item: #1 of 458 id: Afghanistan author: Afghanistan title: Afghanistan date: None words: 10359 flesch: 46 summary: Article 75 The Government shall have the following duties: Execute the provisions of this Constitution, other laws, as well as the final decisions of the courts; Preserve the independence, defend the territorial integrity and safeguard the interests and prestige of Afghanistan in the international community; Maintain public law and order and eliminate every kind of administrative corruption; Prepare the budget, regulate financial conditions of the state as well as protect public wealth; Devise and implement social, cultural, economic and technological development programs; Report to the National Assembly, at the end of the fiscal year, about the tasks achieved as well as important programs for the new fiscal year; Perform other duties that, in accordance with this Constitution and other laws, fall within the Government responsibilities. Amending other Articles of this Constitution, with due respect to new experiences and requirements of the time, as well as provisions of Articles 67 and 146 of this Constitution, shall become effective with the proposal of the President and approval of the majority of National Assembly members. keywords: accordance; afghanistan; article; assembly; constitution; house; law; national; president; provisions; state cache: Afghanistan.txt plain text: Afghanistan.txt item: #2 of 458 id: Albania author: Albania title: Albania date: None words: 22628 flesch: 45 summary: Expenses foreseen in other laws cannot be reduced as long as these laws are in force. The Assembly may establish by law other specialized courts; however, under no circumstances shall it establish extraordinary courts. keywords: accordance; article; assembly; constitution; council; court; days; high; judges; law; mandate; members; president; republic; right; state cache: Albania.txt plain text: Albania.txt item: #3 of 458 id: Algeria author: Algeria title: Algeria date: None words: 16706 flesch: 45 summary: ART 3 Arabic shall be the national and official language. ART 4 Tamazight shall also be a national and an official language. keywords: art; conditions; constitution; council; court; government; law; members; national; national assembly; parliament; people; president; republic; right; state cache: Algeria.txt plain text: Algeria.txt item: #4 of 458 id: Andorra author: Andorra title: Andorra date: None words: 8589 flesch: 47 summary: Relations of the General Council with the Government Article 68 After each renewal of the General Council, its first session, which will be held in the next eight days following the inaugurating session, shall deal with the election of the Head of Government. FIRST TRANSITIONAL PROVISION The same General Council which has approved this Constitution shall convene an extraordinary period of sessions to approve at least the Rules of Procedure of the General Council and the qualified laws related to the electoral system, the jurisdiction and financing system of the Local Councils, the Judiciary and the Tribunal Constitucional. keywords: article; constitution; coprinces; council; general; govern; law; public; rights; state cache: Andorra.txt plain text: Andorra.txt item: #5 of 458 id: Angola author: Angola title: Angola date: None words: 25684 flesch: 38 summary: (Enactment of National Assembly laws) Before the periods of time referred to in the previous points expire, the President of the Republic may request the Constitutional Court to undertake a prior review of the constitutionality of National Assembly laws. keywords: angola; article; bodies; citizens; constitution; court; exercise; general; law; members; national; national assembly; national security; office; president; republic; right; security; state; terms cache: Angola.txt plain text: Angola.txt item: #6 of 458 id: Antigua_and_Barbuda author: None title: Antigua_and_Barbuda date: None words: 35838 flesch: 21 summary: Nothing contained in or done under the authority of any law shall be held to be inconsistent with or in contravention of subsection (1) of this section- to the extent that the law in question makes provision for the taking of possession or acquisition of any property, interest or right- in satisfaction of any tax, rate or due; by way of penalty for breach of the law or forfeiture in consequence of breach of the law; as an incident of a lease, tenancy, mortgage, charge, bill of sale, pledge or contract; in the execution of judgments or orders of a court in proceedings for the determination of civil rights or obligations; in circumstances where it is reasonably necessary so to do because the property is in a dangerous state or likely to be injurious to the health of human beings, animals or plants; in consequence of any law with respect to the limitation of actions; for so long as may be necessary for the purposes of any examination, investigation, trial or enquiry or, in the case of land, for the purposes of the carrying out thereon of work of soil conservation or the conservation of other natural resources or work relating to agricultural development or improvement (being work relating to such development or improvement that the owner or occupier of the land has been required, and has without reasonable excuse refused or failed, to carry out), and except so far as the provision or, as the case may be, the thing done under the authority thereof is shown not to be reasonably justifiable in a democratic society; to the extent that the law in question makes provision for the taking of possession or acquisition of any of the following property (including an interest in or right to or over property), that is to say- enemy property; property of a deceased person, a person of unsound mind or a person who had not attained the age of eighteen years, for the purpose of its administration for the benefit of the persons entitled to the beneficial interest therein; the property of a person adjudged bankrupt or a body corporate in liquidation, for the purpose of its administration for the benefit of the creditors of the bankrupt or body corporate and, subject thereto, for the benefit of other persons entitled to the beneficial interest in the property; or property subject to a trust, for the purpose of vesting the property in persons appointed as trustees under the instrument creating the trust or by a court or by order of a court for the purposes of giving effect to the trust. Nothing contained in or done under the authority of any law shall be held to be inconsistent with or in contravention of this section to the extent that the law in question makes provision- that is reasonably required in the interests of defence, public safety, public order, public morality, public health, public revenue, town and country planning or the development and utilization of property in such a manner as to promote the public benefit; that authorises an office or agent of the Government, a local government authority or a body corporate established by law for public purposes to enter on the premises of any person in order to inspect those premises or anything thereon for the purpose of any tax, rate or due in order to carry out work connected with any property that is lawfully on those premises and that belongs to the Government, or to that authority or body corporate, as the case may be; that is reasonably required for the purpose of preventing or detecting crime; that is reasonably required for the purpose of protecting the rights or freedoms of other persons; or that authorises, for the purpose of enforcing the judgment or order of a court in any proceedings, the search of any person or property by order of a court or entry upon any premises by such order, and except so far as that provision or, as the case may be, anything done under the authority thereof is shown not to be reasonably justifiable in a democratic society. keywords: constitution; court; general; governor; house; law; member; minister; office; parliament; person; public; section; subsection cache: Antigua_and_Barbuda.txt plain text: Antigua_and_Barbuda.txt item: #7 of 458 id: Argentina author: Argentina title: Argentina date: None words: 13019 flesch: 42 summary: Article 27 The Federal Government is bound to strengthen its relations of peace and commerce with foreign powers by means of treaties that are in conformity with the principles of public law laid down by this Constitution. Article 7 The public acts and judicial proceedings of one Province enjoy full faith in the others; and Congress may, by general laws, determine what the evidentiary form of these acts and proceedings shall be, and the legal effects that they shall produce. Article 8 The citizens of each Province enjoy all the rights, privileges, and immunities inherent to the status of citizen in the others. keywords: article; chamber; congress; constitution; government; law; laws; members; nation; national; office; power; president; provinces cache: Argentina.txt plain text: Argentina.txt item: #8 of 458 id: Armenia author: Armenia title: Armenia date: None words: 21855 flesch: 48 summary: The Adoption of Laws, National Assembly Decisions, Statements, and Addresses Laws and National Assembly decisions, statements, and addresses shall, except for cases stipulated by the Constitution, be adopted by majority vote of parliamentarians participating in the voting, if more than half of the total number of parliamentarians participated in the voting. Temporary Committees of the National Assembly For purposes of discussing certain draft laws, draft National Assembly decisions, draft statements, and draft addresses, as well as matters related to ethics of parliamentarians and of presenting opinions thereon to the National Assembly, temporary committees may be formed by decision of the National Assembly. keywords: armenia; article; constitution; court; government; law; national assembly; parliamentarians; powers; president; republic; right; state cache: Armenia.txt plain text: Armenia.txt item: #9 of 458 id: Australia author: Australia title: Australia date: None words: 16504 flesch: 44 summary: Application of State laws Until the Parliament otherwise provides, but subject to this Constitution, the laws in force in each State, for the time being relating to elections for the more numerous House of the Parliament of the State shall, as nearly as practicable, apply to elections of senators for the State. 11. Application of State laws Until the Parliament otherwise provides, but subject to this Constitution, the laws in force in each State for the time being relating to elections for the more numerous House of the Parliament of the State shall, as nearly as practicable, apply to elections in the State of members of the House of Representatives. keywords: act; commonwealth; constitution; general; governor; house; law; parliament; shall; state cache: Australia.txt plain text: Australia.txt item: #10 of 458 id: Azerbaijan author: Azerbaijan title: Azerbaijan date: None words: 17976 flesch: 48 summary: The Ombudsman of the Azerbaijan Republic shall apply to the Constitutional Court of the Republic of Azerbaijan in cases where the rights and freedoms of a person have allegedly been violated by legislative acts in force, normative acts of the executive or of municipalities, or court decisions in accordance with the procedure provided for by the laws of the Republic of Azerbaijan on the adjudication of the cases and applications listed as items 1 to 7 in section III of the present Article. Azerbaijan State Symbols The State symbols of the Republic of Azerbaijan are the Republic of Azerbaijan Flag, the Republic of Azerbaijan Emblem and the Republic of Azerbaijan National Anthem. keywords: article; autonomous republic; azerbaijan article; azerbaijan people; azerbaijan republic; azerbaijan state; constitution; court; law; milli majlis; nakhichevan; president; right cache: Azerbaijan.txt plain text: Azerbaijan.txt item: #11 of 458 id: Bahamas author: Bahamas title: Bahamas date: None words: 35416 flesch: 23 summary: Acting Justices If the office of Chief Justice is vacant or if the Chief Justice is for any reason unable to perform the functions of his office, then, until a person has been appointed to that office and assumed those functions, they shall be performed by such other person, qualified under paragraph (3) of Article 94 of this Constitution for appointment as a Justice, as the Governor-General, acting in accordance with the advice of the Prime Minister may appoint for that purpose by instrument under the Public Seal. Acting Justices of Court of Appeal If the office of President of the Court of Appeal is vacant or if the President of the Court of Appeal is for any reason unable to perform the functions of this office, then, until a person has been appointed to that office and assumed its functions or, as the case may be, until the President of the Court of Appeal has resumed those functions, they shall be performed by such other person, qualified under paragraph (2) of Article 99 of this Constitution for appointment as a Justice of Appeal, as the Governor-General, acting in accordance with the advice of the Prime Minister, may appoint for that purpose by instrument under the Public Sea. keywords: article; bahamas; constitution; court; general; governor; house; law; minister; office; paragraph; person; public; shall cache: Bahamas.txt plain text: Bahamas.txt item: #12 of 458 id: Bahrain author: Bahrain title: Bahrain date: None words: 11276 flesch: 50 summary: These values and principles confirm that the people of Bahrain surge ahead in their triumphant march towards a bright future, God willing, a future in which the efforts of all parties and individuals unite, and the authorities in their new garb devote themselves to achieve the hopes and aspirations under his tolerant rule, declaring their adherence to Islam as a faith, a code of laws and a way of life, with their affiliation to the great Arab nation, and their association with the Gulf Cooperation Council now and in the future, and their striving for everything that will achieve justice, good and peace for the whole of Mankind. Citizens, both men and women, are entitled to participate in public affairs and may enjoy political rights, including the right to vote and to stand for elections, in accordance with this Constitution and the conditions and principles laid down by law. keywords: article; chamber; constitution; council; deputies; king; law; national; period; public; state cache: Bahrain.txt plain text: Bahrain.txt item: #13 of 458 id: Bangladesh author: Bangladesh title: Bangladesh date: None words: 25372 flesch: 44 summary: Where under this Constitution an oath is required to be administrated by a specified person it may be administered by such other person and at such place as may be designated by that person. If, within three days next after publication through Official Gazette of the result of a general election of members of Parliament under clause (3) of article 123, the person specified under the Constitution for the purpose or such other person designated by that person for the purpose, is unable to, or does not, administer oath to the newly elected members of Parliament, on any account, the Chief Election Commissioner shall administer such oath within three days next thereafter, as if, he is the person specified under the Constitution for the purpose. keywords: article; bangladesh; clause; constitution; court; division; election; law; office; order; parliament; person; president; provisions; republic; service; shall; speaker cache: Bangladesh.txt plain text: Bangladesh.txt item: #14 of 458 id: Barbados author: Barbados title: Barbados date: None words: 33329 flesch: 16 summary: 82 If the office of Chief Justice is vacant or if the holder thereof is performing the functions of the office of Governor-General or is for any other reason unable to perform the functions of his office, then, until a person has been appointed to that office and assumed its functions or, as the case may be, until the holder thereof has resumed those functions, they shall be performed by such other person, qualified under section 81(2) for appointment as a Judge, as the Governor-General, acting on the recommendation of the Prime Minister, may appoint to act as Chief Justice by instrument under the Public Seal. The tribunal may direct its secretary, or such other person as it may think fit, to commence and prosecute the proceedings for any such penalty. keywords: barbados; court; general; governor; house; law; minister; office; person; public; section; service commission; subsection cache: Barbados.txt plain text: Barbados.txt item: #15 of 458 id: Belarus author: Belarus title: Belarus date: None words: 13536 flesch: 41 summary: Article 62 Everyone shall have the right to legal assistance to exercise and defend his rights and liberties, including the right to make use, at any time, of the assistance of lawyers and one's other representatives in court, other state bodies, bodies of local government, enterprises, establishments, organizations and public associations, and also in relations with officials and citizens. The State Supervisory Committee Article 129 The Supervisory Authority shall monitor the implementation of the national budget, the use of public property and the implementation of the acts of the President, Parliament, Government and other state bodies governing public property relationships and economic, financial and tax relations. keywords: article; belarus; constitution; council; government; house; law; president; representatives; republic; state cache: Belarus.txt plain text: Belarus.txt item: #16 of 458 id: Belgium author: Belgium title: Belgium date: None words: 20788 flesch: 46 summary: Transitional provision The Houses, as they were constituted following their full renewal on 13 June 2010, may however, in common consent with the King, pronounce on the revision of the following provisions, articles and groups of articles, but only to the effect as indicated hereafter: Articles 5, second paragraph, 11bis, 41, fifth paragraph, 159 and 190, in order to guarantee the full exercise of the Regions' autonomy towards the provinces without prejudice neither to the present specific provisions of the law of 9 August 1988 modifying the law on municipalities, the electoral law for municipalities, the law organising public centres for social welfare, the law on provinces, the electoral Code, the electoral law for provinces and the law organising simultaneous elections for the Legislative Houses and the provincial councils, nor to those relating to the office of governor, and in order to limit the meaning of the word province used in the Constitution to its sole territorial meaning, to the exclusion of any institutional meaning; Article 23, in order to guarantee the right to child allowances; Title III, in order to insert in it a provision aimed at prohibiting to modify election laws less than one year before the date when elections are to be held; Articles 43, § 1, 44, second paragraph, 46, fifth paragraph, 69, 71, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83 and 168, in order to implement the reform of the bicameral system and entrust the residual legislative powers to the House of Representatives; Articles 46 and 117, in order to provide that the parliamentary elections at federal level will take place the same day as the election of the European Parliament and that, in case the Federal Parliament is dissolved before its term expires, the new Federal Parliament's term may not extend beyond the day when the election of the European Parliament following this dissolution is held, as well as in order to permit a law passed by a majority as described in Article 4, last paragraph to entitle the Regions and Communities to determine, by special decree or special ordinance, the duration of the term for which their Parliaments are elected and the date for the election of these Parliaments, and to provide that a law, passed by a majority as described in Article 4, last paragraph, fixes the date when the new rules laid down in this division with regard to elections will enter into force; Article 63, § 4, in order to supplement it with a sub-paragraph providing that, for the election of the House of Representatives, the law establishes special rules with a view to protecting the legitimate interests of French and Dutch-speaking people in the former province of Brabant, and also providing that the provisions which establish these special rules can only be amended by a law passed by a majority as described in Article 4, last paragraph; Title III, Chapter IV, Section II, Sub-Section III, in order to insert in it an article permitting a law passed by a majority as described in Article 4, last paragraph to attribute to the Region of Brussels-Capital, for the bilingual region of Brussels-Capital, powers that have not been assigned to the Communities in the matters referred to in Article 127, § 1, first paragraph, 1° and in the same paragraph, 3°, insofar as this 3° concerns matters referred to in the aforesaid 1°; Title III, Chapter IV, Section II, Sub-Section III, in order to permit a law passed by a majority as described in Article 4, last paragraph to simplify the procedures for cooperation between entities; Article 143, in order to supplement it with a paragraph that precludes the procedure relating to conflicts of interest from being initiated with respect to a law or decision of the federal authority which modifies the basis of taxation, the tax rate, exemptions or any other element playing a role in the computation of the personal income tax; Title III, Chapter VI, in order to insert in it a provision according to which any modification to essential features of the reform regarding the use of languages in judicial matters in the judicial district of Brussels, as well as any modification to features relating to this issue and concerning the public prosecutor's office, the Bench and the extent of jurisdiction, may only be made by a law passed by a majority as described in Article 4, last paragraph; Article 144, in order to provide that the Council of State and, as the case may be, federal administrative courts may rule on the effects that their decisions have with respect to private law; Article 151, § 1, in order to provide that the Communities and the Regions are entitled to order prosecutions regarding matters falling under their responsibility through the Minister of Justice, who immediately carries out the prosecutions, and in order to permit a law passed by a majority as described in Article 4, last paragraph to provide for the participation by the Communities and the Regions, in matters falling under their responsibility, in decisions concerning the investigation and prosecution policy of public prosecutors, the binding guidelines with respect to criminal policy, the representation in the College of Public Prosecutors General, and in decisions concerning the Guide Note on Full Security and the National Security Scheme; Article 160, in order to add a paragraph providing that any modification to the new powers granted to the general assembly of the Council of State's Administrative Litigation Section and any modification to the rules for deliberation in this assembly may only be made by a law passed by a majority as described in Article 4, last paragraph; Title IV, in order to insert in it an article providing that, with respect to the election of the European Parliament, the law determines special rules with a view to protecting the legitimate interests of French and Dutch-speaking people in the former province of Brabant, and that the provisions which establish these special rules can only be amended by a law passed by a majority as described in Article 4, last paragraph; Article 180, in order to provide that assemblies which legislate through federate laws or rules referred to in Article 134 may entrust tasks to the Court of Audit, for which a fee may be charged. A law adopted by a majority as described in Article 4, last paragraph may designate other laws for which the House of Representatives and the Senate are equally competent.â��. Article 78 With the reservation of what is provided for in Article 77, draft bills adopted by the House of Representatives with respect to the following matters are sent to the Senate: the laws enacted in order to execute laws to be passed by a majority as described in Article 4, last paragraph; the laws described in Articles 5, 39, 115, 117, 118, 121, 123, 127 to 129, 131, 135 to 137, 141 to 143, 163, 165, 166, 167, § 1, third sub-paragraph, 169, 170, § 2, second sub-paragraph, § 3, second and third sub-paragraphs, and § 4, second sub-paragraph, 175 and 177, as well as the laws enacted in order to execute the above-mentioned laws, with the exception of the legislation on the organisation of automated voting; the laws passed in accordance with Article 169, to guarantee that international and supranational commitments are observed; the laws relating to the Council of State and the federal administrative courts. keywords: article; community; federate law; house; king; law; majority; members; paragraph; parliament cache: Belgium.txt plain text: Belgium.txt item: #17 of 458 id: Belize author: Belize title: Belize date: None words: 41081 flesch: 22 summary: If a person holding the office of Attorney-General is for any reason unable to perform the functions conferred on him by or under any law, those functions may be performed by such other person, being a person qualified as aforesaid (whether or not that person is a member of either House of the National Assembly), as the Governor-General, acting in accordance with the advice of the Prime Minister, may direct. Any person who has been appointed to an office established by this Constitution (other than an office to which subsection (1) or (2) of this section applies) or any office of Minister established under this Constitution may resign that office by writing under his hand addressed to the person or authority by whom he was appointed and the resignation shall take effect, and the office shall accordingly become vacant- at such time or on such date (if any) as may be specified in the writing; or when the writing is received by the person or authority to whom it is addressed or by such other person as may be authorised to receive it, whichever is the later: Provided that the resignation may be withdrawn before it takes effect if the person or authority to whom the resignation is addressed consents to its withdrawal. 127. keywords: belize; constitution; court; functions; general; governor; house; law; member; minister; national; national assembly; office; person; provisions; public; section; subsection cache: Belize.txt plain text: Belize.txt item: #18 of 458 id: Benin author: Benin title: Benin date: None words: 11346 flesch: 46 summary: ARTICLE 64 Any member of the Armed Forces or the Public Security who shall desire to be a candidate for the office of President of the Republic must first send in his resignation from the Armed Forces or the Public Security. ARTICLE 73 The personal responsibility of the President of the Republic shall be pledged in case of high treason, of an insult to the Assembly or of an insult to his honor and probity. keywords: article; constitution; council; court; law; members; national assembly; president; republic; rights; state cache: Benin.txt plain text: Benin.txt item: #19 of 458 id: Bhutan author: Bhutan title: Bhutan date: None words: 13237 flesch: 48 summary: The title to the Golden Throne of Bhutan shall vest in the legitimate descendants of Druk Gyalpo Ugyen Wangchuck as enshrined in the inviolable and historic Gyenja of the Thirteenth Day, Eleventh Month of the Earth Monkey Year, corresponding to the Seventeenth Day of December, Nineteen Hundred and Seven and shall: Pass only to children born of lawful marriage; Pass by hereditary succession to the direct lineal descendants on the abdication or demise of the Druk Gyalpo, in order of seniority, with a prince taking precedence over a princess, subject to the requirement that, in the event of shortcomings in the elder prince, it shall be the sacred duty of the Druk Gyalpo to select and proclaim the most capable prince or princess as heir to the Throne; Pass to the child of the Queen who is pregnant at the time of the demise of the Druk Gyalpo if no heir exists under section 3(b); Pass to the nearest collateral line of the descendants of the Druk Gyalpo in accordance with the principle of lineal descent, with preference being given for elder over the younger, if the Druk Gyalpo has no direct lineal descendant; Not pass to children incapable of exercising the Royal Prerogatives by reason of physical or mental infirmity; and Not pass to a person entitled to succeed to the Throne who enters into a marriage with a person other than a natural born citizen of Bhutan. Upon reaching the age of sixty-five years, the Druk Gyalpo shall step down and hand over the Throne to the Crown Prince or Crown Princess, provided the Royal Heir has come of age. keywords: article; bhutan; commission; constitution; druk gyalpo; election; government; law; members; national; national assembly; parliament; person; state cache: Bhutan.txt plain text: Bhutan.txt item: #20 of 458 id: Bolivia author: Bolivia title: Bolivia date: None words: 39312 flesch: 38 summary: Article 327 The Central Bank of Bolivia is an institution of public law, with its own legal personality and patrimony. Article 365 A self-sufficient institution of public law, with autonomy in its administrative, technical and economic management, under the legal protection of the Ministry of the branch, it shall be responsible for the regulations, control, supervision and fiscal control of the activities of the entire productive chain up to industrialization, within the framework of the state hydrocarbon policy, in accordance with the law. keywords: accordance; article; assembly; authority; bolivian; constitution; court; development; economic; electoral; exercise; following; general; jurisdiction; law; legislative; members; national; organ; peoples; pluri; policies; president; public; pursuant; resources; rights; social; state; state article; system cache: Bolivia.txt plain text: Bolivia.txt item: #21 of 458 id: Bosnia_Herzegovina author: None title: Bosnia_Herzegovina date: None words: 5256 flesch: 47 summary: Preamble Based on respect for human dignity, liberty, and equality, Dedicated to peace, justice, tolerance, and reconciliation, Convinced that democratic governmental institutions and fair procedures best produce peaceful relations within a pluralist society, Desiring to promote the general welfare and economic growth through the protection of private property and the promotion of a market economy, Guided by the Purposes and Principles of the Charter of the United Nations, Committed to the sovereignty, territorial integrity, and political independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina in accordance with international law, Determined to ensure full respect for international humanitarian law, Inspired by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenants on Civil and Political Rights and on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and the Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities, as well as other human rights instruments, Recalling the Basic Principles agreed in Geneva on September 8, 1995, and in New York on September 26, 1995, Bosniacs, Croats, and Serbs, as constituent peoples (along with Others), and citizens of Bosnia and Herzegovina hereby determine that the Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina is as follows: Article I. Bosnia and Herzegovina 1. The Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the official name of which shall henceforth be Bosnia and Herzegovina, shall continue its legal existence under international law as a state, with its internal structure modified as provided herein and with its present internationally recognized borders. keywords: assembly; bosnia; constitution; herzegovina; members; presidency cache: Bosnia_Herzegovina.txt plain text: Bosnia_Herzegovina.txt item: #22 of 458 id: Botswana author: Botswana title: Botswana date: None words: 31091 flesch: 24 summary: If the office of Chief Justice is vacant or if the Chief Justice is for any reason unable to perform the functions of his or her office, then, until a person has been appointed to and has assumed the functions of that office or until the Chief Justice has resumed those functions, as the case may be, those functions shall be performed by such one of the judges of the High Court or such other person qualified for appointment as a judge of the High Court as the President may appoint for that purpose: Provided that— a person may be appointed under this subsection notwithstanding that he or she has attained the age of 70 years or such other age as may be prescribed for the purposes of section 97 of this Constitution; a person appointed under this subsection, who is not a judge of the High Court, may, notwithstanding the assumption or resumption of the functions of the office of Chief Justice by the holder of that office, continue to act as a judge of the High Court for so long thereafter and to such extent as may be necessary to enable him or her to deliver judgment or to do any other thing in relation to proceedings that were commenced before him or her previously thereto. If the office of President of the Court of Appeal is vacant or if the President of the Court of Appeal is for any reason unable to perform the functions of his or her office, then, until a person has been appointed to and has assumed the functions of that office or until the President of the Court of Appeal has resumed those functions, as the case may be, those functions shall be performed by such one of the other judges of the Court of Appeal or such other person qualified for appointment as a judge of the Court of Appeal as the President may appoint for that purpose: Provided that— a person may be appointed under this subsection notwithstanding that he or she has attained the age of 70 years or such other age as may be prescribed for the purposes of section 101 of this Constitution; a person appointed under this subsection, who is not a judge of the Court of Appeal, may, notwithstanding the assumption or resumption of the functions of the office of President of the Court of Appeal by the holder of that office, continue to act as a judge of the Court of Appeal for so long thereafter and to such extent as may be necessary to enable him or her to deliver judgment or to do any other thing in relation to proceedings that were commenced before him or her previously thereto. keywords: assembly; court; functions; law; member; national assembly; office; parliament; person; president; public; section; subsection cache: Botswana.txt plain text: Botswana.txt item: #23 of 458 id: Brazil author: Brazil title: Brazil date: None words: 71112 flesch: 27 summary: Federal law shall provide for use of the civil and military police and the military fire brigade by the Government of the Federal District. SECTION II. Federal law shall provide for the creation of special courts in the area of Federal Justice. keywords: art; article; cases; congress; constitution; counties; district; federal; following; funds; general; government; iii; jurisdiction; justice; law; members; national; office; payment; percent; period; president; provisions; public; public ministry; republic; resources; respective; rights; security; services; social; sole; state; subparagraph; tax; tribunal; union; years cache: Brazil.txt plain text: Brazil.txt item: #24 of 458 id: Brunei author: Brunei title: Brunei date: None words: 16246 flesch: 38 summary: His Majesty the Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan or the Legislative Council may, for such reason as may appear to His Majesty the Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan or that Council to be good and sufficient, suspend any Member, from the exercise of his functions and his rights and privileges, as a Member of that Council, and thereupon, such Member shall not sit in or take part in the proceedings of that Council until the suspension is ended by His Majesty the Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan or that Council: Provided that where the Member is suspended by His Majesty the Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan, the Legislative Council shall not have the power to end the suspension of such Member without the prior approval of His Majesty the Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan. Decisions of questions as to membership of Legislative Council His Majesty the Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan shall have exclusive jurisdiction to determine any question on whether— any person has been validly disqualified to be a Member of the Legislative Council; any Member of the Legislative Council has been validly appointed or elected as a Member of, or dismissed from that Council; any Member of the Legislative Council has been validly declared to be incapable of discharging his functions or suspended from the Legislative Council; or any such Member of the Legislative Council has vacated his seat therein. keywords: article; brunei; council; darussalam; legislative; majesty; member; person; pertuan; sultan; yang di cache: Brunei.txt plain text: Brunei.txt item: #25 of 458 id: Bulgaria author: Bulgaria title: Bulgaria date: None words: 12810 flesch: 45 summary: National Assembly Article 62 The National Assembly shall be vested with the legislative authority and shall exercise parliamentary control. Elections for a new National Assembly shall be held within two months from the expiry of the mandate of the preceding one. keywords: article; constitution; council; court; judicial; law; members; national assembly; president; republic; state; supreme cache: Bulgaria.txt plain text: Bulgaria.txt item: #26 of 458 id: Burkina_Faso author: Burkina Faso title: Burkina_Faso date: None words: 12093 flesch: 48 summary: The dissolved National Assembly may not meet. [the] National Assembly. keywords: article; case; constitution; council; faso; government; law; members; national assembly; president; state; transition cache: Burkina_Faso.txt plain text: Burkina_Faso.txt item: #27 of 458 id: Burundi author: Burundi title: Burundi date: None words: 15600 flesch: 43 summary: Article 60 The judicial power, which is the the guardian of public rights and freedoms, assures the respect of these rights and freedoms following the conditions outlined by the law. Article 94 An organic law sets the system of indemnities and advantages of the President, Vice President, Prime Minister, and other ministers as well as the system of incompatibilities. keywords: article; burundi; court; defense; government; law; members; national assembly; president; republic; republic article; senate; state; vice president cache: Burundi.txt plain text: Burundi.txt item: #28 of 458 id: Cambodia author: Cambodia title: Cambodia date: None words: 9367 flesch: 50 summary: Article 84 Between National Assembly sessions, the Standing Committee of the National Assembly shall manage the work of the National Assembly. In this case, the said National Assembly Member shall remain a Member of the National Assembly but may not hold any position on the Standing Committee or on other Commissions of the National Assembly. keywords: article; citizens; king; law; members; national assembly; president; rights; senate; state cache: Cambodia.txt plain text: Cambodia.txt item: #29 of 458 id: Cameroon author: Cameroon title: Cameroon date: None words: 8431 flesch: 48 summary: The State shall provide all its citizens with the conditions necessary for their development; the State shall ensure the protection of minorities and shall preserve the rights of indigenous populations in accordance with the law; freedom and security shall be guaranteed each individual, subject to respect for the rights of others and the higher interests of the State; every person shall have the right to settle in any place and to move about freely, subject to the statutory provisions concerning public law and order, security and tranquillity; the home is inviolate. Article 59 The Regional Council may be suspended by the President of the Republic where such organ: carries out activities contrary to the Constitution; undermines the security of the State or public law and order; endangers the State's territorial integrity. keywords: article; council; law; members; national assembly; president; republic; senate; state cache: Cameroon.txt plain text: Cameroon.txt item: #30 of 458 id: Canada author: Canada title: Canada date: None words: 20459 flesch: 54 summary: Privileges, etc., of Houses The privileges, immunities, and powers to be held, enjoyed, and exercised by the Senate and by the House of Commons, and by the members thereof respectively, shall be such as are from time to time defined by Act of the Parliament of Canada, but so that any Act of the Parliament of Canada defining such privileges, immunities, and powers shall not confer any privileges, immunities, or powers exceeding those at the passing of such Act held, enjoyed, and exercised by the Commons House of Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and by the members thereof. Provinces of Ontario and Quebec The Parts of the Province of Canada (as it exists at the passing of this Act) which formerly constituted respectively the Provinces of Upper Canada and Lower Canada shall be deemed to be severed, and shall form Two separate Provinces. keywords: act; canada; column; constitution act; general; governor; governor general; house; legislative; new; north; ontario; parliament; province; quebec; riding; time; union cache: Canada.txt plain text: Canada.txt item: #31 of 458 id: Cape_Verde author: Cape Verde title: Cape_Verde date: None words: 28349 flesch: 40 summary: The police shall have the duty to defend democratic legitimacy, to guarantee internal security, public tranquillity, and other rights of the citizen. The law may establish restrictions on the exercise of political rights and access to certain offices or public responsibilities on Cape Verdian citizens who are not native-born. Article 22. keywords: article; cape; constitution; council; court; deputies; duties; exercise; government; justice; law; laws; legislative; national assembly; office; president; republic; right; state cache: Cape_Verde.txt plain text: Cape_Verde.txt item: #32 of 458 id: Central_African_Republic author: Central African Republic title: Central_African_Republic date: None words: 14123 flesch: 45 summary: The National Council of the Transition remains in place until the effective installation of the elected National Assembly. Article 135 Before the entry into [their] functions, the members of National Council of Mediation make, [each] in [regard] to what concerns him, a written declaration of [their] patrimony, deposited at the Office of the Constitutional Court, which renders it public within eight (8) working days. keywords: article; council; court; days; government; law; members; national assembly; president; republic; senate; state cache: Central_African_Republic.txt plain text: Central_African_Republic.txt item: #33 of 458 id: Chad author: Chad title: Chad date: None words: 12517 flesch: 43 summary: The law establishes the conditions of promotion and of development of the national languages. Article 10 The seals and the arms of the Republic of Chad are determined by law. Article 75 After the definitive proclamation of the results by the Supreme Court, the President of the Republic elected takes an oath following the denominational formula consecrated by law, before the Supreme Court meeting in solemn audience, in the presence of the members of the National Assembly. keywords: article; collectivities; court; government; law; members; national assembly; president; republic; rights; state; supreme cache: Chad.txt plain text: Chad.txt item: #34 of 458 id: Chile author: Chile title: Chile date: None words: 46524 flesch: 34 summary: MATTERS OF STATUTE ARTICLE 63 The only matters of statute are: Those that in virtue of the Constitution must be object of constitutional organic laws; The statutory laws to which the Constitution confers the character of constitutional organic laws will require, for their approval, amendment or repeal, of the four sevenths of the Representative and senators in exercise. keywords: accordance; article; case; constitution; court; days; decree; election; electoral; exercise; force; general; law; members; national; number; office; organic; paragraph; period; president; provisions; republic; service; state cache: Chile.txt plain text: Chile.txt item: #35 of 458 id: China author: China title: China date: None words: 11788 flesch: 37 summary: Local people's governments at different levels throughout the country are state administrative organs under the unified leadership of the State Council and are subordinate to it. Article 104 The standing committee of a local people's congress at and above the county level discusses and decides on major issues in all fields of work in its administrative area; supervises the tasks of the people's government, the supervisory committee, the people's court, and the people's procuratorate at the corresponding level; annuls inappropriate decisions and orders of the people's government at the corresponding level; annuls inappropriate resolutions of the people's congress at the next lower level; decides on the appointment and removal of functionaries of state organs within its jurisdiction as prescribed by law; and, when the people's congress at the corresponding level is not in session, recalls individual deputies to the people's congress at the next higher level and elects individual deputies to fill vacancies in that people's congress. keywords: article; china; committee; congress; law; national people; republic; standing; state; state council; supreme people cache: China.txt plain text: China.txt item: #36 of 458 id: Colombia author: Colombia title: Colombia date: None words: 54070 flesch: 37 summary: The National Police is a permanent armed body of a civilian nature responsible to the national community and whose primary purpose is the maintenance of the conditions necessary for the exercise of public rights and freedoms and to insure that the inhabitants of Colombia may live together in peace. An Act may assign public functions to them and establish appropriate controls. keywords: accordance; act; administrative; article; case; commission; congress; constitution; council; court; entities; exercise; following; functions; general; government; law; members; national; office; period; president; public; republic; resources; respective; rights; state; statute; system; transitional cache: Colombia.txt plain text: Colombia.txt item: #37 of 458 id: Comoros author: Comoros title: Comoros date: None words: 6972 flesch: 43 summary: Article 7 The Union of the Comoros possesses sovereign rights in matters of conservation, of exploitation and of determining the value of the living and nonliving natural resources in the contiguous zone, in the exclusive economic zone, and on the continental shelf as defined by the law, and has jurisdiction over these regions, by virtue of domestic right and of the rules of international law. The international relations of the Union of the Comoros are governed by the principles of national independence, respect for international law and Human Rights, equality between States, non-interference in the domestic affairs of foreign nations, reciprocity of advantages accorded, cooperation with all other peoples and peaceful coexistence. keywords: article; assembly; citizens; constitution; law; president; rights; state; union cache: Comoros.txt plain text: Comoros.txt item: #38 of 458 id: Congo author: Congo title: Congo date: None words: 13649 flesch: 47 summary: Article 151 The laws to which the Constitution confers the character of organic laws, except the law of finance, are voted and modified in the following conditions: the bill or the proposal of law is only submitted for deliberation and vote to the first Chamber referred to [the matter] at the expiration of a time period of fifteen (15) days after its deposit; the procedure of Article 147 and 150 is applicable. The internal regulations of each Chamber, declared conforming to the Constitution by the Constitutional Court, have [the] force of organic law. keywords: article; case; council; court; law; members; national; national assembly; parliament; president; republic; right; state cache: Congo.txt plain text: Congo.txt item: #39 of 458 id: Costa_Rica author: Costa Rica title: Costa_Rica date: None words: 17331 flesch: 41 summary: In no case may individual rights and guarantees not written in this paragraph be suspended; To receive the oath of law and to take cognizance of the resignations of the members of the Supreme Powers, with the exception of the Ministers of Government; to decide on the doubts that may occur in the case of physical or mental incapacity of who is exercising the Presidency of the Republic, and to declare if [the person] who must substitute [for] him must be called to the exercise of the Power; To admit or not the accusations interposed against whoever is exercising the Presidency of the Republic, Vice Presidents, members of the Supreme Powers and Diplomatic Ministers, declaring by the two-thirds part of votes of the total of the Assembly if [a] cause should be formed or not against them, placing them, in [the] affirmative case, at the disposition of the Supreme Court of Justice for its judgment; To decree the suspension of any of the functionaries mentioned in the preceding paragraph, when proceeding against them for common crimes; To adopt the ordinary and extraordinary budgets of the Republic; To appoint the Comptroller and Sub-Controller General of the Republic; To establish the national taxes and contributions, and to authorize the municipal ones; To decree the sale or the application to public uses of the assets proprietary to the Nation. Article 125 If the Executive Power does not approve the bill of law voted by the Assembly, it will veto it and return it with the pertinent objections. keywords: article; assembly; chapter article; constitution; costa; exercise; law; members; power; president; public; republic; state; supreme; thirds cache: Costa_Rica.txt plain text: Costa_Rica.txt item: #40 of 458 id: Cote_DIvoire author: None title: Cote_DIvoire date: None words: 11788 flesch: 43 summary: The Vice-President of the Republic replaces the President of the Republic whenever the latter is outside of the national territory. Article 115 The President of the Republic communicates with the National Assembly and the Senate either directly or through messages that he had the Vice-President of the Republic read in each of the houses of Parliament. keywords: article; chapter; constitutional; council; law; national; parliament; president; republic; republic article; state; vice cache: Cote_DIvoire.txt plain text: Cote_DIvoire.txt item: #41 of 458 id: Croatia author: Croatia title: Croatia date: None words: 13819 flesch: 40 summary: The exercise of the rights ensuing from the European Union acquis communautaire shall be made equal to the exercise of rights under Croatian law. If the President of the Republic does not submit a decree for approval to the Croatian Parliament as required by section 3 of this Article, or if the Croatian Parliament fails to approve it, the decree with the force of law ceases to be in force. keywords: article; constitution; court; croatia; government; law; national; parliament; president; republic; right; state cache: Croatia.txt plain text: Croatia.txt item: #42 of 458 id: Cuba author: Cuba title: Cuba date: None words: 20209 flesch: 26 summary: The law establishes the rights protected under this guarantee, and the preferential, expedited, and reduced proceedings to comply with it. Article 100 The legal system is governed by the principle of non-retroactivity of laws, except in penal matters when they are favorable to the accused or to the sanctioned person, and in the case of other laws, when they expressly permit it with regard to matters of social interest or public utility, which they must explicate in their content. The transfer of other rights not involving the transfer of property of these goods must have prior approval of the Council of State, according to that which is prescribed by law and provided that it is for the purpose of the country's economic and social development and does not affect the political, economic, or social foundations of the State. keywords: article; assembly; constitution; council; general; law; laws; national; people; power; power article; president; republic; social; state; state article cache: Cuba.txt plain text: Cuba.txt item: #43 of 458 id: Cyprus author: Cyprus title: Cyprus date: None words: 35385 flesch: 25 summary: The provisions of paragraph 1 of this Article shall, in the following cases, be applied as follows:- if the law relating to marriage applicable to the parties as provided under Article 111 is not the same, the parties may elect to have their marriage governed by the law applicable to either of them under such Article; if the provisions of Article 111 are not applicable to any of the parties to the marriage and neither of such parties is a member of the Turkish Community, the marriage shall be governed by a law of the Republic which the House of Representatives shall make and which shall not contain any restrictions other than those relating to age, health, proximity of relationship and prohibition of polygamy; if the provisions of Article 111 are applicable only to one of the parties to the marriage and the other party is not a member of the Turkish Community, the marriage shall be governed by the law of the Republic as in sub-paragraph (b) of this paragraph provided: Provided that the parties may elect to have their marriage governed by the law applicable, under Article 111, to one of such parties in so far as such law allows such marriage. By such law provision shall be made for appeals against the decisions of such courts and for the composition of the courts by which such appeals are to be heard and determined and for the jurisdiction and powers of such appellate courts. keywords: article; communal; constitution; court; decision; greek; house; law; paragraph; person; president; representatives; republic; republic article; vice cache: Cyprus.txt plain text: Cyprus.txt item: #44 of 458 id: Czech_Republic author: Czech Republic title: Czech_Republic date: None words: 14590 flesch: 49 summary: Article 10a Certain powers of Czech Republic authorities may be transferred by treaty to an international organization or institution. While in the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic, aliens enjoy the human rights and fundamental freedoms guaranteed by this Charter, unless such rights and freedoms are expressly extended to citizens alone. keywords: article; assembly; czech republic; deputies; government; law; president; republic; right; senate; state cache: Czech_Republic.txt plain text: Czech_Republic.txt item: #45 of 458 id: Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo author: Democratic Republic of the Congo title: Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo date: None words: 20114 flesch: 42 summary: Article 124 The laws to which the Constitution confers the character of organic law, are adopted and modified by the absolute majority of members composing each Chamber under the following conditions: the legislative Proposal of law can only be submitted to the deliberation and the vote of the first Chamber referred to [the matter] after the expiration of a period of fifteen days after its deposit with the Government; the procedure of Article 132 is applicable. However, by organic law, the Parliament may, if necessary, institute other institutions in support of democracy. keywords: article; constitution; council; court; government; law; members; minister; national; national assembly; power; president; provinces; provisions; republic; right; senate; state cache: Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.txt plain text: Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.txt item: #46 of 458 id: Denmark author: Denmark title: Denmark date: None words: 6097 flesch: 58 summary: 29 Any Danish subject whose permanent residence is in the Realm, and who has the age qualification for suffrage provided for in subsection (2) of this section shall have the right to vote at Folketing elections, provided that he has not been declared incapable of conducting his own affairs. Where a Bill relating to the expropriation of property has been passed, one-third of the Members of the Folketing may within three week-days from the final passing of such Bill, demand that it shall not be presented for the Royal Assent until new elections to the Folketing have been held and the Bill has again been passed by the Folketing assembling thereupon. keywords: act; bill; folketing; king; members; statute cache: Denmark.txt plain text: Denmark.txt item: #47 of 458 id: Djibouti author: Djibouti title: Djibouti date: None words: 6359 flesch: 47 summary: Article 61 The declaration of war is authorized by the National Assembly meeting specially to this effect. The territorial collectivities are moral persons of public law which enjoy administrative and financial autonomy. keywords: article; council; law; national assembly; president; republic; state cache: Djibouti.txt plain text: Djibouti.txt item: #48 of 458 id: Dominica author: Dominica title: Dominica date: None words: 35357 flesch: 23 summary: Any person who has been appointed to an office established by this Constitution (other than an office to which subsection (1) or (2) of this section applies) or any office of Minister established under this Constitution may resign that office by writing under his hand addressed to the person or authority by whom he was appointed and the resignation shall take effect, and the office shall accordingly become vacant— at such time or on such date (if any) as may be specified in the writing; or when the writing is received by the person or authority to whom it is addressed or by such other person as may be authorised to receive it, whichever is the later: Provided that the resignation may be withdrawn before it takes effect if the person or authority to whom the resignation is addressed consents to its withdrawal. 