUC  Junior-Secondary – recommended
YUD Needs careful interpretation and bridging

The YUD Needs careful interpretation and 
bridging subclass organizes materials collected for 
critical evaluation. This evaluative classification 
of children’s literature continues to be useful in 
fulfilling the pedagogical role of the library and 
the classification although it does contravene 
received standards of classification design that 
aspire to neutral and objective treatment. However 
we take the position that classification is socially 
constructed and dependent on purpose. Even the 
most seemingly innocent processes of collection 



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selection (and exclusion) challenge the myth of 
objectivity. Given the particularly problematic 
nature of the treatment of Aboriginal people in 
Canada, and the misrepresentation of Indigenous 
people that is both historic and ongoing, we 
suggest a balance. As an integral part of teaching 
critical evaluation of Indigenous children ’s 
l i t e r a t u r e, w e u s e t h e “ M o d e l C o l l e c t i o n ” 
classification to exhibit culturally appropriate 
materials for elementary school use as discussed 
further in the section on “Bringing students to 
the library.”

2.4 S t a n d a r d s – T h e X w i 7 x w a A b o r i g i n a l 
enhanced MARC record

C u r r e n t c o r e c a t a l o g u i n g s t a n d a r d s t e n d 
to create “hidden collections” of Indigenous 
content in libraries (including print and electronic 
formats), therefore, the Xwi7xwa Library has 
developed an Aboriginal Enhanced MARC record 
designed to improve access to that Aboriginal 
c o n t e n t. X w i7x w a i s s t r o n g l y s u p p o r t e d b y 
the UBC Library Central Technical Services 
(CTS) staff members who create bibliographic 
records and descriptive cataloguing for our new 
acquisitions. The Xwi7xwa staff undertake the 
subject cataloguing and assign the Xwi7xwa call 
number (090); apply or create the First Nations 
House of Learning Subject Headings; and add data 
to create the Aboriginal Enhanced MARC record. 
The latter identifies Aboriginal contributors 
including: authors, creators, actors, producers, 
illustrators, and artists; enhanced information for 
media formats, such as the names of Aboriginal 
cast and crew; and Indigenous collaborators often 
omitted as unnamed ‘informants’ in conventional 
records. Making Indigenous actors visible in the 

bibliographic universe contributes to raising 
p u b l i c a w a r e n e s s a b o u t s h a r e d h i s t o r i e s i n 
C a n a d a a n d t h e a c t i v e r o l e s o f I n d i g e n o u s 
individuals and collectives in widely diverse 
social, political and economic spheres. Given 
t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f l a n g u a g e r e c o v e r y a n d 
revitalization for many endangered First Nations 
languages, we also include enriched Indigenous 
language and dialect information, and notes on 
language diacritics and orthographies. 

A p p e n d i x B: T h e X w i7x w a A b o r i g i n a l 
E n h a n c e d M A R C R e c o r d s u m m a r i z e s t h e 
cataloguing practice. We use a Language Note 
(546) to specify the Indigenous dialects and 
l a n g u a g e s i n t h e i t e m b e c a u s e t h e M A R C 
language field code (041) does not include many 
Indigenous languages and dialects. The 546 field 
also details the use or presentation of the language 
i n t h e i t e m, f o r e x a m p l e, “ t e x t i s p r e s e n t e d 
simultaneously in English, Romanized Cree, and 
Cree syllabics.” This acknowledges the complexity 
of First Nations language distribution and assists 
patrons in finding specific dialects or uses for the 
materials. The Notes fields (5xx) record content 
features such as significant glossaries, maps, 
portraits, and timelines. They may include First 
Nations identity and/or First Nations affiliation if 
a creator of a work self-identifies. An added entry 
in the Personal Name (700) or Corporate Name 
(710) field ensures that names of Indigenous 
contributors are retrieved on an author browse or 
keyword search of the catalogue and may include 
First Nations social roles, for example: 

700 0  $a Big Bear $c (Cree chief)
700 1  $a Porter, Tom $c (Mohawk elder)
Table of Contents notes (505) are a default, 



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and a partial table of contents is created for a 
section or chapter with an Aboriginal author 
or Aboriginal content within a general non-
Indigenous work. Donor information is carried 
in the field for Immediate Source of Acquisition 
(541). It acknowledges the close circles of, and 
value placed upon, relationships within Indigenous 
contexts, including authors, publishers, friends 
and patrons of the library, as well as the bonds 
between the community and academy. It is based 
on a wholistic understanding that Indigenous 
k n o w l e d g e f l o w s b e t w e e n c r e a t o r, d o n o r, 
collector, curator, and reader, often with ties to 
shared histories, experiences, places, and relatives. 