120. Any person who is unlawfully arrested or detained by any other person shall be entitled to compensation therefor from that other person or from any other person or authority on whose behalf that other person was acting. keywords: constitution; court; dominica; house; law; member; office; person; president; public; section; subsection cache: Dominica.txt plain text: Dominica.txt item: #49 of 458 id: Dominican_Republic author: Dominican Republic title: Dominican_Republic date: None words: 28247 flesch: 44 summary: Public Office The Statute of Public Office is a rule of public right based on the merit and professionalization for an efficient management and accomplishment of the essential functions of the State. Civil responsibility Juridical persons of public right and their officials or agents shall be responsible, jointly and mutually, in accordance with the law, for damages and prejudices occasioned on physical or juridical persons for an anti-juridical administrative action or omission. keywords: accordance; article; chamber; constitution; court; dominican; exercise; following; general; law; laws; male; members; national; order; people; power; president; public; republic; right; state cache: Dominican_Republic.txt plain text: Dominican_Republic.txt item: #50 of 458 id: East_Timor author: East Timor title: East_Timor date: None words: 14819 flesch: 42 summary: Reception of International Law The legal system of East Timor shall adopt the general or common principles of international law. Replacement and Interim Office During temporary impediment of the President of the Republic, the presidential functions shall be taken over by the President of National Parliament or, in case of impediment of the latter, by his or her replacement. keywords: accordance; article; constitution; council; court; east; government; law; national; parliament; president; republic; right; state; timor cache: East_Timor.txt plain text: East_Timor.txt item: #51 of 458 id: Ecuador author: Ecuador title: Ecuador date: None words: 56018 flesch: 38 summary: Office of the Human Rights Ombudsman Article 214 The Office of the Human Rights Ombudsman shall be a body governed by public law with national jurisdiction, legal status and administrative and financial autonomy. Article 261 The central State shall have exclusive jurisdiction over: National defense, domestic security and public law and order. keywords: article; constitution; control; council; court; development; duties; education; electoral; exercise; following; general; government; guarantee; institutions; justice; law; members; national; national assembly; national electoral; office; participation; persons; policies; president; principles; public; republic; resources; rights; section; services; social; state; subject; system; use cache: Ecuador.txt plain text: Ecuador.txt item: #52 of 458 id: Egypt author: Egypt title: Egypt date: None words: 21410 flesch: 50 summary: Equality in public rights and duties Citizens are equal before the law, possess equal rights and public duties, and may not be discriminated against on the basis of religion, belief, sex, origin, race, color, language, disability, social class, political or geographical affiliation, or for any other reason. War on terrorism The state commits to fighting all types and forms of terrorism and tracking its sources of funding within a specific time frame in light of the threat in represents to the nation and citizens, with guarantees for public rights and freedoms. keywords: article; bodies; constitution; council; court; date; government; house; judicial; law; members; minister; national; president; prime; public; representatives; republic; rights; state cache: Egypt.txt plain text: Egypt.txt item: #53 of 458 id: El_Salvador author: El Salvador title: El_Salvador date: None words: 23322 flesch: 37 summary: Once approved, said budget shall be incorporated into the Budget of Revenues and Expenditures of the Public Administration; To decree, in a general manner, financial benefits and incentives or those of any nature, for the promotion of services or cultural, scientific, agricultural, industrial and commercial activities; To decree laws on the recognition of the public debt and create and assign the funds necessary for its payment; To establish and regulate the national monetary system and to decide upon the admission and circulation of foreign currency; To receive the constitutional oath and give possession of their position to citizens who, in conformity with law, shall exercise the Presidency and Vice Presidency of the Republic; To decide upon resignations interposed and leaves solicited by the President and Vice President of the Republic and Designates, after personal ratification before the same Assembly; To obligatorily disavow the President of the Republic or his substitute if, when his constitutional term has ended, he continues in the exercise of his post. In any case, within fifteen days following their termination, the President of the Republic shall present to the Legislative Assembly a detailed report on the performance of the Armed Force; To wage (dirigir) war and make peace, and immediately submit any treaty made for this end purpose to the Legislative Assembly for ratification; To decree the regulations necessary to facilitate and assure the application of the laws whose execution corresponds to him; To guard for the efficient management and realization of public businesses; To propose the list of three persons among whom the Legislative Assembly must elect the two Designees to the Presidency of the Republic; To organize, lead, and maintain the National Civil Police to preserve peace, tranquility, order, and public security, in the urban realm as well as in the rural, with strict attachment to respect for Human Rights and under the direction of civil authorities; To organize, lead, and maintain the Intelligence Agency (Organismo) of the State; To annually fix a reasonable number of troops for the Armed Force and National Civil Police; To exercise other powers conferred by the Laws. Article 169 The appointment, removal, acceptance of resignations, and granting of leaves to functionaries and employees of the Public Administration and of the Armed Force, shall be governed by the Internal Regulations of the Executive Organ or other laws and regulations that are applicable. keywords: article; assembly; constitution; court; exercise; functionaries; general; justice; law; laws; legislative; ministers; national; organ; period; president; republic; rights; state; supreme; years cache: El_Salvador.txt plain text: El_Salvador.txt item: #54 of 458 id: Equatorial_Guinea author: Equatorial Guinea title: Equatorial_Guinea date: None words: 9113 flesch: 45 summary: Its official name is: Republic of Equatorial Guinea (República de Guinea Ecuatorial). From it emanate the public powers that are exercised in the conditions determined by this Fundamental Law and other laws. keywords: article; chamber; council; deputies; law; president; republic; republic article; senate; state cache: Equatorial_Guinea.txt plain text: Equatorial_Guinea.txt item: #55 of 458 id: Eritrea author: Eritrea title: Eritrea date: None words: 6558 flesch: 46 summary: The rights enumerated in this Chapter shall not preclude other rights which ensue from the spirit of this Constitution and the principles of a society based on social justice, democracy and the rule of law. The President shall have the following powers and duties: once every year, deliver a speech in the National Assembly on the state of the country and the policies of the government; subject to the provisions of Article 27 hereof, declare state of emergency, and when the defense of the country requires, martial laws; summon the National Assembly to an emergency meeting and present his views to it; sign and publish in the Official Gazette laws approved by the National Assembly; ensure the execution of laws and resolutions of the National Assembly; negotiate and sign international agreements and delegate such power; with the approval of the National Assembly, appoint ministers, commissioners, the Auditor General, Governor of the National Bank, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and any other person or persons who are required by any other provisions of this Constitution or other laws to be appointed by the President; appoint justices of the Supreme Court upon proposal of the Judicial Service Commission and approval of the National Assembly; appoint judges of the lower courts upon proposal of the Judicial Service Commission; appoint and receive ambassadors and diplomatic representatives; appoint high ranking members of the Armed and the Security Forces; subject to the provisions of Article 27(5)(b), reprieve offenders and grant pardon or amnesty; establish such government ministries and departments necessary or expedient for the good governance of Eritrea, in consultation with the Public Service Administration, and dissolve the same; preside over meetings of the Cabinet and coordinate its activities; present legislative proposals and the national budget to the National Assembly; confer medals or other honors on citizens, residents and friends of Eritrea in consultation with relevant organizations and individuals. keywords: article; constitution; law; national assembly; person; president; state cache: Eritrea.txt plain text: Eritrea.txt item: #56 of 458 id: Estonia author: Estonia title: Estonia date: None words: 11208 flesch: 49 summary: Article 65 The Riigikogu shall: pass laws and resolutions; decide on the holding of a referendum; elect the President of the Republic, pursuant to Article 79 of the Constitution; ratify and denounce international treaties, in accordance with Article 121 of the Constitution; authorize the candidate for Prime Minister to form the Government of the Republic; pass the state budget and approve the report on its implementation; on the proposal of the President of the Republic, appoint to office the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, the Chairman of the Board of the Bank of Estonia, the Auditor General and the Chancellor of Justice; on the proposal of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, appoint to office justices of the Supreme Court; appoint members of the Board of the Bank of Estonia; on the proposal of the Government, decide on borrowing by the state and on the assumption of other proprietary obligations by the state; present statements, declarations and appeals to the people of Estonia, other states, and international organizations; establish state awards, and military and diplomatic ranks; decide on the expression of no confidence in the Government of the Republic, the Prime Minister or individual ministers; declare a state of emergency in the state, pursuant to Article 129 of the Constitution; on the proposal of the President of the Republic, declare a state of war, and order mobilization and demobilization; resolve other national issues which the Constitution does not vest in the President of the Republic, the Government of the Republic, other state bodies or local governments. Article 87 The Government of the Republic shall: execute the domestic and foreign policies of the state; direct and co-ordinate the activities of government agencies; administer the implementation of laws, resolutions of the Riigikogu, and legislation of the President of the Republic; introduce bills, and submit international treaties to the Riigikogu for ratification and denunciation; prepare the draft of the state budget and submit it to the Riigikogu, administer the implementation of the state budget and present a report on the implementation of the state budget to the Riigikogu; issue regulations and orders on the basis of and for the implementation of law; manage relations with other states; declare an emergency situation throughout the state or in a part thereof, in the case of a natural disaster or a catastrophe, or to prevent the spread of an infectious disease; perform other duties which the Constitution and the laws vest in the Government of the Republic. Article 88 The Government of the Republic shall be comprised of the Prime Minister and ministers. keywords: article; government; law; president; procedure; republic; right; riigikogu; state cache: Estonia.txt plain text: Estonia.txt item: #57 of 458 id: Ethiopia author: Ethiopia title: Ethiopia date: None words: 13249 flesch: 50 summary: No restrictions may be placed on the enjoyment of such rights except in compelling circumstances and in accordance with specific laws whose purposes shall be the safeguarding of national security or public peace, the prevention of crimes or the protection of health, public morality or the rights and freedoms of others. Without prejudice to the rights recognized under sub-Article 1 of this Article, laws enacted for the implementation of such rights shall establish procedures for the formation of trade unions and for the regulation of the collective bargaining process. keywords: article; constitution; council; federal; federation; government; house; law; national; peoples; representatives; right; state cache: Ethiopia.txt plain text: Ethiopia.txt item: #58 of 458 id: Fiji author: Fiji title: Fiji date: None words: 39592 flesch: 29 summary: To the extent that it is necessary, a law may limit, or may authorise the limitation of, the rights and freedoms mentioned in subsection (1) in the interests of- national security, public safety, public order, public morality, public health or the orderly conduct of elections; the protection or maintenance of the reputation, privacy, dignity, rights or freedoms of other persons, including- the right to be free from hate speech, whether directed against individuals or groups; and the rights of persons injured by inaccurate or offensive media reports to have a correction published on reasonable conditions established by law; preventing the disclosure, as appropriate, of information received in confidence; preventing attacks on the dignity of individuals, groups of individuals or respected offices or institutions in a manner likely to promote ill will between ethnic or religious groups or the oppression of, or discrimination against, any person or group of persons; maintaining the authority and independence of the courts; imposing restrictions on the holders of public offices; regulating the technical administration of telecommunications; or making provisions for the enforcement of media standards and providing for the regulation, registration and conduct of media organisations. To the extent that it is necessary, the rights and freedoms set out in this section may be made subject to such limitations prescribed by law- to protect- the rights and freedoms of other persons; or public safety, public order, public morality or public health; or to prevent public nuisance. keywords: commission; constitution; court; fiji; functions; general; law; members; minister; office; parliament; person; president; public; right; services commission; state; subsection cache: Fiji.txt plain text: Fiji.txt item: #59 of 458 id: Finland author: Finland title: Finland date: None words: 13078 flesch: 48 summary: Representatives may put forward: Legislative motions, containing a proposal for the enactment of an Act; Budgetary motions, containing a proposal for an appropriation to be included in the budget or a supplementary budget, or for another budgetary decision; and Petitionary motions, containing a proposal for the drafting of a law or for taking other measures. Section 40. Preparation of matters Government proposals, motions by Representatives, reports submitted to the Parliament and other matters, as provided for in this Constitution or in the Parliament's Rules of Procedure, shall be prepared in Committees before their final consideration in a plenary session of the Parliament. The Parliamentary Ombudsman and the Chancellor of Justice of the Government may attend and participate in debates in plenary sessions of the Parliament when their reports or other matters taken up on their initiative are being considered. keywords: act; committee; government; minister; parliament; president; provisions; right; section; state cache: Finland.txt plain text: Finland.txt item: #60 of 458 id: France author: France title: France date: None words: 13846 flesch: 46 summary: THE ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL COUNCIL ARTICLE 69 The Economic, Social and Environmental Council, on a referral from the Government, shall give its opinion on such Government Bills, draft Ordinances, draft Decrees, and Private Members’ Bills as have been submitted to it. The Institutional Act may also, for such territorial communities as are self-governing, determine the conditions in which: the Conseil d’état shall exercise specific judicial review of certain categories of decisions taken by the Deliberative Assembly in matters which are within the powers vested in it by statute; the Deliberative Assembly may amend a statute promulgated after the coming into effect of the new status of said territorial community where the Constitutional Council, acting in particular on a referral from the authorities of the territorial community, has found that statute law has intervened in a field within the powers of said Assembly; measures justified by local needs may be taken by the territorial community in favour of its population as regards access to employment, the right of establishment for the exercise of a professional activity or the protection of land; the community may, subject to review by the central government, participate in the exercise of the powers vested in it while showing due respect for the guaranties given throughout national territory for the exercising of civil liberties. keywords: act; article; assembly; council; government; house; members; national; parliament; president; republic cache: France.txt plain text: France.txt item: #61 of 458 id: Gabon author: Gabon title: Gabon date: None words: 12172 flesch: 40 summary: Article 75 Beyond its primary duties, the Council of the State may be consulted within the conditions fixed by organic law outlined in article 75b below, and other laws. Article 84 The Constitutional Court obligatorily rules over: The treaties and international accords before their promulgation, verifying their conformity to the Constitution; The general census of the population; The Constitutionality of organic laws and other laws before their promulgation, of regulatory acts that directly affect the fundamental rights of the human person and public liberties; The regulations of the National Assembly and the Senate before their application, verifying their conformity to the Constitution; The regulations of the National Council of Communication and the Social and Economic Council before their application, verifying their conformity to the Constitution; The conflicts of attribution between institutions and the State; The legality of presidential, parliamentary, and local collectivity elections, as well as the operations of referendum, its results the Court proclaims. keywords: article; council; court; government; law; members; national; parliament; president; republic; state cache: Gabon.txt plain text: Gabon.txt item: #62 of 458 id: Gambia author: Gambia title: Gambia date: None words: 40416 flesch: 37 summary: Subsection (1) applies to the offices of- Master, Registrar and Assistant Registrar of a superior court; the office of magistrate; the office of a member of any subordinate court; such other offices of a member of any court as may be prescribed by an Act of the National Assembly. Any person who is unlawfully arrested or detained by any other person shall be entitled to compensation from that other person or from any other person or authority on whose behalf that other person was acting. keywords: act; assembly service; authority; commission; constitution; court; functions; gambia; law; members; national assembly; office; person; president; public; public service; section; service; service commission; subject cache: Gambia.txt plain text: Gambia.txt item: #63 of 458 id: Georgia author: Georgia title: Georgia date: None words: 15249 flesch: 48 summary: An organic law shall be considered adopted if it is supported by a majority of the total number of the Members of Parliament, unless another procedure for the adoption of organic laws is determined by the Constitution. Public Defender of Georgia Supervision of the protection of human rights within the territory of Georgia shall be exercised by the Public Defender of Georgia, who shall be elected for a term of 6 years by a majority of at least three fifths of the total number of the Members of Parliament. keywords: accordance; article; court; georgia; government; law; members; parliament; president; right; state cache: Georgia.txt plain text: Georgia.txt item: #64 of 458 id: German_Federal_Republic author: None title: German_Federal_Republic date: None words: 27225 flesch: 45 summary: [Supremacy of federal law] Federal law shall take precedence over Land law. Federal laws on these matters shall enter into force no earlier than six months following their promulgation unless otherwise provided with the consent of the Bundesrat. keywords: article; authorities; bundesrat; bundestag; consent; court; federal; federation; government; land law; law; laws; länder; members; municipalities; paragraph; public; right; sentence; state cache: German_Federal_Republic.txt plain text: German_Federal_Republic.txt item: #65 of 458 id: Ghana author: Ghana title: Ghana date: None words: 52687 flesch: 40 summary: The Commission shall consist of- a Chairman who shall be appointed by the President in consultation with the Council of State; the Minister responsible for finance and such other Ministers of State as the President may appoint; the Government Statistician; the Governor of the Bank of Ghana; one representative from each region of Ghana appointed by the Regional Coordinating Council of the region; such other persons as may be appointed by the President having regard to their knowledge and experience of the relevant areas and roles pertaining to development, economic, social, environmental and spatial planning. DEVOLUTION OF OTHER RIGHTS AND LIABILITIES Subject to section 32 of this Schedule- where under an existing law, a right, prerogative, power, privilege or function is vested in the Provisional National Defence Council, that right, prerogative, power, privilege or function shall, on the coming into force of this Constitution, vest in the President or such other person or authority as is specified under this Constitution who, subject to the provisions of this Constitution or any other law, may do all things necessary for its exercise or performance; and any right, power, privilege, obligation, liability, duty or function vested in, or subsisting against the Government of Ghana by or under an existing law shall continue to so vest or subsist. keywords: article; clause; commission; constitution; council; court; force; functions; ghana; government; justice; law; members; national; office; parliament; person; president; public; regional; service; state; subject; supreme court cache: Ghana.txt plain text: Ghana.txt item: #66 of 458 id: Greece author: Greece title: Greece date: None words: 26731 flesch: 40 summary: Article 56 Salaried civil functionaries and servants, other servants of the State, persons serving in the armed forces and the security corps, servants of local government agencies or of other public law legal persons, elected single-member organs of local government agencies, governors, deputy governors or chairmen of the boards of directors or managing or executive directors of public law legal persons or of state controlled legal entities of private law or of public enterprises or of enterprises whose management the State appoints directly or indirectly by administrative act or by virtue of its capacity as shareholder, or of local government enterprises, may neither stand for election nor be elected to Parliament if they do not resign prior to their nomination as candidates. Article 57 The duties of Member of Parliament are incompatible with the job or the capacity of owner or partner or shareholder or governor or administrator or member of the board of directors or general manager or a deputy thereof, of an enterprise that: Undertakes Public works or studies or procurements or the provision of services to the State or concludes with State similar contacts of a development or investment nature Enjoys special privileges Owns or manages a radio or television station or publishes a newspaper of countrywide circulation in Greece Exercises by concession a public service or a public enterprise or a public utility enterprise Rents for commercial purposes real estate owned by the State For the purposes of the application of this paragraph, local government agencies, other public law legal persons, state-owned private law legal persons, public enterprises, enterprises of local government agencies and other enterprises of local government agencies and other enterprises whose management the state appoints directly or indirectly by administrative act or by virtue of its capacity as shareholder, are equated to the State. keywords: administrative court; article; case; constitution; court; government; law; law proposal; members; paragraph; parliament; parliament article; president; provisions; public; republic; special; state; supreme cache: Greece.txt plain text: Greece.txt item: #67 of 458 id: Grenada author: Grenada title: Grenada date: None words: 31800 flesch: 22 summary: Acting Governor-General During any period when the office of Governor-General is vacant or the holder of the office of Governor-General is absent from Grenada or is for any other reason unable to perform the functions of his office those functions shall be performed by such person as Her Majesty may appoint. Appointment, etc., of public officers Subject to the provisions of section 91 of this Constitution, the power to appoint persons to hold or act in offices in the public service (including the power to confirm appointments), the power to exercise disciplinary control over persons holding or acting in such offices and the power to remove such persons from office and the power to grant leave shall vest in the Public Service Commission. keywords: constitution; court; general; governor; grenada; house; law; member; office; person; public; section; subsection cache: Grenada.txt plain text: Grenada.txt item: #68 of 458 id: Guatemala author: Guatemala title: Guatemala date: None words: 30290 flesch: 45 summary: Specific Jurisdiction of the Tribunals The common tribunals will take cognizance of all the controversies of private law in which the State, the municipality, or any other decentralized or autonomous entity may act as a party. [The] Freedom of Action All persons have the right to do what the law does not prohibit; [the persons] are not obligated to obey orders that are not based in law or issued in accordance to it. keywords: accordance; article; congress; constitution; court; form; general; guatemala; justice; law; laws; ministers; national; office; order; organ; person; president; republic; right; social; state; state article; supreme; vice cache: Guatemala.txt plain text: Guatemala.txt item: #69 of 458 id: Guinea_Bissau author: None title: Guinea_Bissau date: None words: 8706 flesch: 37 summary: Article 18 The Republic of Guinea-Bissau establishes and develops relations with other countries according to international law, the principles of national interdependence, equality between States, non-interference in internal matters, reciprocity of advantages, peaceful coexistence and non-alignment. Article 29 Fundamental rights enshrined in the Constitution do not negate other rights foreseen by the laws of the Republic and applicable rules of international law. keywords: article; assembly; bissau; government; guinea; law; national; popular; president; republic; rights; state cache: Guinea_Bissau.txt plain text: Guinea_Bissau.txt item: #70 of 458 id: Guyana author: Guyana title: Guyana date: None words: 52044 flesch: 26 summary: This article applies to the office of Commissioner of Title, Magistrate, Director of Public Prosecutions, Deputy Director of Public Prosecutions, Registrar of the High Court, Deputy Registrar of the High Court, Registrar of Deeds, Deputy Registrar of Deeds and to such other offices (not being offices in respect of which provision for the making of appointments is made by any provision of this Constitution other than article 201) connected with the courts of Guyana or for appointment to which legal qualifications are required as may be prescribed by Parliament. Appointments of Solicitor General and others The power to make appointments to the offices to which this article applies and t remove from office persons holding or acting in such offices shall vest in the President. keywords: act; article; authority; constitution; court; elections commission; functions; guyana; law; member; minister; national assembly; office; paragraph; parliament; person; police; president; provisions; public; public service; rights commission; service commission; subject cache: Guyana.txt plain text: Guyana.txt item: #71 of 458 id: Haiti author: Haiti title: Haiti date: None words: 19980 flesch: 49 summary: Article 119 All bills must be voted on article by article. Article 2 The national colors shall be blue and red. keywords: article; assembly; case; constitution; council; council article; court; government; june; law; members; national; power article; president; republic; republic article; state; years cache: Haiti.txt plain text: Haiti.txt item: #72 of 458 id: Honduras author: Honduras title: Honduras date: None words: 26802 flesch: 38 summary: Article 47 Legally registered political parties are institutions under public law, whose existence and free functioning are guaranteed by this Constitution and the law, in order to achieve the effective political participation of the citizens. Article 3 No one owes obedience to a usurping government nor to those who assume office or public service by force of arms or by using means or procedures which violate or ignore the provisions established by this Constitution and other laws. keywords: accordance; article; branch; cases; chapter; congress; constitution; court; executive; forces; general; justice; law; laws; national; office; order; president; public; republic; rights; social; state; supreme; tribunal cache: Honduras.txt plain text: Honduras.txt item: #73 of 458 id: Hungary author: Hungary title: Hungary date: None words: 20525 flesch: 40 summary: The legal successor of the organ exercising the relevant functions and powers under Act XX of 1949 on the Constitution of the Republic of Hungary shall be the organ exercising the relevant functions and powers under the Fundamental Law. The third sentence of Section 70/E(3) of Act XX of 1949 on the Constitution of the Republic of Hungary in force on 31 December 2011 shall, until 31 December 2012, apply to benefits which qualify as pension benefits under the rules in force on 31 December 2011 with respect to any change in their conditions, nature or amount, to their conversion to other benefits or to their termination. Sections 26(6), 28/D, 28/E, and 31(2) and (3) of Act XX of 1949 on the Constitution of the Republic of Hungary in force on 31 December 2011 shall apply to cases in progress at the entry into force of the Fundamental Law also after the entry into force of the Fundamental Law. keywords: act; article; cardinal; government; hungarian; hungary; law; members; national assembly; national bank; national defence; president; republic; right; state cache: Hungary.txt plain text: Hungary.txt item: #74 of 458 id: Iceland author: Iceland title: Iceland date: None words: 4521 flesch: 58 summary: Provisions of law relating to election district boundaries and the methods of allocating seats in Parliament can only be amended by a two-thirds majority in Althingi. The opening date of the regular session of Althingi may be changed by law. keywords: althingi; article; law; president; republic cache: Iceland.txt plain text: Iceland.txt item: #75 of 458 id: India author: India title: India date: None words: 102835 flesch: 35 summary: 31B. Validation of certain Acts and Regulations Without prejudice to the generality of the provisions contained in article 31A, none of the Acts and Regulations specified in the Ninth Schedule nor any of the provision thereof shall be deemed to be void, or ever to have become void, on the ground that such Act, Regulation or provision is inconsistent with, or takes away or abridges any of the rights conferred by, any provisions of this part, and notwithstanding any judgment, decree or order of any court or tribunal to the contrary, each of the said Acts and Regulations shall, subject to the power of any competent Legislature to repeal or amend it, continue in force. Explanation For the purposes of this clause a person shall not be deemed to hold an office of profit under the Government of India or the Government of any State by reason only that he is a Minister either for the Union or for such State. keywords: amendment act; article; assembly; case; clause; commencement; constitution; council; court; district; district council; governor; house; india; india act; land; law; legislative; members; office; order; parliament; person; pradesh act; president; provisions; respect; state; state act; state commission; state election; state government; state legislature; state list; state subject; supreme court; territory; union cache: India.txt plain text: India.txt item: #76 of 458 id: Indonesia author: Indonesia title: Indonesia date: None words: 5824 flesch: 49 summary: In the event that there is no ticket of candidates for President and Vice-President elected, the two tickets which have received the first and second highest total of votes in the general election shall be submitted directly to election by the people, and the ticket which receives the highest total of votes shall be sworn in as the President and Vice-President. Article 7B Any proposal for the dismissal of the President and/or the Vice-President may be submitted by the DPR to the MPR only by first submitting a request to the Constitutional Court to investigate, bring to trial, and issue a decision on the opinion of the DPR either that the President and/or Vice-President has violated the law through an act of treason, corruption, bribery, or other act of a grave criminal nature, or through moral turpitude, and/or that the President and/or Vice-President no longer meets the qualifications to serve as President and/or Vice-President. keywords: article; dpr; law; mpr; president; right; state; vice cache: Indonesia.txt plain text: Indonesia.txt item: #77 of 458 id: Iran author: Iran title: Iran date: None words: 16201 flesch: 38 summary: Article 6 In the Islamic Republic of Iran, the affairs of the country must be administered on the basis of public opinion expressed by the means of elections, including the election of the President, the representatives of the Islamic Consultative Assembly, and the members of councils, or by means of referenda in matters specified in other articles of this Constitution. Ownership in each of these three sectors is protected by the laws of the Islamic Republic, in so far as this ownership is in conformity with the other articles of this chapter, does not go beyond the bounds of Islamic law, contributes to the economic growth and progress of the country, and does not harm society. keywords: accordance; article; assembly; constitution; council; country; duties; government; guardian council; iran; islamic; islamic republic; islamic revolution; law; leader; members; ministers; people; president cache: Iran.txt plain text: Iran.txt item: #78 of 458 id: Iraq author: Iraq title: Iraq date: None words: 11469 flesch: 45 summary: Article 50 Each member of the Council of Representatives shall take the following constitutional oath before the Council prior to assuming his duties: I swear by God Almighty to carry out my legal duties and responsibilities with devotion and integrity and preserve the independence and sovereignty of Iraq, and safeguard the interests of its people, and ensure the safety of its land, sky, water, wealth, and federal democratic system, and I shall endeavor to protect public and private liberties, the independence of the judiciary, and pledge to implement legislation faithfully and neutrally. Article 53 First Sessions of the Council of Representatives shall be public unless, for reasons of necessity, the Council decides otherwise. keywords: article; constitution; council; federal; iraq; law; members; ministers; president; representatives; republic; right; state cache: Iraq.txt plain text: Iraq.txt item: #79 of 458 id: Ireland author: Ireland title: Ireland date: None words: 15888 flesch: 43 summary: ARTICLE 19 Provision may be made by law for the direct election by any functional or vocational group or association or council of so many members of Seanad Éireann as may be fixed by such law in substitution for an equal number of the members to be elected from the corresponding panels of candidates constituted under Article 18 of this Constitution. When a Bill the time for the consideration of which by Seanad Éireann has been abridged under this Article becomes law it shall remain in force for a period of ninety days from the date of its enactment and no longer unless, before the expiration of that period, both Houses shall have agreed that such law shall remain in force for a longer period and the longer period so agreed upon shall have been specified in resolutions passed by both Houses. keywords: article; bill; constitution; court; dáil éireann; law; president; seanad éireann; shall; state cache: Ireland.txt plain text: Ireland.txt item: #80 of 458 id: Israel author: Israel title: Israel date: None words: 17816 flesch: 53 summary: Immunity of Knesset members The members of the Knesset shall have immunity; particulars shall be prescribed by Law. Replacement of Knesset member (Amendment 7) keywords: chairman; court; government; knesset; knesset member; law; minister; president; section; state cache: Israel.txt plain text: Israel.txt item: #81 of 458 id: Italy author: Italy title: Italy date: None words: 11541 flesch: 45 summary: They are also responsible for the implementation of international agreements and EU measures, subject to the rules set out in State law which regulate the exercise of subsidiary powers by the State in the case of non-performance by the Regions and autonomous provinces. A laws is published immediately after promulgation and comes into force on the fifteenth day following publication, unless such law establishes a different deadline. keywords: art; constitution; council; government; house; law; members; parliament; president; regions; republic; right; state cache: Italy.txt plain text: Italy.txt item: #82 of 458 id: Jamaica author: Jamaica title: Jamaica date: None words: 37012 flesch: 22 summary: Acting Judges If the office of Chief Justice is vacant or if the Chief Justice is for any reason unable to perform the functions of his office, then, until a person has been appointed to that office and assumed its functions or, as the case may be, until the Chief Justice has resumed those functions, they shall be performed by such other person, qualified under subsection (3) of section 98 of this Constitution for appointment as a Judge, as the Governor-General, acting in accordance with the advice of the Prime Minister may appoint for that purpose by instrument under the Broad Seal. Acting Judges of Court of Appeal If the office of President of the Court of Appeal is vacant or if the President of the Court of Appeal is for any reason unable to perform the functions of his office, then, until a person has been appointed to that office and assumed its functions or, as the case may be, until the President of the Court of Appeal has resumed those functions, they shall be performed by such other person, qualified under subsection (3) of section 104 of this Constitution for appointment as a Judge of the Court of Appeal, as the Governor-General, acting in accordance with the advice of the Prime Minister, may appoint for that purpose by instrument under the Broad Seal. keywords: constitution; court; general; governor; house; jamaica; office; person; provisions; public; section; shall; subsection cache: Jamaica.txt plain text: Jamaica.txt item: #83 of 458 id: Japan author: Japan title: Japan date: None words: 4993 flesch: 55 summary: We believe that no nation is responsible to itself alone, but that laws of political morality are universal; and that obedience to such laws is incumbent upon all nations who would sustain their own sovereignty and justify their sovereign relationship with other nations. However, it cannot include penal provisions in such cabinet orders unless authorized by such law. Decide on general amnesty, special amnesty, commutation of punishment, reprieve, and restoration of rights. keywords: article; diet; house; law; members; people cache: Japan.txt plain text: Japan.txt item: #84 of 458 id: Jordan author: Jordan title: Jordan date: None words: 10305 flesch: 54 summary: It may approve, amend or reject such laws. Article 99 The courts are of three types: Civil Courts Religious Courts Special Courts Article 100 The types of all courts, their levels, divisions, jurisdictions and the manner of their administration shall be specified by a special law, provided that such law shall provide for the establishment of an Administrative Jurisdiction in two levels. keywords: article; council; house; king; law; ministers; provisions; representatives; senate cache: Jordan.txt plain text: Jordan.txt item: #85 of 458 id: Kazakhstan author: Kazakhstan title: Kazakhstan date: None words: 13709 flesch: 35 summary: The names “Republic of Kazakhstan” and “Kazakhstan” have the same meaning. [deleted by the law of 10 March 2017 N 51-VI 3PK]; adopt resolution on conducting the all-nation referendum; in order to protect the rights and freedoms of an individual and citizen, ensure national security, sovereignty and integrity of the state, sends a request to the Constitutional Council to consider if an enacted law or other legal act is in conformity with the Constitution of the Republic, to issue an opinion in a case specified in paragraph 3 of Article 91 of the Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan; conduct negotiations and sign international treaties of the Republic; sign ratification instruments; receive letters of credentials and recall from diplomatic and other representatives of foreign states accredited to him; act as the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Republic, appoint and replace the highest command of the Armed Forces; award state decorations of the Republic and confer honorary, highest military and other ranks, ranked positions, diplomatic ranks and qualification degrees; resolve issues of citizenship of the Republic, and political asylum; exercise pardon of citizens; in the event of serious and immediate threat to the democratic institutions of the Republic, its independence and territorial integrity, political stability of the Republic, security of its citizens and the disruption of normal functioning of the Constitutional bodies of the state, the President shall have official consultation with Prime Minister and Chairpersons of the Parliamentary Chambers of the Republic and take measures, caused by state of emergency on the entire territory or in particular areas of Kazakhstan, and immediately inform the Parliament of the use of the Armed Forces of the Republic; in the case of aggression against the Republic or immediate external threat to its security, the President shall impose martial law on the entire territory of the Republic or in particular areas, declare partial or total mobilization and immediately inform the Parliament of the Republic to the effect; forms State Security Service subordinate to him; appoint to and release from office the State Secretary of the Republic of Kazakhstan, define his status and powers; form the administration of the President of the Republic; form the Security Council, the Higher Judicial Council and other consultative and advisory bodies; exercise other powers in accordance with the Constitution and the laws of the Republic. Article 45 The President of the Republic of Kazakhstan, on the basis of and with the exercise of the Constitution and the laws, shall issue decrees and resolutions which are binding on the entire territory of the Republic. keywords: article; constitution; deputies; kazakhstan; law; majilis; parliament; president; republic; right; state cache: Kazakhstan.txt plain text: Kazakhstan.txt item: #86 of 458 id: Kenya author: Kenya title: Kenya date: None words: 45596 flesch: 38 summary: A person is not qualified for nomination as a presidential candidate if the person- owes allegiance to a foreign state; or is a public officer, or is acting in any State or other public office. Rights of arrested persons An arrested person has the right- to be informed promptly, in language that the person understands, of- the reason for the arrest; the right to remain silent; and the consequences of not remaining silent; to remain silent; to communicate with an advocate, and other persons whose assistance is necessary; not to be compelled to make any confession or admission that could be used in evidence against the person; to be held separately from persons who are serving a sentence; to be brought before a court as soon as reasonably possible, but not later than- twenty-four hours after being arrested; or if the twenty-four hours ends outside ordinary court hours, or on a day that is not an ordinary court day, the end of the next court day; at the first court appearance, to be charged or informed of the reason for the detention continuing, or to be released; and to be released on bond or bail, on reasonable conditions, pending a charge or trial, unless there are compelling reasons not to be released. keywords: act; article; bill; clause; commission; constitution; county assembly; county government; county legislation; court; date; deputy president; election; functions; kenya; kenya national; land; law; legislation; members; national assembly; national commission; office; parliament; person; president; public; rights; service commission; state; state office cache: Kenya.txt plain text: Kenya.txt item: #87 of 458 id: Kiribati author: Kiribati title: Kiribati date: None words: 25442 flesch: 35 summary: Rules of court There shall be a Rules Committee, consisting of the Chief Justice, the President of the Court of Appeal, and the Attorney-General (who shall constitute a quorum) and such other persons, not exceeding two in number, as the Beretitenti may appoint, which may make rules of court regulating the practice and procedure of the High Court and the Court of Appeal, the admission of legal practitioners to practise in Kiribati, prescribing the fees to be paid in respect of any proceedings and generally for making provision for the proper and effectual exercise of the jurisdiction of the High Court and the Court of Appeal, including the procedure for the making and hearing of appeals to the High Court from subordinate courts and for the making and hearing of appeals from the High Court to the Court of Appeal: Provided that rules prescribing or affecting the amount of any fees or the recovery thereof shall not come into operation unless approved, either before or after being made, by the Maneaba ni Maungatabu. Interpretation In this Chapter— “Banaban” and “Banabans” means the former indigenous inhabitants of Banaba and such other persons one of whose ancestors was born in Kiribati before 1900 as may now or hereafter be accepted as members of the Banaban community in accordance with custom; “Rabi Council” means the Council of Leaders established by the Banaban Settlement Ordinance 1970 of Fiji, and includes such successor body as represents the Banaban community on Banaba and Rabi Island in Fiji. keywords: beretitenti; constitution; court; kiribati; law; maneaba; maneaba ni; member; office; person; public; section; subsection cache: Kiribati.txt plain text: Kiribati.txt item: #88 of 458 id: Kosovo author: None title: Kosovo date: None words: 21254 flesch: 42 summary: Kosovo Security Council The Security Council of the Republic of Kosovo in cooperation with the President of the Republic of Kosovo and the Government develops the security strategy for the Republic of Kosovo. Preamble We, the people of Kosovo, Determined to build a future of Kosovo as a free, democratic and peace-loving country that will be a homeland to all of its citizens; Committed to the creation of a state of free citizens that will guarantee the rights of every citizen, civil freedoms and equality of all citizens before the law; Committed to the state of Kosovo as a state of economic wellbeing and social prosperity; Convinced that the state of Kosovo will contribute to the stability of the region and entire Europe by creating relations of good neighborliness and cooperation with all neighboring countries; Convinced that the state of Kosovo will be a dignified member of the family of peace-loving states in the world; With the intention of having the state of Kosovo fully participating in the processes of Euro-Atlantic integration; In a solemn manner, we approve the Constitution of the Republic of Kosovo. keywords: article; assembly; constitution; court; deputies; international; kosovo; kosovo article; kosovo judicial; kosovo security; kosovo status; law; president; republic; right cache: Kosovo.txt plain text: Kosovo.txt item: #89 of 458 id: Kuwait author: Kuwait title: Kuwait date: None words: 8318 flesch: 50 summary: National Assembly conventions may not, in any circumstance, be suspended during that period, nor may the immunity of its members be violated. In Articles other than those stipulating punitive measures it may be permissible, with the consent of the majority of members composing the Assembly, to provide otherwise by Law. keywords: amir; article; assembly; constitution; law; members; minister; national assembly; save; state cache: Kuwait.txt plain text: Kuwait.txt item: #90 of 458 id: Kyrgyz_Republic author: None title: Kyrgyz_Republic date: None words: 14833 flesch: 45 summary: The Constitution shall serve the basis for the adoption of constitutional