X w i7x w a ’ s A b o r i g i n a l M A R C r e c o r d, 
Indigenous classification, and the First Nations 
House of Learning Subject Headings, are all 
components of the Xwi7xwa KOS. The heart of 
the KOS, as we have discussed, is the collection, 
and the ultimate purpose of this integrated whole 
is the provision of Indigenous library services. 
The services are designed and delivered by the 
librarians for Aboriginal students, to support the 
Indigenous programs, and strengthen the cultural 
and strategic goals of the First Nations House 
of Learning, the University, and wider social 
goals of Indigenous education. Our professional 
knowledge is extended through various modes 
of interaction with and support of the emerging 
networks of Indigenous scholars and Indigenous 
communities of knowledge. These components 
and processes form a fabric that supports student 
learning, research, and ongoing community 
relationships through dynamic processes of 
I n d i g e n o u s k n o w l e d g e c r e a t i o n-c o l l e c t i o n-
curation-dissemination-use-and re-creation. 

2.5 Indigenous knowledge organization in action 

We view information and instructional services 
as a form of Indigenous knowledge organization 
“in action” (cf. Archibald, 2008) because KO 
processes and tools are critical enablers of these 
I n d i g e n o u s a c a d e m i c s e r v i c e s. K n o w l e d g e 
o rg a n i z a t i o n e n a b l e s a n d i n t e r a c t s w i t h t h e 
library’s core operations of teaching, learning 
and research. It shapes those activities through 
a r t i c u l a t i n g c o n c e p t s a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d 
creating pathways within and across Indigenous 
disciplinary and other knowledge domains. It 
is shaped by those activities as we engage with 
s t u d e n t s, f a c u l t y, a n d t h e w i d e r A b o r i g i n a l 
c o m m u n i t y. A s a n i n s t i t u t i o n X w i7x w a ’ s 
distinctive historical emergence contributes to the 
disciplinary identities of the professionals who 
work within it (cf. Lawson, 2014). The librarians’ 
professional activities of selection, acquisition, 
and representation of library materials shapes their 
skill sets and approaches to instruction which are 
honed through ongoing interaction with diverse 
groups of users and creators of materials both on 
and off campus. 
2.5.1 Creating relationships

Xwi7xwa offers a welcoming environment 
for our diverse clientele: it is an intercultural 
and interdisciplinary space. For many people, 
Xwi7xwa is an interface between academic and 
Aboriginal communities. On campus, the main 
way that we develop and foster connections is 
through our reference, liaison and instruction 
a c t i v i t i e s. A c c e s s t o t h e c a t a l o g u e e x t e n d s 
connections to a wider Aboriginal community 
of users. Our relationship with both academic 
a n d c o m m u n i t y p a t r o n s i s a f f e c t e d b y t h e 
findability of our documents, the value patrons 



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Journal of Library and Information Studies 13:2 (December 2015)

place on them, and the ease with which relevant 
documents are accessed. Xwi7xwa’s KOS reflects 
Indigenous knowledge systems through effective 
and respectful representation of Indigenous 
concepts and relationships. It supports Aboriginal 
communities through good representation of 
Indigenous knowledge and perspectives, which 
counters stereotypes, misrepresentation and 
problematic framing of Aboriginal issues. Because 
the classification and subject headings are publicly 
available on the UBC Library Catalogue, First 
Nations community knowledge centres can copy 
the metadata to use or adapt to their own needs. 
When Indigenous people see their communities 
and nations respectfully represented, it provides a 
more solid foundation for building relationships 
whether with potential students, job candidates, 
or community leaders. Respectful representation 
brings people to our doors and builds trust. 
2.5.2 Bringing students to the library

The increasing number of Aboriginal programs 
a n d c o u r s e s a t U B C a n d b e y o n d r e s u l t s i n 
increasing multi- and inter-disciplinary public 
service demands. Some Indigenous programs 
f o c u s o n I n d i g e n e i t y a s a n a r e a o f s t u d y, 
while others have connections to Aboriginal 
communities or professional practice. Some 
d i s c i p l i n a r y p r o g r a m s r e q u i r e I n d i g e n o u s 
course work, such as the mandatory Aboriginal 
education in Canada course within the teacher 
training program (University of British Columbia. 
Teacher Education Office, 2015). Xwi7xwa’s 
KOS facilitates finding Indigenous knowledges, 
perspectives, and research in our collections for 
this diverse academic patron audience, and thereby 
also facilitates research for teaching and learning, 
and for work related to any of the academy’s 

Aboriginal initiatives. Xwi7xwa demonstrates the 
value of Indigenous research by making it visible 
and discoverable. This strengthens our credibility 
as a trusted source of broad representation of 
Indigenous scholarship and publishing. The KOS 
plays a role in establishing and disseminating 
Indigenous terminology and avoids replicating 
terminology that reinforces problematic concepts. 

Students are often challenged in finding 
Indigenous perspectives within the disciplines 
because there is no explicit representational 
language for them. We teach students strategies to 
address this challenge by leveraging the Xwi7xwa 
classification and keywords. For example, the 
B i o g r a p h y c l a s s (Y S), a n d L i t e r a t u r e c l a s s 
(Y) contain consolidated sections of materials 
t h a t r e p r e s e n t I n d i g e n o u s l i v e d e x p e r i e n c e 
a n d I n d i g e n o u s c r e a t i v e e x p r e s s i o n. T h e 
Elders class (PE) is relevant to students whose 
course assignments entail finding protocols 
for addressing Elders, understanding Elders’ 
teachings, or who are seeking primary source 
material for learning about specific nations or 
historical events. There is also a discrete class 
for materials on Indigenous intellectual life and 
Indigenous contributions to global society (CXZ). 
In seeking to find Indigenous scholars, we teach 
students to use the phrase search “intellectual life” 
in combination with a catalogue location filter to 
limit to Xwi7xwa Library holdings. Alternatively 
a keyword search on any topic combined with the 
phrase “First Nations author” retrieves Indigenous 
authorship data carried in the Aboriginal Enhanced 
Record (MARC 590). For example, the Boolean 
search (“First Nations author” and astronomy) 
retrieves materials written by First Nations authors 
about astronomy.



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2.5.3 Bringing the library to the students
In addition to bringing the students to the 

Library, we bring the Library to the students. 
Classroom instruction sessions are one vital 
opportunity for raising the profile of the Library 
and connecting with students. Another method is 
a pop-up reference table with a new books display 
at the weekly Longhouse lunch for the Aboriginal 
community on campus that brings the Library 
and the librarians to non-library spaces. Campus 
outreach contributes to developing relationships 
a n d b u i l d s t h e t r u s t n e e d e d t o p r o m o t e o u r 
resources and the skills and expertise of staff. The 
Xwi7xwa KOS also brings the Library to distance 
education students, such as the NITEP field centre 
students. This unique program enables students 
in remote areas of the province to complete 
the first three years of a Bachelor of Education 
degree in a community that is close to home, 
thereby removing many barriers for students. 
Xwi7xwa librarians welcome invitations to the 
NITEP field centres to connect with the students 
and provide onsite classroom instruction as 
excellent opportunities to introduce our services, 
and help students gain a foothold in Indigenous 
bibliographic information and skills. 

The online Indigenous research guides serve 
as multipurpose teaching tools that can bring 
students to the library by increasing collection 
f i n d a b i l i t y t h r o u g h d i g i t a l i n s t r u c t i o n. We 
structure each of the 14 Xwi7xwa Indigenous 
research guides with a core suite of top-level 
pages including: Getting Started, Books & Media, 
Articles, and subject specific headings. This helps 
to brand the Xwi7xwa guides as does Xwi7xwa 
subject headings and call numbers for digital and/
or shelf browsing. The guides are designed for 

specific Indigenous studies disciplines, topics, or 
audiences. Some Xwi7xwa pages are integrated 
within disciplinary guides authored by subject 
librarians in other libraries, such as the Aboriginal 
m i d w i f e r y p a g e i n t h e B i o m e d i c a l L i b r a r y 
Midwifery guide, thus bringing Aboriginal content 
into disciplines. 