laws, laws as well as other regulatory legal acts. Article 15 State of emergency or martial law in the Kyrgyz Republic may be imposed only in the cases and following the procedures established by the present Constitution and constitutional laws. SECTION II. keywords: article; constitution; court; deputies; government; jogorku kenesh; judges; kyrgyz republic; law; president; right; state cache: Kyrgyz_Republic.txt plain text: Kyrgyz_Republic.txt item: #91 of 458 id: Laos author: Laos title: Laos date: None words: 8902 flesch: 37 summary: Article 68 (Amended) The President of the State may have a Vice-President as elected by the National Assembly with the votes of more than two-thirds of the number of National Assembly members attending the session. Article 75 (Amended) The National Assembly may pass a vote of no confidence in any member or all members of the government if the National Assembly Standing Committee or one-fourth of the total number of National Assembly members raises the issue. keywords: article; assembly standing; committee; lao people; laws; national assembly; people assembly; president; standing committee; state cache: Laos.txt plain text: Laos.txt item: #92 of 458 id: Latvia author: Latvia title: Latvia date: None words: 5254 flesch: 54 summary: Article 9 Any citizen of Latvia, who enjoys full rights of citizenship and, who is more than twenty-one years of age on the first day of elections may be elected to the Saeima. Article 12 The newly elected Saeima shall hold its first sitting on the first Tuesday in November, when the mandate of the previous Saeima shall expire. keywords: article; latvia; law; president; right; saeima cache: Latvia.txt plain text: Latvia.txt item: #93 of 458 id: Lebanon author: Lebanon title: Lebanon date: None words: 6269 flesch: 51 summary: Article 31 Every meeting held by the Chamber outside the legal session is ipso facto null and in violation of the law. Article 32 The Chamber holds two ordinary sessions every year. keywords: article; chamber; council; deputies; law; president; republic cache: Lebanon.txt plain text: Lebanon.txt item: #94 of 458 id: Lesotho author: Lesotho title: Lesotho date: None words: 42778 flesch: 25 summary: If the office of Chief Justice is vacant or the Chief Justice is for any reason unable to exercise the functions of his office, then, until a person has been appointed to and has assumed the functions of that office or until the person holding that office has resumed those functions, as the case may be, they shall be exercised by such one of the judges of the Court of Appeal or the puisne judges or such other person qualified to be appointed as a judge of the High Court as the King, acting in accordance with the advice of the Prime Minister, may appoint. If the office of President is vacant or the President is for any reason unable to exercise the functions of his office, then, until a person has been appointed to and has assumed the functions of that office or until the person holding that office has resumed those functions, as the case may be, they shall be exercised by such one of the judges of the Court of Appeal or such other person qualified to be appointed as a judge of the Court of Appeal as the King, acting in accordance with the advice of the Prime Minister, may appoint. keywords: act; constitution; court; king; law; lesotho; minister; national; national assembly; office; parliament; person; public; section; subsection cache: Lesotho.txt plain text: Lesotho.txt item: #95 of 458 id: Liberia author: Liberia title: Liberia date: None words: 11598 flesch: 35 summary: Such person shall be entitled to counsel at every stage of the investigation and shall have the right not to be interrogated except in the presence of counsel. No person charged, arrested, restricted, detained or otherwise held in confinement shall be subject to torture or inhumane treatment; nor shall any person except military personnel, be kept or confined in any military facility; nor shall any person be seized and kept among convicted prisoners or treated as a convict, unless such person first shall have been convicted of a crime in court of competent jurisdiction. keywords: article; constitution; court; elections; law; legislature; liberia; office; person; president; republic; right cache: Liberia.txt plain text: Liberia.txt item: #96 of 458 id: Libya author: Libya title: Libya date: None words: 3009 flesch: 43 summary: Article 24 The National Transitional Council shall appoint an executive board or interim government composed of a president and a sufficient number of members for the management of the different sectors of the country. The Council shall have the right to add ten (10) members for reasons of national interest. keywords: article; council; national; state; transitional cache: Libya.txt plain text: Libya.txt item: #97 of 458 id: Liechtenstein author: Liechtenstein title: Liechtenstein date: None words: 9339 flesch: 48 summary: Art 62 In particular, the following matters shall fall within the sphere of activity of Parliament: participation in the work of legislation in accordance with the Constitution; participation in the conclusion of treaties (Art. 8); the establishment of the annual budget and the authorization of taxes and other public dues; resolution on credits, loans and securities chargeable to the State and on the acquisition and alienation of landed property belonging to the administrative and financial assets of the State, subject to articles 63ter and 93; the resolution on the annual report furnished annually by the Government on the whole of the State administration; the submission of suggestions and complaints and the exercise of control with regard to the State administration as a whole (Art. 63); the impeachment of members of the Government before the Constitutional Court for breaches of the Constitution or of other laws; the passing of a resolution on a vote of no confidence in the Government or one of its members. Art 109 The State, the communes and other corporations, establishments and foundations of public law are liable for damage caused to third persons by individuals acting as their bodies who in their official capacity act illegally. keywords: art; constitution; court; government; law; parliament; prince; prince regnant; regnant; state cache: Liechtenstein.txt plain text: Liechtenstein.txt item: #98 of 458 id: Lithuania author: Lithuania title: Lithuania date: None words: 14436 flesch: 48 summary: Article 94 The Government of the Republic of Lithuania: shall administer the affairs of the country, protect the inviolability of the territory of the Republic of Lithuania, guarantee State security and public order; shall execute laws and resolutions of the Seimas on the implementation of the laws as well as the decrees of the President of the Republic; shall co-ordinate the activities of the ministries and other establishments of the Government; shall prepare a draft State Budget and submit it to the Seimas; execute the State Budget and submit to the Seimas a report on the execution of the budget; shall prepare draft laws and present them to the Seimas for consideration; shall establish diplomatic ties and maintain relations with foreign states and international organization; shall discharge other duties prescribed to the Government by the Constitution and other laws. The Seimas may request a conclusion from the Constitutional Court, and in cases concerning Seimas elections and international treaties, the President of the Republic may also request a conclusion. keywords: article; constitution; court; government; law; lithuania; president; procedure; republic; seimas; state cache: Lithuania.txt plain text: Lithuania.txt item: #99 of 458 id: Luxembourg author: Luxembourg title: Luxembourg date: None words: 5984 flesch: 57 summary: Public Freedoms and Fundamental Rights Article 9 The status of Luxembourger is acquired, retained and lost in accordance with the rules determined by civil law. This Constitution and other laws concerning political rights determine those which are, beyond this quality, conditions necessary for the exercise of these rights. keywords: article; chamber; duke; grand; law; laws; state cache: Luxembourg.txt plain text: Luxembourg.txt item: #100 of 458 id: Macedonia author: Macedonia title: Macedonia date: None words: 13303 flesch: 43 summary: Article 110 The Constitutional Court of the Republic of Macedonia decides on the conformity of laws with the Constitution; decides on the conformity of collective agreements and other regulations with the Constitution and laws; protects the freedoms and rights of the individual and citizen relating to the freedom of conviction, conscience, thought and public expression of thought, political association and activity as well as to the prohibition of discrimination among citizens on the ground of sex, race, religion or national, social or political affiliation; decides on conflicts of competency among holders of legislative, executive and judicial offices; decides on conflicts of competency among Republic bodies and units of local self-government; decides on the answerability of the President of the Republic; decides on the constitutionality of the programmes and statutes of political parties and associations of citizens; and decides on other issues determined by the Constitution. The President of the Republic of Macedonia Article 79 The President of the Republic Macedonia represents the Republic. keywords: article; assembly; constitution; law; macedonia; majority; president; representatives; republic; right cache: Macedonia.txt plain text: Macedonia.txt item: #101 of 458 id: Madagascar author: Madagascar title: Madagascar date: None words: 14737 flesch: 37 summary: Article 65 The Prime Minister, Head of Government: conducts the general policy of the State; has authority over the members of the Government of which he directs the action, and is responsible for the coordination of the activities of the ministerial departments as well as for the implementation of any national program of development; has the initiative of law; orders the bills of laws to be submitted to the deliberation of the Council of Ministers and to be presented to the Bureau of one of the two Assemblies; assures the execution of the laws; exercises the regulatory power under reserve of the provisions of Article 55 paragraph 3; sees to the execution of the decisions of justice; refers matters, as needed, to the General Inspection of the State and the other organs of control of the Administration and assures the good functioning of the public services, of the good administration of the finances of the public collectivities and of the public organs of the State; assures the security, the peace and the stability on all the extent of the national territory within respect for the national unity; to this end, he has at his disposal all the forces in charge of the police, of the maintenance of order, of interior security and of defense; in the case of grave political troubles and before the proclamation of the situation of exception, he may have recourse to the forces of order to restore the social peace after the opinion of the superior authorities of the Police, of the Gendarmerie and of the Army, of the High Council of the National Defense and of the President of the High Constitutional Court; is the Head of the Administration; appoints to the civil and military offices as well as to those of the organs of the State, under reserve of the provisions of Article 55 paragraph 4. OF THE ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL COUNCIL Article 105 The Economic, Social and Cultural Council, referred to the matter by the Government, gives its opinion on the bills of law, of ordinance or of decree as well as on the proposals of laws that are submitted to it. keywords: article; collectivities; council; court; government; law; members; national; national assembly; president; republic; right; state cache: Madagascar.txt plain text: Madagascar.txt item: #102 of 458 id: Malawi author: Malawi title: Malawi date: None words: 32093 flesch: 35 summary: Removal of the Law Commissioner The President may remove the Law Commissioner or other person appointed to the Law Commission on the recommendation of the Judicial Service Commission if the Judicial Service Commission is satisfied that the Law Commissioner or such other person appointed to the Law Commission, as the case may be, is not competent or otherwise incapacitated so as to be unable to perform the functions of his or her office. The Inspector General of Police may delegate such powers as are conferred on him or her by this Constitution or by an Act of Parliament to such other persons or authorities, being part of the Malawi Police Service, as he or she may consider appropriate. keywords: act; constitution; court; government; malawi; member; national assembly; office; parliament; person; powers; president; public; section; service commission; subject cache: Malawi.txt plain text: Malawi.txt item: #103 of 458 id: Malaysia author: Malaysia title: Malaysia date: None words: 63424 flesch: 33 summary: State law Nothing in this Article shall affect the power of Parliament or of the Legislature of any State- to impose such taxes or rates as it is authorised to impose under any other provision of this Constitution; or to make from the Federal Consolidated Fund or the State Consolidated Fund, as the case may be, grants not repayable under Clause (5) or (6), except that where, in pursuance of Clause (1), a rate is imposed on any property by federal law which, but for this Article, might have been imposed by State law, no rate of the same kind shall be imposed by State law for any period for which the rate imposed by federal law is payable. keywords: article; authority; citizen; clause; commission; constitution; court; day; federation; house; member; office; parliament; person; pertuan agong; provisions; public; respect; ruler; sabah; sarawak; state government; state law; state list; states; subject; time; yang di cache: Malaysia.txt plain text: Malaysia.txt item: #104 of 458 id: Maldives author: Maldives title: Maldives date: None words: 23829 flesch: 45 summary: In addition to the duties and powers otherwise expressly conferred on the President by this Constitution and the law, the President is entrusted pursuant to this Constitution with carrying out the duties specified herein and shall have the following powers to do so: to faithfully implement the provisions of this Constitution and the law, and to promote compliance by organs of the State and by the people; to supervise the efficient and harmonious functioning of all departments of Government; to promote the rule of law, and to protect the rights and freedoms of all people; to guarantee the independence and territorial integrity of the Maldives, and to promote respect for national sovereignty in the international community; to formulate fundamental policies of the State, and to submit policies and recommendations to the appropriate agencies and institutions of Government; to appoint, dismiss and accept the resignation of members of the Cabinet, and such officials necessary for the proper functioning of the duties of his office; to preside over the Cabinet of Ministers; to issue declarations of war and peace, and to immediately submit such declarations to the People's Majlis for approval; to declare states of emergency, in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution; to determine, conduct and oversee the foreign policy of the country, and to conduct political relations with foreign nations and international organizations; to enter into general treaties and agreements with foreign states and international organizations, which do not impose any obligations on citizens; to enter into and ratify, with the approval of the People's Majlis, treaties and agreements with foreign states and international organizations, which impose obligations on citizens; to appoint members of diplomatic missions to foreign countries and international organizations in consultation with the People's Majlis; to recall and remove from office members of diplomatic missions to foreign countries and international organizations; to receive and recognize the credentials of diplomatic and consular representatives of foreign countries and other parties and to accept their letters of recall; to appoint temporary commissions to advise the President on national issues and conduct investigations; to hold public referendums on issues of national importance; to declare national and government holidays; to issue awards, medals and honorary titles, as provided by law; to grant pardons or reductions of sentence as provided by law, to persons convicted of a criminal offence who have no further right of appeal; to ensure that the security services comply with their obligations as provided in this Constitution; to perform all other duties specifically authorized by this Constitution and by law. 116. The jurisdiction of the Judicial Service Commission shall extend to all members of the Judiciary and such other persons as designated by the People's Majlis. keywords: article; commission; constitution; elections commission; general; law; majlis; maldives; members; office; people; person; president; service commission; vice president cache: Maldives.txt plain text: Maldives.txt item: #105 of 458 id: Malta author: Malta title: Malta date: None words: 34017 flesch: 24 summary: Enforcement of protective provisions Subject to the provisions of sub-articles (6) and (7) of this article, any person who alleges that any of the provisions of articles 33 to 45 (inclusive) of this Constitution has been, is being or is likely to be contravened in relation to him, or such other person as the Civil Court, First Hall, in Malta may appoint at the instance of any person who so alleges, may, without prejudice to any other action with respect to the same matter that is lawfully available, apply to the Civil Court, First Hall, for redress. Discharge of President's functions during vacancy, etc Whenever the office of President is temporarily vacant, and until a new President is appointed, and whenever the holder of the office is absent from Malta or on vacation or is for any reason unable to perform the functions conferred upon him by this Constitution, those functions shall be performed by such person as the Prime Minister, after consultation with the Leader of the Opposition, may appoint or, if there is no person in Malta so appointed and able to perform those functions, by the Chief Justice. keywords: article; commission; constitution; house; law; malta; member; minister; office; person; president; provisions; public; representatives; sub; time cache: Malta.txt plain text: Malta.txt item: #106 of 458 id: Marshall_Islands author: Marshall Islands title: Marshall_Islands date: None words: 21058 flesch: 37 summary: The Chief Secretary shall have the right to attend any meeting of the Cabinet and to speak on any matter under consideration by the Cabinet, and shall so attend if required to do so by the President or other member of the Cabinet presiding. Compensation of the Members of the Public Service Commission The compensation of the Chairman and other members of the Public Service Commission shall be specifically prescribed by Act. keywords: act; cabinet; constitution; council; court; law; member; nitijela; person; republic; section; speaker cache: Marshall_Islands.txt plain text: Marshall_Islands.txt item: #107 of 458 id: Mauritania author: Mauritania title: Mauritania date: None words: 7664 flesch: 50 summary: Article 67 The laws to which the Constitution confers the character of organic laws are voted on and modified in the following conditions: The Bill or proposal is only submitted to the deliberation and to the vote of the first Assembly referred to [the matter] at the expiration of a time period of fifteen (15) days after its deposit. Considering that the liberty, the equality, and the dignity of Man cannot be assured except in a society which consecrates the primacy of law, concerned by creating durable conditions for a harmonious social evolution, respectful of the precepts of Islam, sole source of law and open to the exigencies of the modern world, the Mauritanian people proclaim, in particular, the intangible guarantee of the following rights and principles: the right to equality; the fundamental freedoms and rights of the human person; the right of property; the political freedoms and keywords: article; assembly; council; law; national; national assembly; president; republic cache: Mauritania.txt plain text: Mauritania.txt item: #108 of 458 id: Mauritius author: Mauritius title: Mauritius date: None words: 36734 flesch: 21 summary: A member of the Assembly may resign his seat by writing under his hand addressed to the Speaker and the seat shall become vacant when the writing is received by the Speaker or, if the office of Speaker is vacant or the Speaker is for any reason unable to perform the functions of his office, by the' Deputy Speaker or such other person as may be specified in the rules and orders of the Assembly. Electoral Commissions There shall be an Electoral Boundaries Commission which shall consist of a chairman and not less than two nor more than seven other members appointed by the President, acting after consultation with the Prime Minister, the Leader of the Opposition and such other persons as appear to the President, acting in his own deliberate judgement, to be leaders of parties in the Assembly. keywords: assembly; authority; commission; court; law; mauritius; member; minister; office; person; president; public; section; subsection; supreme court cache: Mauritius.txt plain text: Mauritius.txt item: #109 of 458 id: Mexico author: Mexico title: Mexico date: None words: 62031 flesch: 37 summary: The autonomous transparency agency established in this fraction will be governed by the transparency and access to public information law, as well as the law for the protection on personal data held by obligated subjects, in the terms established by the general law issued by the Congress to set the basic principles, basis and procedures for the exercise of the information rights. Federal law shall fairly provide national political parties with all necessary resources to carry out their political activities. keywords: administrative; article; case; congress; constitution; council; court; district; district government; electoral; executive; federal; federal district; general; government; house; judicial; justice; law; laws; members; mexican; national; national electoral; office; order; parties; president; provisions; public; representatives; republic; rights; senate; state; supreme; term; years cache: Mexico.txt plain text: Mexico.txt item: #110 of 458 id: Micronesia author: None title: Micronesia date: None words: 5214 flesch: 49 summary: Section 2 The following powers are expressly delegated to the President: to faithfully execute and implement the provisions of this Constitution and all national laws; to receive all ambassadors and to conduct foreign affairs and the national defense in accordance with national law; to grant pardons and reprieves, except that the chief executive of each state shall have this power concurrently with respect to persons convicted under state law; and with the advice and consent of Congress, to appoint ambassadors; all judges of the Supreme Court and other courts prescribed by statute; the principal officers of executive departments in the national government; and such other officers as may be provided for by statute. Section 7 The appellate division of the Supreme Court may review cases heard in the national courts, and cases heard in state or local courts if they require interpretation of this Constitution, national law, or a treaty. keywords: congress; constitution; micronesia; national; president; section; states cache: Micronesia.txt plain text: Micronesia.txt item: #111 of 458 id: Moldova author: Moldova title: Moldova date: None words: 12528 flesch: 49 summary: Universality All citizens of the Republic of Moldova shall enjoy the rights and freedoms granted to them by the Constitution and other laws and, are assigned the duties provided for thereby. The Republic of Moldova is a democratic and governed by the rule of law State, in which human dignity, his/her rights and freedoms, the free development of human personality, justice and political pluralism represent supreme values and shall be guaranteed. keywords: article; constitution; court; government; law; members; moldova; office; parliament; president; republic; right; state cache: Moldova.txt plain text: Moldova.txt item: #112 of 458 id: Monaco author: Monaco title: Monaco date: None words: 4420 flesch: 53 summary: Art 57 The newly elected National Council meets on the eleventh day after elections in order to elect its board. Art 70 The National Council votes on the budget. keywords: art; council; law; national; national council; prince; state cache: Monaco.txt plain text: Monaco.txt item: #113 of 458 id: Mongolia author: Mongolia title: Mongolia date: None words: 9246 flesch: 42 summary: The State Great Hural (Parliament) of Mongolia Article 20 The State Great Hural (Parliament) of Mongolia shall be the highest organ of State power, and the legislative power shall be vested exclusively in the State Great Hural (Parliament). Article 23 The member of the State Great Hural (Parliament) is representative of the people and shall respect and uphold the interests of all the citizens and the State. keywords: article; court; government; hural; law; members; mongolia; parliament; president; state cache: Mongolia.txt plain text: Mongolia.txt item: #114 of 458 id: Montenegro author: None title: Montenegro date: None words: 11797 flesch: 51 summary: Montenegrin citizen shall not be expelled or extradited to other state, except in accordance with the international obligations of Montenegro. Relations with other states and international organizations Montenegro shall cooperate and develop friendly relations with other states, regional and international organizations, based on the principles and rules of international law. keywords: article; constitution; council; court; government; law; montenegro; parliament; president; right; state cache: Montenegro.txt plain text: Montenegro.txt item: #115 of 458 id: Morocco author: Morocco title: Morocco date: None words: 15916 flesch: 40 summary: [amenagement du territoire]; the rules relative to the management of the environment, to the protection of the natural resources and to lasting development; the regime of waters and forests and of fishing; the determination of the orientations and the general organization of teaching, of scientific research and of vocational [professionnelle] instruction; the creation of public establishments and of all other moral persons of public law; the nationalization of enterprises and the regime of privatizations; Other than the matters specified in the preceding paragraph, the Parliament is enabled to vote the framework laws [lois-cadres] concerning the fundamental objectives of the economic, social, environmental and cultural activity of the State. They constitute moral persons of public law, which democratically administer [gerent] their affairs. keywords: article; chamber; constitution; council; court; government; head; king; law; members; parliament; public; representatives; rights; state cache: Morocco.txt plain text: Morocco.txt item: #116 of 458 id: Mozambique author: Mozambique title: Mozambique date: None words: 23191 flesch: 44 summary: Powers The National Defence and Security shall have the following powers, in particular: to pronounce upon a state of war before such is declared; to pronounce upon the suspension of constitutional guarantees and the declaration of a state of siege or of a state of emergency; to issue an opinion on the criteria and conditions governing the use of total or partial protection zones for the purposes of defence and security of the national territory; to analyse and monitor the initiatives of other State offices aimed at guaranteeing the consolidation of national independence, the strengthening of democratic political power, and the maintaining of law and order; to pronounce upon overseas peace missions. Public institutions of higher education shall be corporate persons governed by public law, and they shall have legal personality and enjoy scientific, teaching, financial and administrative autonomy, without prejudice to the appropriate evaluation of teaching standards, in accordance with the law. keywords: article; assembly; citizens; council; court; general; government; law; mozambican; mozambique; national; office; president; republic; republic article; right; social; state cache: Mozambique.txt plain text: Mozambique.txt item: #117 of 458 id: Myanmar author: Myanmar title: Myanmar date: None words: 41362 flesch: 38 summary: Qualifications of the Region or State Hluttaw representatives who are Defence Services personnel The Defence Services personnel, nominated by the Commander-in-Chief of the Defence Services as the Region or State Hluttaw representatives who are the Defence Services personnel in accord with the law, shall possess the prescribed qualifications for the Region or State Hluttaw representatives. Leading Bodies of the Self-Administered Division or the Self-Administered Zone shall be formed with the following persons: Region or State Hluttaw representatives elected from townships in the Self-Administered Division or Self-Administered Zone concerned; the Defence Services personnel representatives nominated by the Commander-in-Chief of the Defence Services to assign duties relating to Security or Border Affairs; Additional representatives selected by persons stated in Sub-Section (d) (i) and (ii). keywords: amyotha hluttaw; chief; constitution; hluttaw committees; hluttaw law; hluttaw representatives; law; president; pyidaungsu hluttaw; pyithu hluttaw; region hluttaw; self; speaker; state government; state hluttaw; union; union election; union government; union law; union minister cache: Myanmar.txt plain text: Myanmar.txt item: #118 of 458 id: Namibia author: Namibia title: Namibia date: None words: 26447 flesch: 33 summary: Article 27A. Composition of the Presidency The Presidency shall consist of the President and the Vice-President, who shall be served by Ministers, Special Advisers and such other persons as the President may appoint as well as such staff members from the public service as may be appointed for that purpose in accordance with the laws regulating appointments in the public service. The Governing Board of the Central Bank shall consist of a Governor, Deputy-Governors and such other members of the Board as shall be prescribed by Act of Parliament, and all members of the Board shall be appointed by the President in accordance with procedures prescribed by such Act of Parliament. keywords: act; article; commission; constitution; hereof; law; members; namibia; national assembly; national council; parliament; president; service; service commission; sub cache: Namibia.txt plain text: Namibia.txt item: #119 of 458 id: Nauru author: Nauru title: Nauru date: None words: 13157 flesch: 51 summary: Whereas every person in Nauru is entitled to the fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual, that is to say, has the right, whatever his race, place of origin, political opinions, colour, creed or sex, but subject to respect for the rights and freedoms of others and for the public interest, to each and all of the following freedoms, namely:- life, liberty, security of the person, the enjoyment of property and the protection of the law; freedom of conscience, of expression and of peaceful assembly and association; and respect for his private and family life, the subsequent provisions of this Part have effect for the purpose of affording protection to those rights and freedoms, subject to such limitations of that protection as are contained in those provisions, being limitations designed to ensure that the enjoyment of those rights and freedoms by a person does not prejudice the rights and freedoms of other persons or the public interest. Nothing contained in or done under the authority of a law shall be held to be inconsistent with or in contravention of the provisions of clause (1.) of this Article to the extent that that law makes provision- for the taking of possession or acquisition of any property- in satisfaction of a tax; by way of penalty for breach of the law or forfeiture in consequence of breach of the law; as an incident of a lease, tenancy, mortgage, charge, bill of sale, pledge or contract; in the execution of a judgment or order of a court in proceedings for the determination of civil rights or obligations; in circumstances where it is reasonably necessary so to do because the property is in a dangerous state or is injurious to the health of human beings, animals or plants; or in consequence of any law with respect to the limitation of actions; or for the taking of possession or acquisition of any of the following property:- property of a deceased person, a person of unsound mind or a person who has not attained the age of twenty years, for the purpose of administering it for the benefit of the person entitled to the beneficial interest in that property; property of a person adjudged bankrupt or insolvent or of a body corporate in liquidation, for the purpose of administering it for the benefit of the creditors of the bankrupt or insolvent or body corporate and, subject thereto, for the benefit of other persons entitled to the beneficial interest in the property; property subject to a trust, for the purpose of vesting the property in persons appointed as trustees under the instrument creating the trust or by a court or, by order of a court, for the purpose of giving effect to the trust; and property held by a body corporate established by law for public purposes. keywords: article; clause; court; law; nauru; office; parliament; person; public cache: Nauru.txt plain text: Nauru.txt item: #120 of 458 id: Nepal author: Nepal title: Nepal date: None words: 49692 flesch: 40 summary: Vacation of seat of Provincial Assembly member The seat of a member of the Provincial Assembly shall deemed to be vacant in the following circumstances: if she/he submits resignation to the Speaker of the Provincial Assembly, if she/he does not, or has ceased to, possess the qualifications pursuant to Article 178, if the term of the Provincial Assembly expires or is dissolved, if she/he remains absent from ten consecutive meetings without notification to the Provincial Assembly, if the party of which she/he was a member when elected provides notification in the manner set out by provincial law that she/he has left the party, or if she/he dies. Courts to exercise powers related to justice Powers relating to justice in Nepal shall be exercised by courts and other judicial institutions in accordance with the provisions of this Constitution, other laws and recognized principles of justice. keywords: act; article; assembly; chairperson; chief; clause; commission; constitution; council; court; election; federal; government; head; house; law; members; minister; national; national assembly; nepal; office; parliament; person; president; province; right; service; state cache: Nepal.txt plain text: Nepal.txt item: #121 of 458 id: Netherlands author: Netherlands title: Netherlands date: None words: 9244 flesch: 55 summary: Article 101 (Lapsed in accordance with Kingdom Act of 10 July 1995, Bulletin of Acts and Decrees, 401) Article 102 (Lapsed in accordance with Kingdom Act of 22 June 2000, Bulletin of Acts and Decrees, 294) Article 103 The cases in which a state of emergency, as defined by Act of Parliament, may be declared by Royal Decree in order to maintain internal or external security shall be specified by Act of Parliament. Article 108 (Lapsed in accordance with Kingdom Act of 25 February 1999, Bulletin of Acts and Decrees, 133) Article 109 The legal status of public servants shall be regulated by Act of Parliament. keywords: act; article; general; house; king; kingdom act; parliament; states cache: Netherlands.txt plain text: Netherlands.txt item: #122 of 458 id: New_Zealand author: New Zealand title: New_Zealand date: None words: 185286 flesch: 32 summary: The Tribunal shall cause a sealed copy of its findings and recommendation (if any) with regard to any claim to be served on— the claimant: the Minister of Maori Affairs and such other Ministers of the Crown as in the opinion of the Tribunal have an interest in the claim: such other persons as the Tribunal thinks fit. Nothing in this section shall confer any jurisdiction on the Tribunal in respect of any Bill that has been introduced into the House of Representatives unless the Bill has been referred to the Tribunal pursuant to section 8. Service of decision The Tribunal shall cause a sealed copy of its decision and recommendations (if any) with regard to any application under section 8HE to be served on— the applicant; and the Minister within the meaning of section 4 of the Cadastral Survey Act 2002; and the Minister of Maori Affairs; and the Minister for State Owned Enterprises and the Minister of Finance; and such other persons as the Tribunal thinks fit. keywords: act; amendment act; appeal; application; ballot; candidate; case; commission act; court; court act; court judge; court rules; day; district court; election; electoral commission; general; high; information; information act; member; new zealand; notice; officer; order; party; party secretary; period; person; proceedings; purposes; registrar; relation; respect; return; rights act; roll; section; section 51c; shall; subsection; supreme court; time; tribunal; zealand court cache: New_Zealand.txt plain text: New_Zealand.txt item: #123 of 458 id: Nicaragua author: Nicaragua title: Nicaragua date: None words: 20841 flesch: 41 summary: The laws may be derogated or amended only by other laws and go into effect from the day of their publication in La Gaceta, the Official Gazette, except when these themselves establish another modality. Foreigners have the same rights and duties as Nicaraguans, with the exception of political rights and other rights established by law; they may not intervene in the political affairs of the country. keywords: article; constitution; council; electoral; functions; general; justice; law; laws; members; national assembly; nicaragua; office; president; republic; rights; shall; state; supreme; vice president cache: Nicaragua.txt plain text: Nicaragua.txt item: #124 of 458 id: Niger author: Niger title: Niger date: None words: 14667 flesch: 44 summary: After the expiration of the time period established in the preceding paragraph, if the legislative elections are not organized, the dissolved National Assembly is rehabilitated of plain right. It is composed of: two (2) notable persons [personnalités] with a great professional experience in juridical or administrative matters[,] of which one (1) is proposed by the President of the Republic and one (1) is proposed by the Bureau of the National Assembly; two (2) magistrates elected by their peers[,] of which one (1) is of the first grade and one (1) is of the second [grade]; one (1) lawyer with at least ten (10) years of exercise [of the profession], elected by his peers; one (1) professor-researcher holder [titulaire] of a doctorate in public law, elected by his peers; one (1) representative of the associations of defense of human rights and of promotion of democracy, holder at least of a diploma of the third cycle in public law, elected by the [singular] or the [plural] collectives of these associations. keywords: article; council; court; functions; government; law; members; minister; national assembly; president; prime; republic; respect; rights; state cache: Niger.txt plain text: Niger.txt item: #125 of 458 id: Nigeria author: Nigeria title: Nigeria date: None words: 65741 flesch: 19 summary: K. National Security Council The National Security Council shall comprise the following members- the President who shall be the Chairman; the Vice-President who shall be the Deputy Chairman; the Chief of Defence Staff; the Minister of the Government of the Federation charged with the responsibility for internal affairs; the Minister of the Government of the Federation charged responsibility for defence; the Minister of the Government of the Federation charged with the responsibility for foreign affairs; the National Security Adviser; the Inspector-General of Police; and such other persons as the President may in his discretion appoint. â��National Assemblyâ�� means the Senate and the House of Representatives established by this Constitution; â��oathâ�� includes affirmation; â��Oath of Allegianceâ�� means the Oath of Allegiance prescribed in the Seventh Schedule to this Constitution; keywords: act; appeal; appointment; assembly election; capital; commission; constitution; council; court; election; federal; federation; functions; government; governor; house; judicial; law; member; national assembly; national electoral; nigeria; office; person; president; provisions; public; respect; section; senate; service; sharia court; state; subject; subsection; supreme court; territory; � � cache: Nigeria.txt plain text: Nigeria.txt item: #126 of 458 id: Norway author: Norway title: Norway date: None words: 7400 flesch: 55 summary: Article 14 The King may appoint State Secretaries to assist Members of the Council of State with their duties outside the Council of State. Article 15 Any person who holds a seat in the Council of State has the duty to submit his application to resign once the Storting has passed a vote of no confidence against that Member of the Council of State or against the Council of State as a whole. keywords: article; council; king; law; right; state; storting cache: Norway.txt plain text: Norway.txt item: #127 of 458 id: Oman author: Oman title: Oman date: None words: 7562 flesch: 50 summary: Article 58bis 39 His Majesty the Sultan may promulgate Royal Decrees that have the force of law between the sessions of Majlis Oman and while Majlis Al Shura is dissolved and the sessions of Majlis Al Dawla are suspended. If the Royal Family Council does not agree on a choice of a Sultan for the Country, the Defence Council together with the Chairman of Majlis Al Dawla, the Chairman of Majlis Al Shura, and the Chairman of the Supreme Court along with two of his most senior deputies, shall instate the person designated by His Majesty the Sultan in his letter to the Royal Family Council. keywords: al dawla; al shura; article; article 58bis; law; majlis al; state; sultan cache: Oman.txt plain text: Oman.txt item: #128 of 458 id: Pakistan author: Pakistan title: Pakistan date: None words: 57109 flesch: 39 summary: The Provisions of this Article shall not apply to- any law relating to members of the Armed Forces, or of the police or of such other forces as are charged with the maintenance of public order, for the purpose of ensuring the proper discharge of their duties or the maintenance of discipline among them; or any of the - laws specified in the First Schedule as in force immediately before the commencing day or as amended by any of the laws specified in that Schedule; other laws specified in Part I of the First Schedule; and no such law nor any provision thereof shall be void on the ground that such law or provision is inconsistent with, or repugnant to, any provision of this Chapter. Every citizen, not being in the service of Pakistan, shall have the right to form or be a member of a political party, subject to any reasonable restrictions imposed by law in the interest of the sovereignty or integrity of Pakistan and such law shall provide that where the Federal Government declares that any political party has been formed or is operating in a manner prejudicial to the sovereignty or integrity of Pakistan, the Federal Government shall, within fifteen days of such declaration, refer the matter to the Supreme Court whose decision on such reference shall be final. keywords: act; article; assembly; chief; clause; constitution; court; day; federal; government; judge; law; majlis; member; minister; national assembly; office; pakistan; parliament; person; president; province; provincial; shoora; supreme court cache: Pakistan.txt plain text: Pakistan.txt item: #129 of 458 id: Palau author: Palau title: Palau date: None words: 7900 flesch: 44 summary: No increase in compensation shall apply to the members of the Olbiil Era Kelulau during the term of enactment, nor may an increase in compensation be enacted in the period between the date of a regular general election and the date a new Olbiil Era Kelulau takes office. Section 3 Citizens may enact or repeal national laws, except appropriations, by initiative. keywords: constitution; era kelulau; government; law; olbiil; palau; president; section; state cache: Palau.txt plain text: Palau.txt item: #130 of 458 id: Palestine author: None title: Palestine date: None words: 8381 flesch: 46 summary: Article 47bis The term of the current Legislative Council shall terminate when the members of the new elected Council take the constitutional oath. Article 53 Council Members may not be questioned in civil or criminal proceedings due to opinions they express, facts they mention, their voting in Council sessions or committee meetings, or because of any action they undertake outside the Council in the course of performing their parliamentary duties. keywords: article; council; law; legislative; minister; national authority; palestinian; palestinian national; president cache: Palestine.txt plain text: Palestine.txt item: #131 of 458 id: Panama author: Panama title: Panama date: None words: 25664 flesch: 34 summary: Ordinary laws need only the approval of a majority of National Assembly members present during the corresponding sessions. The capacity, recognition and regulation of these companies and other juridical persons shall be determined by Panamanian law. keywords: accordance; article; assembly; authority; branch; constitution; court; electoral; executive; following; functions; general; law; members; national; national assembly; order; president; public; republic; state; state article cache: Panama.txt plain text: Panama.txt item: #132 of 458 id: Papua_New_Guinea author: Papua New Guinea title: Papua_New_Guinea date: None words: 70904 flesch: 28 summary: The National Government and the Bougainville Government shall consult over the results of the Referendum Subject to the consultation referred to Subsection (1), the Minister responsible for the Bougainville Referendum shall take the results of the Referendum in the National Parliament and the Speaker of the National Parliament shall furnish to the Bougainville Executive a copy of the minutes of the relevant proceedings and of any decision made in the National Parliament regarding the Referendum. 343. BOUGAINVILLE GOVERNMENT SERVICES The Bougainville Constitution may make provision for Bougainville Government Services being – a Bougainville Public Service; and Bougainville Police; and a Bougainville Correctional Service; and such other Bougainville Government Services as may be necessary, in accordance with this Part, and may provide for Bougainville laws to make further provision in respect of Bougainville Government Services. keywords: accordance; act; bougainville constitution; bougainville court; bougainville government; bougainville law; commission; constitutional; court; division; emergency law; functions; general; guinea; law; minister; national; national court; national executive; new; office; papua; parliament; person; powers; provision; public; state; subject; subsection cache: Papua_New_Guinea.txt plain text: Papua_New_Guinea.txt item: #133 of 458 id: Paraguay author: Paraguay title: Paraguay date: None words: 27546 flesch: 46 summary: Of the Duties and of the Attributions [The following] are duties and attributions of the Congress: to see to the observance of this Constitution and of the laws; to dictate the codes and other laws, to modify them or repeal them, by interpreting this Constitution; to establish the political division of the territory of the Republic, as well as the regional, departmental and municipal organizations; to legislate on tax matters; to sanction annually the law of the General Budget of the Nation; to dictate the electoral law; to determine the legal regime of the sale and that of the acquisition of the fiscal, departmental and municipal assets; to issue internal resolutions and agreements, as well as to formulate declarations, in accordance with their faculties; to approve or to reject the treaties and other international agreements signed by the Executive Power; to approve or to reject the contracting of loans; to authorize, for a determined time, concessions for the exploitation of national or multinational public services or of the assets of the State, as well as for the extraction and transformation of solid, liquid and gaseous minerals; to dictate laws for the organization of the administration of the Republic, for the creation of decentralized entities [entes] and for the ordering [ordenamiento] of the public credit; to issue laws of emergency in the case of disaster or of public calamity; to receive the constitutional oath or promise of the President of the Republic, of the Vice President and of the other functionaries, in accordance with that established in this Constitution; to receive from the President of the Republic, a report on the general situation of the country, on his administration and on the plans of government; in the form provided for in this Constitution; To accept or to reject the resignation of the President of the Republic and that of the Vice President; to provide [prestar] the agreements and to effect the appointments that this Constitution prescribes, as well as the designations of representatives of the Congress to other organs of the State; to grant amnesties; to decide on the transfer of the Capital of the Republic to another point of the national territory, by an absolute majority of two-thirds of the members of each Chamber; to approve or reject, totally or partially and [with] prior report from the Comptroller General of the Republic, the detail and the justification of the income and expenses of the public finances concerning the budgetary execution; to regulate river, maritime, air, and space navigation, and the other duties and attributions specified by this Constitution. Section II. [personas juridicas] of public law. keywords: article; attributions; case; chamber; congress; constitution; duties; executive; exercise; functions; general; justice; law; majority; members; national; persons; power; president; republic; right; state; time cache: Paraguay.txt plain text: Paraguay.txt item: #134 of 458 id: Peoples_Republic_of_Korea author: None title: Peoples_Republic_of_Korea date: None words: 9166 flesch: 41 summary: Article 140 The local People’s Assembly has the following duties and authority to: deliberate and approve the local plan for the development of the national economy and the report on its implementation; deliberate and approve the local budget and the report on its implementation; adopt measures to observe State laws in the area concerned; elect or recall the Chairman, Vice-Chairmen, Secretary and members of the People’s Committee at the corresponding level; elect or recall the Judges and People’s Assessors of the Court at the corresponding level; rescind unwarranted decisions and directives of the People’s Committee at the corresponding level and the People’s Assemblies and People’s Committees at lower levels. Article 156 The functions of the Public Prosecutors Office are to: ensure the strict observance of State laws by institutions, enterprises, organizations and citizens; ensure that the decisions and directives of State bodies conform with the Constitution, the laws, ordinances and decisions of the Supreme People’s Assembly, the orders of the Chairman of the State Affairs Commission of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, the decisions and directives of the State Affairs Commission, the decrees, decisions and directives of the Presidium of the Supreme People’s Assembly, and the decisions and directives of the Cabinet; identify and institute legal proceedings against criminals and offenders in order to protect the State power of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, the socialist system, the property of the State and social, cooperative organizations, personal rights as guaranteed by the Constitution and the people’s lives and property. keywords: article; assembly; assembly article; kim; korea; republic; state; state affairs; supreme people cache: Peoples_Republic_of_Korea.txt plain text: Peoples_Republic_of_Korea.txt item: #135 of 458 id: Peru author: Peru title: Peru date: None words: 18830 flesch: 46 summary: Article 20 Professional associations are autonomous institutions recognized by public law. Article 82 The Office of the Comptroller General is a decentralized body of public law that enjoys autonomy in accordance with its organic act. keywords: accordance; article; board; branch; budget; congress; constitution; court; election; general; law; members; national; office; president; public; regional; republic; right; state cache: Peru.txt plain text: Peru.txt item: #136 of 458 id: Philippines author: Philippines title: Philippines date: None words: 21654 flesch: 42 summary: Such law shall take effect only upon its ratification by the people in a national referendum. PRINCIPLES PRINCIPLES Sec 1 The Philippines is a democratic and republican State. keywords: citizens; commission; congress; constitution; court; election; government; house; law; members; national; office; philippines; president; public; representatives; rights; sec; state; supreme; years cache: Philippines.txt plain text: Philippines.txt item: #137 of 458 id: Poland author: Poland title: Poland date: None words: 19828 flesch: 44 summary: Article 60 Polish citizens enjoying full public rights shall have a right of access to the public service based on the principle of equality. Limitations upon such rights may be established by statute. keywords: article; constitution; council; ministers; office; poland; president; republic; right; sejm; state; statute; tribunal cache: Poland.txt plain text: Poland.txt item: #138 of 458 id: Portugal author: Portugal title: Portugal date: None words: 35208 flesch: 39 summary: Powers of the autonomous regions The autonomous regions shall be territorial bodies corporate and shall possess the following powers, which shall be defined in their statutes: To legislate within the ambit of the region on such matters as are set out in the political and administrative statute of the region in question and are not the exclusive responsibility of bodies that exercise sovereign power; Subject to authorisation by the Assembly of the Republic, to legislate on matters that fall within that Assembly's partially exclusive responsibility to legislate, with the exception of the matters provided for in Article 165(1)a to c, the first part of subparagraph d, subparagraphs f and i, the second part of subparagraph m and subparagraphs o, p, q, s, t, v, x and aa; Within the ambit of the region, to develop the principles or the basic general elements of the legal rules contained in laws that limit themselves to the said principles or basic general elements; To regulate regional legislation and such laws issued by bodies that exercise sovereign power as do not reserve the power to regulate the laws themselves to the said bodies; To initiate statutes and to initiate legislation concerning the election of members of the respective Legislative Assemblies pursuant to Article 226; To initiate legislation in accordance with Article 167(1), by submitting regional government bills and draft amendments thereto to the Assembly of the Republic; To exercise their own executive power; To administer and dispose of their assets and to undertake such acts and enter into such contracts as may be in their interest; To exercise their own power to tax as laid down by law, as well as to adapt the national fiscal system to the specificities of the region under the terms of framework laws passed by the Assembly of the Republic; The President of the Republic shall not refuse to enact such laws. keywords: administrative; article; assembly; bodies; constitution; court; economic; exercise; general; government; law; laws; means; members; national; office; portuguese; power; president; regions; republic; right; rules; state cache: Portugal.txt plain text: Portugal.txt item: #139 of 458 id: Qatar author: Qatar title: Qatar date: None words: 6895 flesch: 53 summary: Article 77 The Advisory Council consists of forty-five (45) members. Article 81 The term of the Council is four (4) calendar years effective the date of its first session. keywords: article; council; law; members; prince; session; state cache: Qatar.txt plain text: Qatar.txt item: #140 of 458 id: Republic_of_Korea author: None title: Republic_of_Korea date: None words: 8820 flesch: 45 summary: The constituencies of members of the National Assembly, proportional representation and other matters pertaining to National Assembly elections shall be determined by law. Article 65 In case the President, the Prime Minister, members of the State Council, heads of Executive Ministries, judges of the Constitution Court, judges, members of the Central Election Management Committee, members of the Board of Audit and Inspection, and other public officials designated by law have violated the Constitution or other laws in the performance of official duties, the National Assembly may pass motions for their impeachment. keywords: article; citizens; constitution; court; law; members; national assembly; president; state cache: Republic_of_Korea.txt plain text: Republic_of_Korea.txt item: #141 of 458 id: Romania author: Romania title: Romania date: None words: 14328 flesch: 49 summary: The following matters are regulated by organic law: the electoral system; the organization and functioning of the Permanent Electoral Authority; the organization, functioning and financing of political parties; the status of the Deputies and Senators, the determination of their compensation and other rights; the organization and holding of a referendum; the organization of the Government and of the Supreme Council of National Defense; the state of partial or total mobilization of the Armed Forces, and the state of war; the state of siege and emergency; criminal offenses, penalties and the execution thereof; the granting of amnesty or collective pardon; the status of public servants; the jurisdiction of administrative courts; the organization and functioning of the High Council of the Judiciary, the courts of law, the Public Ministry and the Court of Auditors; the general principles of property and inheritance law; the general organization of education; the organization of the local public administration, of the territory, as well as the general principles of local autonomy; the general rules concerning labor relations, trade unions, employers' associations, and social protection; the status of national minorities in Romania; the general rules dealing with religious cults; the other fields for which the Constitution stipulates the enactment of organic laws. Universality All citizens enjoy the rights and freedoms granted to them by the Constitution and other laws and have the duties stipulated by them. keywords: accordance; article; chamber; citizens; court; deputies; government; law; parliament; president; public; right; romania; state cache: Romania.txt plain text: Romania.txt item: #142 of 458 id: Russia author: Russia title: Russia date: None words: 13469 flesch: 28 summary: The names Russian Federation and Russia are equivalent. The Russian Federation shall ensure the integrity and inviolability of its territory. keywords: article; constituent; constitution; federal; government bodies; law; oblast; president; right; russian federation; state duma; state government cache: Russia.txt plain text: Russia.txt item: #143 of 458 id: Rwanda author: Rwanda title: Rwanda date: None words: 14343 flesch: 46 summary: This duty is exercised in accordance with this Constitution and other laws. Respect of the Constitution and other laws Every Rwandan has the duty to respect the Constitution and the other laws of the country. keywords: article; cabinet; chamber; constitution; law; national; office; parliament; president; republic; right; state cache: Rwanda.txt plain text: Rwanda.txt item: #144 of 458 id: Samoa author: Samoa title: Samoa date: None words: 18661 flesch: 39 summary: Duty of Controller and Auditor General to report to Legislative Assembly Subject to clause (2), the Controller and Auditor General shall: report, at least once annually and at such other times as may be provided by Act, to the Legislative Assembly - on the results of all audits conducted under this Part or by Act; and draw attention to any irregularities in the accounts, transactions, processes, systems or operations of the Treasury Fund or of a public fund, pubic account, Ministry, office or body audited by the Controller and Auditor General under Article 97A(2); and report generally and at least once annually to the Legislative Assembly on the performance of his or her functions, duties and powers under this Part or by Act and the operations of the Audit Office. Subject to the provisions of this Part, the Judges of the Court of Appeal shall be: the Chief Justice and the other Judges of the Supreme Court: such persons, possessing the qualifications prescribed under the provisions of clause (3) of Article 65, as may be appointed from time to time by the Head of State, acting on the advice of the Judicial Service Commission. keywords: act; assembly; clause; court; head; minister; office; person; provisions; samoa; state cache: Samoa.txt plain text: Samoa.txt item: #145 of 458 id: Sao_Tome_and_Principe author: Sao Tome and Principe title: Sao_Tome_and_Principe date: None words: 12745 flesch: 41 summary: Foreigners in São Tomé and Príncipe The foreigners and displaced persons who reside or find themselves in São Tomé and Príncipe enjoy the same rights and are subject to the same obligations as the Sao Tomean citizen, except insofar as are concerned political rights, the exercise of public functions and other rights and obligations expressly reserved by law for the national citizen. Referendum proposals that are rejected by the President of the Republic or are voted against by the electorate cannot be repeated in the same legislative session, unless a new National Assembly is elected, or until the Government is dismissed. keywords: article; citizens; constitution; court; government; law; laws; members; national assembly; president; republic; right; state cache: Sao_Tome_and_Principe.txt plain text: Sao_Tome_and_Principe.txt item: #146 of 458 id: Saudi_Arabia author: Saudi Arabia title: Saudi_Arabia date: None words: 6807 flesch: 54 summary: Article 39 Mass media, publication facilities and other means of expression shall function in a manner that is courteous and fair and shall abide by State laws. Article 13 Shura Council term shall be four Hijri years, effective from the specified date in the Royal Decree issued for its formation. keywords: article; council; interior; king; law; minister; province; royal; state cache: Saudi_Arabia.txt plain text: Saudi_Arabia.txt item: #147 of 458 id: Senegal author: Senegal title: Senegal date: None words: 10008 flesch: 48 summary: Article 38 The office [charge] of the President of the Republic is incompatible with the membership in any elective assembly, National Assembly or local assemblies, and with the exercise of any remunerated function, public or private. Article 63 With the exception of the date of the opening of the first session of the newly elected National Assembly, which is established by the President of the Republic, the National Assembly establishes the date of opening and the duration of the sole [unique] session of the National Assembly. keywords: article; council; law; members; minister; national assembly; president; republic; right; state cache: Senegal.txt plain text: Senegal.txt item: #148 of 458 id: Serbia author: None title: Serbia date: None words: 19952 flesch: 46 summary: Right to rehabilitation and compensation Any person deprived of liberty, detained or convicted for a criminal offense without grounds or unlawfully shall have the right to rehabilitation and compensation of damage by the Republic of Serbia, as well as other rights stipulated by the law. Foreigners may obtain a concession right for natural resources and goods, as well as other rights stipulated by the Law. Article 86. keywords: accordance; article; constitution; court; government; law; national assembly; office; republic; right; serbia; state cache: Serbia.txt plain text: Serbia.txt item: #149 of 458 id: Seychelles author: Seychelles title: Seychelles date: None words: 37951 flesch: 22 summary: A law referred to in clause (2) shall not provide for the taking of measures that are inconsistent with which articles 15, 16, 17, 18 (3) 19 (2) to (6) and (11), 21 and 27. Where a law referred to in clause (2) provides for the detention of persons provision shall be made in the law- that, as soon as is reasonably practicable and in any case not more than seven days after the commencement of the detention, the person detained shall be furnished with a statement in writing, in, as far as is practicable, a language that the person understands, specifying in detail the grounds upon which the person is detained; that not more than seven days after the commencement of the detention, a notice shall be published in the Gazette and a local daily newspaper of wide circulation in Seychelles stating the name of the person detained and the particulars of the law under which the detention was made; that not more than a month after the detention and thereafter at intervals of not more than three months the detention of the person shall be reviewed by an independent and impartial tribunal appointed by the President from candidates proposed by the Constitutional Appointments Authority for this purpose; that the person detained shall be entitled to choose and be afforded reasonable facilities to consult a legal practitioner, to appear, in person or through the legal practitioner, before the tribunal, and that were the law so provides the services of the legal practitioner shall be at public expense; that the person detained shall be released forthwith if the tribunal reviewing the detention is satisfied that it is not reasonably necessary or expedient for the purpose of the emergency to continue with the detention; where the tribunal reviewing the detention of a person does not order the release of the person the tribunal may make recommendation to the authority detaining the person concerning the necessity or expediency of continuing with the detention and a copy of the recommendation shall be served on the person detained. Every person has a right not to be subjected- without the consent of that person, to the search of the person or property or premises of that person or to the lawful entry by others on the premises of that person; without the consent of the person or an order of the Supreme Court, to the interception of the correspondence or other means of communication of that person either written, oral or through any medium. Anything contained in or done under the authority of any law shall not be held to be inconsistent with or in contravention of clause (1) (a) to the extent that the law in question makes provision- that is reasonably required in the interest of defence, public safety, public order, public morality, public health, the administration of Government, town and country planning, nature conservation and the economic development and well-being of the country; that is reasonably required for the purpose of protecting the rights or freedoms of other persons; that authorises an officer or agent of the Government or a local authority, or a body corporate established by law for public purposes, to enter on the premises of any person in order to inspect or value those premises or anything therein for the purpose of any tax, rate, due or duty or in order to carry out work connected with any property that is lawfully on those premises and that belongs to the Government or that authority or body corporate, as the case may be; or that authorises, for the purpose of enforcing of the judgment or order of a court in any civil proceedings, the search of any person or property by order of a court or the entry upon any premises by such order; except so far as that provision or, as the case may be, the thing done under the authority thereof is shown not to be necessary in a democratic society. keywords: act; appeal; article; assembly election; authority; clause; constitution; court; functions; ile; law; member; national assembly; office; person; president; public; right; seychelles; speaker; subject cache: Seychelles.txt plain text: Seychelles.txt item: #150 of 458 id: Sierra_Leone author: Sierra Leone title: Sierra_Leone date: None words: 43632 flesch: 26 summary: Ministers and Deputy Ministers of Government There shall be, in addition to the office of Vice-President, such other offices of Ministers and Deputy Ministers as may be established by the President: Provided that no Member of Parliament shall be appointed a Minister or Deputy Minister. The provisions of this section shall not apply in relation to any of the following offices— the office of any Justice of the Supreme Court or of the Court of Appeal or a Judge of the High Court; the office of the Director of Public Prosecutions; the office of Auditor-General; any office to which section 141 (which relates to offices within the jurisdiction of the Judicial and Legal Service Commission) applies; any office to which section 153 (which relates to the offices of Ambassadors and certain offices) applies; any office to which section 154 (which relates to the offices of Permanent Secretaries and certain other offices) applies; and any office the remuneration of which is calculated on a daily rate: Provided that the power of transfer vested in the Public Service Commission under subsection (5) may be exercised in the case of persons holding any of the offices specified in this subsection where such persons express their consent in writing to such transfer. keywords: authority; commission; constitution; court; justice; law; member; office; parliament; person; president; provisions; public; section; shall; sierra leone; subsection; supreme court cache: Sierra_Leone.txt plain text: Sierra_Leone.txt item: #151 of 458 id: Singapore author: Singapore title: Singapore date: None words: 47303 flesch: 28 summary: 22M. Determination by Election Judge that President was not duly elected or election of President was void Where the Election Judge in the exercise of his jurisdiction under Article 93A determines— that the election of the President was void and does not determine that any other person was duly elected, then, a poll for the election of the President shall be taken not later than 6 months from the date of the determination; or that any other person was duly elected as President, then, such other person shall assume the office of President forthwith after the determination. Where provision is made by law limiting the time within which proceedings of any description may be brought against any person, the period of time during which such person holds office as President shall not be taken into account in calculating any period of time prescribed by that law. keywords: article; clause; council; government; law; member; minister; office; parliament; person; president; public; service; service commission; shall; singapore cache: Singapore.txt plain text: Singapore.txt item: #152 of 458 id: Slovakia author: Slovakia title: Slovakia date: None words: 19786 flesch: 40 summary: Judges of Slovak Republic courts appointed to their posts according to present legal regulations are regarded as appointed to their posts according to this Constitution, without any time limit. The Slovak Republic recognizes and honors general rules of international law, international treaties by which it is bound and its other international obligations. keywords: article; council; court; decision; government; law; national council; president; republic article; rights; slovak national; slovak republic; state cache: Slovakia.txt plain text: Slovakia.txt item: #153 of 458 id: Slovenia author: Slovenia title: Slovenia date: None words: 11004 flesch: 49 summary: Right to Rehabilitation and Compensation Any person unjustly convicted of a criminal offence or deprived of his liberty without due cause has the right to rehabilitation and compensation, and other rights provided by law. The protection of copyright and other rights deriving from artistic, scientific, research and invention activities shall be guaranteed. keywords: article; court; government; law; national assembly; office; president; republic; rights; state cache: Slovenia.txt plain text: Slovenia.txt item: #154 of 458 id: Socialist_Republic_of_Vietnam author: None title: Socialist_Republic_of_Vietnam date: None words: 11349 flesch: 36 summary: Sixty days before the end of its tenure, a new National Assembly shall have been elected. The Vice-Chairmen of the National Assembly shall assist the Chairman in the fulfillment of his duties as required by him. keywords: article; committee; government; law; national assembly; people; standing; state; state organs; state president; supreme people; vietnam cache: Socialist_Republic_of_Vietnam.txt plain text: Socialist_Republic_of_Vietnam.txt item: #155 of 458 id: Solomon_Islands author: Solomon Islands title: Solomon_Islands date: None words: 33151 flesch: 27 summary: Before tendering advice to the Governor-General under subsections (1) and (3) of this section, the Speaker shall consult with the leaders and members of the opposition groups and such other persons as he deems appropriate, and before tendering advice under subsections (2) and (4) of this section, the Speaker shall consult with the leaders and members of the independent groups and such other persons as he deems appropriate. Rules of court There shall be a Rules Committee, consisting of the Chief Justice, the President of the Court of Appeal and the Attorney-General (who shall constitute a quorum) and such other persons as the Governor-General, acting after consultation with the Chief Justice, may appoint, which may make rules of court regulating the practice and procedure of the High Court and the Court of Appeal, prescribing the fees to be paid in respect of any proceeding and generally for making provision for the proper and effectual exercise of the jurisdiction of the High Court and the Court of Appeal, including the procedure for the making and hearing of appeals to the High Court from subordinate courts and for the making and hearing of appeals to the Court of Appeal from the High Court: Provided that rules regulating the admission of legal practitioners to practise as barristers and solicitors or in either of these capacities, or prescribing or affecting the amount of any fees or the recovery thereof, shall not come into operation unless approved, either before or after being made, by Parliament. keywords: commission; constitution; court; general; governor; law; member; office; parliament; person; public; section; service commission; solomon islands; subsection cache: Solomon_Islands.txt plain text: Solomon_Islands.txt item: #156 of 458 id: Somalia author: Somalia title: Somalia date: None words: 21005 flesch: 39 summary: The mandate of the National Independent Electoral Commission includes: The conduct of presidential elections; The conduct of Federal Parliament elections; The continuous registration of voters and revision of the voter's roll; The registration of candidates for elections; The delimitation of constituencies and wards; The regulation of the political party system; The settlement of electoral disputes; The facilitation of the observation, monitoring and evaluation of elections; The regulation of money spent by an elected candidate or party in respect of any election; The development of an electoral code of conduct for its candidates and parties; The monitoring of compliance with legislation on nomination of candidates by parties; Voter education. Notwithstanding Clauses 1 and 2 of this Article, the Federal Parliament shall enact a law providing detailed laws for the interaction between the Federal Government level courts and the Federal Member States courts. keywords: article; commission; constitution; federal republic; government; house; law; member; member states; national; parliament; parliament article; people; person; president; rights; somalia cache: Somalia.txt plain text: Somalia.txt item: #157 of 458 id: South_Africa author: South Africa title: South_Africa date: None words: 44439 flesch: 34 summary: Conflicts between national and provincial legislation This section applies to a conflict between national legislation and provincial legislation falling within a functional area listed in Schedule 4. National legislation that applies uniformly with regard to the country as a whole prevails over provincial legislation if any of the following conditions is met: National legislation must prescribe- the form of national, provincial and municipal budgets; when national and provincial budgets must be tabled; and that budgets in each sphere of government must show the sources of revenue and the way in which proposed expenditure will comply with national legislation. keywords: act; bill; constitution; court; deputy; executive; functions; government; legislation; legislature; members; national assembly; national council; person; president; province; public; republic; schedule; section; subsection; terms cache: South_Africa.txt plain text: South_Africa.txt item: #158 of 458 id: South_Sudan author: None title: South_Sudan date: None words: 26207 flesch: 37 summary: INTERIM PROVISIONS 94 The Southern Sudan Legislative Assembly shall adopt and pass the Transitional Constitution of the Republic of South Sudan, 2011, and it shall thereafter transform itself into South Sudan National Legislative Assembly. The President shall appoint: All the Ninety six South Sudanese who were elected from South Sudan to the National Assembly of the Republic of Sudan to become members of South Sudan National Legislative Assembly; The President shall appoint such additional number of members not exceeding sixty-six. keywords: accordance; assembly; commission; constitution; council; functions; government; law; legislative; legislative assembly; levels; members; ministers; national; national legislative; people; president; public; rights; service; south sudan; state cache: South_Sudan.txt plain text: South_Sudan.txt item: #159 of 458 id: Spain author: Spain title: Spain date: None words: 17827 flesch: 45 summary: Drafting of Bills Section 81 Organic acts are those relating to the implementation of fundamental rights and public freedoms, those approving the Statutes of Autonomy and the general electoral system and other laws provided for in the Constitution. Section 155 If a Self-governing Community does not fulfil the obligations imposed upon it by the Constitution or other laws, or acts in a way that is seriously prejudicial to the general interest of Spain, the Government, after having lodged a complaint with the President of the Self-governing Community and failed to receive satisfaction therefore, may, following approval granted by the overall majority of the Senate, take all measures necessary to compel the Community to meet said obligations, or to protect the abovementioned general interest. keywords: accordance; act; authorities; case; communities; congress; constitution; cortes; exercise; generales; government; law; members; right; section; self; state cache: Spain.txt plain text: Spain.txt item: #160 of 458 id: Sri_Lanka author: Sri Lanka title: Sri_Lanka date: None words: 62740 flesch: 28 summary: The arrest, holding in custody, detention or other deprivation of personal liberty of a person, by reason of a removal order or a deportation order made under the provisions of the Immigrants and Emigrants Act or the Indo-Ceylon Agreement (Implementation) Act, No. 14 of 1967, or such other law as may be enacted in substitution therefor, shall not be a contravention of this Article. 41F. Continuation in office of the members of the Council Notwithstanding the expiration of the term of office of the members of the Council or of the members of any Commission specified in the Schedule to Article 41B, the members of the Council or of such other Commission shall continue in office until the assumption of office by the new members of the Council or of such other Commission. keywords: appeal; article; commission; constitution; council; court; date; election; election commission; lanka; law; member; minister; national; office; paragraph; parliament; person; police commission; powers; president; provincial; provisions; public; service commission; shall; sri; sri lanka; supreme court cache: Sri_Lanka.txt plain text: Sri_Lanka.txt item: #161 of 458 id: St_Kitts_and_Nevis author: None title: St_Kitts_and_Nevis date: None words: 45624 flesch: 23 summary: The functions of the office of Supervisor of Elections shall be exercised either by the person holding or acting in such public office as may for the time being be designated in that behalf by the Governor-General or, if the Governor-General so decides, by such other person who is not a public officer as may for the time being be so designated. Constituency Boundaries Commission There shall be for Saint Christopher and Nevis a Constituency Boundaries Commission (hereinafter in this section referred to as the Commission) which shall consist of- a chairman appointed by the Governor-General, acting in accordance with the advice of the Prime Minister given after the Governor-General has consulted the Leader of the Opposition and such other persons as the Governor-General, acting in his own deliberate judgment, has seen fit to consul; two members of the National Assembly appointed by the Governor-General, acting in accordance with the advice of the Prime Minister; and two members of the Assembly appointed by the Governor-General, acting in accordance with the advice of the Leader of the Opposition: provided that the chairman shall not be a member of the Assembly or of the Nevis Island Assembly. keywords: assembly; court; general; governor; island assembly; law; member; national assembly; nevis; nevis island; office; person; public; section; subsection cache: St_Kitts_and_Nevis.txt plain text: St_Kitts_and_Nevis.txt item: #162 of 458 id: St_Lucia author: None title: St_Lucia date: None words: 39358 flesch: 14 summary: Any person who has been appointed to an office established by this Constitution (other than an office to which subsection (1) or (2) of this section applies) or any office of Minister established under this Constitution may resign that office by writing under his hand addressed to the person or authority by whom he was appointed and the resignation shall take effect, and the office shall accordingly become vacant- at such time or on such date (if any) as may be specified in the writing; or when the writing is received by the person or authority to whom it is addressed or by such other person as may be authorised to receive it, whichever is the later: Provided that the resignation may be withdrawn before it takes effect if the person or authority to whom the resignation is addressed consents to its withdrawal. There shall be, in addition to the office of Prime Minister, such other offices of Minister of the Government as may be established by Parliament or, subject to the provisions of any law enacted by Parliament, by the Governor-General, acting in accordance with the advice of the Prime Minister. keywords: commission; constitution; court; functions; general; governor; house; law; member; office; person; public; section; subsection cache: St_Lucia.txt plain text: St_Lucia.txt item: #163 of 458 id: St_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines author: None title: St_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines date: None words: 32463 flesch: 19 summary: The functions of the office of Supervisor of Elections shall be exercised either by the person holding or acting in such public office as may for the time being be designated in that behalf by the Public Service Commission or, if the Commission so decides, by such other person who is not a public officer as may for the time being be so designated, but before exercising its powers under this subsection the Commission shall consult with the Prime Minister. Any person who has been appointed to an office established by this Constitution (other than an office to which subsection (1) or (2) of this section applies) or any office of Minister established under this Constitution may resign that office by writing under his hand addressed to the person or authority by whom he was appointed and the resignation shall take effect, and the office shall accordingly become vacant-- at such time or on such date (if any) as may be specified in the writing; or when the writing is received by the person or authority to whom it is addressed or by such other person as may be authorised to receive it, whichever is the later: Provided that the resignation may be withdrawn before it takes effect if the person or authority to whom the resignation is addressed consents to its withdrawal. 104. keywords: constitution; court; general; governor; house; law; office; person; public; section; shall; subsection cache: St_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines.txt plain text: St_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines.txt item: #164 of 458 id: Sudan author: Sudan title: Sudan date: None words: 7706 flesch: 39 summary: Procedural Immunity Criminal procedures may not be taken against any member of the Sovereignty Council, Cabinet, Transitional Legislative Council or governors of provinces/states without receiving the necessary permission to lift immunity from the Legislative Council. Transitional Legislative Council 24. keywords: accordance; forces; law; members; rights; sovereignty council; state; transitional cache: Sudan.txt plain text: Sudan.txt item: #165 of 458 id: Surinam author: None title: Surinam date: None words: 12139 flesch: 46 summary: Article 118 The manner of promulgation of laws and state decrees and the moment at which they became effective shall be regulated by law. Article 103 Agreements with other powers and with organizations based on international law shall be concluded by, or by authority of, the President and shall be, insofar as the agreements require, ratified by the President. keywords: article; assembly article; council; district; government; law; national assembly; president; promise; right; section; state; suriname cache: Surinam.txt plain text: Surinam.txt item: #166 of 458 id: Swaziland author: Swaziland title: Swaziland date: None words: 47016 flesch: 38 summary: Resignations Save or as otherwise provided in this Constitution, any person who has been appointed to any office established by this Constitution may resign from that office by letter under his hand addressed to the person or authority by whom he was appointed, and the resignation shall take effect and the office shall accordingly become vacant - at such time or on such date (if any) as may be specified in the writing or; subject to subsection (2), when the letter is received by the person or authority to whom it is addressed or by such other person as may be authorised by that person or authority to receive it. A person who is unlawfully arrested or detained by any other person shall be entitled to compensation from that other person or from any other person or authority on whose behalf that other person was acting. keywords: authority; bill; constitution; court; functions; government; house; king; law; member; minister; office; parliament; person; provisions; public; section; service commission; subject; subsection; swaziland cache: Swaziland.txt plain text: Swaziland.txt item: #167 of 458 id: Sweden author: Sweden title: Sweden date: None words: 59521 flesch: 46 summary: If two or more persons are to be elected by secret ballot, the seats are distributed proportionately among all the groups of Riksdag members participating in the election under a particular designation. Supplementary provision 7.4.2 At a proportional election, the ballot paper shall designate in words a particular group of Riksdag members. keywords: apply; art; article; authority; case; chamber; chapter; committee; decision; election; freedom; government; government art; information; law; law art; matter; members; paragraph; person; provisions; public; riksdag; riksdag act; speaker cache: Sweden.txt plain text: Sweden.txt item: #168 of 458 id: Switzerland author: Switzerland title: Switzerland date: None words: 19121 flesch: 49 summary: Agreements between Cantons must not be contrary to the law, to the interests of the Confederation or to the rights of other Cantons. Federal Council The Federal Council is the supreme governing and executive authority of the Confederation. keywords: art; assembly; cantons; confederation; constitution; council; duties; education; federal; federal assembly; insurance; law; measures; national; people; person; right; tax; vote cache: Switzerland.txt plain text: Switzerland.txt item: #169 of 458 id: Syria author: Syria title: Syria date: None words: 8138 flesch: 39 summary: The State shall guarantee the independence of these bodies and the right to exercise public control and participation in various sectors and councils defined in laws; in areas which achieve their objectives, and in accordance with the terms and conditions prescribed by law. This has formed the incentive to accomplish this Constitution as the basis for strengthening the rule of law. keywords: arab republic; article; assembly; law; members; people; president; republic; state cache: Syria.txt plain text: Syria.txt item: #170 of 458 id: Taiwan author: Taiwan title: Taiwan date: None words: 11172 flesch: 43 summary: Should more than one-half of the total number of Legislative Yuan members uphold the original bill, the president of the Executive Yuan shall immediately accept the said bill. With the signatures of more than one-third of the total number of Legislative Yuan members, the Legislative Yuan may propose a no-confidence vote against the president of the Executive Yuan. keywords: article; control yuan; executive yuan; law; legislative; legislative yuan; members; national; president; vice president; yuan cache: Taiwan.txt plain text: Taiwan.txt item: #171 of 458 id: Tajikistan author: Tajikistan title: Tajikistan date: None words: 8247 flesch: 45 summary: A member of Majlisi Milli and a deputy of Majlisi Namoyandagon after being appointed or elected takes an oath before the people of Tajikistan at a session of Majlisi Milli and Majlisi Namoyandagon. The number of members of Majlisi Milli and deputies of Majlisi Namoyandagon, the procedure of their election or appointment shall be determined by the constitutional law. keywords: article; law; majlisi milli; majlisi namoyandagon; president; republic; state; tajikistan cache: Tajikistan.txt plain text: Tajikistan.txt item: #172 of 458 id: Tanzania author: Tanzania title: Tanzania date: None words: 34609 flesch: 29 summary: Such person possesses or has voluntarily acquired citizenship of any other country- such person possesses or voluntarily acquires the citizenship of any other country; in accordance with a law applicable in the United Republic it has been formally certified that such person is of unsound mind; such person has been convicted by any court in the United Republic and sentenced to death or to a term of imprisonment exceeding six months for any offence however styled involving dishonesty; within a period of five years preceding the date of a general election such person has been convicted and sentenced to imprisonment for an offence involving dishonesty or for contravening the law concerning ethics of public leaders; without prejudice to a person's right and freedom to hold his own views, to profess a religious faith of his choice, to associate with others and to participate in community work in accordance with the laws of the land, no person shall be qualified to be elected to the office of President of the United Republic if he is not a member of, and a candidate proposed by, a political party; such person has an interest in any Government contract of any kind in respect of which special restrictions are prescribed by Act of Parliament and he has contravened such restrictions; such person holds a senior office in the service of the Government of the United Republic, not being an office of which the President may or is required to appoint a Member of Parliament in accordance with this Constitution or a law enacted by Parliament; or in accordance with a law enacted by Parliament dealing with offences concerning election of any kind such person has been disqualified from registering as a voter or from voting in a Parliamentary election. Person’s freedom of association Every person has a freedom, to freely and peaceably assemble, associate and cooperate with other persons, express views publicly and to form and join with associations or organisations formed for purposes of preserving or furthering his beliefs or interests or any other interests. keywords: accordance; article; constitution; court; government; law; national assembly; office; parliament; person; president; provisions; united republic cache: Tanzania.txt plain text: Tanzania.txt item: #173 of 458 id: Thailand author: Thailand title: Thailand date: None words: 43967 flesch: 22 summary: In the case where a Regent is appointed, the President of the National Assembly shall countersign the Royal Command therefor. Section 17 In the case where the King does not appoint a Regent under section 16 or is unable to appoint a Regent owing to His not being sui juris or any other reason whatsoever, but the Privy Council is of the opinion that it is necessary to appoint a Regent and is unable to inform the King to make an appointment in due course, the Privy Council shall propose the name of one person or several persons forming a council sequentially from those determined in advance by the King to be Regent and notify the President of the National Assembly to make an announcement, in the name of the King, to appoint such person as Regent. Section 18 No person shall be subject to a criminal punishment unless he or she has committed an act which the law in force at the time of commission provides to be an offence and prescribe a punishment therefor, and the punishment to be imposed on such person shall not be of greater severity than that provided by law in force at the time of the commission of the offence. keywords: act; case; constitution; council; court; date; duties; election; house; law; members; national assembly; paragraph; person; president; representatives; section; senate; state cache: Thailand.txt plain text: Thailand.txt item: #174 of 458 id: Togo author: Togo title: Togo date: None words: 10520 flesch: 49 summary: Article 92 The proposals or bills of organic laws are submitted to the deliberation and to the vote of the National Assembly at the expiration of a time period of fifteen (15) days after their deposit. [In the name of the Togolese people] and for the inscription, République Togolaise [Togolese Republic]. keywords: article; council; court; government; law; members; national assembly; president; republic; right; state cache: Togo.txt plain text: Togo.txt item: #175 of 458 id: Tonga author: Tonga title: Tonga date: None words: 12217 flesch: 51 summary: Freedom of petition All people shall be free to send letters or petitions to the King or Legislative Assembly and to meet and consult concerning matters about which they think it right to petition the King or Legislative Assembly to pass or repeal enactments provided that they meet peaceably without arms and without disorder. Power of Legislative Assembly The King and the Legislative Assembly shall have power to enact laws, and the representatives of the nobles and the representatives of the people shall sit as one House. keywords: assembly; clause; constitution; court; king; law; lawful; minister; person; prime cache: Tonga.txt plain text: Tonga.txt item: #176 of 458 id: Trinidad_and_Tobago author: Trinidad and Tobago title: Trinidad_and_Tobago date: None words: 31520 flesch: 32 summary: Subsection (1) and subsections (3) to (11) apply to the office of Auditor General and to such other offices as may be prescribed. Subsections (5) to (11) apply to the office of Ombudsman, a member of the Elections and Boundaries Commission, a member of the Integrity Commission, a member of a Service Commission other than the Police Service Commission, a member of the Salaries Review Commission and to such other offices as may be prescribed. keywords: house; minister; office; person; president; public; representatives; section; senate; service commission; subsection; tobago; trinidad cache: Trinidad_and_Tobago.txt plain text: Trinidad_and_Tobago.txt item: #177 of 458 id: Tunisia author: Tunisia title: Tunisia date: None words: 12577 flesch: 42 summary: Article 62 Legislative initiative is carried out with legislative propositions made by no less than ten members, or with draft laws submitted by the President of the Republic, or by the Head of Government. Draft laws presented by the President or the Head of Government shall be given priority. keywords: article; assembly; government; law; members; people; president; representatives; republic; state cache: Tunisia.txt plain text: Tunisia.txt item: #178 of 458 id: Turkey author: Turkey title: Turkey date: None words: 31808 flesch: 41 summary: The functions of the Presidential Council shall be as follows: To examine laws adopted by the Grand National Assembly of Turkey and submitted to the President of the Republic concerning: the fundamental rights and freedoms and duties set forth in the Constitution, the principle of secularism, the preservation of the reforms of Atatürk, national security and public order, the Turkish Radio and Television Corporation, international treaties, the sending of armed forces to foreign countries and the admission of foreign forces in Turkey, emergency rule, martial law and the state of war, and other laws deemed necessary by the President of the Republic, within the first ten days of the period of fifteen days granted to the President of the Republic for his consideration; On the request of the President of the Republic and within the period specified by him: To consider and give an opinion on matters relating to the renewal of general elections, the exercise of emergency rule and the measures to be taken during a state of emergency, the management and supervision of the Turkish Radio and Television Corporation, the training of the youth and the conduct of religious affairs; According to the request of the President of the Republic, to consider and investigate matters relating to internal or external security and such other matters deemed necessary, and to submit its findings to the President of the Republic. PROVISIONAL ARTICLE 8 Laws relating to the formation, duties, powers and functioning of the new organs, institutions and agencies established under the Constitution and other laws whose introduction or amendment is provided for in the Constitution, shall be enacted during the period of Constituent Assembly, starting from the date of the adoption of the Constitution; laws that cannot be dealt with during this period shall be enacted within the year following the first session of the newly elected Grand National Assembly of Turkey. keywords: act; article; constitution; council; court; elections; general; grand; judges; law; members; national assembly; number; office; president; principles; provisions; public; republic; right; security; state; turkey cache: Turkey.txt plain text: Turkey.txt item: #179 of 458 id: Turkmenistan author: Turkmenistan title: Turkmenistan date: None words: 7398 flesch: 45 summary: Article 110 Halk maslahaty in the respective territory shall: it participates in organizing the implementation of the programmes of economic, social and cultural development; approve the local budget and report on its performance; contribute in law enforcement and maintaining public order, protection of rights and legal interests of citizens; hear reports from heads of local executive bodies on the implemented activities in the areas of economic, social and cultural development of the territory; deal with other issues assigned by Turkmenistan law to the competition of Halk maslahaty. Preamble We, the people of Turkmenistan, based on our inalienable right to determine our destiny; keywords: article; citizens; constitution; law; mejlis; president; right; state; turkmenistan cache: Turkmenistan.txt plain text: Turkmenistan.txt item: #180 of 458 id: Tuvalu author: Tuvalu title: Tuvalu date: None words: 33498 flesch: 35 summary: The Speaker shall do his best to ensure that- proceedings in Parliament are conducted at all times with dignity, decorum and politeness; and abusive, unnecessarily violent or otherwise objectionable language is not used in Parliament; and Parliamentary privilege is not abused by the making of unnecessary personal attacks on other members of Parliament or other persons, or in any other manner. Nothing in or done under a law shall be considered to be inconsistent with this section to the extent that the law makes provision which is reasonably required- in the interests of- defence; or public safety; or public order; or public morality; or public health; or for the purpose of protecting the rights or freedoms of other persons, including the right to observe and practise any religion or belief without the unsolicited intervention of members of any other religion or belief. keywords: accordance; act; constitution; court; functions; general; law; minister; office; parliament; person; prime; public; section; state; subject; subsection; tuvalu cache: Tuvalu.txt plain text: Tuvalu.txt item: #181 of 458 id: Uganda author: Uganda title: Uganda date: None words: 50464 flesch: 43 summary: Where a person is arrested in respect of a criminal offence- the person is entitled to apply to the court to be released on bail and the court may grant that person bail on such conditions as the court considers reasonable; in the case of an offence which is triable by the High Court as well as by a subordinate court, if that person has been remanded in custody in respect of the offence for sixty days before trial, that person shall be released on bail on such conditions as the court considers reasonable; in the case of an offence triable only by the High Court, if that person has been remanded in custody for one hundred and eighty days before the case is committed to the High Court, that person shall be released on bail on such conditions as the court considers reasonable; A person unlawfully arrested, restricted or detained by any other person or authority, shall be entitled to compensation from that other person or authority whether it is the State or an agency of the State or other person or authority. The salary, allowances, privileges and retirement benefits and other conditions of service of a judicial officer or other person exercising judicial power, shall not be varied to his or her disadvantage. keywords: article; authority; chief; clause; constitution; council; court; deputy; district; following; force; functions; general; government; hill; justice; law; line; member; office; parliament; parliament parliament; person; president; provisions; public; service commission; speaker; state; subject; supreme court; uganda cache: Uganda.txt plain text: Uganda.txt item: #182 of 458 id: Ukraine author: Ukraine title: Ukraine date: None words: 21525 flesch: 37 summary: Article 81 The authority of National Deputies of Ukraine terminates simultaneously with the termination of authority of the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine. Article 94 The Chairman of the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine signs a law and forwards it without delay to the President of Ukraine. keywords: authority; bodies; constitution; council; court; law; laws; national; office; president; procedure; rada; right; state; ukraine; ukraine article cache: Ukraine.txt plain text: Ukraine.txt item: #183 of 458 id: United_Arab_Emirates author: United Arab Emirates title: United_Arab_Emirates date: None words: 10288 flesch: 48 summary: Article 95 The UAE has a Federal Supreme Court and federal first instance courts as provided in the following articles. PART I. PRINCIPLES AND OBJECTIVES Article 1 The United Arab Emirates is an independent, sovereign, and federal state hereinafter referred to as (“the UAE”). keywords: article; constitution; federal; federal supreme; fnc; law; ministers; president; supreme council; uae cache: United_Arab_Emirates.txt plain text: United_Arab_Emirates.txt item: #184 of 458 id: United_Kingdom author: United Kingdom title: United_Kingdom date: None words: 227990 flesch: 39 summary: Referendum about commencement of Assembly Act provisions Her Majesty may by Order in Council cause a referendum to be held throughout Wales about whether the Assembly Act provisions should come into force. Effect on Measures of commencement of Assembly Act provisions Part 3 ceases to have effect on the day on which the Assembly Act provisions come into force. keywords: act; act provisions; appeal act; appeal court; applies; assembly act; assembly commission; assembly government; assembly measure; assembly member; assembly proceedings; council; court; court act; court rules; court security; crown court; effect; european court; exercise; functions; general; high; house; ireland act; ireland assembly; ireland court; ireland minister; judge; justice act; legislation; lord; lord chancellor; lord chief; lord justice; majesty; matter; means; members; minister; northern ireland; office; order; paragraph; parliament; period; person; power; provision; public; purposes; reference; reform act; relation; rights act; schedule; scottish; secretary; section; shall; state; subject; subsection; supreme court; time; wales act; welsh assembly; welsh ministers cache: United_Kingdom.txt plain text: United_Kingdom.txt item: #185 of 458 id: United_States_of_America author: United States of America title: United_States_of_America date: None words: 7835 flesch: 42 summary: Section 3 New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the Junction of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the Consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behaviour, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Compensation, which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office. Section 2 The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority;-to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public ministers and Consuls;-to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction;-to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party;-to Controversies between two or more States;-between a State and Citizens of another State;-between Citizens of different States;-between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects. keywords: amendment; congress; house; law; office; president; section; united states; vice president cache: United_States_of_America.txt plain text: United_States_of_America.txt item: #186 of 458 id: Uruguay author: Uruguay title: Uruguay date: None words: 30077 flesch: 37 summary: Constitutional laws may not be vetoed by the Executive Power and shall take effect as soon as the electorate specially convoked on the date specified in such laws shall have expressed their approval by an absolute majority of the votes cast and they shall be promulgated by the President of the General Assembly. Article 35 No one shall be compelled to render aid of any kind to the army, or to permit his house to be used for the billeting of troops except by order of a civil magistrate according to law, and in such cases he shall receive from the Republic indemnification for loss that may be incurred. keywords: article; assembly; case; chamber; chapter; departmental; executive; general; law; majority; members; membership; office; power; president; provisions; republic; services; tribunal; vote cache: Uruguay.txt plain text: Uruguay.txt item: #187 of 458 id: Uzbekistan author: Uzbekistan title: Uzbekistan date: None words: 384 flesch: 48 summary: Any seizure of powers belonging to state authority, suspension or termination of activity of the bodies of state authority contrary to the