The classification supports browseability that 
is particularly important for students as it can 
eliminate significant time narrowing a search 
for both Indigenous materials and for audience. 
For example, the research guide and in-class 
instruction for Aboriginal children’s literature 
usually include illustration of the Children’s 
Literature Model Collection classes (YUA/YUB/
YUC). Students respond well to this “shortcut”: 
Combining a Xwi7xwa call number for reading 
level, such as YUA for primary, with a topic 
keyword like “bannock” or “moose,” yields 
on-target search results for their lesson plan 
assignments. Students can trust that this search 
strategy will retrieve books only at the Xwi7xwa 
library, and therefore meet our collection criteria 
of Indigenous content.

2.6 Indigenous information literacy: Making the 
invisible visible

W h i l e t h e X w i7x w a K O S h e l p t o m a k e 
Indigenous perspectives more visible, we also 
teach students to be aware of, and to be critical 
of, the processes of knowledge organization itself 
in Indigenous contexts. We conceptualize this as 
part of Indigenous Information Literacy and are 
increasingly called upon to conduct classroom 
and library staff instruction in this area. Teaching 
students to consider the components of surrogate 
records and metadata, compare library subject 



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vocabularies and evaluate author keywords is time 
consuming, but it is very effective for making KO 
visible and raising the awareness of researchers 
about their own search strategies and patterns. In 
making the invisible visible, we seek ‘teachable 
m o m e n t s ’ t o b r i n g t o g e t h e r e x a m p l e s w i t h 
researchers’ immediate needs in order to make the 
power of KO more apparent. Because in practice 
Xwi7xwa librarians use, and teach patrons to 
use, the UBC Library catalogue and navigate its 
thousands of databases, e-books, and e-serials, as 
well as Google (!) our instructional strategies are 
designed to demonstrate ways to traverse multiple 
controlled and uncontrolled vocabularies for 
Indigenous topics in multiple disciplines. 

I n t h i s c o m p l e x I n d i g e n o u s i n f o r m a t i o n 
ecosystem, we teach patrons to understand that 
the respectful or most accurate term for their 
concept does not necessarily retrieve the best 
search results. Sometimes, searching the opposite 
term for a concept is a good strategy. For example, 
reliable literature on ‘youth resilience’ may be 
found using descriptors such as troubled youth or 
suicide. Unfortunately, there are many effective 
or useful search terms that are not accurate or 
respectful. Even within the UBC Library catalogue 
there are many subject headings for Indigenous 
peoples including: Indians of North America, 
First Nations, Native peoples, Indigenous peoples, 
Inuit, Métis, and specific names of First Nations, 
bands, and tribal councils and other forms of 
Indigenous governance, many of which have 
variant spellings. There is no established term 
for the concept of Indigeneity itself, and the 
terminology used for it differs significantly (and 
may be contested) within and between disciplines, 
communities and geographic regions. 

Aboriginal research topics with what seem to 
be basic questions may need advanced research 
skills. Understanding the preferred terminologies 
of specific disciplines, knowledge communities, 
political and theoretical discourses, and even 
database vendors, assists in navigating Indigenous 
information ecosystems. Library instruction on 
KO processes helps students develop strategies 
for finding and evaluating information resources 
by incorporating discipline-specific as well as 
contested terminology, and to critically evaluate 
the sources and motivations of knowledge creators. 
Accessing a wide range of materials provides 
students with rich learning experiences by giving 
them more diverse voices and perspectives to 
incorporate into their research and classroom 
discussions. The accelerating use of technology 
and move to online resources in academic libraries 
amplifies the need for new discovery services 
(New Media Consortium, 2014) and, we suggest, 
highlights the promise of Indigenized KO within 
complex Indigenous information ecosystems.

2.7 Future possibilities: Convergences and 
collaborations

Like many academic libraries across North 
America, the UBC Library is rebalancing its 
l e a r n i n g s p a c e s a n d r e d u c i n g i t s c o l l e c t i o n 
footprint in order to increase opportunities for 
interactive learning. As part of this larger initiative, 
the Xwi7xwa Library is planning to relocate some 
of its collection to multiple distributed storage 
facilities, and to digitize more of its materials. In 
maintaining the integrity of the Xwi7xwa Library 
we conceptualize the Xwi7xwa collection as a 
single coherent entity that is distributed across 
physical and digital spaces but unified by shared 



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Indigenization of Knowledge Organization at the Xwi7xwa Library

characteristics and commitments. We draw upon 
convergences between Indigenous knowledge 
organization principles and new technologies to 
consider the possibilities of this approach. 