procedure prescribed by the Constitution, as well as the formation of any new or parallel bodies of state authority shall be regarded as unconstitutional and punishable by law. Its foreign policy shall be based on the principles of sovereign equality of the states, non-use of force or threat of its use, inviolability of frontiers, peaceful settlement of disputes, non-interference in the internal affairs of other states, and other universally recognized norms of international law. keywords: uzbekistan cache: Uzbekistan.txt plain text: Uzbekistan.txt item: #188 of 458 id: Vanuatu author: Vanuatu title: Vanuatu date: None words: 9241 flesch: 49 summary: Every proposed bill and every proposed regulation or other instrument having the force of law relating to the registration of electors for the election of members of Parliament, the Malvatumauri Council of Chiefs, provincial government and municipal councils or to the election of such members shall be referred to the Commission and to the Principal Electoral Officer at such time as shall give them sufficient opportunity to make comments on it before the bill is introduced in Parliament or, as the case may be, before the regulation or instrument is made. Subject to such conditions or restrictions as may be prescribed by Parliament, every citizen of Vanuatu who is at least 18 years of age shall be entitled to vote. keywords: council; members; minister; parliament; president; republic; shall; vanuatu cache: Vanuatu.txt plain text: Vanuatu.txt item: #189 of 458 id: Yemen author: Yemen title: Yemen date: None words: 11915 flesch: 47 summary: If in extraordinary circumstances elections cannot be held, the existing House shall continue to function until such circumstances are over and elections are duly held. Internal regulations determine the conditions under which the House may hold meetings outside the capital city. keywords: article; council; government; house; house representatives; law; members; ministers; national; president; representatives; republic; state cache: Yemen.txt plain text: Yemen.txt item: #190 of 458 id: Zambia author: Zambia title: Zambia date: None words: 37573 flesch: 34 summary: Nothing contained in or done under the authority of any law shall be held to be inconsistent with or in contravention of clause (1) to the extent that it is shown that such law provides for the taking possession or acquisition of any property or interest therein or right thereover— in satisfaction of any tax, rate or due; by way of penalty for breach of any law, whether under civil process or after conviction of an offence; in execution of judgements or orders of courts; upon the attempted removal of the property in question out of or into Zambia in contravention of any law; as an incident of a contract including a lease, tenancy, mortgage, charge, pledge or bill of sale or of a title deed to land; for the purpose of its administration, care or custody on behalf of and for the benefit of the person entitled to the beneficial interest therein; by way of the vesting of enemy property or for the purpose of the administration of such property; for the purpose of— the administration of the property of a deceased person, a person of unsound mind or a person who has not attained the age of eighteen years, for the benefit of the persons entitled to the beneficial interest therein; the administration of the property of a person adjudged bankrupt or a body corporate in liquidation, for the benefit of the creditors of such bankrupt or body corporate and, subject thereto, for the benefit of other persons entitled to the beneficial interest in the property; the administration of the property of a person who has entered into a deed of arrangement for the benefit of his creditors; or vesting any property subject to a trust in persons appointed as trustees under the instrument creating the trust or by a court or, by order of a court, for the purpose of giving effect to the trust; in consequence of any law relating to the limitation of actions; in terms of any law relating to abandoned, unoccupied, unutilised or undeveloped land, as defined in such law; in terms of any law relating to absent or non-resident owners, as defined in such law, of any property; in terms of any law relating to trusts or settlements; by reason of the property in question being in a dangerous state or prejudicial to the health or safety of human beings, animals or plants; as a condition in connection with the granting of permission for the utilisation of that or other property in any particular manner; for the purpose of or in connection with the prospecting for or exploitation of, minerals belonging to the Republic on terms which provide for the respective interests of the persons affected; in pursuance of a provision of the marketing of property of that description in the common interests of the various persons otherwise entitled to dispose of that property; by way of the taking of a sample for the purposes of any law; by way of acquisition of the shares, or a class of shares, in a body corporate on terms agreed to by the holders of not less than nine-tenths in value of those shares or that class of shares; where the property consists of an animal, upon its being found trespassing or straying; for so long as may be necessary for the purpose of any examination, investigation, trial or inquiry or, in the case of the land, the carrying out thereon— of work for the purpose of the conservation of natural resources or any description; or of agricultural development or improvement which the owner or occupier of the land has been required, and has without reasonable and lawful excuse refused or failed, to carry out; where the property consists of any licence or permit; where the property consists of wild animals existing in their natural habitat or the carcasses of wild animals; where the property is held by a body corporate established by law for public purposes and in which no moneys have been invested other than moneys provided by Parliament; where the property is any mineral, mineral oil or natural gases or any rights accruing by virtue of any title or licence for the purpose of searching for or mining any mineral, mineral oil or natural gases— upon failure to comply with any provision of such law relating to the title or licence or to the exercise of the rights accruing or to the development or exploitation of any mineral, mineral oil or natural gases; or in terms of any law vesting any such property or rights in the President; for the purpose of the administration or disposition of such property or interest or right by the President in implementation of a comprehensive land policy or of a policy designed to ensure that the statute law, the Common Law and the doctrines of equity relating to or affecting the interest in or rights over land, or any other interests or right enjoyed by Chiefs and persons claiming through and under them, shall apply with substantial uniformity throughout Zambia; in terms of any law providing for the conversion of titles to land from freehold to leasehold and the imposition of any restriction on subdivision, assignment or sub-letting; in terms of any law relating to— the forfeiture or confiscation of the property of a person who has left Zambia for the purpose or apparent purpose, of defeating the ends of justice; the imposition of a fine on, and the forfeiture or confiscation of the property of, a person who admits a contravention of any law relating to the imposition or collection of any duty or tax or to the prohibition or control of dealing or transactions in gold, currencies, or securities. Nothing contained in or done under the authority of any law shall be held to be inconsistent with or in contravention of this Article to the extent that it is shown that the law in question makes provision— that is reasonably required in the interests of defence, public safety, public order, public morality, public health, town and country planning, the development and utilisation of mineral resources, or in order to secure the development or utilisation of any property for a purpose beneficial to the community; that is reasonably required for the purpose of protecting the rights or freedoms of other persons; that authorises an officer or agent of the Government, a local government authority or a body corporate established by law for a public purpose to enter on the premises or anything thereon for the purpose of any tax, rate or due or in order to carry out work connected with any property that is lawfully on those premises and that belongs to that Government, authority, or body corporate, as the case may be; or that authorises, for the purpose of enforcing the judgement or order of a court in any civil proceedings, the search of any person or property by order of a court or entry upon any premises by such order; and except so far as that provision or, as the case may be, anything done under the authority thereof is shown not to be reasonably justified in a democratic society. keywords: accordance; article; authority; clause; commission; commission article; constitution; court; election; functions; general; government; law; national assembly; office; parliament; person; president; public; service; service commission; zambia cache: Zambia.txt plain text: Zambia.txt item: #191 of 458 id: Zimbabwe author: Zimbabwe title: Zimbabwe date: None words: 53686 flesch: 32 summary: Limitation of rights and freedoms The fundamental rights and freedoms set out in this Chapter must be exercised reasonably and with due regard for the rights and freedoms of other persons. Electoral Law An Act of Parliament must provide for the conduct of elections and referendums to which this Constitution applies, and in particular for the following matters-- the periodic delimitation of constituencies and wards in accordance with section 161; the registration of voters, and requirements for registration on particular voters' rolls; a code of conduct for political parties, candidates and other persons participating in elections or referendums; a system of proportional representation for the election of persons to the seats in the Senate referred to in section 120(1)(a) and the seats reserved for women in the National Assembly referred to in section 124(1)(b), and the procedure for filling vacancies in those seats, which vacancies must be filled by persons-- belonging to the same political parties as those who previously held the seats; and of the same gender as the persons who previously held the seats; the election of representatives of persons with disabilities under section 120(1)(d); the conduct of elections to provincial and metropolitan councils and local authorities; challenges to election results. keywords: act; constitution; court; functions; general; law; members; minister; national; national assembly; office; parliament; parliament parliament; person; president; public; section; senate; service commission; state; zimbabwe cache: Zimbabwe.txt plain text: Zimbabwe.txt item: #192 of 458 id: blog-a-few-last-minute-notes author: blog title: A few last minute notes… | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 366 flesch: 57 summary: See you at Genesis! Previous post Next post Subscribe to Protocol Announcements Sign up to receive email notifications for protocol-related announcements, such as network upgrades, FAQs or security issues. We'll let the community come to a consensus on what it is (as there could be multiple blocks #1028201 on the testnet, while it undergoes a re-org, or multiple re-orgs). keywords: protocol cache: blog-a-few-last-minute-notes.html plain text: blog-a-few-last-minute-notes.txt item: #193 of 458 id: blog-a-message-from-stephan-tual author: blog title: A message from Stephan Tual | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 312 flesch: 41 summary: A message from Stephan Tual | Ethereum Foundation Blog EF Blog Search Skip to contentCategories R&D Research & Development Events Events Org Organizational ESP Ecosystem Support Program ETH.org Ethereum.org Sec Security NxBn Next Billion Protocol Protocol Announcements Languages Search A message from Stephan Tual Posted by Stephan Tual on September 3, 2015 Organizational To the wonderful Ethereum Community, You often heard me say at conferences that Ethereum was not a company, a foundation, an implementation, or an individual. Sign up Ethereum Foundation • Ethereum.org • ESP • Bug Bounty Program • Do-not-Track • Archive Categories Research & Development • Events • Organizational • Ecosystem Support Program • Ethereum.org • Security • Next Billion • Protocol Announcements keywords: ethereum cache: blog-a-message-from-stephan-tual.html plain text: blog-a-message-from-stephan-tual.txt item: #194 of 458 id: blog-advanced-contract-programming-example-schellingcoin author: blog title: Advanced Contract Programming Example: SchellingCoin | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 3879 flesch: 59 summary: contract.storage[3] = create('quicksort_pairs.se') code: HASHES = 2^160 VALUES = 2^170 The first code block sets contract storage index 0 to the current block number at initialization time, and then creates a quicksort contract and saves that in storage index 3. We then hash the sender and value together, and if the hash matches then we save the result in another place in contract storage; an alternative approach is to use one single starting storage location and simply have four slots per hash instead of three. keywords: code; contract; hash; value cache: blog-advanced-contract-programming-example-schellingcoin.html plain text: blog-advanced-contract-programming-example-schellingcoin.txt item: #195 of 458 id: blog-announcement-on-planned-exodus-withdrawal author: blog title: Announcement on planned withdrawal from exodus | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 754 flesch: 34 summary: Individuals who have contributed loans to the project will receive repayment in BTC directly; we will not be selling any portion of this 2650 BTC on exchanges ourselves, although individuals may choose to independently convert the BTC that they receive into fiat after the fact. Individuals also have the choice of taking the repayment in ether; in those cases, we will simply not send the BTC, and once all repayments have been processed we will publish all of the additional ETH that has been sold in this way (note that this is equivalent to sending individuals their BTC and letting the recipients send it right back into the exodus). keywords: btc; development cache: blog-announcement-on-planned-exodus-withdrawal.html plain text: blog-announcement-on-planned-exodus-withdrawal.txt item: #196 of 458 id: blog-announcing-eπ-ethereum-on-raspberry-pi-programme author: blog title: Announcing eπ: Ethereum on Raspberry Pi Programme | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 411 flesch: 55 summary: Announcing eπ: Ethereum on Raspberry Pi Programme | Ethereum Foundation Blog EF Blog Search Skip to contentCategories R&D Research & Development Events Events Org Organizational ESP Ecosystem Support Program ETH.org Ethereum.org Sec Security NxBn Next Billion Protocol Protocol Announcements Languages Search Announcing eπ: Ethereum on Raspberry Pi Programme Posted by Gavin Wood on May 14, 2015 Research & Development As part of our drive to introduce Ethereum to the far corners of the world, not to mention demonstrate the potential for embedded blockchain technology (even without light-nodes) I'm happy to announce the roll-out of our eπ Ethereum-on-Raspberry Pi programme. Sign up Ethereum Foundation • Ethereum.org • ESP • Bug Bounty Program • Do-not-Track • Archive Categories Research & Development • Events • Organizational • Ecosystem Support Program • Ethereum.org • Security • Next Billion • Protocol Announcements keywords: ethereum; programme cache: blog-announcing-eπ-ethereum-on-raspberry-pi-programme.html plain text: blog-announcing-eπ-ethereum-on-raspberry-pi-programme.txt item: #197 of 458 id: blog-announcing-new-foundation-board-executive-director author: blog title: Announcing the New Foundation Board and Executive Director | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 747 flesch: 35 summary: VADIM DAVID LEVITIN Vadim worked on technology issues in twenty-three countries on behalf of the United Nations. Sign up Ethereum Foundation • Ethereum.org • ESP • Bug Bounty Program • Do-not-Track • Archive Categories Research & Development • Events • Organizational • Ecosystem Support Program • Ethereum.org • Security • Next Billion • Protocol Announcements keywords: board; ethereum; foundation; technology cache: blog-announcing-new-foundation-board-executive-director.html plain text: blog-announcing-new-foundation-board-executive-director.txt item: #198 of 458 id: blog-another-ethereum-dev-update author: blog title: Another Ethereum ÐΞV Update | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1683 flesch: 53 summary: The default in clients (easily overridden) is not to mine on such chains (since to do so would be a waste of energy), but rather to inform the user that they should upgrade at their earliest opportunity. We are aiming to have all clients through at least a basic auditing process by the Homestead release and I see no reason to use the Go client over other clients (C++ or Python) at this stage, nor, for the vast majority of users, during Frontier. keywords: c++; chain; core; ethereum; protocol cache: blog-another-ethereum-dev-update.html plain text: blog-another-ethereum-dev-update.txt item: #199 of 458 id: blog-applications-of-security-deposits-and-prediction-markets-you-might-not-have-thought-about author: blog title: Applications of Security Deposits and Prediction Markets You Might Not Have Thought About | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 2086 flesch: 44 summary: However, what if there was a third way to solve this problem, by using our favorite governance mechanism: prediction markets? Prediction markets have so far, including by myself, often been introduced as a governance mechanism that could one day be employed for very large-scale decisions: whether or not we should bail out the banks, hire or fire a particular CEO, or enter a particular trade agreement. The first major use of proof of work was Adam Back's Hashcash, a protocol that tries to fight email spam by making spam emails more expensive to generate. keywords: deposit; email; markets; prediction cache: blog-applications-of-security-deposits-and-prediction-markets-you-might-not-have-thought-about.html plain text: blog-applications-of-security-deposits-and-prediction-markets-you-might-not-have-thought-about.txt item: #200 of 458 id: blog-bazaar-services author: blog title: Bazaar Services | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1627 flesch: 51 summary: This is in stark contrast to when I was writing my degree dissertation open source software in the business environment, shortly after ESR wrote the Cathedral and the Bazaar, when Microsoft and its gigantic closed source codebase was the undisputed leader and there were but one or two serious examples of open source software being used commercially. It is no surprise that the rise of the internet with CVS, IRC, Usenet and mailing lists coincided with that of open source software. keywords: bazaar; development; services; software; source cache: blog-bazaar-services.html plain text: blog-bazaar-services.txt item: #201 of 458 id: blog-bitcoin-maximalism-currency-platform-network-effects author: blog title: On Bitcoin Maximalism, and Currency and Platform Network Effects | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 5264 flesch: 43 summary: On the other hand, however, currency network effects are another story, and may indeed prove to be a genuine advantage for Bitcoin-based sidechains over fully independent networks. Thus, we see that while currency network effects are sometimes moderately strong, and they will indeed exert a preference pressure in favor of Bitcoin over other existing cryptocurrencies, the creation of an ecosystem that uses Bitcoin exclusively is a highly suspect endeavor, and one that will lead to a total reduction and increased centralization of funding (as only the ultra-rich have sufficient concentrated incentive to be speculative philanthropists), closed doors in security (no more proof of stake), and is not even necessarily guaranteed to end with Bitcoin willing. keywords: bitcoin; blockchain; currencies; currency; effect; network; platform; protocol cache: blog-bitcoin-maximalism-currency-platform-network-effects.html plain text: blog-bitcoin-maximalism-currency-platform-network-effects.txt item: #202 of 458 id: blog-blockchain-scalability-chain-fibers-redux author: blog title: Blockchain Scalability: Chain-Fibers Redux | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1992 flesch: 51 summary: The Master Chain in maintained by a set of bonded Validators V, with the number of validators proportional to N. A random selection of validators validate each block produced, and validators ultimately vote to form consensus over the Master Chain. Transaction collators produce blocks (accepting fees from transactors), and pay Validators some of the fees collected to include the hash of their block in the main chain. keywords: block; fiber; state; transaction; validators cache: blog-blockchain-scalability-chain-fibers-redux.html plain text: blog-blockchain-scalability-chain-fibers-redux.txt item: #203 of 458 id: blog-bootstrapping-a-decentralized-autonomous-corporation-part-3-identity-corp author: blog title: Bootstrapping a Decentralized Autonomous Corporation, Part 3: Identity Corp | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 3157 flesch: 43 summary: Currently, government-based identity systems do not use this information too much because government identity documents follow a centralized parent-child model: you want a social insurance number, you need to provide your passport, you lost your passport, you provide a birth certificate and possibly change-of-name certificates if applicable. These tactics can perhaps be themselves corrected for, but ultimately relying solely or even largely on such mechanisms is a recipe for statistical warfare, not any kind of stable identity system. keywords: corporation; government; identity; network; system; world cache: blog-bootstrapping-a-decentralized-autonomous-corporation-part-3-identity-corp.html plain text: blog-bootstrapping-a-decentralized-autonomous-corporation-part-3-identity-corp.txt item: #204 of 458 id: blog-bootstrapping-a-decentralized-autonomous-corporation-part-i author: blog title: Bootstrapping A Decentralized Autonomous Corporation: Part I | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 2105 flesch: 49 summary: However, there is still hope in another solution; the general name given to this by cryptographers is “secure multiparty computation”. In secure multiparty computation, the inputs to a program (or, more precisely, the inputs to a simulated “circuit”, as secure multiparty computation cannot handle “if” statements and conditional looping) are split up using an algorithm calledShamir’s Secret Sharing, and a piece of the information is given to each participant. keywords: bitcoin; computation; corporation; key cache: blog-bootstrapping-a-decentralized-autonomous-corporation-part-i.html plain text: blog-bootstrapping-a-decentralized-autonomous-corporation-part-i.txt item: #205 of 458 id: blog-bootstrapping-an-autonomous-decentralized-corporation-part-2-interacting-with-the-world author: blog title: Bootstrapping An Autonomous Decentralized Corporation, Part 2: Interacting With the World | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 3309 flesch: 52 summary: Bootstrapping An Autonomous Decentralized Corporation, Part 2: Interacting With the World | Ethereum Foundation Blog EF Blog Search Skip to contentCategories R&D Research & Development Events Events Org Organizational ESP Ecosystem Support Program ETH.org Ethereum.org Sec Security NxBn Next Billion Protocol Protocol Announcements Languages Search Bootstrapping An Autonomous Decentralized Corporation, Part 2: Interacting With the World Posted by Vitalik Buterin on December 31, 2013 Research & Development In the first part of this series, we talked about how the internet allows us to create decentralized corporations, automatons that exist entirely as decentralized networks over the internet, carrying out the computations that keep them “alive” over thousands of servers. Thus, what we have seen here is that very significant challenges still remain before any kind of decentralized corporation can be viable. keywords: api; bitcoin; corporation; decentralized; network; price cache: blog-bootstrapping-an-autonomous-decentralized-corporation-part-2-interacting-with-the-world.html plain text: blog-bootstrapping-an-autonomous-decentralized-corporation-part-2-interacting-with-the-world.txt item: #206 of 458 id: blog-building-decentralized-web author: blog title: building the decentralized web 3.0 | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1369 flesch: 40 summary: the explosion of web services Taking a look back at the brief history of the web, most would agree that Web 1.0 was epitomized by CGI scripts generating templated content on a server and delivering it to the client in a final form. This was a clear model of monolithic centralization, however, this basic form of interactivity was a huge improvement over the basic post-and-read format that comprised much of internet content at that time. keywords: content; ethereum; internet; protocol; web cache: blog-building-decentralized-web.html plain text: blog-building-decentralized-web.txt item: #207 of 458 id: blog-call-bug-bounty-hunters author: blog title: A call to all the bug bounty hunters out there… | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 348 flesch: 53 summary: Previous post Next post Subscribe to Protocol Announcements Sign up to receive email notifications for protocol-related announcements, such as network upgrades, FAQs or security issues. Ethereum will launch following a world-class review by experts in IT security, cryptography and blockchain technology. keywords: bounty; program cache: blog-call-bug-bounty-hunters.html plain text: blog-call-bug-bounty-hunters.txt item: #208 of 458 id: blog-chain-reorganisation-depth-expectations author: blog title: Chain Reorganisation Depth Expectations | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 950 flesch: 49 summary: Chain reorganisations happen when a node on the Ethereum network (one which could belong to you, me, an exchange, a miner, whoever) realises that what it thought was the canonical chain turned out not to be. Indeed, many of the ommers (né uncles) that you see in Ethereum's network monitor were once assumed by some nodes to be the final block in canonical chain. keywords: chain; reorganisation cache: blog-chain-reorganisation-depth-expectations.html plain text: blog-chain-reorganisation-depth-expectations.txt item: #209 of 458 id: blog-conference-alpha-testnet-and-ether-pre-sale-updates author: blog title: Conference, Alpha Testnet and Ether Pre-sale Updates | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 519 flesch: 43 summary: This will give people an opportunity to get involved with the project and experiment with Ethereum scripts and contracts, and gain a better understanding of the technical properties of the Ethereum platform. A compiler from the Ethereum CLL to Ethereum script will be released very soon. keywords: ethereum; sale cache: blog-conference-alpha-testnet-and-ether-pre-sale-updates.html plain text: blog-conference-alpha-testnet-and-ether-pre-sale-updates.txt item: #210 of 458 id: blog-crypto-renaissance author: blog title: crypto renaissance | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 2367 flesch: 45 summary: As a thought experiment, if we would overlap today’s technological renaissance with the 14th-17th century renaissance we would observe the following: Introduced a new method for storing and distributing information in society Period marked by important technical achievements allowing a faster propagation of ideas Ignited experimentation and an intellectual revitalization Triggered paradigm shifts deepening our understanding of the world, ourselves and the universe Resulted in social, political and economic transformations If we draw the parallels we can see how information technologies enable positive growth within society since Mesopotamian ages. In this line of thinking, open source can be seen as a pattern of collaboration in itself, being part of a bigger pattern: open collaboration. keywords: information; innovation; internet; invention; society; technology cache: blog-crypto-renaissance.html plain text: blog-crypto-renaissance.txt item: #211 of 458 id: blog-cryptographic-code-obfuscation-decentralized-autonomous-organizations-are-about-to-take-a-huge-leap-forward author: blog title: Cryptographic Code Obfuscation: Decentralized Autonomous Organizations Are About to Take a Huge Leap Forward | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 2116 flesch: 47 summary: In the developed world, the hope is that there will be a massive reduction in the cost of setting up a new business, organization or partnership, and a tool for creating organizations that are much more difficult to corrupt. However, aside from that, obfuscation is powerful in another key way, and one which has profound consequences particularly in the field of cryptocurrencies and decentralized autonomous organizations: publicly running contracts can now contain private data. keywords: ethereum; key; obfuscation; organizations; program cache: blog-cryptographic-code-obfuscation-decentralized-autonomous-organizations-are-about-to-take-a-huge-leap-forward.html plain text: blog-cryptographic-code-obfuscation-decentralized-autonomous-organizations-are-about-to-take-a-huge-leap-forward.txt item: #212 of 458 id: blog-daos-are-not-scary-part-1-self-enforcing-contracts-and-factum-law author: blog title: DAOs Are Not Scary, Part 1: Self-Enforcing Contracts And Factum Law | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 2756 flesch: 58 summary: Smart contracts are an idea that has been around for several decades, but was given its current name and first substantially brought to the (cryptography-inclined) public’s attention by Nick Szabo in 2005. Nick Szabo uses the example of a vending machine: A canonical real-life example, which we might consider to be the primitive ancestor of smart contracts, is the humble vending machine. keywords: contract; example; factum; job; judge; money cache: blog-daos-are-not-scary-part-1-self-enforcing-contracts-and-factum-law.html plain text: blog-daos-are-not-scary-part-1-self-enforcing-contracts-and-factum-law.txt item: #213 of 458 id: blog-daos-are-not-scary-part-2-reducing-barriers author: blog title: DAOs Are Not Scary, Part 2: Reducing Barriers | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1837 flesch: 53 summary: Instead of relying on legal contracts using expensive (and often, especially in international circumstances and poor countries, ineffective) court systems, or even moderately expensive private arbitration services, business relationships can be governed by smart contracts where those parts of the contract that do need human interpretation can be segregated into many specialized parts. We also discussed the limits of smart contracts, and how a smart contract-enabled legal system might use a combination of human judgement and automatic execution to achieve the best possible outcomes. keywords: agent; contracts; escrow; money cache: blog-daos-are-not-scary-part-2-reducing-barriers.html plain text: blog-daos-are-not-scary-part-2-reducing-barriers.txt item: #214 of 458 id: blog-daos-dacs-das-and-more-an-incomplete-terminology-guide author: blog title: DAOs, DACs, DAs and More: An Incomplete Terminology Guide | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 3644 flesch: 49 summary: For example, BitTorrent qualifies as a decentralized application, as do Popcorn Time, BitMessage, Tor and Maidsafe (note that Maidsafe is also itself a platform for other decentralized applications). As we’ll see below, my classification of decentralized autonomous organizations touches on such concepts, and it is not quite clear exactly where they sit. keywords: bitcoin; contract; dao; example; parties; property cache: blog-daos-dacs-das-and-more-an-incomplete-terminology-guide.html plain text: blog-daos-dacs-das-and-more-an-incomplete-terminology-guide.txt item: #215 of 458 id: blog-decentralized-protocol-monetization-and-forks author: blog title: Decentralized Protocol Monetization and Forks | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 3470 flesch: 42 summary: Ecosystemic Network Effects An important feature of decentralized protocols, and social protocols in general, is that they also build ecosystems. With decentralized protocols, however, we have discovered a new mechanism for monetizing them: create internal assets, and sell them to pay for the development of the protocol. keywords: bitcoin; ethereum; fork; network; people; protocol; system cache: blog-decentralized-protocol-monetization-and-forks.html plain text: blog-decentralized-protocol-monetization-and-forks.txt item: #216 of 458 id: blog-devcon-0-recap author: blog title: ÐΞVcon-0 Recap | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 2426 flesch: 55 summary: Jeff Wilcke also gave a brief update on Ethereum Go client on the whiteboard before the panel discussion. The presentation space was then rearranged for the panel with Gavin Wood (Ethereum C++), Jeff Wilcke (Ethereum Go), Heiko Hees (Pythereum) and Martin Becze (Node-Ethereum). keywords: client; day; ethereum; network; presentation; protocol; team cache: blog-devcon-0-recap.html plain text: blog-devcon-0-recap.txt item: #217 of 458 id: blog-devcon-is-back author: blog title: DEVcon is back! | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 601 flesch: 45 summary: Expect talks from development teams sharing what they have learned, and detailed talks about the new businesses and business models enabled by the Ethereum platform. Sign up Ethereum Foundation • Ethereum.org • ESP • Bug Bounty Program • Do-not-Track • Archive Categories Research & Development • Events • Organizational • Ecosystem Support Program • Ethereum.org • Security • Next Billion • Protocol Announcements keywords: development; ethereum cache: blog-devcon-is-back.html plain text: blog-devcon-is-back.txt item: #218 of 458 id: blog-devcon-one-postponed-until-further-notice author: blog title: devcon one postponed until further notice | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 170 flesch: 43 summary: Previous post Next post Subscribe to Protocol Announcements Sign up to receive email notifications for protocol-related announcements, such as network upgrades, FAQs or security issues. devcon one postponed until further notice | Ethereum Foundation Blog EF Blog Search Skip to contentCategories R&D Research & Development Events Events Org Organizational ESP Ecosystem Support Program ETH.org Ethereum.org Sec Security NxBn Next Billion Protocol Protocol Announcements Languages Search devcon one postponed until further notice Posted by George Hallam on September 2, 2015 Events Unfortunately we were not able to secure the venue for devcon one in London on the dates desired (October 5th-8th). keywords: protocol cache: blog-devcon-one-postponed-until-further-notice.html plain text: blog-devcon-one-postponed-until-further-notice.txt item: #219 of 458 id: blog-devgrants-help author: blog title: DEVgrants: Here to Help | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1146 flesch: 51 summary: Interested parties may also follow @DEVgrants on Twitter for updates about funded projects, evaluation policy changes, and more. Indeed, even before genesis, Ethereum already boasts hundreds of projects covering everything from self-stabilizing currency to potential replacements for government services. keywords: ethereum; project; ðξvgrants cache: blog-devgrants-help.html plain text: blog-devgrants-help.txt item: #220 of 458 id: blog-ether-purchase-troubleshooting author: blog title: Ether Purchase Troubleshooting | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 689 flesch: 67 summary: Previous post Next post Subscribe to Protocol Announcements Sign up to receive email notifications for protocol-related announcements, such as network upgrades, FAQs or security issues. Sign up Ethereum Foundation • Ethereum.org • ESP • Bug Bounty Program • Do-not-Track • Archive Categories Research & Development • Events • Organizational • Ecosystem Support Program • Ethereum.org • Security • Next Billion • Protocol Announcements keywords: /path; python cache: blog-ether-purchase-troubleshooting.html plain text: blog-ether-purchase-troubleshooting.txt item: #221 of 458 id: blog-ether-sale-a-statistical-overview author: blog title: Ether Sale: A Statistical Overview | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1398 flesch: 43 summary: Distribution and Gini Indices As a final set of interesting statistics, we have calculated three Gini indices: Gini index of ether purchasers: 0.832207 Gini index of endowment: 0.599638 Gini index of entire set: 0.836251 A Gini index is a common measure of inequality; the way the Gini index is calculated is by drawing a chart, with both axes going from 0% to 100%, and drawing a line where the Y coordinate at a particular X coordinate is calculated as the portion of all income (or wealth) which is owned by the bottom X percent of the population. Note that Gini coefficients of wealth and Gini coefficients of income are different things; one measures how much people have and one measures the rate at which people receive. keywords: btc; ether; gini cache: blog-ether-sale-a-statistical-overview.html plain text: blog-ether-sale-a-statistical-overview.txt item: #222 of 458 id: blog-ethereum-and-oracles author: blog title: Ethereum and Oracles | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 2591 flesch: 50 summary: Ethereum and Oracles | Ethereum Foundation Blog EF Blog Search Skip to contentCategories R&D Research & Development Events Events Org Organizational ESP Ecosystem Support Program ETH.org Ethereum.org Sec Security NxBn Next Billion Protocol Protocol Announcements Languages Search Ethereum and Oracles Posted by Vitalik Buterin on July 22, 2014 Research & Development One of the more popular proposals for implementing smart contracts differently from the way they are typically presented in Ethereum is through the concept of oracles. The primary feature of Ethereum is not Turing-completeness; in fact, we have a section in our whitepaper which makes the argument that even if we explicitly removed the ability of Ethereum contracts to be Turing-complete it would actually change very little and there would still be a need for gas. keywords: blockchain; code; contract; ethereum; oracles cache: blog-ethereum-and-oracles.html plain text: blog-ethereum-and-oracles.txt item: #223 of 458 id: blog-ethereum-builders-experiment author: blog title: Ethereum Builders: A Proposed Experiment | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 2035 flesch: 56 summary: Exploring a few use cases: Connecting Ethereum builders with each other Think of Twitch, but for Ethereum hacking. Ethereum Builders: A Proposed Experiment | Ethereum Foundation Blog EF Blog Search Skip to contentCategories R&D Research & Development Events Events Org Organizational ESP Ecosystem Support Program ETH.org Ethereum.org Sec Security NxBn Next Billion Protocol Protocol Announcements Languages Search Ethereum Builders: A Proposed Experiment Posted by Mihai Alisie on March 20, 2015 Research & Development Hello, fellow Ethereans. keywords: ethereum; experiment; knowledge; project; things cache: blog-ethereum-builders-experiment.html plain text: blog-ethereum-builders-experiment.txt item: #224 of 458 id: blog-ethereum-builders-supercharging-github author: blog title: Ethereum Builders: Tapping Into The Collaborative Potential | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 2234 flesch: 55 summary: Bellow is a reddit post that sums it up nicely: From the design stage, Ethereum Builders was envisioned as a tool that would lower the entry barriers, increase the community member interaction and bring the fun of working together closer to everyone. Now, with Ethereum Builders you have people talking about their work, sharing knowledge, and providing peer-to-peer support, all of which also allows new developers to come on board and be up and running quickly and successfully. keywords: builders; community; ethereum; github; people; project cache: blog-ethereum-builders-supercharging-github.html plain text: blog-ethereum-builders-supercharging-github.txt item: #225 of 458 id: blog-ethereum-comms-announcement author: blog title: Ethereum Comms Announcement | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 458 flesch: 32 summary: Sign up Ethereum Foundation • Ethereum.org • ESP • Bug Bounty Program • Do-not-Track • Archive Categories Research & Development • Events • Organizational • Ecosystem Support Program • Ethereum.org • Security • Next Billion • Protocol Announcements Ethereum Comms Announcement | Ethereum Foundation Blog EF Blog Search Skip to contentCategories R&D Research & Development Events Events Org Organizational ESP Ecosystem Support Program ETH.org Ethereum.org Sec Security NxBn Next Billion Protocol Protocol Announcements Languages Search Ethereum Comms Announcement Posted by Vitalik Buterin on September 18, keywords: ethereum; protocol cache: blog-ethereum-comms-announcement.html plain text: blog-ethereum-comms-announcement.txt item: #226 of 458 id: blog-ethereum-community-survey author: blog title: Ethereum Community Survey | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1658 flesch: 61 summary: The blog and social media interaction will continue to deliver Ethereum content on relevant channels with the aim of reaching the widest range of people as possible.   , we created a quick survey for the Ethereum community to help us gauge how we're doing, what can be improved, and how best we can engage with you all as we move forward towards the genesis block release in March. keywords: community; ethereum; new; people; survey cache: blog-ethereum-community-survey.html plain text: blog-ethereum-community-survey.txt item: #227 of 458 id: blog-ethereum-dev author: blog title: Ethereum ÐΞV: What are we doing? | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 690 flesch: 26 summary: Thirdly, to facilitate adoption of this technology, gain testers and spur further development we are developing, collaborating over and sponsoring a number of force-multiplying technologies that leverage pre-existing technology including: a graphical client browser (leveraging drop-in browser components from the Chromium project and Qt 5 technology); a set of basic contracts and ÐApps, including for registration, reputation, web-of-trust and accounting (leveraging the pre-existing compilers and development tech); a hybrid multi-DHT/messaging system, codenamed Whisper (leveraging the pre-existing p2p back end & protocols); a simple reverse-hash lookup DHT, codenamed Swarm (also leveraging the pre-existing p2p back end & protocols), for which there is an ongoing internal implementation, but which could end up merging or being a collaboration with the IPFS project. Aside from having quasi-Turing-completeness, it delivers on a number of other important considerations, stemming from the fact we are developing entirely new blockchain technology including: speedy, through a 12 second blocktime; light-client-friendly through the use of Merkle roots in headers for compact inclusion/state proofs and DHT integration to allow light clients to host & share small parts of the full chain; ÐApp-friendly, even for light-clients, through the use of multi-level Bloom filters and transaction receipt Merkle tries to allow for lightweight log-indexing and proofs; finite-blockchain-friendly - we designed the core protocol to facilitate upgrading to this technology, further reducing light-client footprint and helping guarantee mid-term scalability; ASIC-unfriendly - through the (as yet unconfirmed) choice of PoW algo and the threat we'll be upgrading to PoS in the Not-Too-Distant future. keywords: development; ethereum; technology cache: blog-ethereum-dev.html plain text: blog-ethereum-dev.txt item: #228 of 458 id: blog-ethereum-dev-update-2015-week-41 author: blog title: Ethereum Dev Update 2015 / Week 41 | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 449 flesch: 48 summary: Ethereum Dev Update 2015 / Week 41 | Ethereum Foundation Blog EF Blog Search Skip to contentCategories R&D Research & Development Events Events Org Organizational ESP Ecosystem Support Program ETH.org Ethereum.org Sec Security NxBn Next Billion Protocol Protocol Announcements Languages Search Ethereum Dev Update 2015 / Week 41 Posted by Taylor Gerring on October 13, 2015 Research & Development Previous post Next post Subscribe to Protocol Announcements Sign up to receive email notifications for protocol-related announcements, such as network upgrades, FAQs or security issues. keywords: ethereum; protocol cache: blog-ethereum-dev-update-2015-week-41.html plain text: blog-ethereum-dev-update-2015-week-41.txt item: #229 of 458 id: blog-ethereum-dev-update-2015-week-44 author: blog title: Ethereum Dev Update 2015 / Week 44 | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 414 flesch: 48 summary: Light client/mobile New network protocols supporting fast sync are rapidly maturing and will be basis for future light clients, helping new users bootstrap into the network within just a few minutes. Updated documentation online at https://ethereum.github.io/solidity/docs/home/ Previous post Next post Subscribe to Protocol Announcements Sign up to receive email notifications for protocol-related announcements, such as network upgrades, FAQs or security issues. keywords: ethereum; protocol cache: blog-ethereum-dev-update-2015-week-44.html plain text: blog-ethereum-dev-update-2015-week-44.txt item: #230 of 458 id: blog-ethereum-development-process author: blog title: The Ethereum Development Process | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 378 flesch: 51 summary: So far, this has proved to be an effective way of producing well-tested code quickly, and perhaps more importantly, in delivering clear unambiguous formal specifications. Are there any more examples of such techniques taken to the extreme? Previous post Next post Subscribe to Protocol Announcements Sign up to receive email notifications for protocol-related announcements, such as network upgrades, FAQs or security issues. keywords: development cache: blog-ethereum-development-process.html plain text: blog-ethereum-development-process.txt item: #231 of 458 id: blog-ethereum-foundation-is-hiring-an-executive-director author: blog title: Ethereum Foundation is hiring an Executive Director | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 411 flesch: 24 summary: Ethereum Foundation is hiring an Executive Director | Ethereum Foundation Blog EF Blog Search Skip to contentCategories R&D Research & Development Events Events Org Organizational ESP Ecosystem Support Program ETH.org Ethereum.org Sec Security NxBn Next Billion Protocol Protocol Announcements Languages Search Ethereum Foundation is hiring an Executive Director Posted by Anthony Di Iorio on April 8, 2015 Organizational Stiftung Ethereum, the Zug, Switzerland-based Ethereum Foundation --ethereum.org, is seeking to immediately fill the Executive Director position within the Foundation. The Director will interact with and support several Ethereum divisions that are engaged in software development, communications and community outreach activities. keywords: ethereum; foundation cache: blog-ethereum-foundation-is-hiring-an-executive-director.html plain text: blog-ethereum-foundation-is-hiring-an-executive-director.txt item: #232 of 458 id: blog-ethereum-foundation-open-call-re-board-selection author: blog title: Ethereum Foundation Open Call re: Board Selection | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 762 flesch: 28 summary: Stiftung Ethereum (that's German for Ethereum Foundation) is a non-profit organization registered in Switzerland; specifically, in the wonderful town of Zug: Sign up Ethereum Foundation • Ethereum.org • ESP • Bug Bounty Program • Do-not-Track • Archive Categories Research & Development • Events • Organizational • Ecosystem Support Program • Ethereum.org • Security • Next Billion • Protocol Announcements keywords: board; ethereum; foundation cache: blog-ethereum-foundation-open-call-re-board-selection.html plain text: blog-ethereum-foundation-open-call-re-board-selection.txt item: #233 of 458 id: blog-ethereum-in-practice-part-2-how-to-build-a-better-democracy-in-under-a-100-lines-of-code author: blog title: Ethereum in practice part 2: how to build a better democracy in under a 100 lines of code | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1315 flesch: 68 summary: So let's go back to Contracts and then Deploy Contract and paste the DAO source code on the Solidity Source field. Your contract should be looking something like this:   After a few seconds you'll be redirected to a the dashboard where you'll see your new contract being created: You can also see the link to the new contract on the Contracts tab. keywords: contract; ether; proposal cache: blog-ethereum-in-practice-part-2-how-to-build-a-better-democracy-in-under-a-100-lines-of-code.html plain text: blog-ethereum-in-practice-part-2-how-to-build-a-better-democracy-in-under-a-100-lines-of-code.txt item: #234 of 458 id: blog-ethereum-in-practice-part-3-how-to-build-your-own-transparent-bank-on-the-blockchain author: blog title: Ethereum in practice part 3: how to build your own transparent bank on the blockchain | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1175 flesch: 63 summary: So save the address of your current DAO in a note pad (pay attention to the icon) and grab this source code and you know the drill: contracts > deploy new contract > solidity source code > pick contract You can fill the parameters any way you want (yes, emojis are permitted on the string fields) but you'll notice one new field that didn't exist before: Central Minter. Now go back to the democracy contract and create a new proposal with these parameters: As the beneficiary, put the address of your new token Leave etherAmount blank On the jobDescription just write a small description that you are minting new coins On the transactionBytecode, paste the bytecode you saved from the data field on the previous step     In a few seconds you should be able to see that the details on the proposal. keywords: address; code; contract cache: blog-ethereum-in-practice-part-3-how-to-build-your-own-transparent-bank-on-the-blockchain.html plain text: blog-ethereum-in-practice-part-3-how-to-build-your-own-transparent-bank-on-the-blockchain.txt item: #235 of 458 id: blog-ethereum-launch-process author: blog title: The Ethereum Launch Process | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 2849 flesch: 59 summary: Ether mining will be at 100% rather than 10% of the usual reward rate (Frontier/Homestead block reward will remain 5 Ether) checkpointing and manual network halts should never be necessary, although it is likely that checkpointing will continue if there is a general demand for it we will remove the severe risk warning from putting your Ether on the network, although we will not consider the software to be out of beta until Metropolis Still command line, so much the same feature set as Frontier, but this one we tell you is ready to go, within the relevant parameters. Frontier showcases three areas of real utility: you can mine real Ether, at 10% of the normal Ether issuance rate, 0.59 Ether per block reward, which can be spent to run programs or exchange for other things, as normal - this real Ether (This was not the case at launch - Frontier block reward is 5 Ether per block, and will remain that amount until Casper). keywords: ether; ethereum; frontier; network; process; release cache: blog-ethereum-launch-process.html plain text: blog-ethereum-launch-process.txt item: #236 of 458 id: blog-ethereum-launches author: blog title: Ethereum Launches | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 291 flesch: 57 summary: Ethereum Launches | Ethereum Foundation Blog EF Blog Search Skip to contentCategories R&D Research & Development Events Events Org Organizational ESP Ecosystem Support Program ETH.org Ethereum.org Sec Security NxBn Next Billion Protocol Protocol Announcements Languages Search Ethereum Launches Posted by Stephan Tual on July 30, 2015 Protocol Announcements A few minutes ago, many of you generated and loaded the Ethereum Genesis block, marking the inception of Frontier, the first Live release of the Ethereum project. Sign up Ethereum Foundation • Ethereum.org • ESP • Bug Bounty Program • Do-not-Track • Archive Categories Research & Development • Events • Organizational • Ecosystem Support Program • Ethereum.org • Security • Next Billion • Protocol Announcements keywords: ethereum cache: blog-ethereum-launches.html plain text: blog-ethereum-launches.txt item: #237 of 458 id: blog-ethereum-messaging-masses-including-fathers-via-infographic author: blog title: Ethereum messaging for the masses (including fathers) - via infographic | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 941 flesch: 55 summary: I’m missing father’s day with my Dad (and my brother's first fathers day) to be in Switzerland on Ethereum business. Sign up Ethereum Foundation • Ethereum.org • ESP • Bug Bounty Program • Do-not-Track • Archive Categories Research & Development • Events • Organizational • Ecosystem Support Program • Ethereum.org • Security • Next Billion • Protocol Announcements keywords: announcements; ethereum; protocol cache: blog-ethereum-messaging-masses-including-fathers-via-infographic.html plain text: blog-ethereum-messaging-masses-including-fathers-via-infographic.txt item: #238 of 458 id: blog-ethereum-now-going-public author: blog title: Ethereum: Now Going Public | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 2088 flesch: 41 summary: The first holon will be based inside of Bitcoin Decentral in Toronto, and a substantial portion of Ethereum development will take place there; anyone who is seriously interested in participating heavily in Ethereum should consider giving us a visit over the