Scholars observe that new digital environments 
and the ideal of improved public accessibility 
h a v e m o t i v a t e d g r e a t e r c o l l a b o r a t i o n t h a t 
encourages information professionals to work 
across institutional and disciplinary boundaries. 
T h i s p r o d u c e s a n i n c r e a s e d f o c u s o n m o r e 
unified discovery and access that moves beyond 
disciplinary silos and fragmentation of knowledge 
through conventional curatorial practices. Some 
say that a lack of framework for integration 
p r e s e n t s a c o n c e p t u a l p r o b l e m, a s w e l l a s 
pragmatic issues (Duff et al., 2013), however we 
argue that Indigenized KO principles and values 
provide a conceptual framework for integration 
and new technologies offer a pragmatic platform. 

Wholistic views of knowledge, appreciation of 
relational processes, and sustainable stewardship 
of resources are hallmarks of Indigenous traditions 
that are integrated into professional information 
practices at Xwi7xwa. These principles informed 
convergences (of what are conventionally viewed 
as library-archival-museum materials) within 
the Xwi7xwa collection and its catalogue used 
for discovery and access. They also foster our 
collaborations at different levels across units 
a n d b r a n c h e s a n d a m o n g i n s t i t u t i o n s, t h u s 
promoting digital convergence and organizational 
convergence, as well as collection convergence. 
Unified discovery and access technologies using 
Indigenized approaches to KO, in combination 
with the institutional and social processes required 
to implement them, might preserve the unique 
characteristics of the Xwi7xwa collection as a 

curated distributed collection, and serve as a 
model for others. We view the collection and its 
Indigenized metadata as a dynamic documentary 
record (i.e. knowledge record) of Indigenous 
c o n t i n u i t y a n d l i v i n g t r a d i t i o n s t h a t s e r v e s 
Indigenous scholarship and Indigenous knowledge 
communities. It simultaneously and organically 
s e r v e s t o b a l a n c e t h e w i d e r U B C h i s t o r i c a l 
disciplinary collections and provide Indigenous 
counternarratives to it. Comparisons between them 
might reveal substantive shared commonalities, as 
well as substantive differences in collections and 
in disciplinary approaches. Similarly, they might 
also highlight commonalities and differences 
within professional information services and 
practices and thereby also identify opportunities to 
build partnerships (Martin, 2007). 

Institutions are motivated by the ideal of better 
user service and improved support for scholarly 
activity afforded by new technologies, and the 
promise of offering students and researchers the 
ability to see relationships between different 
forms of knowledge. Indigenous principles that 
view interrelationships among the processes 
of the knowledge production-dissemination-
use cycle as both significant and formative also 
align with new possibilities for convergence 
within digital environments and collaborations 
a c r o s s p r o f e s s i o n s a n d d i s c i p l i n e s. T h e s e 
interconnections might change our views of 
objects and blur traditional divisions between, 
for example, document and surrogate or between 
information professionals’ practices, as well 
as types of disciplinary boundaries. Research 
suggests that institutional convergences (among 
information disciplinary forms and practices) 
g e n e r a t e m o r e s u s t a i n a b l e a n d i n n o v a t i v e 



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Journal of Library and Information Studies 13:2 (December 2015)

institutions. Rethinking the traditional role of 
curation to a more transversal (crossing different 
information disciplines) and open model shifts the 
role of the curator to one that is focused equally 
on generating or overseeing a discourse, not only a 
material collection. The traditional idea of curation 
then shifts from a one based on conservation and 
growth of collections and planning exhibits to 
one that is “more cohesive and research-oriented” 
(Duff et al., 2013). 

N e w t e c h n o l o g i e s f o r u n i f i e d d i s c o v e r y 
and access might provide a platform to begin 
d e s i g n i n g n e t w o r k s o f i n t e r s e c t i o n s a c r o s s 
Indigenous information spaces that connect, 
and assist others in connecting, disparate views, 
such as those on Indigeneity as described in the 
section on Indigenous information ecosystems, 
or as Olson (1998) suggests as mapping across 
b o u n d a r i e s. A t t h e s a m e t i m e i t d r a w s o n 
principles of convergence already extant within 
academic library catalogues that contain multiple 
controlled vocabularies and multiple classification 
systems. This type of approach is consistent with 
Indigenized KO processes co-existing with and in 
interaction with others to increase accessibility, 
as well as openness to contributions by, and 
partnerships with, academic and non-academic 
partners (cf. Garwood-Houng & Blackburn, 2014).

At the same time, drawing on Thorpe and 
Galassi (2014), we recognize that libraries require 
new frameworks for measuring impact through 
research and programme evaluation in general, 
and specifically in order to assess the impact 
of Indigenized KO on criteria relating to social 
and cultural wellbeing in practice. This includes 
developing methods to understand and describe 
i m p a c t s t h a t d o n o t o n l y c o n s t i t u t e f a c t o r s 
such as search and retrieval metrics, but also 

consider “intangible, emotional, psychological, 
spiritual, and cultural outcomes” – both positive 
a n d n e g a t i v e – a s c o n s e q u e n c e s o f v a r i o u s 
kinds of KO processes and products (cf. Duff, 
Flinn, Suurtamm, & Wallace, 2013, p. 342). For 
example, we have proposed that increased trust, 
respect and good relationships may be engendered 
through the Indigenization of KO processes and 
products in public institutions. 

3. Conclusion
As we reflect on experiences at the Xwi7xwa 

Library, we are guided by Raven’s vision of 
transformation and view the Indigenization of 
knowledge organization in academic contexts 
as processes that centre Indigenous academic 
and community scholarship, and thereby act as a 
catalyst for institutional, disciplinary and social 
change. Each of these interrelated dual dimensions 
h o l d s m u l t i p l e a r e n a s a n d o p p o r t u n i t i e s. 
Looking back, the Indigenization of knowledge 
organization at the Xwi7xwa Library has been, 
and continues to be, an incremental process 
occurring over many years through First Nations 
individual and collective leadership and diverse 
collaborative efforts. It began with Indigenous 
leadership, guided by the principle of Indigenous 
control of Indigenous education, which resulted 
in the formation of NITEP, its resource collection 
and the building of the Longhouse facility. The 
f o r e s i g h t o f t h e F N H L p l a n n i n g c o m m i t t e e 
created the vision of a separate Aboriginal library. 
The leadership of lone librarians furthered the 
vision of Indigenous-centered representation. 
A b o r i g i n a l c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s, s t u d e n t s 
and faculty members, and wider, sometimes 
unexpected circles, expanded the original library 
collection. The governance of the University of 



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Indigenization of Knowledge Organization at the Xwi7xwa Library

British Columbia and the UBC Library recognized 
the role of libraries in Aboriginal student and 
academic services, and the value of Indigenous 
scholarship. Most recently the increasing demands 
on the Xwi7xwa Library for Indigenous studies 
support, intercultural education, and consulting on 
Indigenous cultural and intercultural property in 
the context of campus Indigenization initiatives, 
and national reconciliation efforts has underlined 
the benefits of social, political, and technical 
convergences and collaborations. 

This paper has overviewed the historical 
emergence of the Library and its knowledge 
organization systems (KOSs), described its current 
KO theoretical framework and practice, discussed 
the implications of KO for Indigenous teaching, 
learning and research, and envisioned possibilities 
for the future of the Indigenization of knowledge 
organization at the Xwi7xwa library. The paper 
has demonstrated that knowledge organization and 
its practices do not constitute an isolated endeavor 
that takes place in the back rooms of a technical 
services area or as decontextualized theoretical 
research. Rather, we suggest that knowledge 
organization is fundamental to teaching, learning, 
research and is deeply embedded in organizational, 
political, social contexts of a particular time and 
place, and within the global relations of those 
dimensions: its possibilities enabled or constrained 
within those contexts.

Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to Gene Joseph, 

X w i7x w a l i b r a r i a n e m e r i t a a n d f o u n d i n g 
Xwi7xwa librarian, for her review and comments. 
Her input has strengthened the work, and any 
omissions or errors are those of the authors. We 

thank Susan Andrews, Principal Cataloguer, UBC 
Library Cataloguing Division and for her review 
of the cataloguing content and ongoing assistance. 
We appreciate the contributions of Eleanore 
Wellwood, Xwi7xwa Library Technical Services 
Assistant, for cataloguing services, and an unruly 
range of duties and loyalties. We extend thanks 
to Linda Allen (now retired) for her service, 
commitment, and wit. 

Notes
Note 1 NITEP has now become a name instead 

of an acronym. The name has not changed 
due to the loyalty that its graduates hold 
for it (Archibald & DeRose, 2014).

Note 2 At this time, Keltie Frances McCall was 
often known as Keltie McCall.