next month. Vitalik is responsible for a number of Bitcoin projects, including pybitcointools, a fork of BitcoinJSand multisig.info; now, he has returned to Canada and is fully dedicated to working on Ethereum. keywords: bitcoin; code; development; ecosystem; ethereum; projects; work cache: blog-ethereum-now-going-public.html plain text: blog-ethereum-now-going-public.txt item: #239 of 458 id: blog-ethereum-project-update author: blog title: Ethereum Project Update | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 504 flesch: 47 summary: Please stay tuned to this channel as we will continue to release information regarding software development activities and details of the pre-sale for absorption and feedback. But that effort is now substantially complete and Charles will be moving on to other activities in the space. keywords: development; project cache: blog-ethereum-project-update.html plain text: blog-ethereum-project-update.txt item: #240 of 458 id: blog-ethereum-protocol-update-1 author: blog title: Ethereum Protocol Update 1 | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 983 flesch: 61 summary: That rate is equal to previous block limit / 1024. Default, community chosen, Genesis block The Genesis block we have seen adopted by the community has now been hardcoded in the clients, and you no longer need to specify the --genesis parameter to start eth or geth. keywords: block; protocol; update cache: blog-ethereum-protocol-update-1.html plain text: blog-ethereum-protocol-update-1.txt item: #241 of 458 id: blog-ethereum-scalability-and-decentralization-updates author: blog title: Ethereum Scalability and Decentralization Updates | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 2177 flesch: 58 summary: From the point of view of a miner using a light client, this morphs into a challenge-response protocol: full nodes verifying transactions, upon detecting that a transaction spent an output that does not exist, can publish a “challenge” to the network, and other nodes (likely the miner of that block) would need to publish a “response” consisting of a Merkle tree proof showing that the outputs in question do actually exist in some previous block. If F’s claim is false, and the block is valid at that point, then M can produce a proof of localized consistency by showing a Merkle tree proof of point k in the stack trace, point k+1 in the stack trace, and the subset of Merkle tree nodes in the state and transaction tree that were modified during the process of updating from k to k+1. keywords: block; proof; protocol; transaction cache: blog-ethereum-scalability-and-decentralization-updates.html plain text: blog-ethereum-scalability-and-decentralization-updates.txt item: #242 of 458 id: blog-ethereum-the-first-year author: blog title: Mihai’s Ethereum Project Update. The First Year. | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 3267 flesch: 62 summary: I am Mihai Alisie, one of the Ethereum founders, and for the past year I’ve served as the Vice President of the Ethereum Foundation and Director of Ethereum Switzerland. On the other Ethereum Project fronts, by June we advanced to the fourth version of the Proof of Concept implementations, rapidly moving towards the fifth version; our Twitter followers number surpassed 6,000; and the number of global meetups that focused on Ethereum reached 58 groups in 49 different cities, spread over 19 countries. keywords: community; ethereum; genesis; project; sale; things; time; world cache: blog-ethereum-the-first-year.html plain text: blog-ethereum-the-first-year.txt item: #243 of 458 id: blog-ethereum-wallet-developer-preview author: blog title: Ethereum Wallet - Developer Preview | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1005 flesch: 70 summary: The wallet allows you to create two types of  wallets: A simple wallet - works like a normal account (additional features are being worked on; e.g. adding owners, setting a daily limit) A multisig wallet - allows you to add any number of owner accounts and set a daily limit. Deleting wallets If you’d like to delete a wallet click the trash icon on the wallet page, next to the wallet name. keywords: developer; wallet cache: blog-ethereum-wallet-developer-preview.html plain text: blog-ethereum-wallet-developer-preview.txt item: #244 of 458 id: blog-ethereums-unexpected-future-direction author: blog title: Ethereum’s unexpected future direction | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 466 flesch: 45 summary: Sign up Ethereum Foundation • Ethereum.org • ESP • Bug Bounty Program • Do-not-Track • Archive Categories Research & Development • Events • Organizational • Ecosystem Support Program • Ethereum.org • Security • Next Billion • Protocol Announcements Valve has the clout to get mining software on to the majority of those machines simply by making it available to users and asking them nicely to download it, in exchange for participation in the network and the chance to make a little credit - redeemable for future Steam purchases and downloadable content. keywords: ethereum; protocol cache: blog-ethereums-unexpected-future-direction.html plain text: blog-ethereums-unexpected-future-direction.txt item: #245 of 458 id: blog-final-steps author: blog title: Final Steps | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1369 flesch: 54 summary: Please be especially wary of third party websites and software of unknown origin -- Ethereum will only ever publish software through its github platform at https://github.com/ethereum/. Finally, for clarity, it’s important to note that the Olympic program ended at block 1M this morning, however, the bug bounty is still on --- and will continue until further notice. Then, it's a matter of waiting for block #1028201, which at the current block resolution time, should be formed approximately Thursday evening GMT+0. keywords: block; ethereum; genesis; release cache: blog-final-steps.html plain text: blog-final-steps.txt item: #246 of 458 id: blog-frontier-first-100k-blocks author: blog title: An Analysis of the First 100000 Blocks | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 736 flesch: 66 summary: Let's now look at the average block time (every 200th block from genesis to block 10000): We can see the hashing power really attacking the network after the first few hundred blocks, with block times at 1-2 seconds as the difficulty adjustment algorithm is catching up. After a few thousand blocks, we see the difficulty going up enough for block times to get into the 4-5 second range. keywords: blocks; power cache: blog-frontier-first-100k-blocks.html plain text: blog-frontier-first-100k-blocks.txt item: #247 of 458 id: blog-frontier-is-coming-what-to-expect-and-how-to-prepare author: blog title: Frontier is coming - what to expect, and how to prepare | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1469 flesch: 62 summary: Note that rewards will not be part of the Frontier Genesis block, but instead will be handed out by a Foundation bot during the weeks following the release. Frontier is coming - what to expect, and how to prepare | Ethereum Foundation Blog EF Blog Search Skip to contentCategories R&D Research & Development Events Events Org Organizational ESP Ecosystem Support Program ETH.org Ethereum.org Sec Security NxBn Next Billion Protocol Protocol Announcements Languages Search Frontier is coming - what to expect, and how to prepare Posted by Stephan Tual on July 22, 2015 Protocol Announcements keywords: block; ethereum; frontier; network cache: blog-frontier-is-coming-what-to-expect-and-how-to-prepare.html plain text: blog-frontier-is-coming-what-to-expect-and-how-to-prepare.txt item: #248 of 458 id: blog-gavs-dev-update-ethereums author: blog title: Gav’s ÐΞV Update I: Where Ethereum’s at | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 2803 flesch: 54 summary: I'm Gav - together with Jeffrey Wilcke and Vitalik Buterin, I'm one third of the ultimate leadership of Ethereum ÐΞV. Similarly, Caktux an early volunteer and maintainer of the Ncurses-based C++ Ethereum front-end neth has been invaluble (alongside Joris and Nick Savers) in getting a continuous integration system up and running. keywords: berlin; development; ethereum; protocol; software; time; web; ðξv cache: blog-gavs-dev-update-ethereums.html plain text: blog-gavs-dev-update-ethereums.txt item: #249 of 458 id: blog-gavs-dev-update-iii author: blog title: Gav’s Ethereum ÐΞV Update III | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1287 flesch: 57 summary: I'm Gavin Wood, a co-founder of Ethereum and, along with Vitalik Buterin and Jeffrey Wilcke, one of the three directors of the Eth Dev, the NFP organisation that is managing the development (under contract from Ethereum Suisse) of the Ethereum blockchain. Sign up Ethereum Foundation • Ethereum.org • ESP • Bug Bounty Program • Do-not-Track • Archive Categories Research & Development • Events • Organizational • Ecosystem Support Program • Ethereum.org • Security • Next Billion • Protocol Announcements keywords: berlin; development; ethereum; time cache: blog-gavs-dev-update-iii.html plain text: blog-gavs-dev-update-iii.txt item: #250 of 458 id: blog-gavs-ethereum-dev-update-ii author: blog title: Gav’s Ethereum ÐΞV Update II | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 952 flesch: 55 summary: If you don't already know, I'm Gavin, a founder of Ethereum and one of the three directors (alongside Vitalik and Jeffrey) of Ethereum ÐΞV, the development entity building Ethereum and all the associated technology. Sign up Ethereum Foundation • Ethereum.org • ESP • Bug Bounty Program • Do-not-Track • Archive Categories Research & Development • Events • Organizational • Ecosystem Support Program • Ethereum.org • Security • Next Billion • Protocol Announcements keywords: berlin; ethereum; network; team cache: blog-gavs-ethereum-dev-update-ii.html plain text: blog-gavs-ethereum-dev-update-ii.txt item: #251 of 458 id: blog-gavs-ethereum-dev-update-iv author: blog title: Gav’s Ethereum ÐΞV Update IV | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1099 flesch: 58 summary: During the time since the last update, much has happened including, finally, the release of the Ethereum ÐΞV website, ethdev.com. Sign up Ethereum Foundation • Ethereum.org • ESP • Bug Bounty Program • Do-not-Track • Archive Categories Research & Development • Events • Organizational • Ecosystem Support Program • Ethereum.org • Security • Next Billion • Protocol Announcements keywords: ethereum; protocol; security; time cache: blog-gavs-ethereum-dev-update-iv.html plain text: blog-gavs-ethereum-dev-update-iv.txt item: #252 of 458 id: blog-gavs-ethereum-dev-update-v author: blog title: Gav’s Ethereum ÐΞV Update V | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1419 flesch: 54 summary: We'll hopefully be able to announce his successors next week (yes, that was plural; he has been doing the jobs of 2.5 people over the last few months). Sign up Ethereum Foundation • Ethereum.org • ESP • Bug Bounty Program • Do-not-Track • Archive Categories Research & Development • Events • Organizational • Ecosystem Support Program • Ethereum.org • Security • Next Billion • Protocol Announcements keywords: ethereum; protocol; release; week; ðξv cache: blog-gavs-ethereum-dev-update-v.html plain text: blog-gavs-ethereum-dev-update-v.txt item: #253 of 458 id: blog-getting-to-the-frontier author: blog title: Getting to the Frontier | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1218 flesch: 52 summary: Getting to the Frontier | Ethereum Foundation Blog EF Blog Search Skip to contentCategories R&D Research & Development Events Events Org Organizational ESP Ecosystem Support Program ETH.org Ethereum.org Sec Security NxBn Next Billion Protocol Protocol Announcements Languages Search Getting to the Frontier Posted by Vinay Gupta on March 12, 2015 Research & Development So first some background. We’ve already covered a little about what to expect from Frontier in the Ethereum Launch Process blog post and Gav has given us a comprehensive overview of the state of the development effort. keywords: development; frontier; process cache: blog-getting-to-the-frontier.html plain text: blog-getting-to-the-frontier.txt item: #254 of 458 id: blog-how-to-build-your-own-cryptocurrency author: blog title: Ethereum in practice part 1: how to build your own cryptocurrency without touching a line of code | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1440 flesch: 70 summary: Go to the contracts page and then click deploy new contract.   I might be biased but I'd say the best place to start is the Ethereum Wallet, a multi platform app that will enable you to send ether and ethereum based currencies, create and execute contracts. keywords: contract; ethereum; token; wallet cache: blog-how-to-build-your-own-cryptocurrency.html plain text: blog-how-to-build-your-own-cryptocurrency.txt item: #255 of 458 id: blog-how-to-make-a-purchase-in-the-ether-presale author: blog title: Background on the mechanics of the ether pre-sale | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 950 flesch: 52 summary: Seed recovery process:  WALLET + PW recovery:  (normal) KEY = pbkdf2(PW) SEED = decrypt(KEY, ENCSEED) Overview of website steps for making an ether purchase: Buyer clicks “Buy Ether” and agrees to the Terms & Conditions Buyer enters initial purchase information Buyer enters the amount of ether they’d like to purchase Buyer enters email address as the destination for wallet backup file Buyer enters passphrase, which serves as an encryption seed. WALLET = [ ENCSEED, BKPKEY ] (plus non-sensitive data like ethereum and bitcoin address) keywords: address; ether; sale cache: blog-how-to-make-a-purchase-in-the-ether-presale.html plain text: blog-how-to-make-a-purchase-in-the-ether-presale.txt item: #256 of 458 id: blog-implementing-vitaliks-vision author: blog title: Implementing Vitalik’s vision | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1246 flesch: 51 summary: The main interfaces will consist primarily of the command-line client, interactive JavaScript console, and JSON-RPC. For the Frontier rollout, we are aiming to release stable binaries on major operating systems (Mac, Windows, Linux). keywords: console; development; geth; program cache: blog-implementing-vitaliks-vision.html plain text: blog-implementing-vitaliks-vision.txt item: #257 of 458 id: blog-important-statement-regarding-the-ether-pre-sale author: blog title: Important Statement regarding the Ether pre-sale | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 336 flesch: 33 summary: Previous post Next post Subscribe to Protocol Announcements Sign up to receive email notifications for protocol-related announcements, such as network upgrades, FAQs or security issues. Sign up Ethereum Foundation • Ethereum.org • ESP • Bug Bounty Program • Do-not-Track • Archive Categories Research & Development • Events • Organizational • Ecosystem Support Program • Ethereum.org • Security • Next Billion • Protocol Announcements keywords: ether cache: blog-important-statement-regarding-the-ether-pre-sale.html plain text: blog-important-statement-regarding-the-ether-pre-sale.txt item: #258 of 458 id: blog-index author: blog title: Secret Sharing and Erasure Coding: A Guide for the Aspiring Dropbox Decentralizer | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 6877 flesch: 65 summary: In the context of file storage, there are two kinds of activities that you can incentivize. [-7.0, 12.0, -4.5, 0.5] > share.berlekamp_welch_attempt([1.0, 3.0, 2.0, 1.0, 3.0, 0.0], [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6], 3) [-7.0, 12.0, -4.5, 0.5] Now, as I mentioned, this mathematical trickery is not really all that needed for file storage; the simpler approach of storing hashes and discarding any piece that does not match the recorded hash works just fine. keywords: chunks; file; polynomial; proof; protocol; redundancy cache: blog-index.html plain text: blog-index.txt item: #259 of 458 id: blog-information-theoretic-account-secure-brainwallets author: blog title: An Information-Theoretic Account of Secure Brainwallets | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 4082 flesch: 59 summary: It has become rather popular among security experts to dismiss passwords as being fundamentally insecure, and argue for password schemes to be replaced outright. But then, in reality at this level of security, where 240 work is needed to compute a single password, brainwallets and other passwords would be so secure that no one would even bother attacking them. keywords: bits; entropy; number; password; time; use cache: blog-information-theoretic-account-secure-brainwallets.html plain text: blog-information-theoretic-account-secure-brainwallets.txt item: #260 of 458 id: blog-inside-ethereum-devhub-berlin author: blog title: From inside Ethereum ÐΞVhub Berlin | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 179 flesch: 28 summary: From inside Ethereum ÐΞVhub Berlin | Ethereum Foundation Blog EF Blog Search Skip to contentCategories R&D Research & Development Events Events Org Organizational ESP Ecosystem Support Program ETH.org Ethereum.org Sec Security NxBn Next Billion Protocol Protocol Announcements Languages Search From inside Ethereum ÐΞVhub Berlin Posted by Gavin Wood on December 2, 2014 Research & Development Yesterday was the first proper day of ÐΞVhub Berlin being open, following the first Ethereum internal developers' symposium ÐΞVcon-0. Henning, Marek, Viktor and Felix hacking on the couch Aeron and Brian in discussion Alex and Jutta conferencing over network and security The rest of the team hacking in the lab Previous post Next post Subscribe to Protocol Announcements Sign up to receive email notifications for protocol-related announcements, such as network upgrades, FAQs or security issues. keywords: protocol cache: blog-inside-ethereum-devhub-berlin.html plain text: blog-inside-ethereum-devhub-berlin.txt item: #261 of 458 id: blog-introducing-casper-friendly-ghost author: blog title: Introducing Casper “the Friendly Ghost” | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 2538 flesch: 49 summary: Therefore through iterated rounds of betting validator bets converge. There is something at stake, and bonded validators who misbehave in an objectively verifiable manner will lose it. keywords: blocks; casper; consensus; validators cache: blog-introducing-casper-friendly-ghost.html plain text: blog-introducing-casper-friendly-ghost.txt item: #262 of 458 id: blog-introducing-ethereum-script-2-0 author: blog title: Introducing Ethereum Script 2.0 | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 3742 flesch: 68 summary: The immutability of code also makes it easier to construct a restricted subset of the scripting language which is functional, and then such functional code could be deduplicated and optimized at will. An important point is that optimizers will likely end up replacing entire swaths of ES2 code blocks with more efficient machine code, but under the system described above will still need to pay attention to ES2 code blocks in order to determine what the fee is. keywords: code; contract; push; stack cache: blog-introducing-ethereum-script-2-0.html plain text: blog-introducing-ethereum-script-2-0.txt item: #263 of 458 id: blog-introduction-futarchy author: blog title: An Introduction to Futarchy | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 4956 flesch: 49 summary: Markets in general are known to be volatile, and this happens to a large extent because markets are self-referential - ie. Under this system, individuals would vote not on whether or not to implement particular policies, but rather on a metric to determine how well their country (or charity or company) is doing, and then prediction markets would be used to pick the policies that best optimize the metric. keywords: ceo; company; futarchy; market; price; protocol; token; value cache: blog-introduction-futarchy.html plain text: blog-introduction-futarchy.txt item: #264 of 458 id: blog-jeffs-ethereum-dev-update author: blog title: Jeff’s Ethereum ÐΞV Update I | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1033 flesch: 67 summary: My name is Jeff, a founder of Ethereum and one of the three directors (alongside Vitalik and Gavin) of Ethereum ÐΞV, the development entity building Ethereum and all the associated tech. Sign up Ethereum Foundation • Ethereum.org • ESP • Bug Bounty Program • Do-not-Track • Archive Categories Research & Development • Events • Organizational • Ecosystem Support Program • Ethereum.org • Security • Next Billion • Protocol Announcements keywords: development; ethereum; team cache: blog-jeffs-ethereum-dev-update.html plain text: blog-jeffs-ethereum-dev-update.txt item: #265 of 458 id: blog-jeffs-ethereum-dev-update-2 author: blog title: Jeff’s Ethereum ÐΞV Update II | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 704 flesch: 65 summary: We're already hard at work to finalising PoC-8 which includes numerous small changes: Adjusted block time back to 12s (was 4s) Op code PREVHASH has become BLOCKHASH( N ) and therefore PREVHASH = BLOCKHASH(NUMBER - 1) We've added an additional pre-compiled contract at address 0x04 which returns the given input (acts like copy / memcpy) Ongoing P2P Felix has been hard at work on our new P2P package which has now entered in to v0.1 (PoC-7) and will soon already undergo it's first upgrade for PoC-8. keywords: ethereum; protocol cache: blog-jeffs-ethereum-dev-update-2.html plain text: blog-jeffs-ethereum-dev-update-2.txt item: #266 of 458 id: blog-juttas-update-bug-bounty-program-security-audit author: blog title: Jutta’s update on bug bounty program and security audit | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 417 flesch: 54 summary: Jutta’s update on bug bounty program and security audit | Ethereum Foundation Blog EF Blog Search Skip to contentCategories R&D Research & Development Events Events Org Organizational ESP Ecosystem Support Program ETH.org Ethereum.org Sec Security NxBn Next Billion Protocol Protocol Announcements Languages Search Jutta’s update on bug bounty program and security audit Posted by Jutta Steiner on March 20, 2015 Research & Development Hi, Jutta writing again – I initially introduced myself when we started the bounty program earlier this year and I’m happy to provide you with an update on what’s happening on the security side prior and throughout launch. Previous post Next post Subscribe to Protocol Announcements Sign up to receive email notifications for protocol-related announcements, such as network upgrades, FAQs or security issues. keywords: program; security cache: blog-juttas-update-bug-bounty-program-security-audit.html plain text: blog-juttas-update-bug-bounty-program-security-audit.txt item: #267 of 458 id: blog-know-ethereum-secure author: blog title: How do you know Ethereum is secure? | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1076 flesch: 55 summary: We kicked off this most encompassing audit for the Go client, aka the “end to end audit”, in February with a one-week workshop that would be followed by weeks of regular check-in calls and weekly audit reports. As Gav reported in his last blog post, because of the significant changes in the networking and syncing strategy we eventually decided to commission further audit work for Go – which we are about to finish this week. keywords: audit; end; security cache: blog-know-ethereum-secure.html plain text: blog-know-ethereum-secure.txt item: #268 of 458 id: blog-launching-the-ether-sale author: blog title: Launching the Ether Sale | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1430 flesch: 56 summary: The exodus address is 36PrZ1KHYMpqSyAQXSG8VwbUiq2EogxLo2; however, DO NOT send BTC to this address directly, since transactions that are not properly formatted will be invalid and treated as gifts to Ethereum Switzerland GmbH. Use the sale application on the website. We reserve the right to use up to 5000 BTC from the pre-sale while the pre-sale is running in order to speed up development. keywords: ether; ethereum; protocol; sale cache: blog-launching-the-ether-sale.html plain text: blog-launching-the-ether-sale.txt item: #269 of 458 id: blog-light-clients-proof-stake author: blog title: Light Clients and Proof of Stake | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 3078 flesch: 60 summary: Whereas proof of work algorithms involve the production of block headers which can be quickly verified, allowing a relatively small chain of headers to act as an implicit proof that the network considers a particular history to be valid, proof of stake is harder to fit into such a model. The cost of spoofing this mechanism, providing a chain of block headers that is probably-valid-but-not-actually-valid, is very high; in fact, it is almost exactly the same as the cost of launching a 51% attack on the network. keywords: block; client; light; proof cache: blog-light-clients-proof-stake.html plain text: blog-light-clients-proof-stake.txt item: #270 of 458 id: blog-long-range-attacks-the-serious-problem-with-adaptive-proof-of-work author: blog title: Long-Range Attacks: The Serious Problem With Adaptive Proof of Work | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1301 flesch: 55 summary: The solution is also elegant because it is simultaneously an economic one: if someone does create an ASIC, then others will have the incentive to look for types of computation that the ASIC can’t do and “pollute” the blockchain with such contracts. Hence, the long-range-attacker could fill the blockchain with such contracts, “mine” them, and convince the network that it is doing a massive amount of work when it is actually just taking the shortcut. keywords: blockchain; proof; range cache: blog-long-range-attacks-the-serious-problem-with-adaptive-proof-of-work.html plain text: blog-long-range-attacks-the-serious-problem-with-adaptive-proof-of-work.txt item: #271 of 458 id: blog-merkling-in-ethereum author: blog title: Merkling in Ethereum | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1843 flesch: 59 summary: For transaction trees, they are also good because it does not matter how much time it takes to edit a tree once it's created, as the tree is created once and then forever frozen solid. Although it is definitely theoretically possible to make a blockchain without Merkle trees, simply by creating giant block headers that directly contain every transaction, doing so poses large scalability challenges that arguably puts the ability to trustlessly use blockchains out of the reach of all but the most powerful computers in the long term. keywords: merkle; root; transaction; tree cache: blog-merkling-in-ethereum.html plain text: blog-merkling-in-ethereum.txt item: #272 of 458 id: blog-microsoft-to-sponsor-ethereums-devcon1-2 author: blog title: Microsoft to Sponsor Ethereum’s DEVCON1 | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 305 flesch: 39 summary: Ethereum founder Vitalik Buterin notes “DΞVCON1 is very excited to work with Microsoft and we look forward to having them in London.” Sign up Ethereum Foundation • Ethereum.org • ESP • Bug Bounty Program • Do-not-Track • Archive Categories Research & Development • Events • Organizational • Ecosystem Support Program • Ethereum.org • Security • Next Billion • Protocol Announcements keywords: ethereum; microsoft cache: blog-microsoft-to-sponsor-ethereums-devcon1-2.html plain text: blog-microsoft-to-sponsor-ethereums-devcon1-2.txt item: #273 of 458 id: blog-mining author: blog title: On Mining | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 6384 flesch: 58 summary: However, mining pools also serve another purpose. Instead, they ask mining pools to generate mining data for them. keywords: asic; bitcoin; block; electricity; ghash; hashpower; miners; mining; network; pool cache: blog-mining.html plain text: blog-mining.txt item: #274 of 458 id: blog-more-thoughts-on-scripting-and-future-compatibility author: blog title: More Thoughts on Scripting and Future-Compatibility | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1920 flesch: 55 summary: We are starting to brush against this limit already, with about 250 KB in each block, and it’s putting pressure on transaction fees already. Bitcoin protocol worked well until now, but we know that in the long term it will face scalability issues and it will need to change accordingly. keywords: bitcoin; fee; protocol; sha256 cache: blog-more-thoughts-on-scripting-and-future-compatibility.html plain text: blog-more-thoughts-on-scripting-and-future-compatibility.txt item: #275 of 458 id: blog-more-uncle-statistics author: blog title: More uncle statistics | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1652 flesch: 52 summary: Second, we can see that there is a general trend that larger miners have lower uncle rates. First of all, uncle rates are quite low compared to Olympic; altogether we have seen 20750 uncles with 280000 blocks, or an uncle rate of 7.41% (if you compute this inclusively, ie. keywords: blocks; miners; uncle cache: blog-more-uncle-statistics.html plain text: blog-more-uncle-statistics.txt item: #276 of 458 id: blog-nick-szabo-confirmed-as-keynote-speaker-of-ethereums-devcon1 author: blog title: Nick Szabo Confirmed as Keynote Speaker of Ethereum’s DEVCON1 | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 391 flesch: 44 summary: Recently, Szabo contrasted the use of smart contracts on Ethereum in relation to the Bitcoin blockchain, “If you want to have a flexible general purpose programming environment like programmers have been used to since the 1950s at least, then you’re going to want to use Ethereum because it’s got a Turing complete language and a large state. Ethereum is a decentralized blockchain protocol that executes smart contracts: applications that run exactly as programmed without any possibility of downtime, censorship, fraud or third party interference. keywords: ethereum; nick cache: blog-nick-szabo-confirmed-as-keynote-speaker-of-ethereums-devcon1.html plain text: blog-nick-szabo-confirmed-as-keynote-speaker-of-ethereums-devcon1.txt item: #277 of 458 id: blog-olympic-frontier-pre-release author: blog title: Olympic: Frontier Pre-Release | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1171 flesch: 49 summary: Smaller prizes for forks between Go/C++ and Python may also be available. There will be four categories of prize as well as a grand prize for the first person to create a substantial fork on the testnet. keywords: account; number; transaction cache: blog-olympic-frontier-pre-release.html plain text: blog-olympic-frontier-pre-release.txt item: #278 of 458 id: blog-olympic-rewards-announced author: blog title: Olympic Rewards Announced | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 499 flesch: 50 summary: On top of the rewards announced below, every miner who mined a block in the Olympic chain with block number in the range [310000, 589999] is entitled to receive 0.5 ETH per block, and every miner who mined a block in the Olympic chain with block number in the range [590000, 999999] is entitled to receive 0.05 ETH per block. 753f49fb35f0f6f8a7bff0413e376af88f7ff684 (57744 blocks) - 2500 ETH 891f82ee3e031c5dd85e63b23521b4b9f10c67ff (39526 blocks) - 1250 ETH 24365bc872e4166081611bb0b5483526742c6616 (39358 blocks) - 625 ETH 8ef297b17b65ded8142dbdb106818cd09899a8f5 (34142 blocks) - 375 ETH 027b1495165fec8cfc49bdb8450ded4cbce4b12e (33305 blocks) - 250 ETH Top senders for blocks 300000-1000000 b4e64290541cbf36159e727dfd8d873f77b42149 (5429042 txs) - 2500 ETH 00fc572550f3bdfe84f72e3eaa99d02a43f69733 (1912815 txs) - 1250 ETH 8464ba8c33260c70c9ab03487bee8a0dda35d383 (947176 txs) - 625 ETH 082d4cdf07f386ffa9258f52a5c49db4ac321ec6 (837307 txs) - 375 ETH 970f4f9eb29e8831514a3ff9b8eb2bb860d4731c (831275 txs) - 250 ETH Lowest address at block 848081 keywords: block; eth cache: blog-olympic-rewards-announced.html plain text: blog-olympic-rewards-announced.txt item: #279 of 458 id: blog-on-abstraction author: blog title: On Abstraction | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 4193 flesch: 57 summary: Currency if msg.value > 100 * 10**18: if not self.domains[_name].owner: self.domains[_name].owner = msg.sender With a sub-currency, there is no such clear mechanism of tying together a message and a payment for that message. keywords: code; currency; ethereum; gas; transaction; trie; value cache: blog-on-abstraction.html plain text: blog-on-abstraction.txt item: #280 of 458 id: blog-on-anti-pre-revelation-games author: blog title: On Anti-Pre-Revelation Games | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 2232 flesch: 49 summary: Note that such events are a complicated issue in any case; failure modes such as everyone centralizing on one particular exchange are very likely to arise even in simple Sztorcian schemes without this kind of probabilistic griefing. Perhaps the largest one is that it opens up an opportunity to second-order grief other players: although one cannot, in expectation, force other players to lose money to this scheme, one can certainly expose them to risk by betting against them. keywords: scheme; users; vote cache: blog-on-anti-pre-revelation-games.html plain text: blog-on-anti-pre-revelation-games.txt item: #281 of 458 id: blog-on-long-term-cryptocurrency-distribution-models author: blog title: On Long-Term Cryptocurrency Distribution Models | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 3341 flesch: 53 summary: One can have a parliament, or a futarchy, select useful proof of work algorithms or even data for specific useful proof of work algorithms, or one can have a parliament or futarchy with useful proof of work as its voting mechanism. Useful proof-of-work: hand out coins to anyone who performs a particular socially useful computation, eg. weather prediction. keywords: algorithm; data; distribution; mining; proof; work cache: blog-on-long-term-cryptocurrency-distribution-models.html plain text: blog-on-long-term-cryptocurrency-distribution-models.txt item: #282 of 458 id: blog-on-public-and-private-blockchains author: blog title: On Public and Private Blockchains | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1888 flesch: 39 summary: Improvements in public blockchain technology, such as Ethereum 1.0's uncle concept and later proof of stake, can bring public blockchains much closer to the instant confirmation ideal (eg. offering total finality after 15 seconds, rather than 99.9999% finality after two hours as does Bitcoin), but even still private blockchains will always be faster and the latency difference will never disappear as unfortunately the speed of light does not increase by 2x every two years by Moore's law. The advantages of public blockchains generally fall into two major categories: Public blockchains provide a way to protect the users of an application from the developers, establishing that there are certain things that even the developers of an application have no authority to do. keywords: blockchains; consortium; program; proof; public cache: blog-on-public-and-private-blockchains.html plain text: blog-on-public-and-private-blockchains.txt item: #283 of 458 id: blog-on-slow-and-fast-block-times author: blog title: On Slow and Fast Block Times | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 2789 flesch: 49 summary: Note: this article will not go into depth on the centralization risks associated with fast block times; centralization risks are a major concern, and are the primary reason not to push block times all the way down to 1 second despite the benefits, and are discussed at much more length in this previous article; the purpose of this article is to explain why fast block times are desirable at all. Script here Note that for fast block times, we do have to make an adjustment because the stale rates are higher, and we do this in the above graph: we set X = 0.25 for the 600s blockchain and X = 0.28 for the 17s blockchain. keywords: block; blockchain; probability; security cache: blog-on-slow-and-fast-block-times.html plain text: blog-on-slow-and-fast-block-times.txt item: #284 of 458 id: blog-on-transaction-fees-and-the-fallacy-of-market-based-solutions author: blog title: On Transaction Fees, And The Fallacy of Market-Based Solutions | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 2314 flesch: 58 summary: The resource is the service of transaction processing, and the people benefitting from the resource, the transaction senders, are also the buyers paying transaction fees. The reason why transaction fees need to be high is because that 0.00001worthofelectricityanddatastorage. keywords: fees; miners; protocol; set; transaction cache: blog-on-transaction-fees-and-the-fallacy-of-market-based-solutions.html plain text: blog-on-transaction-fees-and-the-fallacy-of-market-based-solutions.txt item: #285 of 458 id: blog-p-epsilon-attack author: blog title: The P + epsilon Attack | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1941 flesch: 51 summary: Further Consequences Given the sheer number of cryptoeconomic mechanisms that SchellingCoin makes possible, and the importance of such schemes in nearly all purely trust-free attempts to forge any kind of link between the cryptographic world and the real world, this attack poses a potential serious threat - although, as we will later see, Schelling schemes as a category are ultimately partially salvageable. Hence, in order to overcome such a mechanism, one would need to be able to prove that one is capable of pulling off a 51% attack, and perhaps we may simply be comfortable with assuming that attackers of that size do not exist. keywords: attacker; vote cache: blog-p-epsilon-attack.html plain text: blog-p-epsilon-attack.txt item: #286 of 458 id: blog-programming-society-with-asm-gavin-wood-at-assembly-2014 author: blog title: Programming Society with Asm: Gavin Wood at Assembly 2014 | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 123 flesch: 24 summary: | Ethereum Foundation Blog EF Blog Search Skip to contentCategories R&D Research & Development Events Events Org Organizational ESP Ecosystem Support Program ETH.org Ethereum.org Sec Security NxBn Next Billion Protocol Protocol Announcements Languages Search Programming Society with Asm: Gavin Wood at Assembly 2014 Posted by Stephan Tual on August 6, 2014 Research & Development Previous post Next post Subscribe to Protocol Announcements Sign up to receive email notifications for protocol-related announcements, such as network upgrades, FAQs or security issues. Sign up Ethereum Foundation • Ethereum.org • ESP • Bug Bounty Program • Do-not-Track • Archive Categories Research & Development • Events • Organizational • Ecosystem Support Program • Ethereum.org • Security • Next Billion • Protocol Announcements keywords: protocol cache: blog-programming-society-with-asm-gavin-wood-at-assembly-2014.html plain text: blog-programming-society-with-asm-gavin-wood-at-assembly-2014.txt item: #287 of 458 id: blog-proof-stake-learned-love-weak-subjectivity author: blog title: Proof of Stake: How I Learned to Love Weak Subjectivity | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 3691 flesch: 52 summary: Although the idea has many undeniable benefits, including efficiency, a larger security margin and future-proof immunity to hardware centralization concerns, proof of stake algorithms tend to be substantially more complex than proof of work-based alternatives, and there is a large amount of skepticism that proof of stake can work at all, particularly with regard to the supposedly fundamental nothing at stake problem. Altogether, we now know for certain that (i) proof of stake algorithms can be made secure, and weak subjectivity is both sufficient and necessary as a fundamental change in the security model to sidestep nothing-at-stake concerns to accomplish this goal, and (ii) there are substantial economic reasons to believe that proof of stake actually is much more economically efficient than proof of work. keywords: consensus; network; proof; security; set; stake; work cache: blog-proof-stake-learned-love-weak-subjectivity.html plain text: blog-proof-stake-learned-love-weak-subjectivity.txt item: #288 of 458 id: blog-pyethereum-and-serpent-programming-guide author: blog title: Pyethereum and Serpent Programming Guide | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 3893 flesch: 58 summary: Contract code theoretically has three places to put data: stack, memory and storage. X, D and C are registered in contract storage indices 1002, 1003 and 1004. keywords: code; contract; data; ether; pyethtool; serpent; storage; value cache: blog-pyethereum-and-serpent-programming-guide.html plain text: blog-pyethereum-and-serpent-programming-guide.txt item: #289 of 458 id: blog-scalability-part-1-building-top author: blog title: Scalability, Part 1: Building on Top | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 3049 flesch: 55 summary: Generally, the main source of randomness used in Ethereum is block hashes; because micropayments are low-value applications, and because the different nonce on each transaction ensures that a block hash is extremely unlikely to favor any particular user in any particular way, block hashes will likely be sufficient for this purpose - however, we need to make sure we grab a specific block hash rather than simply the block hash when a request is sent (using the block hash when a request is sent also works, but less well, since the sender and receiver have an incentive to try to disrupt each other's attempts to send claim transactions during blocks that are unfavorable to them). When the channel process is done, and the recipient wants to cash out, he must simply take the signed [id, value, v, r, s] packet (the v,r,s triple being an elliptic curve signature) and push it to the blockchain as transaction data, and the contract verifies the signature. keywords: block; ethereum; transaction; value cache: blog-scalability-part-1-building-top.html plain text: blog-scalability-part-1-building-top.txt item: #290 of 458 id: blog-scalability-part-2-hypercubes author: blog title: Scalability, Part 2: Hypercubes | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 5633 flesch: 57 summary: One option is to keep track of the number of transactions per substate, and once the number of transactions per substate exceeds the number of substates we can simply add a dimension to the cube (ie. The miners on other substates don't know that the attacker's blocks are invalid, because they have no knowledge of the state of the captured substate, so at first glance it seems as though they might blindly accept them. keywords: block; chain; challenge; header; messages; miners; protocol; substate cache: blog-scalability-part-2-hypercubes.html plain text: blog-scalability-part-2-hypercubes.txt item: #291 of 458 id: blog-scalability-part-3-metacoin-history-multichain author: blog title: Scalability, Part 3: On Metacoin History and Multichain | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 3779 flesch: 50 summary: Different chains can use different currencies, using stable-coins to provide a reasonably consistent cross-chain unit of value (and, of course, these stable-coins can themselves interact with other chains that implement various kinds of endogenous and exogenous estimators). Each chain would outsource the key part of consensus to one or more voting mechanisms on other chains, and these mechanisms would be organized in different ways to make sure they're as incorruptible as possible. keywords: bitcoin; block; blockchain; chain; ethereum; security; vote cache: blog-scalability-part-3-metacoin-history-multichain.html plain text: blog-scalability-part-3-metacoin-history-multichain.txt item: #292 of 458 id: blog-schellingcoin-a-minimal-trust-universal-data-feed author: blog title: SchellingCoin: A Minimal-Trust Universal Data Feed | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 2863 flesch: 55 summary: Thanks to the magic of Ethereum contracts, she can make a CFD that automatically listens to her account balance and retargets itself to her balance, forcing the speculator to assume whatever exposure she needs (within limits), and the speculator will participate in many such contracts to even out their exposure Sort the correctly submitted values (if many values are the same, have a secondary sort by H(N+PREVHASH+ADDR) wherePREVHASH is the hash of the last block) Every user who submitted a correctly submitted value between the 25th and 75th percentile gains a reward of N tokens (which we’ll call “schells”) keywords: btc; eth; protocol; schellingcoin; value cache: blog-schellingcoin-a-minimal-trust-universal-data-feed.html plain text: blog-schellingcoin-a-minimal-trust-universal-data-feed.txt item: #293 of 458 id: blog-search-stable-cryptocurrency author: blog title: The Search for a Stable Cryptocurrency | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 5011 flesch: 50 summary: Of course, this is only the beginning of endogenous price estimator theory; a more thorough analysis involving dozens of cryptocurrencies will likely go much further. The Search for a Stable Cryptocurrency | Ethereum Foundation Blog EF Blog Search Skip to contentCategories R&D Research & Development Events Events Org Organizational ESP Ecosystem Support Program ETH.org Ethereum.org Sec Security NxBn Next Billion Protocol Protocol Announcements Languages Search The Search for a Stable Cryptocurrency Posted by Vitalik Buterin on November 11, 2014 Research & Development Special thanks to Robert Sams for the development of Seignorage Shares and insights regarding how to correctly value volatile coins in multi-currency systems Note: we are not planning on adding price stabilization to ether; our philosophy has always been to keep ether simple to minimize black-swan risks. keywords: coins; currency; estimator; price; supply; system; value; vol cache: blog-search-stable-cryptocurrency.html plain text: blog-search-stable-cryptocurrency.txt item: #294 of 458 id: blog-secret-sharing-daos-crypto-2-0 author: blog title: Secret Sharing DAOs: The Other Crypto 2.0 | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 6115 flesch: 58 summary: The first is secret sharing. Secret sharing essentially allows data to be stored in a decentralized way across N parties such that any K parties can work together to reconstruct the data, but K-1 parties cannot recover any information at all. keywords: = =; dao; point; protocol; secret; sharing; stack[stack_size cache: blog-secret-sharing-daos-crypto-2-0.html plain text: blog-secret-sharing-daos-crypto-2-0.txt item: #295 of 458 id: blog-secret-sharing-erasure-coding-guide-aspiring-dropbox-decentralizer author: blog title: Secret Sharing and Erasure Coding: A Guide for the Aspiring Dropbox Decentralizer | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 6877 flesch: 65 summary: In the context of file storage, there are two kinds of activities that you can incentivize. [-7.0, 12.0, -4.5, 0.5] > share.berlekamp_welch_attempt([1.0, 3.0, 2.0, 1.0, 3.0, 0.0], [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6], 3) [-7.0, 12.0, -4.5, 0.5] Now, as I mentioned, this mathematical trickery is not really all that needed for file storage; the simpler approach of storing hashes and discarding any piece that does not match the recorded hash works just fine. keywords: chunks; file; polynomial; proof; protocol; redundancy cache: blog-secret-sharing-erasure-coding-guide-aspiring-dropbox-decentralizer.html plain text: blog-secret-sharing-erasure-coding-guide-aspiring-dropbox-decentralizer.txt item: #296 of 458 id: blog-security-advisory-eth-cpp-ethereum-potentially-vulnerable-if-running-with-upnp-enabled author: blog title: Security Advisory [eth (cpp-ethereum) potentially vulnerable if running with UPnP enabled] | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 219 flesch: 30 summary: MediumSeverity: HighImpact: Potentially achieve remote code execution on a machine running eth (cpp-ethereum)Details:A vulnerability found in the MiniUPnP library can potentially affect eth clients running with UPnP enabled. Effects on expected chain reorganisation depth: noneRemedial action taken by Ethereum: Previous post Next post Subscribe to Protocol Announcements Sign up to receive email notifications for protocol-related announcements, such as network upgrades, FAQs or security issues. keywords: ethereum cache: blog-security-advisory-eth-cpp-ethereum-potentially-vulnerable-if-running-with-upnp-enabled.html plain text: blog-security-advisory-eth-cpp-ethereum-potentially-vulnerable-if-running-with-upnp-enabled.txt item: #297 of 458 id: blog-security-advisory-implementations-bugs-in-go-and-python-clients-can-cause-dos author: blog title: Security Advisory [Implementation bugs in Go and Python clients can cause DoS – Fixed – Please update clients] | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 414 flesch: 43 summary: [Implementation bugs in Go and Python clients can cause DoS – Fixed – Please update clients] Posted by Jutta Steiner on September 2, 2015 Security State transition and consensus issue in geth client causes panic (crash) when processing a (valid) block with a specific combination of transactions, which may cause overall network instability if block is accepted and relayed by unaffected clients thus causing a DoS. Proposed temporary workaround: Switch to unaffected client such as eth (C++). keywords: clients; security cache: blog-security-advisory-implementations-bugs-in-go-and-python-clients-can-cause-dos.html plain text: blog-security-advisory-implementations-bugs-in-go-and-python-clients-can-cause-dos.txt item: #298 of 458 id: blog-security-alert-1-windowsalethzero-2 author: blog title: Security Alert 1 [windows+alethzero] | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 351 flesch: 51 summary: Workaround: Users of AlethZero version 0.9.39 and earlier should NOT use the “Claim Presale Wallet” function; users of AlethZero and eth versions 0.9.39 and earlier should not attempt to mine or receive funds into their addresses. Previous post Next post Subscribe to Protocol Announcements Sign up to receive email notifications for protocol-related announcements, such as network upgrades, FAQs or security issues. keywords: security; users cache: blog-security-alert-1-windowsalethzero-2.html plain text: blog-security-alert-1-windowsalethzero-2.txt item: #299 of 458 id: blog-security-alert-consensus-issue author: blog title: Security alert [consensus issue] | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 539 flesch: 54 summary: Security alert [consensus issue] | Ethereum Foundation Blog EF Blog Search Skip to contentCategories R&D Research & Development Events Events Org Organizational ESP Ecosystem Support Program ETH.org Ethereum.org Sec Security NxBn Next Billion Protocol Protocol Announcements Languages Search Security alert [consensus issue] Posted by Jutta Steiner on August 20, 2015 Security This alert is related to a consensus issue that occurred on the Frontier network at block 116,522, mined on 2015-08-20 at 14:59:16+02:00 – Issue has been fixed, see Fix below. Impact: High Issue description: State database consensus issue in geth with deletion of account data, which could happen during SUICIDE instructions. keywords: fix; issue cache: blog-security-alert-consensus-issue.html plain text: blog-security-alert-consensus-issue.txt item: #300 of 458 id: blog-security-alert-implementation-bug-in-go-clients-causing-increase-in-difficulty-fixed-miners-check-and-update-go-clients-if-necessary author: blog title: Security Alert – [Implementation bug in Go clients causing increase in difficulty – Fixed – Miners check and update Go clients] | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 345 flesch: 22 summary: Security Alert – [Implementation bug in Go clients causing increase in difficulty – Fixed – Miners check and update Go clients] | Ethereum Foundation Blog EF Blog Search Skip to contentCategories R&D Research & Development Events Events Org Organizational ESP Ecosystem Support Program ETH.org Ethereum.org Sec Security NxBn Next Billion Protocol Protocol Announcements Languages Search Security Alert – [Implementation bug in Go clients causing increase in difficulty – Fixed – Miners check and update Go clients] Posted by Jutta Steiner on September 3, 2015 Security Implementation bug in the go client leads to steady increase of difficulty independent of hashing power. Affected configurations: All Go client versions v1.0.x, v1.1.x, release and develop branches. keywords: bug; increase cache: blog-security-alert-implementation-bug-in-go-clients-causing-increase-in-difficulty-fixed-miners-check-and-update-go-clients-if-necessary.html plain text: blog-security-alert-implementation-bug-in-go-clients-causing-increase-in-difficulty-fixed-miners-check-and-update-go-clients-if-necessary.txt item: #301 of 458 id: blog-security-alert-implementation-of-blockhash-instruction-in-c-and-go-clients-can-potentially-cause-consensus-issue-fixed-please-update author: blog title: Security alert [Implementation of BLOCKHASH instruction in C++ and Go clients can potentially cause consensus issue – Fixed. Please update.] | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 346 flesch: 33 summary: This edge case is very unlikely to happen on a live network as it would only be triggered in certain types of chain reorganisations (a contract executing BLOCKHASH(N - 1) where N is the head of a non-canonical subchain that is not-yet reorganised to become the canonical (best/longest) chain but will be after the block is processed). Effects on expected chain reorganisation depth: none Remedial action taken by Ethereum: Provision of hotfixes as below. keywords: protocol; security cache: blog-security-alert-implementation-of-blockhash-instruction-in-c-and-go-clients-can-potentially-cause-consensus-issue-fixed-please-update.html plain text: blog-security-alert-implementation-of-blockhash-instruction-in-c-and-go-clients-can-potentially-cause-consensus-issue-fixed-please-update.txt item: #302 of 458 id: blog-security-alert-insecurely-configured-geth-can-make-funds-remotely-accessible author: blog title: Security Advisory [Insecurely configured geth can make funds remotely accessible] | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 489 flesch: 47 summary: This is the default value to only allow connections originating on the local computer; remote RPC connections are disabled --unlock. Security Advisory [Insecurely configured geth can make funds remotely accessible] | Ethereum Foundation Blog EF Blog Search Skip to contentCategories R&D Research & Development