Note 3 Refer to Peter McFarlane (1993) for a 
biography of George Manual and dates at 
the UBCIC.

Note 4 The Xwi7xwa Library prepares annual 
lists of UBC courses with significant 
Indigenous content as an integral part of 
collection development and instruction 
design (2005-2015).

Note 5 A c o m p r e h e n s i v e  r e c o r d  o f  t h e 
development and spread of the original 
B r i a n D e e r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s y s t e m a t 
UBC and in Canada may be difficult 
t o d o c u m e n t. T h e X w i7x w a L i b r a r y 
continues to inventory and describe 
its archival records, including records 
of the development of its knowledge 
o r g a n i z a t i o n  s y s t e m s  a n d  t h e 
development of the NITEP and Xwi7xwa 
KO systems, in order to provide research 
materials for future researchers.



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Journal of Library and Information Studies 13:2 (December 2015)

Appendix A
A Brief History: Indigenization of Knowledge Organization at Xwi7xwa

Xwi7xwa Library Vision to Reality Indigenizing Knowledge Organization

1960s - First Nations leaders advocate for First Nations 
students in BC

1970 - Indian E ducation R esource C entre (IE R C) 
established at Brock Hall UBC

1969 - British Columbia Native Indian Teachers 
A s s o c i a t i o n (B C N I TA) s u b m i t s f u n d i n g 
proposal for Native teacher training program

1970s - BCNITA research collection for NITEP is housed 
at the IERC. The IERC collection is transferred 
to NITEP on closure.

1974 - Native Indian Teacher Education Program 
(NITEP) program established

1980s -  Gene Joseph adapts the Brian Deer Classification 
(BC version) for the NITEP resource centre, 
and designs subject headings list as her graduate 
student research project 

1993 - Opening of First Nations House of Learning 
(FNHL) Longhouse and Library

1993 - NITEP collection is transferred to the new First 
Nations Library that will be named Xwi7xwa by 
Chief Simon Baker, Squamish Nation.

1995 - Xwi7xwa Head Librarian position established 
by the University Senate

1995 - Gene Joseph expands Xwi7xwa classification 
and subject headings

1996 - Xwi7xwa bibliographic records and subject 
headings mapped to MARC format and migrated 
to the UBC Library Catalogue 

1997-1998 - Xwi7xwa collection is barcoded and items 
linked to the bibliographic records providing 
online borrower and circulation services via the 
UBC Library ILS.

1998 - Xwi7xwa Library Assistant position established
1999 - Gene Joseph Honouring Ceremony held in 

recognition of Gene Joseph’s leadership
2004 - May - UBC Library system conversion excludes 

local subject headings (690) from the catalogue 
subject index

2004 - Xwi7xwa & UBC Cataloging Division apply to 
Library of Congress MARC Standards Office 
to establish FNHL Subject Headings as an 
internationally recognized standard 

2005 - The Xwi7xwa Library becomes a branch of 
University of British Columbia Library 

2005 - LC MARC Standards Office authorizes the 
First Nations House Indigenous thesaurus, and 
establishes FNHL Subject Headings 

2006 - O c t o b e r – X w i7x w a R e f e r e n c e L i b r a r i a n 
position established

2008 - March – Xwi7xwa Technical Services Assistant 
position established

2009-2010 - Conversion of 11,500 unstructured local 
subject headings (690) to structured FNHL 
Subject Headings (650) 

2013 - Xwi7xwa celebrates 20th Anniversary 
2014 - January - Xwi7xwa Aboriginal Engagement 

position established (.5 FTE)
2014 - Xwi7xwa Distributed Collections project



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Indigenization of Knowledge Organization at the Xwi7xwa Library

Appendix B
Xwi7xwa Library Aboriginal Enhanced MARC Record

Tag Instructions Examples

246 W h e n t h e t i t l e t r a n s c r i b e d i n t h e 245 h a s 
omitted special characters, for purposes 
of access and retrieval in the public 
catalogue, make a 246 for the truest 
representation of the title as represented 
on the title page.

246 -- $i Title page reads : $a N?del?kwagən

500 Indicate presence of the following: significant 
glossaries, maps, portraits, and timelines, 
presence of Native scripts or syllabics. 

500 -- $a Includes glossary of Indigenous plant 
names.

500 -- $a Includes map of Indigenous settlements 
on the northwest coast of British Columbia 
in 1853.