Events Events Org Organizational ESP Ecosystem Support Program ETH.org Ethereum.org Sec Security NxBn Next Billion Protocol Protocol Announcements Languages Search Security Advisory [Insecurely configured geth can make funds remotely accessible] Posted by Jutta Steiner on August 29, 2015 Security Insecurely configured Ethereum clients with no firewall and unlocked accounts can lead to funds being accessed remotely by attackers. keywords: rpc; security cache: blog-security-alert-insecurely-configured-geth-can-make-funds-remotely-accessible.html plain text: blog-security-alert-insecurely-configured-geth-can-make-funds-remotely-accessible.txt item: #303 of 458 id: blog-security-alert-previous-security-patch-can-lead-to-invalid-state-root-on-go-clients-with-a-specific-transaction-sequence-fixed-please-update author: blog title: Security Alert – [Previous security patch can lead to invalid state root on Go clients with a specific transaction sequence – Fixed. Please update.] | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 322 flesch: 35 summary: Likelihood: Low Severity: High Impact: High Details: Go ethereum client does not correctly restore state of execution environment when a transaction goes out-of-gas if - within the same block - a contract was suicided. Posted by Jutta Steiner on September 10, 2015 Security   Summary: Implementation bug in the go client may lead to invalid state Affected client versions: Latest (unpatched) versions of Go client; v1.1.2, v1.0.4 tags and develop, master branches before September 9. keywords: protocol; security cache: blog-security-alert-previous-security-patch-can-lead-to-invalid-state-root-on-go-clients-with-a-specific-transaction-sequence-fixed-please-update.html plain text: blog-security-alert-previous-security-patch-can-lead-to-invalid-state-root-on-go-clients-with-a-specific-transaction-sequence-fixed-please-update.txt item: #304 of 458 id: blog-serpent-upgrades-more-fun-stuff author: blog title: Serpent upgrades: More Fun Stuff | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1382 flesch: 66 summary: This allows us to have contract initialization code, but still keep to the same format of [nonce, price, gas, to, value, data] for both transactions and contract creation, also making it easier to create new contracts via forwarding contracts Reordering transaction and contract data: the order is now [nonce, price, gas, to, value, data] in transactions and [gas, to, value, datain, datainsz, dataout, dataoutsz] in messages. Running serpent compile outer.se gives you a nice piece of compiled code that returns 3 if the msg.data[0] argument is equal to one. keywords: code; contract; stack cache: blog-serpent-upgrades-more-fun-stuff.html plain text: blog-serpent-upgrades-more-fun-stuff.txt item: #305 of 458 id: blog-silos author: blog title: On Silos | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 2914 flesch: 45 summary: Cryptocurrency projects generally all build a blockchain, a currency and a client of their own, although forking a single client is common for the less innovative cases. Particularly, consider some of the following claims, all of which I believe in, but which are in many cases a substantial departure from the philosophies of many other people and projects: I do not think that weak subjectivity is all that much of a problem. keywords: bitcoin; blockchain; cryptocurrency; ecosystem; ethereum; people cache: blog-silos.html plain text: blog-silos.txt item: #306 of 458 id: blog-slasher-a-punitive-proof-of-stake-algorithm author: blog title: Slasher: A Punitive Proof-of-Stake Algorithm | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1666 flesch: 63 summary: At block K+2000, miners with signing privileges from block K have the opportunity to sign the block. If B can add blocks on top of K2 faster than the entire legitimate network can create blocks on top of K1, the K2 blockchain will win – and it will be as if the payment from A to B had never happened. keywords: block; proof; stake; work cache: blog-slasher-a-punitive-proof-of-stake-algorithm.html plain text: blog-slasher-a-punitive-proof-of-stake-algorithm.txt item: #307 of 458 id: blog-slasher-ghost-developments-proof-stake author: blog title: Slasher Ghost, and Other Developments in Proof of Stake | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 5523 flesch: 53 summary: If a potential signer for block N + 3000 wants to become a designated signer for that block, they must send a special transaction accepting this responsibility and that transaction must get included between blocks N + 1 and N If a potential signer for block N + 3000 wants to become a signer, they must send a special transaction accepting this responsibility and supplying a deposit, and that transaction must get included between blocks N + 1 and N + 64. keywords: block; chain; proof; set; signers; stake cache: blog-slasher-ghost-developments-proof-stake.html plain text: blog-slasher-ghost-developments-proof-stake.txt item: #308 of 458 id: blog-software-bounded-rationality author: blog title: Software and Bounded Rationality | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 5339 flesch: 51 summary: Thus, the BAR model assumes three types of actors: Altruistic - altruistic actors always follow the protocol Rational - rational actors follow the protocol if it suits them, and do not follow the protocol if it does not Byzantine - Byzantine actors are all conspiring to screw you over In practice, protocol developers tend to be uncomfortable assuming any specific nonzero quantity of altruism, so the model that many protocols are judged by is the even harsher BR model; protocols that survive under BR are said to be incentive-compatible (anything that survives under BR survives under BAR, since an altruist is guaranteed to be at least as good for the health of the protocol as anyone else as benefitting the protocol is their explicit objective). The reason why such an outcome has a large chance of not happening is simply the fact that users follow defaults, and by default users will use StorJ with StorJcoin since that is what the client will promote, and the original StorJ client and website and ecosystem is the one that will get all the attention. keywords: bitcoin; block; btc; case; model; protocol; software; system; users cache: blog-software-bounded-rationality.html plain text: blog-software-bounded-rationality.txt item: #309 of 458 id: blog-stake author: blog title: On Stake | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 4945 flesch: 53 summary: In a naive proof of stake system, however, the only thing that each chain is aware of is itself; hence, one can intuitively see that this makes such systems more flimsy and less stable. In all of the proof of stake systems that I described above, the incentive is obvious, and unfortunately fundamental: because whoever is producing blocks needs an incentive to participate in the process, they benefit if they include a block in as many forks as possible. keywords: block; chain; cost; mining; proof; stake; transaction cache: blog-stake.html plain text: blog-stake.txt item: #310 of 458 id: blog-state-ethereum-august-edition author: blog title: State of Ethereum: August Edition | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 3227 flesch: 55 summary: The hash of a block is now the hash of the header, and not the entire block (which is how it really should have been all along), the code hash for accounts with no code is instead of sha3() (making all non-contract accounts 32 bytes more efficient), and the to address for contract creation transactions is now the empty string instead of twenty zero bytes. Suppose that there exists some operation or data structure that we want Ethereum contracts to have access to, but which we can optimize by writing an implementation in C++ or machine code. keywords: code; contract; ethereum; gas; heap; time cache: blog-state-ethereum-august-edition.html plain text: blog-state-ethereum-august-edition.txt item: #311 of 458 id: blog-state-tree-pruning author: blog title: State Tree Pruning | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1794 flesch: 52 summary: Place the hashes of these nodes into a death row database in some kind of data structure so that the list can later be recalled by block number (specifically, block number N + X), and mark the node database entry itself as being deletion-worthy at block N + X. If a node that is on death row gets re-instated (a practical example of this is account X should be set as low as possible to conserve space, but setting X too low compromises robustness: once this technique is implemented, a node cannot revert back more than X blocks without essentially completely restarting synchronization. keywords: block; state; tree cache: blog-state-tree-pruning.html plain text: blog-state-tree-pruning.txt item: #312 of 458 id: blog-stateful-turing-complete-policies author: blog title: Stateful Turing-Complete Policies | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 2148 flesch: 46 summary: Rather than, at the protocol level, allowing users to specify a password, or providing a pre-selected set of providers, or even a standard which relies on talking to a server of the user's choice, allow access policies to be specified in code to be executed in a deterministic virtual machine (where the EVM is a good a start as any). This is the benefit of abstraction: account security policy design can become a self-contained field of study to itself, and whatever new solutions exist can instantly be applied everywhere. keywords: access; code; complete; policy; security cache: blog-stateful-turing-complete-policies.html plain text: blog-stateful-turing-complete-policies.txt item: #313 of 458 id: blog-stephans-ethereum-community-adoption-update-week-1 author: blog title: Ethereum Community and Adoption Update - Week 1 | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1598 flesch: 54 summary: We are working with wonderful locations around the globe, the vast majority of which started off as Ethereum meetups, to organize a worldwide hackathon with some great ETH prizes for the best dapps. Ian is the creator of most of the video materials you might have seen relating to Ethereum, including the superb video loop that has been a staple at many Ethereum meetups. keywords: adoption; community; efforts; ethereum; meetups cache: blog-stephans-ethereum-community-adoption-update-week-1.html plain text: blog-stephans-ethereum-community-adoption-update-week-1.txt item: #314 of 458 id: blog-subjectivity-exploitability-tradeoff author: blog title: The Subjectivity / Exploitability Tradeoff | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 4172 flesch: 51 summary: However, if P + epsilon attacks, profit-seeking 51% attacks, or any other kind of attack ever actually do become a problem with objective SchellingCoin mechanisms, the basic model stands ready as a substitute. Examples include internet-of-things/smart property applications (eg. SUVs), other cryptoeconomic mechanisms (eg. keywords: fork; mechanism; proof; protocol; schellingcoin; vote; work cache: blog-subjectivity-exploitability-tradeoff.html plain text: blog-subjectivity-exploitability-tradeoff.txt item: #315 of 458 id: blog-superrationality-daos author: blog title: Superrationality and DAOs | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 3393 flesch: 53 summary: However, anything related to information asymmetries falls squarely within the scope, and this scope is large indeed; as society becomes more and more complex, cheating will in many ways become progressively easier and easier to do and harder to police or even understand; the modern financial system is just one example. However, Wikileaks exists, and yet shadowy centralized organizations also continue to still exist and are in many cases still quite shadowy. keywords: daos; gain; human; leaky; organizations; people cache: blog-superrationality-daos.html plain text: blog-superrationality-daos.txt item: #316 of 458 id: blog-the-business-imperative-behind-the-ethereum-vision author: blog title: The Business Imperative Behind the Ethereum Vision | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 4714 flesch: 42 summary: Actually, a contrarian (but logical) view would be to think that Bitcoin needs Ethereum to succeed, because that increases the proof points and legitimacy for the viability of consensus-based applications development. So, if Ethereum development offers an advantage and you can exploit that, that's great. keywords: applications; bitcoin; blockchain; business; developers; development; ethereum; logic; network; software; technology cache: blog-the-business-imperative-behind-the-ethereum-vision.html plain text: blog-the-business-imperative-behind-the-ethereum-vision.txt item: #317 of 458 id: blog-the-end-of-the-beginning author: blog title: The end of the beginning… | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 610 flesch: 51 summary: We will give advice on what usage should maximise your chances of winning ether, though the precise judgement metrics will be withheld until prize time. Previous post Next post Subscribe to Protocol Announcements Sign up to receive email notifications for protocol-related announcements, such as network upgrades, FAQs or security issues. keywords: protocol; time cache: blog-the-end-of-the-beginning.html plain text: blog-the-end-of-the-beginning.txt item: #318 of 458 id: blog-the-ethereum-project author: blog title: the ethereum project: learning to dream with open minds | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1288 flesch: 60 summary: the ethereum project: learning to dream with open minds | Ethereum Foundation Blog EF Blog Search Skip to contentCategories R&D Research & Development Events Events Org Organizational ESP Ecosystem Support Program ETH.org Ethereum.org Sec Security NxBn Next Billion Protocol Protocol Announcements Languages Search the ethereum project: learning to dream with open minds Posted by Mihai Alisie on July 14, 2014 Research & Development “And those who were seen dancing were thought to be insane by those who could not hear the music.” We are learning to dream with open minds, just as we are dreaming with closed eyes. keywords: ethereum; project; technology cache: blog-the-ethereum-project.html plain text: blog-the-ethereum-project.txt item: #319 of 458 id: blog-the-evolution-of-ethereum author: blog title: The Evolution of Ethereum | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 2414 flesch: 27 summary: On the inside, we have Ethereum Foundation subsidiary developers building yet more block explorers and other tools in their spare time, and some developers are already working on implementing Ethereum-based lightning networks, identity and reputation systems, and more. Sign up Ethereum Foundation • Ethereum.org • ESP • Bug Bounty Program • Do-not-Track • Archive Categories Research & Development • Events • Organizational • Ecosystem Support Program • Ethereum.org • Security • Next Billion • Protocol Announcements keywords: blockchain; development; ecosystem; ethereum; foundation; subsidiaries; work cache: blog-the-evolution-of-ethereum.html plain text: blog-the-evolution-of-ethereum.txt item: #320 of 458 id: blog-the-issuance-model-in-ethereum author: blog title: The Issuance Model in Ethereum | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1039 flesch: 59 summary: Often, but not always, monetary inflation is a cause of price inflation. Monetary base inflation rate (light green curve) on the right axis. keywords: eth; inflation; year cache: blog-the-issuance-model-in-ethereum.html plain text: blog-the-issuance-model-in-ethereum.txt item: #321 of 458 id: blog-the-latest-evm-ethereum-is-a-trust-free-closure-system author: blog title: The Latest EVM: “Ethereum Is A Trust-Free Closure System” | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 2180 flesch: 59 summary: There is thus also a new RETURN opcode which allows contract execution to return data. Ether and Gas Another important change is this: contracts no longer pay for contract execution, transactions do. keywords: contract; ethereum; gas; transaction cache: blog-the-latest-evm-ethereum-is-a-trust-free-closure-system.html plain text: blog-the-latest-evm-ethereum-is-a-trust-free-closure-system.txt item: #322 of 458 id: blog-the-problem-of-censorship author: blog title: The Problem of Censorship | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 3161 flesch: 47 summary: However, transaction senders can make life much harder for censors still: they can create sets of transactions that create events that don't by themselves do anything, but do lead to the sender's desired consequence in combination with some other transaction that happens regularly (eg. Hence, transaction senders can be clever, and create a hundred transactions that create a hundred events, only all of which together create an event that accomplishes some particular action that is not desired by censors. keywords: block; blockchain; censorship; eth; price; transaction cache: blog-the-problem-of-censorship.html plain text: blog-the-problem-of-censorship.txt item: #323 of 458 id: blog-the-question-of-mining author: blog title: The Question of Mining | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1334 flesch: 55 summary: In the Bitcoin world, mining pools serve two key purposes. Every new nonce that the miner tries, the miner would have to repeat this process over again, with a new set of random transactions and modifications each time. keywords: ethereum; miner; mining cache: blog-the-question-of-mining.html plain text: blog-the-question-of-mining.txt item: #324 of 458 id: blog-the-thawing-frontier author: blog title: The Thawing Frontier | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 795 flesch: 60 summary: We’ll be operating with a 3M (3141592, or pi million as it's affectionately called) gas target per block going forward. Epoch switch in 2 hours Let’s start with a quick heads up to miners, the network will be switching epoch in roughly 2 hours. keywords: gas; protocol cache: blog-the-thawing-frontier.html plain text: blog-the-thawing-frontier.txt item: #325 of 458 id: blog-the-xbox-and-ethereums-dual-mandate author: blog title: The Xbox and Ethereum’s Dual Mandate | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1457 flesch: 45 summary: The Ethereum for-profit entity will be charged with the task of developing certain elements of the core infrastructure in collaboration with the non-profit entity and building out the Ecosystem with distributed application services and businesses that it develops itself, funds, or otherwise supports. an elegant, browser-and-app-store user interface for using ÐApps network nodes (miners) that process transactions and computations, secure the network through a consensus process and are compensated by fees and the issuance of new ether a standard set of “built-in” utility-level ÐApps: distributed wallet, distributed ID system, distributed reputation system, distributed messaging system, distributed name registry service, distributed catalog of distributed applications, etc., will serve as just a few of the low-level utilities on the system a standard set of built-in tools for both developer and end-user: blockchain explorer, contract explorer, transaction constructor, encrypted messaging tool, signature tool, authentication tool, …. keywords: development; ecosystem; ethereum; non; profit cache: blog-the-xbox-and-ethereums-dual-mandate.html plain text: blog-the-xbox-and-ethereums-dual-mandate.txt item: #326 of 458 id: blog-toward-a-12-second-block-time author: blog title: Toward a 12-second Block Time | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 4332 flesch: 63 summary: At 60 seconds per block, however, we get 12 / 60 = 0.2 stales per valid block or a stale rate of 16.67%. At 12 seconds per block, we get 12 / 12 = 1 stale per valid block, or a stale rate of 50%. keywords: block; chain; mining; score; time; uncles cache: blog-toward-a-12-second-block-time.html plain text: blog-toward-a-12-second-block-time.txt item: #327 of 458 id: blog-understanding-serenity-part-2-casper author: blog title: Understanding Serenity, Part 2: Casper | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 4074 flesch: 48 summary: Blocks, Chains and Consensus as Tug of War Another unique component of the way that Casper does things is that rather than consensus being by-chain as is the case with current proof of work protocols, consensus is by-block: the consensus process comes to a decision on the status of the block at each height independently of every other height. A bet should generally update a few very recent probabilities, block hashes and state roots, so most of the table will generally be unchanged. keywords: bet; bets; block; chain; consensus; protocol; validator cache: blog-understanding-serenity-part-2-casper.html plain text: blog-understanding-serenity-part-2-casper.txt item: #328 of 458 id: blog-understanding-serenity-part-i-abstraction author: blog title: Understanding Serenity, Part I: Abstraction | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 2989 flesch: 43 summary: Length of validation code: 57 Length of account code: 0 Joined with index 0 Length of validation code: 57 Length of account code: 0 Joined with index 1 Length of validation code: 57 This is a simulation of 13 nodes running the Casper+Serenity protocol at a 5-second block time; this is fairly close to the upper limit of what the client can handle at the moment, though note that (i) this is python, and C++ and Go will likely show much higher performance, and (ii) this is all nodes running on one computer at the same time, so in a more normal environment it means you can expect python Casper to be able to handle at least ~169 nodes (though, on the other hand, we want consensus overhead to be much less than 100% of CPU time, so these two caveats combined do NOT mean that you should expect to see Casper running with thousands of nodes!). Accounts will simply be trees; account code will be stored at key for each account (not mutable by SSTORE), balances will be stored in a specialized ether contract and sequence numbers will be left up to each account to determine how to store. keywords: account; block; code; contract; ethereum; serenity; transaction cache: blog-understanding-serenity-part-i-abstraction.html plain text: blog-understanding-serenity-part-i-abstraction.txt item: #329 of 458 id: blog-visions-part-1-the-value-of-blockchain-technology author: blog title: Visions, Part 1: The Value of Blockchain Technology | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 4664 flesch: 45 summary: To summarize: You can store data on them and that data is guaranteed to have a very high degree of availability You can run applications on them and be guaranteed an extremely high uptime You can run applications on them, and be guaranteed an extremely high uptime going very far into the future You can run applications on them, and convince your users that the application's logic is honest and is doing what you are advertising that it does You can run applications on them, and convince your users that your application will remain working even if you lose interest in maintaining it, you are bribed or threatened to manipulate the application state in some way, or you acquire a profit motive to manipulate the application state in some way You can run applications on them, and give yourself the backdoor key if it is absolutely necessary, BUT put constitutional limiations on your use of the key - for example, requiring a software update to pass through a public one-month waiting period before it can be introduced, or at the very least immediately notifying users of application updates You can run applications on them, and give a backdoor key to a particular governance algorithm (eg. voting, futarchy, some complicated multicameral parliament architecture), and convince your users that the particular governance algorithm in question is actually in control of the application You can run applications on them, and those applications can talk to each other with 100% reliability - even if the underlying platform has only 99.999% reliability Multiple users or companies can run applications on them, and those applications can interact with each other at extremely high speed without requiring any network messages, while at the same time ensuring that each company has total control over its own application You can build applications that very easily and efficiently take advantage of the data produced by other applications (eg. combining payments and reputation systems is perhaps the largest gain here) All of those things are valuable indirectly to billions of people around the world, potentially particularly in regions of the world where highly developed economic, financial and social infrastructure currently simply does not work at all (though technology will often need to be combined with political reforms to solve many of the problems), and blockchains are good at providing these properties. The reason is similar to why we do not have a concept of the distributed hash table community, and the database community, while existent, is really simply a set of computer scientists who happen to specialize in databases: blockchains are just one technology, and so ultimately the greatest progress can only be achieved by working on combination with a whole set of other set of decentralized (and decentralization-friendly) technologies: reputation systems, distributed hash tables, peer-to-peer hypermedia platforms, distributed messaging protocols, prediction markets, zero-knowledge proofs and likely many more that have not yet been discovered. keywords: applications; blockchain; data; key; people; reputation; use; world cache: blog-visions-part-1-the-value-of-blockchain-technology.html plain text: blog-visions-part-1-the-value-of-blockchain-technology.txt item: #330 of 458 id: blog-visions-part-2-the-problem-of-trust author: blog title: Visions, Part 2: The Problem of Trust | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 4547 flesch: 49 summary: The key promise of decentralized technology, under this viewpoint, is not to create systems that are even more trustworthy than current large institutions; if one simply looks at basic statistics in the developed world, one can see that many such systems can quite reasonably be described as being trustworthy enough, in that their annual rate of failure is sufficiently low that other factors dominate in the choice of which platform to use. In modern financial systems, particularly banks and trading systems, there exists a concept of settlement - essentially, a process after a transaction or trade is made the final result of which is that the assets that you bought actually become yours from a legal property-ownership standpoint. keywords: blockchain; model; people; set; system; time; trust; world cache: blog-visions-part-2-the-problem-of-trust.html plain text: blog-visions-part-2-the-problem-of-trust.txt item: #331 of 458 id: blog-vitaliks-research-and-ecosystem-update author: blog title: Vitalik’s Research and Ecosystem Update | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1709 flesch: 30 summary: Research and Protocol Development We have identified four key areas of research regarding the underlying protocol that we feel represent the key milestones standing in the way between Ethereum as it currently exists and crypto-utopia: zk-SNARK integration: integrating, whether through a new opcode or ideally by leveraging the EVM's existing 256-bit modular arithmetic, the ability for Ethereum contracts to verify succinct zero-knowledge proofs. Aside from this, research questions remain on middleware on top of Ethereum, including on-chain services, decentralized governance, identity and reputation, random number generation, formal verification for Solidity (we have found a talented team in London that is excited about starting to explore the subject) and prediction market implementations, as well as on projects that may live alongside Ethereum (eg. Whisper), though the foundation is leaving it to the community to do much of this extra work as we have deliberately undertaken a strategy of focusing on the core (and doing so in a very lightweight fashion). keywords: blockchain; development; ethereum; protocol; research cache: blog-vitaliks-research-and-ecosystem-update.html plain text: blog-vitaliks-research-and-ecosystem-update.txt item: #332 of 458 id: blog-what-if-ethereum-lived-on-a-treap-or-blockchains-charging-rent author: blog title: What If Ethereum Lived on a Treap? Or, Blockchains Charging Rent | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 2498 flesch: 61 summary: However, there is also another more subtle consequence: account nonce resets. Another improvement is the use of accounts instead of coins/UTXO as the fundamental unit, allowing each user to take up less than a hundred bytes on the blockchain regardless of how many transactions go in and out of their account. keywords: account; block; blockchain; node; treap cache: blog-what-if-ethereum-lived-on-a-treap-or-blockchains-charging-rent.html plain text: blog-what-if-ethereum-lived-on-a-treap-or-blockchains-charging-rent.txt item: #333 of 458 id: blog-what-is-ethereum-project-platform-fuel-stack author: blog title: What is Ethereum? Project, Platform, Fuel, Stack. | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 1643 flesch: 50 summary: The user interface will formulate Ethereum transactions and send these, with a suitable amount of the cryptofuel and any input data required, to the address of the controller interface of the ÐApp.   Like the BitTorrent content sharing system, Ethereum network nodes will run on thousands of computers around the world and, short of shutting down the Internet, its operations cannot be halted. keywords: end; ethereum; system; ðapp cache: blog-what-is-ethereum-project-platform-fuel-stack.html plain text: blog-what-is-ethereum-project-platform-fuel-stack.txt item: #334 of 458 id: blog-why-not-just-use-x-an-instructive-example-from-bitcoin author: blog title: Why Not Just Use X? An Instructive Example from Bitcoin | Ethereum Foundation Blog date: None words: 759 flesch: 45 summary: Doing this for an existing software package is arguably almost as hard as building an entirely new package from scratch; in fact, it may even be harder, since existing software packages often have more complexity than they need to in order to be feature-complete, whereas our alternatives do not – read the protobuf spec and compare it to the RLP spec to understand what I mean. This issue arises from several sources, one of them being OpenSSL’s willingness to accept and make sense of signatures with invalid encodings. keywords: development; protocol cache: blog-why-not-just-use-x-an-instructive-example-from-bitcoin.html plain text: blog-why-not-just-use-x-an-instructive-example-from-bitcoin.txt item: #335 of 458 id: brody-ideologies-2021 author: brody title: Ideologies and Imaginaries in Blockchain Communities: The Case of Ethereum date: 2024-09-13 words: 9796 flesch: 52 summary: 2), it was created to serve as a business model for other DAOs and as a venture capital fund aiming to serve and collect funds for Ethereum projects. In addition to the interviews we conducted at Devcon IV, the conference dem- onstrated the sheer scope of possibilities for Ethereum use, such as Islamic finance, helping sex workers stay safe, and implementing tools of resistance in Venezuela. keywords: bitcoin; blockchain; case; computer; currency; design; ethereum; ideologies; imaginaries; new; url; world cache: brody-ideologies-2021.pdf plain text: brody-ideologies-2021.txt item: #336 of 458 id: buterin-ethereum-2014 author: buterin title: Ethereum: A Next-Generation Smart Contract and Decentralized Application Platform. date: 2022-02-02 words: 14153 flesch: 50 summary: Bitcoin allows multisignature transaction contracts where, for example, three out of a given five keys can spend the funds. ● Metacoins - the idea behind a metacoin is to have a protocol that lives on top of Bitcoin, using Bitcoin transactions to store metacoin transactions but having a different state transition function, APPLY'. keywords: account; bitcoin; block; blockchain; code; contract; data; ethereum; ethereum.org; miner; mining; nodes; page; protocol; state; system; transaction; value cache: buterin-ethereum-2014.pdf plain text: buterin-ethereum-2014.txt item: #337 of 458 id: vitalik-99_fault_tolerant author: vitalik title: A Guide to 99% Fault Tolerant Consensus date: None words: 2004 flesch: 61 summary: At this point, there is a guarantee that honest nodes have all validly seen the same set of values. It could also be modified to be usable as a proof-of-work blockchain, by allowing consensus-participating nodes to declare themselves in real time by publishing a proof of work solution on top of their public key at th same time as signing a message with it. keywords: consensus; nodes; time cache: vitalik-99_fault_tolerant.html plain text: vitalik-99_fault_tolerant.txt item: #338 of 458 id: vitalik-On_Collusion_DE author: vitalik title: Über Kollusion date: None words: 4109 flesch: 48 summary: Die meisten DPOS-Schemen haben eine begrenzte Anzahl von delegierten Slots mit Null-Belohnungen für alle, die nicht genug Stimmen erhalten, um einem der Slots beizutreten - mit ähnlicher Wirkung. ihn durch einen anderen Schlüssel der Wahl des Eigentümers ersetzt und das alles in einer Weise, die nicht bewiesen werden kann. keywords: aber; als; auch; auf; das; dass; dem; den; der; des; die; diese; durch; eine; für; gibt; haben; hat; ist; kann; können; mechanismus; mit; nicht; nur; oder; sehr; sich; sie; sind; system; token; und; von; wenn; werden; wie; wird; zum cache: vitalik-On_Collusion_DE.html plain text: vitalik-On_Collusion_DE.txt item: #339 of 458 id: vitalik-On_Collusion_IT author: vitalik title: Situazioni di collusione date: None words: 4319 flesch: 49 summary: L'obiettivo ideale di un sistema di identità è rendere relativamente facile per gli individui ottenere un'identità, ma relativamente difficile ottenerne molte. Un altro possibile esempio di futarchia è un sistema di governance per un progetto con un token, dove chi vota a favore di una decisione sia obbligato ad acquistare una certa quantità di token al prezzo fissato al momento dell'inizio della votazione se il voto risulta vincente; questo fa sì che un voto per una decisione sbagliata sia costoso, e nel limite, se una cattiva decisione ottiene un voto, chiunque abbia approvato la decisione deve essenzialmente rilevare tutti gli altri partecipanti al progetto. keywords: account; anche; che; collusione; come; con; cui; dei; della; donut; esempio; essere; giochi; gli; identità; meccanismo; modo; molto; nel; non; più; possono; problema; può; questo; sistema; sono; token; una; voti; voto cache: vitalik-On_Collusion_IT.html plain text: vitalik-On_Collusion_IT.txt item: #340 of 458 id: vitalik-On_Collusion_Polish author: vitalik title: Zmowa date: None words: 3680 flesch: 55 summary: Rynki konkurencyjne są całkiem odporne na zmowy do stosunkowo wysokiej wartości granicznej, która w niektórych przypadkach jest łatwo osiągalna, a w innych nie. Zmowa Biorąc pod uwagę, że tak wiele mechanizmów wydaje się podobnie zawodzić, kiedy w grę wchodzi wiele tożsamości lub nawet płynnych rynków, można zapytać, czy istnieje jakiś głęboki wspólny aspekt, który powoduje te wszystkie problemy? Twierdzę, że odpowiedź brzmi „tak, a „wspólny aspekt jest następujący: o wiele trudniejsze, a zapewne wręcz niemożliwe jest stworzenie mechanizmów, które zachowują pożądane właściwości w modelu, w którym uczestnicy mogą się zmawiać, niż w modelu, w którym nie mogą. keywords: aby; ale; bardziej; bardzo; być; dla; gier; głosowania; głosów; istnieje; jak; jest; jeśli; każdy; który; lub; mechanizm; mogą; może; można; nawet; nie; niż; poparcia; przez; również; się; społeczności; systemy; tak; tego; tożsamości; treści; tym; wiele; zmowy; łapówki cache: vitalik-On_Collusion_Polish.html plain text: vitalik-On_Collusion_Polish.txt item: #341 of 458 id: vitalik-On_Collusion_Portuguese author: vitalik title: Na colusão date: None words: 4320 flesch: 43 summary: O segundo é tentar atacar directamente os problemas de identidade e de resistência de conluio e na verdade resolvê-los bem o suficiente para que possamos implementar jogos não-seguros com as propriedades mais ricas que eles oferecem. Uma maneira de fazer isso é fazer um mecanismo através do qual o proprietário de uma chave pode enviar uma transação que revoga a chave e a substitui por outra chave da escolha do proprietário, de uma forma que não pode ser provada. keywords: apenas; com; como; dos; eles; exemplo; fazer; identidade; jogos; mais; mas; mecanismo; moedas; muito; não; onde; para; podem; por; que; ser; sistema; suborno; são; também; uma; usuário; você; votos cache: vitalik-On_Collusion_Portuguese.html plain text: vitalik-On_Collusion_Portuguese.txt item: #342 of 458 id: vitalik-a_note_on_charity author: vitalik title: A Note On Charity Through Marginal Price Discrimination date: None words: 1130 flesch: 60 summary: The next stage is to make the scheme recursive - being or working for a merchant that offers lower prices to holders of green stickers is itself enough to merit you a green sticker, albeit one that is of lower potency and gives you a lower discount. As far as implementation goes, this requires: A standard for stickers, including wallets where people can hold stickers Payment systems that have support for charging lower prices to sticker holders included At least a few sticker-issuing organizations (the lowest overhead is likely to be issuing stickers for charity donations, and for easily verifiable online content, eg. open source software and blogs) keywords: prices; profit cache: vitalik-a_note_on_charity.html plain text: vitalik-a_note_on_charity.txt item: #343 of 458 id: vitalik-backpack author: vitalik title: My 40-liter backpack travel guide date: None words: 2887 flesch: 73 summary: I have a T-shirt bag, an underwear bag, a sock bag, a toiletries bag, a dirty-laundry bag, a medicine bag, a laptop bag, and various small bags inside the inner compartment of my backpack, which all fit into a 40-liter Hynes Eagle backpack. My sock bag is currently larger than my underwear bag, and only a bit smaller than my T-shirt bag: both a sign of the challenge of finding good socks, and a testament to Uniqlo's amazing Airism T-shirts. keywords: backpack; bag; cm3; laptop; socks; uniqlo cache: vitalik-backpack.html plain text: vitalik-backpack.txt item: #344 of 458 id: vitalik-biometric author: vitalik title: What do I think about biometric proof of personhood? date: None words: 6782 flesch: 55 summary: [2] is a much bigger risk for Worldcoin than for Proof of Humanity (or BrightID), because Worldcoin depends on specialized hardware and other systems do not. On the whole, despite the dystopian vibez of staring into an Orb and letting it scan deeply into your eyeballs, it does seem like specialized hardware systems can do quite a decent job of protecting privacy. keywords: graph; hardware; humanity; iris; orb; people; personhood; proof; system; worldcoin cache: vitalik-biometric.html plain text: vitalik-biometric.txt item: #345 of 458 id: vitalik-bullveto author: vitalik title: The bulldozer vs vetocracy political axis date: None words: 1253 flesch: 43 summary: And if the vetocracy vs bulldozer axis is anything like the libertarian vs authoritarian axis, it's inevitably going to have internal subtleties and contradictions: much like a free society will see people voluntarily joining internally autocratic corporations (yes, even lots of people who are totally not economically desperate make such choices), many movements will be vetocratic internally but bulldozery in their relationship with the outside world. The vetocracy vs bulldozer axis, on the other hand, continues to map to non-governmental structures quite well - potentially making it very relevant in discussing these new kinds of non-governmental structures that are becoming increasingly important. keywords: bulldozer; people; vetocracy cache: vitalik-bullveto.html plain text: vitalik-bullveto.txt item: #346 of 458 id: vitalik-cbc_casper author: vitalik title: A CBC Casper Tutorial date: None words: 2427 flesch: 65 summary: CBC Casper is designed to be fundamentally very versatile and abstract, and come to consensus on pretty much any data structure; you can use CBC to decide whether to choose 0 or 1, you can make a simple block-by-block chain run on top of CBC, or a \(2^{92}\)-dimensional hypercube tangle DAG, and pretty much anything in between. Hence, all four of the validators are in a position where they cannot change their minds unless two other validators change their minds first to bring the score to 2-3 in favor of \(B\)'s block. keywords: block; chain; rule; validators cache: vitalik-cbc_casper.html plain text: vitalik-cbc_casper.txt item: #347 of 458 id: vitalik-central_planning author: vitalik title: [Mirror] Central Planning as Overfitting date: None words: 3494 flesch: 46 summary: However, for many social systems, truly large-scale, repeatable tests are difficult if not impossible. Because simpler systems are easier to understand, and easier for people to understand that a given implementation is not unfairly privileging special interests, it is easier to create common knowledge that the system is fair, creating a stronger sense of trust. keywords: complexity; example; planning; property; simplicity; system cache: vitalik-central_planning.html plain text: vitalik-central_planning.txt item: #348 of 458 id: vitalik-christmas author: vitalik title: Christmas Special date: None words: 972 flesch: 69 summary: This structure has pretty much no reasonable geometric interpretation, so I'll just give you the addition and multiplication tables: OK fine, here are all possible lines, excluding the horizontal and the vertical lines (which are also admissible) for brevity: The lack of geometric interpretation does make the game harder to play; you pretty much have to memorize the twenty winning combinations, though note that they are basically rotations and reflections of the same four basic shapes (axial line, diagonal line, diagonal line starting in the middle, that weird thing that doesn't look like a line). Modular tic-tac-toe Here, we go back down to having two dimensions, except we allow lines to wrap around: X wins Note that we allow diagonal lines with any slope, as long as they pass through all four points. keywords: hand cache: vitalik-christmas.html plain text: vitalik-christmas.txt item: #349 of 458 id: vitalik-cities author: vitalik title: Crypto Cities date: None words: 3942 flesch: 57 summary: 70% of the coin's supply is generated by an ongoing sale mechanism: anyone with STX (the Stacks native token) can send their STX to the city coin contract to generate city coins; the STX revenues are distributed to existing city coin holders who stake their coins. Hence, it's important for city governments to think carefully about these issues, and choose a path that makes sense for the long term. keywords: blockchain; cities; city; coin; government; ideas; people; voting cache: vitalik-cities.html plain text: vitalik-cities.txt item: #350 of 458 id: vitalik-collusion author: vitalik title: On Collusion date: None words: 4230 flesch: 47 summary: It's a common pattern among coin voting governance systems to add this kind of superlinearity to prevent self-voting from undermining the entire system; most DPOS schemes have a limited number of delegate slots with zero rewards for anyone who does not get enough votes to join one of the slots, with similar effect. Bribes can even be obfuscated: imagine a cryptocurrency exchange that offers zero fees and spends the effort to make an abnormally good user interface, and does not even try to collect a profit; instead, it uses coins that users deposit to participate in various coin voting systems. keywords: collusion; identity; key; mechanism; system; user; voting cache: vitalik-collusion.html plain text: vitalik-collusion.txt item: #351 of 458 id: vitalik-communitynotes author: vitalik title: What do I think about Community Notes? date: None words: 4382 flesch: 59 summary: Community Notes is a fact-checking tool that sometimes attaches context notes, like the one on Elon's tweet above, to tweets as a fact-checking and anti-misinformation tool. Dark Mode Toggle What do I think about Community Notes? keywords: algorithm; community; helpfulness; note; polarity; users; votes cache: vitalik-communitynotes.html plain text: vitalik-communitynotes.txt item: #352 of 458 id: vitalik-complexity author: vitalik title: Encapsulated vs systemic complexity in protocol design date: None words: 1481 flesch: 57 summary: Sometimes, a sacrifice of a little bit of systemic complexity to allow a great reduction of encapsulated complexity really is the best thing to do. One powerful intellectual tool that allows for more nuanced thinking about complexity is to draw a distinction between what we will call encapsulated complexity and systemic complexity. keywords: complexity; signatures cache: vitalik-complexity.html plain text: vitalik-complexity.txt item: #353 of 458 id: vitalik-concave author: vitalik title: Convex and Concave Dispositions date: None words: 1866 flesch: 56 summary: And for this reason, a low tax is generally better than a coin flip between high tax and no tax. A common example is the question of setting tax rates. keywords: concave; convex; tax cache: vitalik-concave.html plain text: vitalik-concave.txt item: #354 of 458 id: vitalik-control_as_liability author: vitalik title: Control as Liability date: None words: 1253 flesch: 56 summary: India, Russia and many other jurisdictions increasingly have or are exploring rules that require data on users within the country to be stored inside the country. it's easier to prevent non-paying users from using software if the software stays on your servers) win out. keywords: control; data; users cache: vitalik-control_as_liability.html plain text: vitalik-control_as_liability.txt item: #355 of 458 id: vitalik-coordination author: vitalik title: Coordination, Good and Bad date: None words: 3323 flesch: 51 summary: But if we look at decentralization as being the presence of barriers to harmful collusion, then the picture becomes quite scary, because it shows that those barriers are not nearly as strong as we thought. But we cannot always effectively prevent harmful collusions from taking place. keywords: collusion; coordination; decentralization; game; group; people cache: vitalik-coordination.html plain text: vitalik-coordination.txt item: #356 of 458 id: vitalik-coordination_problems author: vitalik title: Engineering Security Through Coordination Problems date: None words: 2225 flesch: 50 summary: The first, weaker, kind of light client simply convinces the user, with some degree of economic assurance, that they are on the chain that is supported by the majority of the network. Light clients can then verify that specific part of a block and check if it's actually invalid. keywords: chain; client; rules; users cache: vitalik-coordination_problems.html plain text: vitalik-coordination_problems.txt item: #357 of 458 id: vitalik-cryptoai author: vitalik title: The promise and challenges of crypto + AI applications date: None words: 4604 flesch: 54 summary: Given that AI is very computationally-intensive already, is doing AI inside of cryptographic black boxes even computationally viable? Black-box adversarial machine learning attacks: there are ways to optimize attacks against AI models even without knowing much about the model's internal workings. Worldcoin uses AI models extensively at protocol level, to (i) convert iris scans into short iris codes that are easy to compare for similarity, and (ii) verify that the thing it's scanning is actually a human being. keywords: ais; attacks; data; game; model; training; use cache: vitalik-cryptoai.html plain text: vitalik-cryptoai.txt item: #358 of 458 id: vitalik-cypherpunk author: vitalik title: Make Ethereum Cypherpunk Again date: None words: 3714 flesch: 54 summary: The Ethereum protocol's governance itself is notably non-financialized - and this has made it much more robust than other ecosystems whose governance is more financialized. This is also true in other ways: smart contracts regularly get hacked, users' wallets regularly get hacked, centralized exchanges fail even more spectacularly, etc. keywords: chain; community; crypto; ecosystem; ethereum; people; space; stack; world cache: vitalik-cypherpunk.html plain text: vitalik-cypherpunk.txt item: #359 of 458 id: vitalik-daos author: vitalik title: DAOs are not corporations: where decentralization in autonomous organizations matters date: None words: 4401 flesch: 49 summary: Should DAOs learn more from corporate governance or political science? Curtis Yarvin, an American philosopher whose primary big idea is that corporations are much more effective and optimized than governments and so we should improve governments by making them look more like corporations (eg. by moving away from democracy and closer to monarchy), recently wrote an article expressing his thoughts on how DAO governance should be designed. Recently, there has been a lot of discourse around the idea that highly decentralized DAOs do not work, and DAO governance should start to more closely resemble that of traditional corporations in order to remain competitive. keywords: daos; decentralization; funding; governance; need; optimism; oracle; order cache: vitalik-daos.html plain text: vitalik-daos.txt item: #360 of 458 id: vitalik-deeperdive author: vitalik title: Deeper dive on cross-L2 reading for wallets and other use cases date: None words: 5153 flesch: 64 summary: Unfortunately, Ethereum state proofs are complicated, but there exist libraries for verifying them, and if you use these libraries, this mechanism is not too complicated to implement. And indeed, if an L2 has a deposit feature, then you can use that L2 as-is to move L1 state roots into a contract on the L2: simply have a contract on L1 call the BLOCKHASH opcode, and pass it to L2 as a deposit message. keywords: chain; key; keystore; kzg; proofs; state cache: vitalik-deeperdive.html plain text: vitalik-deeperdive.txt item: #361 of 458 id: vitalik-dont_overload author: vitalik title: Don't overload Ethereum's consensus date: None words: 2905 flesch: 57 summary: Fred creates an ETH/USD price oracle, which functions by allowing Ethereum validators to participate and vote. However, if you are already relying on Ethereum validators, then one possible direction to take is to move away from trying to manage an independent chain entirely, and become a validium with proofs anchored into Ethereum. keywords: community; consensus; ethereum; oracle; price; risk cache: vitalik-dont_overload.html plain text: vitalik-dont_overload.txt item: #362 of 458 id: vitalik-election author: vitalik title: Prediction Markets: Tales from the Election date: None words: 5285 flesch: 60 summary: Prediction markets are a subject that has interested me for many years. And if nobody has done this, who are you to think that you're smarter than everyone else? Ne0liberal's Twitter thread just before Election Day does an excellent job summarizing his case against prediction markets being accurate at that time. keywords: bet; chance; dai; election; markets; people; prediction; trump cache: vitalik-election.html plain text: vitalik-election.txt item: #363 of 458 id: vitalik-election_zhTW author: vitalik title: 預測市場：一個選舉小故事（2021年 二月） date: None words: 188 flesch: 11 summary: 每人可投注的金額很低（遠低於$1000） * 高額的手續費（如PredictIt的5%提款費用） 而這也是我在9月份反駁ne0liberal的原因：雖然呆板的舊世界中心化預測市場有很高的手續費和很低的投注上限，但加密貨幣市場沒有！在Augur或Omen上，如果有人認為某個預測結果token的價格過低或過高，那麽他可以無限制的買入或賣出。而當時基於區塊鏈的預測市場趨勢和PredictIt的相仿。如果真的是因為高手續費和低投注上限的關係，讓頭腦更冷靜的交易者無法戰勝過於樂觀的交易者，才導致川普最後被高估的話，那麽為什麽明明區塊鏈市場沒有這些問題，卻也有著同樣的價格走勢呢？ 我Twitter上的朋友對此給出的主要回應是，區塊鏈預測市場極端小眾，只有很少人在用，而要在很少人中找到很瞭解政治的人就更少了，所以他們沒辦法輕易接觸到加密貨幣。這看起來似乎很有道理，但我對這個論點不太有信心。於是我押了$2000對賭川普當選，就沒有再繼續下去。 大選中 然後，選舉發生了。一開始雖然我們以為自己預測錯誤，被川普贏得的大量席位嚇死，拜登還是最終的贏家。至於究竟大選本身到底有沒有吻合，還是不吻合預測市場的效率嘛，據我所知，這是一個大哉問。一方面，通過標準的貝氏定理，我應該降低對預測市場的信心，至少我應該更相信Nate Silver。預測市場給出了拜登60%的勝算，而Nate Silver給出了拜登90%的勝算。既然拜登事實上贏了，這就是一個證據，證明在我生活的世界中Nate的答案比較正確。 但另一方面，你可以說預測市場對贏多少的估計更勝一籌。Nate機率分布的中位數是538張選舉人票中的370張左右會給拜登： 雖然川普市場沒有給出機率分布，但如果你要從「川普有40%的勝算」這個統計中推一個機率分布，你的中位數可能會是拜登拿到300張選票人票左右。實際結果是：306票。所以，預測市場與Nate的孰優孰劣，在我看來，還在未定之天。 選後 但當時我無法想像的是，選舉本身只是一個開始。選舉結束幾天後，拜登就被各大組織，甚至一些外國政府宣布當選。川普不出意料的對選舉結果發起了各種法律戰，但這些舉動很快就失敗了。儘管如此，在一個多月的時間裡，NTRUMP token的價格一直保持在85美分！ 一開始，人們似乎有理由猜測川普有15%的機會推翻選舉結果，畢竟他任命了三名法官進入最高法院，當黨派紛爭加劇的時候，許多法官都開始站隊而非堅守原則。在接下來的三周裡，明顯看得出來這些法律戰都失敗了，雖然川普的希望也隨著時間的推移繼續顯得更加嚴峻，但NTRUMP的價格並沒有動搖；事實上，它甚至短暫地下降到$0.82左右。在12月11日，大選結束已經過了5個星期的時候，最高法院果斷地一致駁回了川普推翻投票結果的企圖，這讓NTRUMP價格終於漲到了$0.88。 到了11月，我終於相信市場懷疑論者是對的，所以我自己也投身其中，與川普對賭。這個決定並不是為了錢，畢竟在不到兩個月之後，光是我手上有的dogecoin升值就能讓我賺得比預測市場更多，讓我能夠捐給GiveDirectly。所以不如說這是為了參與一場實驗，不僅是作為一個觀察者，而是作為一個積極的參與者，這樣能提高我對其他人的理解，到底為什麼大家沒有趕在我之前蜂擁而上購買NTRUMP。 進場 我的NTRUMP是在Catnip上買的，Catnip是一個前端界面，它將Augur預測市場和Balancer結合在一起，Balancer是一個Uniswap風格的恒定功能做市商。Catnip是迄今為止做預測市場交易最好用的界面，我覺得它對Augur的可用性貢獻很大。 有兩種方式可以用Catnip對賭川普。 使用DAI直接在Catnip上購買NTRUMP。 使用Foundry呼叫Augur功能，將1個DAI轉換成1個NTRUMP+1個YTUMP+1個ITRUMP（「I」代表「無效」，後面會詳細介紹），然後將YTRUMP賣到Catnip上 一開始，我只知道第一個選項。但後來我發現Balancer上YTRUMP的流動性更高，所以我轉到第二個選項。 還有一個問題：我沒有任何DAI。我有ETH，我可以賣出我的ETH來獲得DAI，但我不想犧牲我的ETH曝險部位；就算我在對川普的押注中賺取了$50,000，如果我因為ETH價格變化而讓我賠了了$500,000那就得不償失了。所以我決定在MakerDAO上開立抵押債務頭寸（CDP，現在也叫 Vault）來保持我的ETH曝險價格。 CDP是DAI的產生方式：使用者將ETH存入一個smart contract，然後可以提出相當於ETH價值2/3的DAI，這些DAI是新產生出來的。他們可以放入與自己之前提出相同金額的DAI加上額外的利息費用（目前為3.5%），來取回抵押於其中的ETH。如果你存入的ETH抵押品價值下降到低於你取出的DAI價值的150%，任何人都可以開始清算你的Vault，強迫賣掉ETH來買回DAI，並向你收取高額罰金。因此，在價格突然變動的情況下，最好有較高的抵押率；我用價值超過$3的ETH來當我提出$1的CDP抵押品。 回顧一下，下圖顯示了操作過程： 我重複操作了很多次；Catnip上的滑價，代表我通常一次只能做大約$5000到$10000的交易，不然價格會變得太不利（如果我跳過Foundry，直接用DAI購買NTRUMP，基本上只能交易到接近$1000）。兩個月後，我已經累積了367,000個NTRUMP。 為什麼其他人不這麼做？ 在我開始解釋之前，我有四個主要假設，想辦法解釋為什麽沒什麼人以85美分的價格買入明明就值$1的token： 擔心Augur的smart contract會出事 或者川普的支持者會操縱預言機（一種去中心化的機制讓Augur token的持有者可以把token壓在事件結果上，投票決定事件結果），使其回報的結果與發生的事實不符。 資本成本：購買這些token，你必須將資金鎖定兩個月以上，這就讓你不能在期間內使用這些錢，更讓你無法進行其他更好賺的交易。 技術上太複雜了，讓人無法輕易交易。 我想錯了，就算機會天降在你面前，有足夠動力嘗試這種奇怪機會的人真的太少了。 四者聽來都很合理。smart contract出事的話是真 的 危 險，而Augur的預言機之前遇到的環境都沒有如此有爭議，缺乏測試。資本成本是真的，而且雖然在預測市場中對賭比較簡單，比在股票市場中更簡單，畢竟你知道預測市場的價格永遠不會超過$1，但鎖在其中的資本還是會讓你時時想到加密貨幣市場中其他同樣有利可圖的選項。在dapp中做交易在技術上畢竟很複雜，所以對未知有一定程度的恐懼很合理。 但在我實際進入金融壕溝戰之後，觀察這個市場的價格演變，讓我對上述的假設有了更多的了解。 對smart contract漏洞的恐懼 起初，我認為「對smart contract漏洞的恐懼」可能佔了很重要的一部分。但隨著時間的推移，我更加相信這大概不是一個主要因素。