500 -- $a Includes glossary of words in Cree 
with English definitions.

505 Default treatment is to include a full 505. Use 
partial 505 for an Indigenous authored 
chapter in a non-Indigenous material.

505 0- $a 

508 Media only. Take from the production credits on 
the container or the web site of the producer 
or distributor. Transcribe as found.

508 -- $a Sound, D’Arcy O’Connor, Celia Haig-
Brown ; director of photography and editor, 
Helen Haig-Brown ; assistant editor, Trevor 
Mack ; graphics and animation, Luis 
Almazan ; music, Joel Solomon. 

511 Media only. Add when the Indigenous cast 
members or performers are listed on either 
the container or the web site of the producer 
or distributor. Transcribe as found.

511 1- $a Conversation with, Larry Grant, Wade 
G r a n t, H e n r y Yu ; p a r t i c i p a n t s, G i n a 
Grant, Howard E. Grant, Wade Grant, 
Daniel Heath Justice, Spencer Lindsay, 
Sarah Ling, Amy Perreault, Sue Rowley, 
Patricia A. Shaw, Audrey Siegl, Henry Yu. 

541 Name of donor and organization if applicable. 541 -- $a Donated by Rose Point, Musqueam 
Elder, July 2005. $5 CaBVau

546 Add if more than one language represented in 
the content. Note the presence of scripts 
or syllabics.

546 -- $a Text in English and Cree.
546 -- $a Text in Inuktitut syllabics and English.

590 Use when an author or illustrator self-identifies 
as First Nations.

590 -- $a First Nations author 
590 -- $a First Nations illustrator 

700 Added entries for significant persons. 700 1- $a Archibald, Jo-ann
710 A d d e d e n t r i e s f o r s i g n i f i c a n t I n d i g e n o u s 

corporate bodies.
710 2- $a Union of British Columbia Indian Chiefs. 



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Journal of Library and Information Studies 13:2 (December 2015)

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(Received: 2015/3/11; Accepted: 2015/6/2)



134

圖書資訊學刊　　第13卷第2期　（2015.12）　　頁107-134
 doi:10.6182/jlis.2015.13(2).107

加拿大Xwi7xwa圖書館之知識組織在地化
Indigenization of Knowledge Organization at the  

Xwi7xwa Library
Ann M. Doyle1, Kimberley Lawson2, Sarah Dupont3

摘　要

本文透過概念分析與描述性個案研究，檢視加拿大英屬哥倫比亞大學之原住民族學術

圖書館─Xwi7xwa圖書館之知識組織在地化狀況。我們首先定位Xwi7xwa圖書館之場域與

時間，並在加拿大原住民族教育之脈絡下回溯其歷史發展，接著描述此圖書館獨特的原住

民族分類設計與相關原住民族主題詞表之發展。研究中以地域為基礎之分析，清楚地闡釋

「在地化」，並產出一個指引Xwi7xwa圖書館之現行知識組織設計與行動式知識組織之概

念框架。本框架建立於兩項基本假設上：首先，館藏發展是圖書館知識組織的起步；其

次，Xwi7xwa圖書館的知識組織系統在地化，對於原住民族資訊與資源服務、程式設計及

研究，具有關鍵性的效用。本文最後一節則提出未來知識組織在地化發展的可能方向，包

括利用新科技，匯聚各方資源，及與原住民族學者、原住民族社群合作。

關鍵字： 原住民知識組織、加拿大第一民族圖書館、編目、原住民分類系統、原住民主題

詞表

1,2,3 
加拿大英屬哥倫比亞大學Xwi7xwa圖書館

 Xwi7xwa Library, University of British Columbia, Canada
* 通訊作者Corresponding Author: Ann M. Doyle, E-mail: ann.doyle@ubc.ca
註： 本中文摘要由圖書資訊學刊編輯提供。
 以APA格式引用本文：Doyle, A. M., Lawson, K., & Dupont, S. (2015). Indigenization of 

knowledge organization at the Xwi7xwa library. Journal of Library and Information Studies, 13(2), 
107-134. doi: 10.6182/jlis.2015.13(2).107 

 以Chicago格式引用本文：Ann M. Doyle, Kimberley Lawson and Sarah Dupont. “Indigenization 
of knowledge organization at the Xwi7xwa library.” Journal of Library and Information Studies 
13, no. 2 (2015): 107-134. doi: 10.6182/jlis.2015.13(2).107