要想知道為什麽我這樣想，可以比較YTRUMP和ITRUMP的價格。ITRUMP代表「無效川普」；「無效」是指在一些特殊情況下會觸發的事件結果：當事件描述模糊不清時，當市場結束時真實生活的事件還沒有結束時，當市場本身不道德時（例如暗殺市場），以及其他一些類似情況。在這個市場上，ITRUMP的價格始終保持在$0.02以下。如果有人想通過攻擊市場來賺取利潤，那麽他們不應該$0.15的價格買入YTRUMP，而應該以$0.02的價格買入ITRUMP會更加有利可圖。如果他們買入大量的ITRUMP，且迫使「無效」的結果被觸發，他們就能賺取50倍的回報。所以如果你害怕被攻擊，買入ITRUMP是目前最理性的反應。然而很少有人這麽做。 另一個反對「smart contract出事很可怕」的論點是，在預測市場以外的每一個加密應用中（例如Compound，各種yield farming等），人們對smart contract風險的態度超級樂觀。如果人們只是為了僅僅5-8%的年報率，就願意把錢投入到各種高風險、未經測試的專案中，那麽他們沒有理由在預測市場這邊突然變得這麼謹慎啊？ 資本成本 資本成本 - 鎖定大量資金所帶來的不便和付出機會成本 - 跟以前比起來我現在更能體會這件事。僅從Augur方面來看，我需要鎖定308,249個DAI，平均約兩個月才能獲利$56,803。這樣算下來，年化利率約為175%；這樣看下來，與2020年夏天的各種yield farming熱潮相比，這是相當不錯的選擇。但當你考慮到我必須在MakerDAO上做的操作時，看起來就沒這麼好賺了。因為我想保持在ETH上的曝險不變，所以需要用CDP來獲得DAI，而要安全使用CDP需要3倍以上的抵押比例。因此我實際需要鎖定的資金總額在$100萬左右。 現在，利率看起來不那麽好了。如果再加上smart contract被駭客攻擊的可能性（不管有多小），或者史無前例的政治事件真的發生了，這樣的結果看起來還是不太好。 即使如此，假設鎖倉抵押有3倍，Augur出事的可能性也有3%（我買ITRUMP是為了以防萬一事件結果變成「無效」，所以我只需要擔心事件結果不小心變成「當選」的風險，或者資金被直接偷走），計算出來之後的無風險利率約為35%，如果你考慮人類直覺對風險的看法，結果上會讓利率看起來更低。當然這個交易還是非常有吸引力，只是換句話說，現在看來這個數字不吸引人也可以理解了，因為那些幣圈的人比較習慣頻繁的100倍漲跌。 川普的支持者，當然不用管這些挑戰：他們只投了$60,000，就能對消掉我$308,249的賭注（因為手續費的關係，我賺得比這個數字少）。當機率接近於0或1時，這個賭局對那些想要把機率推離兩端極值的人非常有利。這不僅解釋了川普的狀況，也解釋了那些小眾但沒有勝算的候選人經常獲得高達5%獲勝機率的原因。 技術難度 我最初嘗試在Augur上購買NTRUMP，但技術問題使我無法直接在Augur上下單（我問過的其他人沒有這個狀況...我現在還是不知道這是啥問題) ) 我們可以看到預期的對數財富最大化的r值僅為0.0566。結論很清楚：當決策很接近，而且雜訊很大的時候，事實證明投資在市場的資金只能是一小部分，這樣才合理。這已經是假設理性的情況下了，因為大多數人對這種不確定結果的賭博的投資，比凱利公式預言的的要少。再加上資本成本，差距就更大了。但是，如果攻擊者真的不管為了什麼個人理由想要讓結果B發生，他們可以很簡單地將所有資本投進去買該token。總而言之，這個場景對攻擊者相當有利，超過20:1。 當然，現實中的攻擊者很少願意把所有資金押在一個決策上。且futarchy也不是唯一容易被攻擊的機制：股票市場也同樣脆弱，非市場決策機制的部分也可以被有錢又有心的攻擊者以各種方式操縱。盡管如此，我們還是應該特別注意看看，到底futarchy能不能讓我們的決策準確率再創新高。 有趣的是，數學告訴了我們當操縱者想要將結果推向極值時，futarchy反而能發揮最大作用。一個例子是責任保險，像是有人希望以不正當的方式獲得保險理賠時，這相當於強迫把市場估計不利事件發生的機率降到零。事實證明，責任保險是提出futarchy的Robin Hanson的政策處方簽新寵。 預測市場能變得更好嗎？ 我們最後要問的問題是：預測市場會重蹈覆轍嗎？像是12月初的時候，市場預測了川普有15%的機會推翻選舉結果，甚至在最高法院（包括他任命的三名法官）叫他滾蛋之後，市場還是預測有12%的機會川普能推翻選舉結果。或者隨著時間經過，市場能越變越好？出人意料地，我的答案完全偏樂觀，而且我有幾個保持樂觀的理由。 自然選擇下的市場 首先，這些事件讓我對市場效率和理性究竟有了新的看法。很多時候，市場效率的支持者聲稱，市場之所以會有效率，是因為大多數參與者都是理性的（或者至少理性的人超過了其他愚昧群體），當然這件事是正確的，是個公理(axoim)。所以，讓我們試著從進化中的角度來看待正在發生的事情。 加密貨幣是一個年輕的生態系統，與主流社會還相當脫節。雖然Elon最近在Twitter上發表了不少言論，我們還是可以看的出來圈子裡的人們對選舉政治學的方方面面不夠瞭解。那些選舉政治學方面的專家很難進入加密貨幣領域，而且加密貨幣圈子有很多為反而反的政治言論都不怎麼正確。但，今年在加密貨幣圈子內發生的事情是這樣的，正確的預期了拜登獲勝的預測市場使用者，其資本得到了18%的增長，而錯誤預測川普獲勝的預測市場使用者的資本得到了100%的減少（他們投入市場的部分）。 因此，選擇壓力會有利於下注結果正確的人。經過十輪之後，好的預測者會有更多的資本去下注，而壞的預測者會有更少的資本去下注。這不需要任何人在過程中「變得更聰明」或「吸取教訓」，更不需要假設其他人類的推理和學習能力。這僅僅是選擇動力學的結果，隨著時間的推移，善於做出正確猜測的參與者將在生態系統中占據主導地位。 請注意，預測市場在這方面比股票市場表現得更好：股票市場的 「新貴」往往是來自於某次幸運的千倍收益，這成為了信號中的雜訊，但在預測市場中，價格被限定在0和1之間，限制了任何一個單一事件能帶來的影響。 參與者更好 技術也更好 第二，預測市場本身會有進步。使用者界面已經有了很大的改進，並將繼續進一步完善。MakerDAO->Foundry->Catnip現在雖然很複雜，但會被被抽象為單一交易。區塊鏈的擴容技術也會進步，降低參與者的手續費（內建AMM的ZK-rollup Loopring已經在Ethereum主網上線，理論上可以在上面跑一個預測市場）。 第三，我們看到了預測市場正常運行，這樣的例子會讓參與者比較不害怕。使用者會看到，就算在非常有爭議的情況下Augur預言機還是能給出正確的結果（這次有兩輪爭議，但No的那一方還是乾淨利落的贏了）。來自加密貨幣領域之外的人，看到這樣的成功的例子，也會更願意參與其中。也許連Nate Silver自己都可能弄來一些DAI，並在2022年以後使用Augur、Omen、Polymarket和其他市場來增加自己的收入。 第四，預測市場技術本身可以改進。這是我自己提出的一個市場設計建議，可以在保持高資本效率的同時，對許多低機率事件下注。這樣能夠防止許多那些低機率事件的賠率偏高。我相信會有其他的想法出現，且我期待看到更多這方面的實驗。 結論 這個預測市場的事件事件始末，身為第一手試驗非常的有趣，可以讓人看著事件在複雜的個人、社會心理學中演化與碰撞。它展示了實際上市場效率的運作方式，市場效率的局限，以及可以改善的方式。 它也很好地展示了區塊鏈的力量；事實上，對我而言它是Ethereum應用中最有具體價值的一個。區塊鏈經常被批評為投機玩具，只會自我套娃大玩金融遊戲（token, 放去yield farming, 得到的回報是...其他新出現的token），沒有任何有意義的產出。當然也有批評者沒有注意到的例子；我個人從ENS中受益，而且遇過幾次信用卡完全不能用的例子，最後只好使用ETH進行支付時。但，在過去的幾個月裡，我們似乎看到了Ethereum的應用真的對人們有用了，開始與現實世界互動。預測市場就是一個重要的例子。 我預計預測市場將在未來幾年間，成為一個越來越重要的Ethereum應用。2020年的選舉只是一個開始，我預計未來人們對預測市場會有更多的興趣，不僅僅是選舉，還有條件預測、決策和其他應用。預測市場若能照數學上那般的理想運作，會帶給我們很好的願景；但同時這也會與人類現實的侷限產生衝突。希望隨著時間過去，我們能更清楚地理解，這種新的社交科技究竟能在哪些方面提供最大的價值。 keywords: log(1 cache: vitalik-election_zhTW.html plain text: vitalik-election_zhTW.txt item: #364 of 458 id: vitalik-end author: vitalik title: The end of my childhood date: None words: 5503 flesch: 59 summary: When I talk to many people from San Francisco, I get a distinct impression that they think that AI is the only thing that matters, San Francisco is the capital of AI, and therefore San Francisco is the only place that matters. Crypto does not need to play this game: it's a big world, and it only takes one visit to Argentina or Turkey or Zambia to remind ourselves that many people still do have important problems that have to do with access to money and finance, and there is still an opportunity to do the complicated work of balancing user experience and decentralization to actually solve those problems in a sustainable way. keywords: crypto; ethereum; money; new; people; space; stack; things; time; world; years cache: vitalik-end.html plain text: vitalik-end.txt item: #365 of 458 id: vitalik-endgame author: vitalik title: Endgame date: None words: 1581 flesch: 59 summary: Once again, we get a world where, block production is centralized, block validation is trustless and highly decentralized, and censorship is still prevented. We get a chain where block production is still centralized, but block validation is trustless and highly decentralized, and specialized anti-censorship magic prevents the block producers from censoring. keywords: block; production; rollup cache: vitalik-endgame.html plain text: vitalik-endgame.txt item: #366 of 458 id: vitalik-endnotes author: vitalik title: Endnotes on 2020: Crypto and Beyond date: None words: 3964 flesch: 58 summary: But to a large extent, as is the case in many conflicts, the foreign interference card was simply a psychological defense that many Ethereum supporters, myself included, subconsciously used to shield ourselves from the fact that many people within our own community really did have different values. It's a world where blockchains and cryptocurrencies are well poised to play an important part, though for reasons much more complex than many people think, and having as much to do with cultural forces as anything financial (one of the more underrated bull cases for cryptocurrency that I have always believed is simply the fact that gold is lame, the younger generations realize that it's lame, and that $9 trillion has to go somewhere). keywords: bitcoin; crypto; ethereum; people; supporters; time; world cache: vitalik-endnotes.html plain text: vitalik-endnotes.txt item: #367 of 458 id: vitalik-ens author: vitalik title: Should there be demand-based recurring fees on ENS domains? date: None words: 3551 flesch: 63 summary: Domain name owners are often not sophisticated, the costs of switching domain names are often high, and negative externalities of a name-change gone wrong can be large. Dark Mode Toggle Should there be demand-based recurring fees on ENS domains? keywords: bid; domain; ens; fee; time; year cache: vitalik-ens.html plain text: vitalik-ens.txt item: #368 of 458 id: vitalik-enshrinement author: vitalik title: Should Ethereum be okay with enshrining more things in the protocol? date: None words: 6299 flesch: 55 summary: But even if we do that, there is one huge reason why enshrined protocol features are going to inevitably be significantly cheaper than EVM code, no matter how efficient the EVM becomes: enshrined code does not need to pay gas for being pre-loaded. The current medium-term roadmap for ERC-4337 actually does involve eventually turning large parts of ERC-4337 into a series of protocol features, and it's a useful instructive example to see the reasons why this path is being considered. keywords: account; code; enshrining; ethereum; evm; gas; protocol; transaction; users cache: vitalik-enshrinement.html plain text: vitalik-enshrinement.txt item: #369 of 458 id: vitalik-excited author: vitalik title: What in the Ethereum application ecosystem excites me date: None words: 5722 flesch: 50 summary: Hybrid applications There are many applications that are not entirely on-chain, but that take advantage of both blockchains and other systems to improve their trust models. Decentralization for efficiency Decentralization for efficiency is a different school of thought: decentralized governance structure is valuable because it can incorporate opinions from more diverse voices at different scales, and decentralized implementation is valuable because it can sometimes be more efficient and lower cost than traditional legal-system-based approaches. keywords: applications; chain; cryptocurrency; dao; decentralization; efficiency; governance; robustness; stablecoins; system; users cache: vitalik-excited.html plain text: vitalik-excited.txt item: #370 of 458 id: vitalik-exploring_ecp author: vitalik title: [Mirror] Exploring Elliptic Curve Pairings date: None words: 3515 flesch: 65 summary: This might seem like the fundamental security guarantees of elliptic curves are being broken, as information about \(p\) is leaking from just knowing P, but it turns out that the leakage is highly contained — specifically, the decisional Diffie Hellman problem is easy, but the computational Diffie Hellman problem (knowing \(P\) and \(Q\) in the above example, computing \(R = G \cdot p \cdot q\)) and the discrete logarithm problem (recovering \(p\) from \(P\)) remain computationally infeasible (at least, if they were before). Pairings go a step further in that they allow you to check certain kinds of more complicated equations on elliptic curve points — for example, if \(P = G \cdot p, Q = G \cdot q\) and \(R = G \cdot r\), you can check whether or not \(p \cdot q = r\), having just \(P, Q\) and \(R\) as inputs. keywords: \cdot; curve cache: vitalik-exploring_ecp.html plain text: vitalik-exploring_ecp.txt item: #371 of 458 id: vitalik-fft author: vitalik title: Fast Fourier Transforms date: None words: 4163 flesch: 68 summary: + (x+k) \cdot odds(x \cdot (k-x))\). Here's the full code: def fft(vals, modulus, domain): if len(vals) == 1: return vals L = fft(vals[::2], modulus, domain[::2]) R = fft(vals[1::2], modulus, domain[::2]) keywords: \cdot; domain; field; polynomial cache: vitalik-fft.html plain text: vitalik-fft.txt item: #372 of 458 id: vitalik-forks_and_markets author: vitalik title: Hard Forks, Soft Forks, Defaults and Coercion date: None words: 2030 flesch: 60 summary: Hard forks allow the developers much more flexibility in making the protocol upgrade, as they do not have to take care to make sure that the new rules fit into the old rules Soft forks are more convenient for users, as users do not need to upgrade to stay on the chain Soft forks are less likely to lead to a chain split Soft forks only really require consent from miners/validators (as even if users still use the old rules, if the nodes making the chain use the new rules then only things valid under the new rules will get into the chain in any case); hard forks require opt-in consent from users Aside from this, one major criticism often given for hard forks is that hard forks are coercive. Mar 14 See all posts One of the important arguments in the blockchain space is that of whether hard forks or soft forks are the preferred protocol upgrade mechanism. keywords: chain; forks; rules cache: vitalik-forks_and_markets.html plain text: vitalik-forks_and_markets.txt item: #373 of 458 id: vitalik-free_speech author: vitalik title: On Free Speech date: None words: 2266 flesch: 56 summary: Some use the concept of safe spaces as a sword, wielded to annex public spaces and demand that people within those spaces conform to their private norms. So to conclude: censorship in public spaces bad, even if the public spaces are non-governmental; censorship in genuinely private spaces (especially spaces that are not defaults for a broader community) can be okay; ostracizing projects with the goal and effect of denying access to them, bad; ostracizing projects with the goal and effect of denying them scarce legitimacy can be okay. keywords: bitcoin; censorship; people; power; spaces cache: vitalik-free_speech.html plain text: vitalik-free_speech.txt item: #374 of 458 id: vitalik-garbled author: vitalik title: A Quick Garbled Circuits Primer date: None words: 1904 flesch: 68 summary: Note that addition is a fairly pointless use of garbled circuits, because Bob knowing 101 can just subtract out his own input and get 101 - 11 = 10 (Alice's input), breaking privacy. Here is the usual setup for the scheme: Suppose that there are two parties, Alice and Bob, who want to compute some function f(alice_inputs, bob_inputs), which takes inputs from both parties. keywords: alice; bob cache: vitalik-garbled.html plain text: vitalik-garbled.txt item: #375 of 458 id: vitalik-gas_analysis author: vitalik title: A Quick Gasprice Market Analysis date: None words: 900 flesch: 60 summary: For each block, it contains an object of the form: { block:4710000, coinbase:0x829bd824b016326a401d083b33d092293333a830, deciles:[40,40.1,44.100030001,44.100030001,44.100030001,44.100030001,44.100030001,44.100030001,50,66.150044,100] ,free:10248, timedelta:8 } The deciles variable contains 11 values, where the lowest is the lowest gasprice in each block, the next is the gasprice that only 10% of other transaction gasprices are lower than, and so forth; the last is the highest gasprice in each block. In general, however, what we see seems to be a rather well-functioning fee market, though there is still room to improve in fee estimation and, most importantly of all, continuing to work hard to improve base-chain scalability so that more transactions can get included in the first place. keywords: gasprice cache: vitalik-gas_analysis.html plain text: vitalik-gas_analysis.txt item: #376 of 458 id: vitalik-gini author: vitalik title: Against overuse of the Gini coefficient date: None words: 2019 flesch: 55 summary: Given the level of concern about these issues, it should be not at all surprising that many people have tried computing Gini indices of cryptocurrencies: The observed Gini index for staked EOS tokens (2018) Gini coefficients of cryptocurrencies (2018) The Gini coefficient is a measure of inequality introduced by Corrado Gini in 1912. keywords: coefficient; gini; income; inequality cache: vitalik-gini.html plain text: vitalik-gini.txt item: #377 of 458 id: vitalik-gitcoin author: vitalik title: Review of Gitcoin Quadratic Funding Round 3 date: None words: 2180 flesch: 51 summary: 3 2019 Oct 24 See all posts Special thanks to the Gitcoin team and especially Frank Chen for working with me through these numbers The next round of Gitcoin Grants quadratic funding has just finished, and we the numbers for how much each project has received were just released. Dominance of large projects One other pattern that we saw in this round is that popular projects got disproportionately large grants: To be clear, this is not just saying more contributions, more match, it's saying more contributions, more match per dollar contributed. keywords: funding; gitcoin; projects; quadratic cache: vitalik-gitcoin.html plain text: vitalik-gitcoin.txt item: #378 of 458 id: vitalik-gpt3 author: vitalik title: Updating my blog: a quick GPT chatbot coding experiment date: None words: 1655 flesch: 71 summary: There is a base-58 format for IPFS hashes, but those are called QM hashes, not bafyhashes. Looks like I can't just assume this is generic base 32, and I have to poke into the details. keywords: base; hash; ipfs cache: vitalik-gpt3.html plain text: vitalik-gpt3.txt item: #379 of 458 id: vitalik-halo author: vitalik title: Halo and more: exploring incremental verification and SNARKs without pairings date: None words: 4257 flesch: 67 summary: Though it's not really mathematically accurate to think of elliptic curve points as being like real numbers that have sizes, area is nevertheless a good intuition for thinking about linear combinations of elliptic curve points like we use in these commitments. These pairs can be treated as mathematical objects (for pedants: group elements) much like elliptic curve points themselves; to add them you do so element-by-element: \((A, x) + keywords: \cdot; linear; polynomial; proof; prover cache: vitalik-halo.html plain text: vitalik-halo.txt item: #380 of 458 id: vitalik-homomorphic author: vitalik title: Exploring Fully Homomorphic Encryption date: None words: 5030 flesch: 69 summary: k_2 * 8) \] Note that each noisy-encryption in the relinearization key has some even error \(2e\), and the equation \(\) itself has some error: if \( = 2e_1 + m_1\) and \( = 2e_2 + m_2\), then \( =\) \( * \) to decrypt the ciphertext, but only in such a way that the output comes back encrypted under \(k\). keywords: \(p\; ciphertext; error; key cache: vitalik-homomorphic.html plain text: vitalik-homomorphic.txt item: #381 of 458 id: vitalik-hybrid_layer_2 author: vitalik title: The Dawn of Hybrid Layer 2 Protocols date: None words: 2088 flesch: 51 summary: To give a simple example, the history storage blowup in a decentralized exchange implemented on Plasma Cash can be prevented by publishing a mapping of which orders are matched with which orders (that's less than 4 bytes per order) on chain: Left: History data a Plasma Cash user needs to store if they own 1 coin. History data a Plasma Cash user needs to store if they own 1 coin that was exchanged with another coin using an atomic swap. keywords: chain; data; plasma; rollup cache: vitalik-hybrid_layer_2.html plain text: vitalik-hybrid_layer_2.txt item: #382 of 458 id: vitalik-institutions author: vitalik title: What even is an institution? date: None words: 2264 flesch: 48 summary: This seemed to me to be an important and valuable insight, though in a somewhat different direction: yes, that is the style of institution that people find familiar and are not weirded out by (as they might when they see many of the alternative institutions that Hanson likes to propose), but it's also exactly the style of institutions that anti-institutionalists tend to most strongly rail against! Marriage is more institution-y than romantic relationships, likely because of its official stamp of recognition, and more mainstream relationship styles are more institution-y than less mainstream styles (a pattern that repeats itself when comparing NYT vs Russia Today vs Bitcoin Magazine). keywords: anti; elites; institution; people cache: vitalik-institutions.html plain text: vitalik-institutions.txt item: #383 of 458 id: vitalik-l2types author: vitalik title: Different types of layer 2s date: None words: 2479 flesch: 60 summary: To do that, we need to do one of two things: Put a bridge contract validating finalized Ethereum blocks inside the top chain. (2) is important too, because it means that you can have a wallet that allows easy key changes and that holds assets across a large number of different chains. keywords: chain; data; ethereum; security cache: vitalik-l2types.html plain text: vitalik-l2types.txt item: #384 of 458 id: vitalik-layer_1 author: vitalik title: Layer 1 Should Be Innovative in the Short Term but Less in the Long Term date: None words: 2035 flesch: 43 summary: Hence, the other extreme position, that blockchain base layers can be truly absolutely minimal, and not bother with either a quasi-Turing-complete execution engine or scalability to beyond the capacity of a single node, is also clearly false; there is a certain minimal level of complexity that is required for base layers to be powerful enough for applications to build on top of them, and we have not yet reached that level. The first is that layer 1 solutions require ongoing protocol change to happen at the base protocol layer, base layer protocol change requires governance, and it has still not been shown that, in the long term, highly activist blockchain governance can continue without causing ongoing political uncertainty or collapsing into centralization. keywords: base; blockchain; execution; layer cache: vitalik-layer_1.html plain text: vitalik-layer_1.txt item: #385 of 458 id: vitalik-layer_3 author: vitalik title: What kind of layer 3s make sense? date: None words: 2867 flesch: 60 summary: One topic that often re-emerges in layer-2 scaling discussions is the concept of layer 3s. Unfortunately, such simple conceptions of layer 3s rarely quite work out that easily. keywords: batch; data; layer; rollups; scaling cache: vitalik-layer_3.html plain text: vitalik-layer_3.txt item: #386 of 458 id: vitalik-legitimacy author: vitalik title: The Most Important Scarce Resource is Legitimacy date: None words: 4200 flesch: 56 summary: This seems to be the route that the Bitcoin ecosystem often takes: The personal self-sacrifice of the teams funding core development is of course admirable, but it's admirable the same way that Eliud Kipchoge running a marathon in under 2 hours is admirable: it's an impressive show of human fortitude, but it's not the future of transportation (or, in this case, public goods funding). So there is great value in creating a more diversified and resilient approach to public goods funding to take the pressure off any single organization. keywords: community; ecosystem; ethereum; funding; goods; legitimacy; people cache: vitalik-legitimacy.html plain text: vitalik-legitimacy.txt item: #387 of 458 id: vitalik-legitimacy_ES author: vitalik title: El recurso escaso más importante es la legitimidad date: None words: 4496 flesch: 50 summary: Incluso hay una razón egoísta para participar en este equilibrio: si fueras el desarrollador de una billetera Ethereum, o un autor de un podcast o un boletín informativo, y viste dos proyectos en competencia, uno de los cuales contribuye significativamente a los bienes públicos a nivel del ecosistema, incluyéndote a ti mismo. Por lo tanto, aunque el poder de los efectos de legitimidad impulsados por la comunidad no es infinito, hay un margen considerable de influencia, suficiente para alentar a los proyectos a dirigir al menos un pequeño porcentaje de sus presupuestos al ecosistema más amplio. keywords: bienes; capital; como; comunidad; con; coordinación; del; ecosistema; este; esto; está; ethereum; hay; las; legitimidad; los; mucho; más; nft; para; pero; por; puede; públicos; que; qué; social; son; también; todos; una cache: vitalik-legitimacy_ES.html plain text: vitalik-legitimacy_ES.txt item: #388 of 458 id: vitalik-limits author: vitalik title: On Nathan Schneider on the limits of cryptoeconomics date: None words: 5028 flesch: 48 summary: Nathan then expands: I have argued that pairing cryptoeconomics with political systems can help overcome the limitations that bedevil cryptoeconomic governance alone. Token holders could earn rewards by successfully challenging a newsroom's practices; the success or failure of a challenge ultimately depended on the judgment of the Civil Council, designed to be free of economic incentives clouding its deliberations. keywords: collusion; cryptoeconomics; finance; financialized; governance; kleros; market; nathan; systems cache: vitalik-limits.html plain text: vitalik-limits.txt item: #389 of 458 id: vitalik-marketmakers author: vitalik title: On Path Independence date: None words: 2792 flesch: 63 summary: Now, this does not mean that market makers cannot lose money, compared to other holding strategies. That said, this may actually be an argument in favor of subsidied market makers: if such multiplier effects exist, then they will have a positive impact on price stability that goes beyond the first-order effect of the liquidity that the market maker itself provides. keywords: eth; maker; market; mkr; price cache: vitalik-marketmakers.html plain text: vitalik-marketmakers.txt item: #390 of 458 id: vitalik-maximalist author: vitalik title: In Defense of Bitcoin Maximalism date: None words: 3346 flesch: 57 summary: We live in a dangerous world, and protecting freedom is serious business Hopefully, this is much more obvious now than it was six weeks ago, when many people still seriously thought that Vladimir Putin is a misunderstood and kindly character who is merely trying to protect Russia and save Western Civilization from the gaypocalypse. They are used as a primary lifeline by many people to make their payments and store their savings. keywords: bitcoin; blockchains; cryptocurrency; money; people; vitalik; world cache: vitalik-maximalist.html plain text: vitalik-maximalist.txt item: #391 of 458 id: vitalik-metcalfe author: vitalik title: A Note on Metcalfe's Law, Externalities and Ecosystem Splits date: None words: 1671 flesch: 51 summary: Note that as in case 2, if users are switching from a larger system to a smaller system, then that means that they find the smaller system to have higher intrinsic quality, although, also as in case 2, if the split remains a split and does not become a full-scale migration, then that means other users see the intrinsic quality of the larger system as higher, or at least not lower by enough to be worth the network effects. The difference between the first two approaches and the last two reflects differences between interpretations of Metcalfe's law, or more broadly the idea that the per-user value of a system grows with the number of users. keywords: users cache: vitalik-metcalfe.html plain text: vitalik-metcalfe.txt item: #392 of 458 id: vitalik-moe author: vitalik title: On Medium-of-Exchange Token Valuations date: None words: 1862 flesch: 65 summary: If the appcoin starts falling at 10% per year, however, then the de-facto fee grows to $0.035, driving many users away and accelerating its growth. The proof for this is a trivial equality: if there are \(N\) coins, and each changes hands \(M\) times per day, then this is \(M \cdot N\) coins' worth of economic value transacted per day. keywords: token; users; value cache: vitalik-moe.html plain text: vitalik-moe.txt item: #393 of 458 id: vitalik-mvb author: vitalik title: Base Layers And Functionality Escape Velocity date: None words: 1834 flesch: 52 summary: Sufficient data scalability and low latency It turns out that plasma and channels, and other layer 2 protocols that are fully off-chain have some fundamental weaknesses that prevent them from fully replicating the capabilities of layer 1. Layer 2 should be the site of ongoing innovation, layer 1 should be the site of stability and maintenance, with large changes only in emergencies (eg. keywords: data; layer; protocols cache: vitalik-mvb.html plain text: vitalik-mvb.txt item: #394 of 458 id: vitalik-neoplasma author: vitalik title: Exit games for EVM validiums: the return of Plasma date: None words: 2459 flesch: 65 summary: Overview: how Plasma works The simplest version of Plasma to understand is Plasma Cash. When the Plasma chain operator creates a new block, they publish the root of the Merkle tree to chain, and they directly send to each user the Merkle branches corresponding to the coins that that user owns. Suppose that these are the last three transaction trees in a Plasma Cash chain. keywords: chain; coin; plasma; state cache: vitalik-neoplasma.html plain text: vitalik-neoplasma.txt item: #395 of 458 id: vitalik-networkstates author: vitalik title: What do I think about network states? date: None words: 8053 flesch: 57 summary: Network states would be run by DAOs, and this would apply to network states too. Dark Mode Toggle What do I think about network states? keywords: balaji; communities; community; countries; governance; network; network states; new; people; society; startup; states; way; world cache: vitalik-networkstates.html plain text: vitalik-networkstates.txt item: #396 of 458 id: vitalik-networkstates_zhCN author: vitalik title: 「网络国家」之我见 date: None words: 412 flesch: 41 summary: 有没有中间道路？ 到目前为止，我的判断是网络国家非常出色，但这还远不是一个可行的大妥协方案（Big Compromise Idea），可以填补所有的漏洞，建设起我和我的大部分读者们期待见到的属于二十一世纪的世界。最终，我确实觉得，我们需要引进更多的民主和大规模协同导向的某种大妥协方案，来让网络国家真正取得成功。 以下是我支持的对巴拉吉主义的一些重大调整： 由创始人启动没问题（虽然并非唯一道路），但我们真的需要内置一个「权力移交社区」（exit-to-community）的路线图。 很多创始人希望最终退休，或者开始新事业（基本上一半的加密项目如此），在这种情况下，我们需要能够防止网络国家崩溃，或者滑向平庸。这个过程中的一部分，是宪法将对「权力移交社区」提供保障：当网络国家更成熟、更具规模时，更多社区成员的参与将被自动纳入考量。 Prospera（译者注：洪都拉斯的一个特许城市）尝试过类似的事情。斯科特-亚历山大（Scott Alexander）总结道： 当 Prospera 有十万名居民时（现实地说离现在很遥远，即使实验很成功），他们将公投，51% 的大多数可以修改宪章的任何条款，包括将 HPI（译者注：Honduras Prospera  Inc，洪都拉斯 Prospera 公司）完全逐出并成为直接民主政体，或者重新加入洪都拉斯，总之可以是任何决定。 但我会青睐更有参与度的治理形式，而不只是居民有一个「是」或「否」的核选项将政府逐出。 这个过程的另一部分，是我在以太坊的成长中认识到的，就是明确地鼓励社成员更广泛地参与社区的理念和哲学发展。以太坊有它的 Vitalik，也有它的 Polynya：一位网络匿名者，最近他自发地加入进来，开始提供关于扩容技术（rollups and scaling technology）的高质量思考。你的初创社会如何吸引到你的前十位 Polynya？ 网络国家的运行应该由非金币驱动（coin-driven）治理来驱动 金币驱动的治理受富人支配，且易受攻击，关于 这一点，我已经 写了 很多 文章 探讨，但还是值得再重复。Optimism 的 灵魂绑定代币（Soulbound）和每人一份的 市民 NFT 是这里的关键。巴拉吉已经承认了非同质化代币的必要性（他 支持金币的锁仓），但我们应该更进一步，更明确地支持超越股东驱动的治理。这也会产生有益的副作用，因为更民主的治理将更好地与外界保持一致。 网络国家通过外界代表参与治理做出友好承诺 在理性主义者和人工智能友好的社区里，有一个迷人但缺乏讨论的想法：可行决策理论。这是一个复杂的概念，但其强大的核心思想是：人工智能通过对其源代码做出可验证的公开承诺，实现比人类更好的相互协调，从而解决人类经常失败的囚徒困境问题。一个人工智能可以重写自己来拥有某个模块，以防止它欺骗具有类似模块的其他人工智能。这样的人工智能将在 囚徒困境中 完全地互相合作。 但到这里我们算是进入了我反馈的第二部分。 巴拉吉的构想里哪些是我持保留态度的？ 我最担心的有四个方面： 关于创始人——为什么网络国家需要一个公认的创始人，这很关键吗？ 如果网络国家最终只服务于富裕人群怎么办？ 仅仅「退出」不足以稳定全球政治。但如果退出是所有人的第一选择，会发生什么？ 更普遍的全球负外部性怎么办？ 「创始人」这件事 通览全书，巴拉吉坚持认为「创始人」在网络国家中的重要性（或者更确切的说，是初创社会：你建立一个初创社会，直到足够成功获得外交承认变成网络国家）。巴拉吉明确的将初创社会创始人形容为「道德企业家」（moral entrepreneur）： 这些展示很像初创公司的推销文案。但作为初创社会的创始人，你不必像科技公司创业者那样，告诉投资人为何这项创新更好、更快、更便宜。你是一位道德企业家，描述的是潜在的未来，居民有一种更好的生活方式，告诉他们某件事情整个世界都搞错了，而只有你的社区能修正过来。 创始人将道德直觉和从历史中得来的经验教训结晶为具体的哲学，而其道德直觉与该哲学相吻合的人，将会围绕着这个项目凝聚到一起。在早期阶段这很合理——虽然它绝对不是启动初创社会的唯一方式。但发展到后期会发生什么呢？马克-扎克伯格（Mark Zuckerberg）在脸书的初创阶段作为中心化的创始人或许有其必要，但他作为亿万市值（和数十亿的用户）的公司掌舵人就是另一回事了。或者，巴拉吉的眼中钉，掌管着「纽约时报」的第五代世袭白人奥克斯-苏兹伯格王朝（Ochs-Sulzberger），又怎么说？ 小东西的中心化很好，但巨大的东西也中心化将非常可怕。鉴于网络效应的现实，再次退出的自由是不充分的。在我看来，如何寻找到创始人控制之外的运转方式很重要，而巴拉吉在这一问题上花的心思太少了。「公认的创始人」被内置在了巴拉吉式网络国家的定义中，但通往广泛参与式治理的路线图却没有。这不应该。 那些不富裕的人群怎么办？ 在过去的一些年里，我们看到了很多国家对于「科技人才」持更加开放的政策。已经有 42 个国家推出了数字游民签证，有 法国科技签证、新加坡的类似项目、台湾的黄金签证、迪拜的 计划 等等等等。这对于有技能的职业人士和富裕人群当然很好。逃离中国科技镇压和防疫封锁（或者是道义上不同意中国政府 其他政策）的百万富翁们，只需要花上几十万美元 买另一本护照，就可以同样躲开 全球对于中国人和其他低收入居民的系统性歧视。但普通人呢？在缅甸面临极端处境的罗兴亚（Rohingya）少数民族怎么办，他们中的大多数人并没有一条进入美国或者欧洲的途径，更别说买一本护照了。 在这里，我们看到了网络国家概念中潜在的悲剧。一方面，我真切感受到「退出」是二十一世纪全球人权保护的最可行策略。其他国家在镇压少数族群时你能做什么？你无能为力。你可以制裁他们（但经常是 无效的，甚至给你所关心的人群带来 毁灭性后果）。你可以尝试去侵略（面临同样的指责，甚至更糟）。「退出」是更一个人道的选择，遭受人权迫害的人们可以收拾好行装，去到更友好的栖息地，而且，如果是一群人协调一致行动，还不用牺牲掉赖以维持友谊和经济来源的社区。另一方面，如果你错了，你所批评的政府对人们并没有那么压迫，人们就不会离开，一切都很好，没有饥荒，也没有轰炸。这一切都很美好，除了......当人们想要退出时，没有人在另一边接应他们，整件事情就完蛋了。 答案是什么呢？老实说，我看不到。网络国家的一个好处是他们可以建在贫穷国家，然后吸引海外的富裕人群，这有助于当地经济。但对于想要离开穷国的人来说，这并没有意义。在现有主权国家中以传统的政治行动来推动移民法案松绑，可能是唯一选项。 无处可逃 在俄罗斯 2 月 24 日刚入侵乌克兰的时候，诺亚-史密斯（Noah Smith）写了一篇重要博文，阐述了这场入侵应该给我们的思想带来道德反省，其中题为「无处可逃」一章尤其令人震撼。引用如下： 虽然「退出」在本地层面有用——如果旧金山运转失衡，你可以搬到奥斯汀或者其他科技城——但在国家层面，这根本行不通，事实上也历来如此——有钱的币圈人搬到比如新加坡这样的国家，或波多黎各这样的地区，但仍然高度依赖于功能强大的政府提供的基础设施和机构。但俄罗斯正在使人们更加清楚地认识到，这种战略注定要失败，因为归根到底，我们无处可逃。跟以往的时代不同，如今大国的长臂管辖，可以触及全世界任何一个角落。 如果美国崩溃，你不能只是搬到新加坡，因为过不了几年，你就得向你的中国新主人屈膝。如果美国崩溃，你也不能只是搬到爱沙尼亚，因为过不了几年（几个月？），你就得向你的俄罗斯新主人屈膝。而这些新主人，将不会有丝毫兴趣保证你的个体自由和财产安全......所以对于自由意志主义者来说，美国不崩溃非常非常重要。 我们有可能面对这样的反驳：确实，如果所有乌克兰人的第一反应都是「退出」，乌克兰早就崩溃了。但如果俄罗斯也更倾向于「退出」，所有俄罗斯人就会在入侵的一周内全都撤离。普京将孤零零地站在卢甘斯克（Luhansk）的荒野里，独自面对一百米外的泽连斯基，普京高喊着让泽连斯基投降，泽连斯基回道：「就凭你？你的伙计们在哪儿？」（泽连斯基当然可以在公平的一对一搏斗中胜出）。 但事情也可能走向另一个方向。风险在于，如果润学变成了追求自由的主要方式，社会就会从珍视自由变成润学风行，但中央集权国家将会审查和压制这些冲动，采取对国家无条件忠诚的军国主义态度，并蛮横对待所有其他人。 那些负外部性怎么办？ 如果我们有一百个较少监管的创新实验室，分布在全球各处，可能会导致我们的世界对危险事物更加难以防范。这引申出一个问题：要相信巴拉吉主义，是否必须先相信这个世界的负外部性问题不大？这个观点与「脆弱地球假说」（Vulnerable World Hypothesis，VWH）相对立，该假说认为，随着科技进步，一个或几个疯子杀死上百万人正在变得越来越容易。为了防范这种极端灾难甚至灭绝场景出现，全球威权式的监控或许成为必需。 专注于个人自卫技术也许是条出路。当然，在一个网络国家的世界里，我们不可能有效禁止功能增益研究（gain-of-function research），但我们也可以运用网络国家开辟一条道路，让这个世界采用优质的 高效空气过滤器、远紫外光、早期检测 基础设施 和快速研发、部署疫苗的通道，不仅能击败新冠，甚至更加凶险的病毒。这个 八万个小时的节目 阐述了一个解决生物武器威胁的乐观场景，但这不是解决所有技术风险的通用方案：至少，并没有自卫的手段可以抵御超级智能的恶意 AI 把我们杀光。 自卫技术当然很好，而且可能是价值受到低估的资助领域。但想仅仅靠这个解决问题并不现实，比如要 禁止屠宰机器人，跨国合作是必需的。所以，我们确定需要的是这样一个世界：即使网络国家比今天的主题社区（intentional community）拥有更多的主权，这个主权也不应该是绝对的。 非巴拉吉式的网络国家 阅读《网络国家》让我想起了十年前读过的另一本书：大卫-德-乌加特（David de Ugarte）的《族群：二十一世纪的经济民主》（Phyles: Economic Democracy in the Twenty First Century）。乌加特讨论了与围绕价值观建立的跨国社区类似的设想，但它有更重的左翼倾向：他假想这些社区将会是民主的，受到 2000 年初的网络社区和十九、二十世纪的合作社及工作场所民主的多重启发。 通过观察乌加特的形成理论，我们能最清晰地看到两者的区别。由于我已经花了大量时间引用巴拉吉，接下来我将给乌加特一段较长引用，以示公平： 博客圈是身份和对话的海洋，处于不断的交叉繁殖和变动之中，而强大的社会消化系统，周期性地提炼出具有自身语境和独特认识的稳定群体。 （这个群体）发展到一定阶段后，形成了一个对话型社区，并在我们所说的数字犹太复国主义（digital Zionism）中扮演起了重要角色：他们开始沉淀到现实中，成员之间建立起共同认知，比起想象的共同体（国家、阶级、聚落）中的传统想象，他们更具身份认同感，仿佛这是一个真实的社区（朋友圈、家庭、公会，等等）。 其中一些身份认同强烈且紧密的对话型网络，开始形成他们自己的经济循环系统，且有着清晰的示例——或许不止一个——这让培育社区自身的自主性成为目标，这就是我们所说的「新威尼斯网络」（Neo-Venetianist networks）。他们诞生于博客圈，是骇客工作伦理的继承者，在理念世界里穿行。这就是我们在本书第一章里提到的经济民主。 与传统的合作主义不同，「新威尼斯网络」并非来自真正的邻近社区，他们的本地连接并不产生认同。比如，在印第安诺基金会（Indianos' foundation）中，有位于两个国家和三个自治区的居民，而基金会又是两个相隔百公里开外的公司创立的。 我们可以看到一些非常巴拉吉式的观点：共享的集体身份，但围绕着价值观而不是地理位置，从线上的论坛社区开始，逐步落实成型，进而占据经济生活的一大部分。乌加特甚至和巴拉吉用了一模一样的隐喻——「数字犹太复国主义」。 但我们也能看到关键的区别：没有单一的创始人。初创社会由单个个体的行动来建立——将直觉和思维脉络整合成一套内在一致的正式哲学，而乌加特的族群（Phyle）则是开始于博客圈的对话型网络，然后直接转换成一个随时间推移积累越来越深厚的群体——与此同时保持它的民主和横向的性质。整个过程更加有机，完全不是由某个个体的行动引导。 当然，我看到一个直接的挑战，就是这种结构所固有的激励问题。一种对族群（Phyles）和网络国家（The Network State）可能并不公平的总结是：「网络国家」试图用 2010 年代的区块链技术作为模型来构想如何重新组织人类社会，而「族群」试图采用的模型是 2000 年代的开源软件社区和博客。开源有激励不足的缺陷，而区块链有过度激励和过分集中激励的问题，但这意味着某种中间道路或许是可能的。 keywords: dao; fda; prospera cache: vitalik-networkstates_zhCN.html plain text: vitalik-networkstates_zhCN.txt item: #397 of 458 id: vitalik-nonfin author: vitalik title: Where to use a blockchain in non-financial applications? date: None words: 4358 flesch: 56 summary: Negative reputation Another important area where off-chain signatures do not suffice is negative reputation - that is, attestations where the person or organization that you're making attestations about might not want you to see them. Negative reputation and revoking attestations are in some sense equivalent problems: you can revoke an attestation by adding another negative-reputation attestation saying this other attestation doesn't count anymore, and you can implement negative reputation with revocation by piggybacking on positive reputation: Alice's degree at Example College could be revoked and replaced with a degree saying Alice got a degree in example studies, but she took out a loan. keywords: blockchain; chain; data; example; key; reputation; use cache: vitalik-nonfin.html plain text: vitalik-nonfin.txt item: #398 of 458 id: vitalik-philosophy author: vitalik title: A Philosophy of Blockchain Validation date: None words: 3296 flesch: 57 summary: Invalid chains are rejected by definition, and if there is a choice between multiple valid chains, the chain that has the most support from miners/validators wins out. But we can go further: we can reject chains that revert finalized blocks and thereby protect immutability, and even protect against censorship. keywords: attack; block; chain; clients; default cache: vitalik-philosophy.html plain text: vitalik-philosophy.txt item: #399 of 458 id: vitalik-plasma_vs_sharding author: vitalik title: Sidechains vs Plasma vs Sharding date: None words: 1665 flesch: 55 summary: The challenge of engineering sharded chains is to get around this limitation by giving users a maximally trustless and practical indirect means to verify which chains are fully available and valid, so that they can still determine which chain is canonical. Plasma chains are sidechains that have a non-custodial property: if there is any error in the Plasma chain, then the error can be detected, and users can safely exit the Plasma chain and prevent the attacker from doing any lasting damage. keywords: chain; data; plasma cache: vitalik-plasma_vs_sharding.html plain text: vitalik-plasma_vs_sharding.txt item: #400 of 458 id: vitalik-plonk author: vitalik title: Understanding PLONK date: None words: 4000 flesch: 65 summary: What this means is that use cases that require different tradeoffs between proof size and security assumptions (or developers that have different ideological positions about this question) can still share the bulk of the same tooling for arithmetization - the process for converting a program into a set of polynomial equations that the polynomial commitments are then used to check. How PLONK works Let us start with an explanation of how PLONK works, in a somewhat abstracted format that focuses on polynomial equations without immediately explaining how those equations are verified. keywords: \cdot; commitments; constraints; equations; polynomial; set; wires cache: vitalik-plonk.html plain text: vitalik-plonk.txt item: #401 of 458 id: vitalik-plutocracy author: vitalik title: Governance, Part 2: Plutocracy Is Still Bad date: None words: 2408 flesch: 55 summary: I wrote about the issues with tightly coupled voting in a blog post last year, that focused on theoretical issues as well as focusing on some practical issues experienced by voting systems over the previous two years. In practice, of course, what this can easily lead to is funds that offer kickbacks to users who vote for them, leading to the exact scenario that we saw above with DPOS delegates. keywords: community; delegates; dpos; votes; voting cache: vitalik-plutocracy.html plain text: vitalik-plutocracy.txt item: #402 of 458 id: vitalik-pos2020 author: vitalik title: Why Proof of Stake (Nov 2020) date: None words: 1887 flesch: 66 summary: Proof of stake Proof of stake is almost entirely capital costs (the coins being deposited); the only operating costs are the cost of running a node. But conservatively, we can say these ongoing costs are ~10% of the total cost of staking, so we only have $0.90 per day of rewards that end up corresponding to capital costs, so we do need to cut the above figure by ~10%. keywords: cost; proof; stake cache: vitalik-pos2020.html plain text: vitalik-pos2020.txt item: #403 of 458 id: vitalik-pos2020_zhTW author: vitalik title: 為什麼權益證明棒棒的（2020 年十一月） date: None words: 316 flesch: 45 summary: GPU ）付出的代價卻更高，讓環境變得過度的中心化。這同時也讓加入 ASIC 挖礦的門檻變得非常高。 權益證明 Proof of stake 權益證明的成本幾乎全是資本成本（抵押的幣）；唯一的營運成本花在運行節點上。猜猜人們願意為每天 $1 的區塊獎勵鎖住多少的資金呢？不像 ASIC，抵押的幣不會折舊，而且當你不想抵押了，你幾乎馬上就可以取回你的幣。因此，在獎勵相同的情況下，參與者會願意付出比 ASIC 的情況更多的資本成本。 讓我們假設 ~15% 的報酬率足夠吸引人們抵押（這是 eth2 的期望報酬率）。因此每天 $1 的區塊獎勵會吸引相當於 6.667 年報酬的抵押，可換算成 $2,433 。節點消耗的硬體與電力成本很小，一台千元美金等級的電腦就可以抵押非常大量的幣，而且每月只要花大概 ~$100 左右的電力與網路費就綽綽有餘。我們可以保守的假設上述這些經常性成本為抵押總成本的 10% ，這代表在協議每天發出的區塊獎勵中，需要扣掉 10% 的經常性成本，剩下的 $0.90 才是（攻擊時）需要花費的資本成本。 譯註： 6.667 年 = $1 /（15% 年報酬）； $2,433 = $1 每天 x 365 x 6.667 總攻擊成本： $0.90/天 * 6.667 年 = $2,189 長期來說，這個攻擊成本會變得更高，因為抵押會變得更有效率，人們也因而更能接受較低的報酬率。我個人預期這個數字最終會攀升到 $10,000 左右。 值得注意的是，如此高的安全性帶來的「代價」，只是讓你在抵押時無法任意移動資金而已。人們有可能認知到，這些幣被鎖住之後反而造成了幣的價值攀升，因而造成在社群流通的貨幣總數、像是用於投資生產活動的資金，反而會維持不變。反觀 PoW，維持共識的「代價」卻是瘋狂地損耗電力。 我們想要更高的安全性，還是更低的成本？ 要知道的是，在每單位成本安全性增加了 5-20 倍之後，我們有兩種方式可以將其加以利用。一種方式是區塊獎勵維持現狀，單純享受多出的安全性。另一種方式是維持現有程度的安全性，並大量減少區塊獎勵（也就是減少共識機制成本的「浪費」）。 兩種方式都行。我個人喜歡後者，因為我們在下文會看到，跟工作量證明相比，在權益證明中的成功攻擊會造成更少的傷害，而且鏈更容易從攻擊中復原。 權益證明更容易從攻擊中復原 在工作量證明的系統，如果你的鏈遭受 51% 攻擊，你會怎麼做？目前為止，實務上唯一的應對一直是「慢慢等，直到攻擊者覺得無聊了」。但這忽略了一種更危險的攻擊叫做「住到你崩潰(spawn camping attack)」，攻擊者可以對鏈攻擊再攻擊，明確的目標就是要讓鏈無法再使用。 譯注：Spawn Camping 是一種遊戲術語，指在對方玩家重生點或死亡處埋伏的行為。如此會造成被住、被蹲的玩家一復活就再次陣亡，毫無還手之力。 基於 GPU 的系統完全沒有防禦的辦法，而且持續攻擊的攻擊者可以輕易讓一個鏈永遠毫無用處（實務上來說，該鏈會開始轉移到權益證明或權威證明(proof of authority)）。事實上，在攻擊開始後不久，攻擊者的成本就會變得非常低，而誠實礦工會離開，因為他們沒辦法在攻擊持續之下取得區塊獎勵。 在基於 ASIC 的系統，社群有辦法應對第一波攻擊，但接下來的攻擊就會變得很容易。社群可以在第一波攻擊之後，硬分叉來更換工作量證明的演算法，讓所有 ASIC 「變磚」（攻擊者和誠實礦工的 ASIC 會一起磚掉）。如果攻擊者願意承受第一次 ASIC 變磚的成本，接下來幾次的情況就和 GPU 的情況一樣（因為還沒有足夠的時間去為新演算法打造與生產 ASIC），所以在這之後攻擊者可以很便宜地持續對鏈發動攻擊到天荒地老。 譯註：變磚為電子產品俚語，代表損壞後無法使用，像磚頭一樣 在權益證明下，狀況則好上非常多。。針對特定種類的 51% 攻擊（特別指想要推翻已經敲定的區塊），權益證明共識有內建的「砍押金（slashing）」機制，大比例的攻擊者抵押會被自動銷毀（而且不會銷毀到其他人的抵押）。針對其他種類的，更難偵測的攻擊（像是 51% 合謀截斷其他人訊息），社群可以協調一個「少數使用者發起軟分叉 minority user-activated soft fork (UASF)」，可以大量銷毀攻擊者的資金（在以太坊中，可以透過「離線懲罰 inactivity leak 」做到）。如此就不需特別花心力來「搞個硬分叉砍掉非法貨幣」。除了 UASF 需要人為協調要選擇哪個少數區塊，其餘的事情都是自動化的，只要遵照協定規則去執行即可。 譯註：少數區塊 minority block 是小於 51% 抵押總數的驗證者決定出來的區塊。 因此，對鏈的第一次攻擊就會耗損攻擊者幾百萬美元，而且社群可以幾天內馬上站穩腳步。第二次攻擊仍然會花費攻擊者數百萬美元，因為他們被迫要買新的幣來取代自己被燒毀的幣。再攻擊第三次...只會繼續燒更多錢。。局面極為不對稱，而且優勢並不會在攻擊者那邊。 權益證明比 ASIC 更去中心化 基於 GPU 的工作量證明的去中心化程度還不錯，因為取得 GPU 不會太難。但前面提過，基於 GPU 的挖礦難以滿足「在攻擊之下的安全性」這個準則。另一方面，基於 ASIC 的挖礦，則需要數百萬美元的資本才能做（而且如果你的 ASIC 是買來的，多數時候，製造商會佔更多便宜） 如上述，你現在知道要怎麼回答「 PoS 只會讓有幣的人繼續以錢滾錢」這個論點了： ASIC 挖礦一樣會讓已經有幣的人得利 - 而且賺得比 PoS 的時候還多。相比之下，至少權益證明的最低抵押門檻夠低，讓一般人還能有機會接觸。 譯註：就文章完成當下 32 ETH @ 440 USD ，最低抵押門檻大概是 40 萬台幣。 進一步說，權益證明更能抵抗審查。GPU 挖礦和 ASIC 挖礦很容易被偵測，他們需要大量電力消耗、昂貴硬體採購、及大型廠房。另一方面，權益證明可以跑在一台不起眼的筆電上，就算跑在 VPN 上也毫無問題。 工作量證明可能的優勢 我覺得 PoW 在下述這兩點上是真的比較佔優勢，縱然這些優勢相當有限。 權益證明更像個「封閉系統」，長期而言財富更加集中 在權益證明的情況下，如果你手上有幣，你可以抵押手上的幣來獲得更多同種類的幣。但，在工作量證明的情況下，就算你沒有幣你還是能賺到，只要你願意投入一些外部資源。因此，或許可以說權益證明會造成長期風險，讓幣的分配變得越來越集中。 我的回應是，在 PoS 中，報酬一般而言會很低（所以驗證者的獲利也會低）。在 eth2 ，我們預期驗證者的年報酬會相當於總 ETH 供給量的 ~0.5-2%。而且更多驗證者抵押，利率會更低。因此，可能要花個一世紀，整個資產集中程度才會翻倍，而且在這樣的時間跨度之下，其他促進分配的壓力（人們想花他們手上的錢，分配金錢到慈善或他們自己的子孫等等）比較可能會佔上風。 權益證明需要「弱主觀性（weak subjectivity）」而工作量證明不需要 關於「弱主觀性」的觀念可以看這個 原始介紹。本質上，就是節點在第一次上線，或是在離線很長一段時間之後（數個月）再次上線，這個節點必須要透過第三方的資源，才能決定正確的鏈頭在哪。這個第三方可以是他們的朋友、可以是交易所或區塊鏈瀏覽器網站、或是客戶端開發者本身、又或是其他角色。PoW 則沒有這樣的要求。 然而，這可能是一個很弱的要求。事實上，使用者本身就已經必須對客戶端開發者、或「社群」有這種程度的信任。最起碼，使用者必須信任某個人（通常是客戶端開發者）來告訴他們協定是什麼，這個協定曾經經歷過什麼樣的更新。這在任何軟體應用都無法避免。因此，這個 PoS 所需要增加的額外信任，其實已經算很少了。 但就算事實證明這些風險其實一點都不小，在我看來切換到 PoS 系統帶來的好處要高得多，像是系統運作的高效率和從攻擊中回歸正軌的能力。 參考來源：我之前寫權益證明的文章 英：Proof of Stake FAQ 英 A Proof of Stake Design Philosophy 中 一种权益证明设计哲学 上。假設 ASIC 可以用 ~2 年，礦工會需要為一單位的 ASIC 硬體花費 $486.67 。 譯註：$486.67 = 365 天 x 2 年 x $0.67 資本成本 總攻擊成本：$486.67 （ASICs） + $0.08（電力與維護）= $486.75 譯注：這邊電力與維護成本也是假設攻擊 6 小時 值得注意的是，雖然 ASICs 提供了很高的安全性，其（相較 keywords: asic; gpu; pos cache: vitalik-pos2020_zhTW.html plain text: vitalik-pos2020_zhTW.txt item: #404 of 458 id: vitalik-pos_design author: vitalik title: [Mirror] A Proof of Stake Design Philosophy date: None words: 1835 flesch: 47 summary: Myself, Vlad, Dominic, Jae and others all have their own views on why proof of stake protocols exist and how to design them, but here I intend to explain where I personally am coming from. However, a blockchain protected by social consensus alone would be far too inefficient and slow, and too easy for disagreements to continue without end (though despite all difficulties, it has happened); hence, economic consensus serves an extremely important role in protecting liveness and safety properties in the short term. keywords: attack; consensus; cost; proof cache: vitalik-pos_design.html plain text: vitalik-pos_design.txt item: #405 of 458 id: vitalik-pos_design_TR author: vitalik title: [Mirror] Bir Proof of Stake Tasarım Felsefesi date: None words: 1432 flesch: 47 summary: ETH'e yıllık %1 oranında bir arz oranı verelim ve düzeltici bir hard fork için 50 milyon dolar maliyet alalım mı, yoksa yıllık %0 Mümkün olan bir orta nokta, çok hızlı çalışabilen ancak Ethereum'un amca(uncle) mekanizmasına benzer mekanikler taşıyan, bir node'un ağ bağlantısının kolayca ulaşılabilecek bir noktanın ötesine geçmesi durumunda marjinal ödülün oldukça düşük olduğunu sağlayan, protokoller oluşturmaktır. keywords: ancak; bir; blok; büyük; daha; ekonomik; fork; hard; için; kadar; konsensüs; olan; olarak; proof; protokol; sosyal; temel; veya; çok cache: vitalik-pos_design_TR.html plain text: vitalik-pos_design_TR.txt item: #406 of 458 id: vitalik-pos_faq author: vitalik title: Proof of Stake FAQ date: None words: 8552 flesch: 52 summary: One strategy suggested by Vlad Zamfir is to only partially destroy deposits of validators that get slashed, setting the percentage destroyed to be proportional to the percentage of other validators that have been slashed recently. This makes lower-security staking strategies possible, and also specifically incentivizes validators to have their errors be as uncorrelated (or ideally, anti-correlated) with other validators as possible; this involves not being in the largest pool, putting one's node on the largest virtual private server provider and even using secondary software implementations, all of which increase decentralization. keywords: algorithms; block; chain; consensus; network; proof; stake; time; validators; work cache: vitalik-pos_faq.html plain text: vitalik-pos_faq.txt item: #407 of 458 id: vitalik-prehistory author: vitalik title: A Prehistory of the Ethereum Protocol date: None words: 3172 flesch: 52 summary: This meant that transactions could not use internal transactions as a way of getting information from other contracts; the only way to do that was the EXTRO opcode (kind of like an SLOAD that you could use to read other contracts' storage), and this too was later removed with the support of Gavin and others. The next idea that we went through is adaptive proof of work; here, the proof of work would involve executing randomly selected Ethereum contracts, and there is a clever reason why this is expected to be ASIC-resistant: if an ASIC was developed, competing miners would have the incentive to create and publish many contracts that that ASIC was not good at executing. keywords: contracts; ethereum; gas; gavin; protocol; time; transaction cache: vitalik-prehistory.html plain text: vitalik-prehistory.txt item: #408 of 458 id: vitalik-prices author: vitalik title: Alternatives to selling at below-market-clearing prices for achieving fairness (or community sentiment, or fun) date: None words: 2794 flesch: 66 summary: So why do sellers sometimes sell below market price? Selling at below market price is hardly a new phenomenon, both within the blockchain space and outside, and over the decades there have been many articles and papers and podcasts writing (and sometimes bitterly complaining) about the unwillingness to use auctions or set prices to market-clearing levels. Selling at below market-clearing prices has large inefficiencies and negative externalities If a seller sells an item at market price, or through an auction, someone who really really wants that item has a simple path to getting it: they can pay the high price or if it's an auction they can bid a high amount. keywords: auction; item; market; people; price cache: vitalik-prices.html plain text: vitalik-prices.txt item: #409 of 458 id: vitalik-progress author: vitalik title: Hard Problems in Cryptocurrency: Five Years Later date: None words: 5179 flesch: 51 summary: Nov 22 See all posts Special thanks to Justin Drake and Jinglan Wang for feedback In 2014, I made a post and a presentation with a list of hard problems in math, computer science and economics that I thought were important for the cryptocurrency space (as I then called it) to be able to reach maturity. At the end, I'll include my new picks for hard problems of 2019. keywords: blockchain; problem; program; progress; proof; status; system; time; work cache: vitalik-progress.html plain text: vitalik-progress.txt item: #410 of 458 id: vitalik-proof_of_solvency author: vitalik title: Having a safe CEX: proof of solvency and beyond date: None words: 3494 flesch: 65 summary: Conclusions: the future of better exchanges In the short term, there are two clear classes of exchanges: custodial exchanges and non-custodial exchanges. Both types of exchanges will continue to exist, and the easiest backwards-compatible way to improve the safety of custodial exchanges is to add proof of reserve. keywords: balance; exchange; merkle; proof; tree; user cache: vitalik-proof_of_solvency.html plain text: vitalik-proof_of_solvency.txt item: #411 of 458 id: vitalik-qap author: vitalik title: [Mirror] Quadratic Arithmetic Programs: from Zero to Hero date: None words: 3179 flesch: 67 summary: The purpose of this post is not to serve as a full introduction to zk-SNARKs; it assumes as background knowledge that (i) you know what zk-SNARKs are and what they do, and (ii) know enough math to be able to reason about things like polynomials (if the statement \(P(x) + Q(x) = (P + Q)(x)\) , where \(P\) and \(Q\) are polynomials, seems natural and obvious to you, then you're at the right level). keywords: \cdot; polynomial cache: vitalik-qap.html plain text: vitalik-qap.txt item: #412 of 458 id: vitalik-quadratic author: vitalik title: Quadratic Payments: A Primer date: None words: 4685 flesch: 60 summary: Quadratic Voting See also the original paper: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract%5fid=2003531 Let us begin by exploring the first flavor of quadratic payments: quadratic voting. These ideas have been gaining popularity rapidly over the last few years, and small-scale tests have already been deployed: the Taiwanese presidential hackathon used quadratic voting to vote on winning projects, Gitcoin Grants used quadratic funding to fund public goods in the Ethereum ecosystem, and the Colorado Democratic party also experimented with quadratic voting to determine their party platform. keywords: alice; article; cost; goods; people; vote; voting cache: vitalik-quadratic.html plain text: vitalik-quadratic.txt item: #413 of 458 id: vitalik-radical_markets author: vitalik title: On Radical Markets date: None words: 5377 flesch: 49 summary: One argument is that, as Steve Waldman says, Uber itself is a cartel, and wants to have the power to adjust market prices not just for efficiency but also reasons such as profit maximization, strategically setting prices to drive out competing platforms (and taxis and public transit), and public relations. One of the more interesting ideas from the 19th century economists, and specifically Henry George, was a kind of property tax that did not have this problem: the land value tax. keywords: book; markets; people; posner; price; property; tax; value; weyl cache: vitalik-radical_markets.html plain text: vitalik-radical_markets.txt item: #414 of 458 id: vitalik-recovery author: vitalik title: Why we need wide adoption of social recovery wallets date: None words: 3691 flesch: 58 summary: Dark Mode Toggle Why we need wide adoption of social recovery wallets 2021 This post will go through what social recovery wallets are, why they matter, and how we can and should move toward much broader adoption of them throughout the ecosystem. keywords: funds; guardians; hardware; recovery; transaction; wallet cache: vitalik-recovery.html plain text: vitalik-recovery.txt item: #415 of 458 id: vitalik-retro1 author: vitalik title: Review of Optimism retro funding round 1 date: None words: 4406 flesch: 57 summary: In this round, badge holder votes were completely transparent; anyone can see how each badge holder votes. Other badge holders use this information to help make up their minds. keywords: badge; funding; holders; projects; retro; round; vote cache: vitalik-retro1.html plain text: vitalik-retro1.txt item: #416 of 458 id: vitalik-revenue_evil author: vitalik title: The Revenue-Evil Curve: a different way to think about prioritizing public goods funding date: None words: 2864 flesch: 58 summary: But nevertheless, the goal is to highlight that there is a tragic aspect to many monetization schemes, and public goods funding can provide value by giving existing projects a financial cushion that enables them to avoid such sacrifices. Dark Mode Toggle The Revenue-Evil Curve: a different way to think about prioritizing public goods funding 2022 keywords: curve; evil; goods; public; revenue cache: vitalik-revenue_evil.html plain text: vitalik-revenue_evil.txt item: #417 of 458 id: vitalik-revenue_evil_zhCN author: vitalik title: 收入-邪恶曲线：思考“公共物品融资优先”的另一种方式 date: None words: 172 flesch: 51 summary: Oct 28 See all posts 译者：龙犄角 & 审阅：Carol @ GreenPill CN 原文：../../../2022/10/28/revenue_evil.html 特别感谢 Karl Floersch、Hasu 和 Tina Zhen 对本篇内容的反馈与评论。 在任何大规模的生态中，公共物品都是无比重要的主题。但同时，公共物品也令人惊讶地难以定义。经济学家对公共物品是这样定义的：公共物品是那些非排他也非竞争性的物品。非排他和非竞争两个经济学专业术语合在一起的表述，意味着从私人财产和市场的角度来提供公共物品是十分困难的。门外汉们对于公共物品也有一个定义：一切对公共有益处的事物都是公共物品。同时，民主人士对公共物品也提出了一个定义，为之添加了公众参与决策的含义。 然而，更重要的是，当抽象的非排他性非竞争性公共物品在与真实的世界互动时，几乎每一个具体的例子都包含无数微妙的边缘案例，需要因地制宜、具体案例具体分析。例如，一座公园是一个公共物品。但假如你对每个进入公园的人都收取 5 美金的门票钱呢？要是你通过拍卖在公园中心广场上树立价高者雕像的权力来为其募资呢？再或者这座公园是由一名半利他主义的亿万富丰出资建造、修葺、维护的，她享受这座公园作为她的个人用途、她将这座公园设计成自己喜欢的模样，但同时又允许任何路过的人踏进公园小坐一会儿、抑或和友人并肩散步谈天呢？ 这篇内容将尝试为落在私人-公共这条光谱上的混合物品进行分析提供另一个角度，也就是****收入-邪恶曲线****。我们抛出这样一个问题：不同方式的货币化项目的权衡是什么，以及通过增加外部补贴来消除货币化的压力可以做多少好事？这远不同于一个普世的框架：它假定在一个单一的社区中存在混合经济环境，有一个商业市场和一个中央资助者的补贴。但它仍旧能够在如何在如今的加密社区、加密国家和许多其他现实世界背景下为公共产品提供资金这方面教会我们很多道理。 传统框架：排他性和竞争性 让我们先从这里理解这个问题开始：通常的经济学家是如何看待一个项目是否属于私人物品或是公共物品的？考虑下面的例子： Alice 持有 1000 以太，想要在市场上抛售。 Bob 经营一家航空公司，出售航班机票。 Charlie 建了一座桥，并通过收取过路费来支付这座桥的修建费用。 David 制作并发布了一档播客。 Eve 制作并出了一首歌。 Fred 发明了一种新的、更好的加密算法，用于进行零知识证明。 接下来，我们将这些案例放进一个有两条坐标轴的图表： 竞争性：一个人享受了美好事物的时候，她会在多大程度上降低另一个人享受美好事物的能力？ 排他性：阻止特定的人——例如那些不付钱的人——享受美好的事物，有多难？ 一张类似的图表大概长这样： 艾莉丝持有的以太是完全排他的（她对谁可以得到她的以太有完全的掌控和选择权），而加密货币是竞争性的（如果一个人拥有一个特定的硬币，其他人就不会拥有同样的硬币）。 鲍勃的飞机票是具有排他性的，但有一点没那么具有竞争性：很可能飞机没有满座。 查理的桥比起鲍勃的飞机票更少了一点排他性，因为增加一道关卡来验证缴费情况需要额外的工作（所以查理可以排他，但对他和过路的人来说都是昂贵的），且桥的竞争性取决于道路是否拥堵。 戴卫的播客和尹芙的歌不具有竞争性：一个人听播客或者那首歌并不妨碍另一个人做同样的事情。它们倒有一点排他性，因为戴卫和尹芙可以做一个付费墙，不过人们同样可以绕过付费墙。 最后，福拉德发明的加密算法接近于完全没有排他性：算法需要开源，人们才会信任它。如果福拉德试图为算法申请专利，目标用户群（热爱开源的加密用户）很可能拒绝使用该算法，甚至为此取消他的资格。 以上都是很好也很重要的分析。排他性告诉我们你是否能够通过收费作为一种商业模式来资助这个项目，而竞争性则告诉我们排他性是否是一种悲剧性的浪费。或者说，这是否只是有关物品的一个不可避免的属性，即如果一个人得到了它，另一个人就得不到。但如果我们仔细地思考其中的一些例子，尤其是数字相关的例子，我们可以发现，这其中忽略了一个非常重要的问题：除了排他性之外，还有很多商业模式可供选择，这些商业模式也有取舍。 思考这样一个特殊的案例：戴卫的播客和尹芙的歌。在现实中，大量的播客是基本或完全免费发布的，但歌曲更多是以许可和版权限制为门槛。要知道个中原因，我们只需要明白这些播客是如何得到资助的：赞助。播客主持人通常寻找几个赞助人，并在每一集播客的开始或中间简短地为赞助人打一打广告。但赞助歌曲更难：你不能在唱一首缱绻的情歌时突兀地中途停下来并开始讲起 Athletic Greens* 如何如何棒呆。因为，你可拉倒吧，气氛都让你给搅合没了啊兄弟！ 我们是否能够越过仅仅考虑排他性，去更广泛地讨论货币化和不同货币化策略的危害呢？实际上，我们的确可以，而这也恰恰是收入/邪恶曲线的用处。 收入-邪恶曲线的定义 一件产品的收入-邪恶曲线是一条二维曲线，能够画出以下问题的答案： 该产品的创造者要对她们的潜在用户和更广泛的社区造成多大的伤害，才能赚取 N 美金的收入来支付产品的建设费用？ 在这里用邪恶这个词并不是说任何数量的邪恶都不被接受，也不是说如果你不能保证不作恶，你就根本不应该去资助项目。许多项目为了确保可持续的资金，做出了艰难的取舍，伤害了她们的客户和社区，而且往往项目存在的价值大大超过了这些伤害。但尽管如此，我们的目标是强调许多货币化计划有其悲剧性的一面，而公共物品融资可以提供价值，给现有项目一个财政缓冲，使她们能够避免这种牺牲。 下图是先前 6 个例子的收入-邪恶曲线的粗略绘制： 对于 Alice 来说，以市场价格出售她的以太实际上是她能做的最有同情心的事情。如果她卖得更便宜，她几乎一定会造成链上 gas 战争、交易员 HFT 战争或其他类似的价值破坏性金融冲突，因为每个人都想最快地得到她的币。而高于市场价格出售甚至不足以成为一种选择：没有人会买。 对于 Bob 来说，社会最优的售价是所有机票都能卖完的最高价格。如果 Bob 以低于这个价格的票价出售机票，那么票很快就会卖完，一些真正需要这些机票的人根本无法买到座位（定价过低可能会给穷人带来一些相反的好处，但也远远不是实现这一目标的最有效方式）。Bob 也可以高于市场价格出售，并有可能赚取更高的利润，但代价是卖出更少的座位，而且（从上帝的角度来看）不必要地把人排除在外了。 如果 Charlie 的桥和通往该桥的道路不拥堵，收取任何费用都是一种负担，并不必要地将司机排除在外。如果它们是拥堵的，低收费有助于减少拥堵，而高收费则不必要地将人们排除在外。 David 的播客可以通过增加赞助商的广告而在一定程度上实现货币化，同时也不会对听众造成很大伤害。如果货币化的压力增加，David 将不得不采用越来越多的广告形式，而真正的收入最大化将需要对播客进行付费墙屏蔽，这对潜在的听众来说是一种高成本。 Eve 的处境和 David 差不多，但低伤害的选择较少（也许是卖 NFT？） 。特别是在卖歌的情况下，付费墙很可能需要积极参与版权执法和起诉侵权者的法律机制，这带来了进一步的伤害。 Fred 的货币化选择甚至更少。他可以为它申请专利，或者有可能采取一些怪异的举动，例如拍卖选择参数的权利，让那些喜欢特定价值的硬件制造商来竞标。但所有的选择都是高成本的。 从这里我们可以看到，在收入-邪恶曲线上实际有许多种邪恶。 传统的排他性经济损失：如果一个产品的价格高于边际成本，本可以进行的互利交易就不会发生。 竞争条件：拥挤、短缺和因为产品太便宜而产生的其他成本。 污染产品，使其对赞助商有吸引力，但对听众有一定程度的伤害（伤害或大或小）。 通过法律系统从事攻击性行动，这增加了每个人的恐惧和花钱请律师的需要，并产生各种难以预测的次生寒蝉效应。这种情况在专利方面尤为严重。 在用户、社区，甚至是从事项目本身的人高度重视的原则上做出牺牲。 在许多案例中，这种邪恶非常依赖于背景。在加密领域和更广泛的软件领域，专利权既极为有害，又具有意识形态上的攻击性，但在制造实物商品的行业中，这种情况较少：在有形商品行业中，大多数人在现实中能够创造出某种专利的衍生作品，她们的规模和组织程度足以谈判获得许可，而资本成本意味着对货币化的需求要高得多，因此保持纯粹性就更难。广告多么有害取决于广告商和受众：如果播客主持人非常了解她的听众，广告甚至可以是有帮助的！是否存在排他的可能性甚至取决于产权。 但通过笼统地谈论为赚取收入而作恶这个话题，我们获得了将这些情况相互比较的能力。 收入-邪恶曲线在如何确定融资的优先次序上告诉了我们什么？ 现在，回到我们为什么关心什么是公共物品、什么不是公共物品的关键问题：融资的优先次序。如果我们有一个有限的资本池，专门用于帮助一个社区的繁荣，我们应该把资金用于哪些方面？收入-邪恶曲线图为我们提供了回答这个问题的一个简单的起点：将资金投向那些收入-邪恶曲线斜率最大的项目。 我们应该把重点放在那些通过减少货币化的压力，每 1 美金的补贴都能最大幅度地减少不幸的项目所需的罪恶的项目上。这样我们就得到了如下的大致排名： 最优先的是 纯粹的公共物品，因为往往根本没有任何方法可以将其货币化，或者即使有，试图货币化的经济或道德成本也非常高。 第二个优先事项是 自然而然公共但可盈利的物品，通过稍加调整就可以通过商业渠道获得资金，如歌曲或对播客的赞助。 第三优先考虑的是非商品类私人物品，在这些物品中，社会福利已经通过收费得到优化，但利润率很高，或者更普遍的是存在污染产品以增加收入的机会。例如，通过保持伴随的软件闭源或拒绝使用标准，补贴可以用来推动这些项目在边际上做出更亲社会的选择。 需要注意的是，排他性和竞争性框架通常会得出类似的答案：首先关注非排他性和非竞争性的物品，其次关注具有排他性但非竞争性的物品，最后关注具有排他性和部分竞争性的物品——而既具有排他性又具有竞争性的物品永远不会被关注（如果你有剩余的资本，最好直接作为 UBI 发放）。收入/邪恶曲线与排他性和竞争性之间有一个粗略的近似映射：排他性越高意味着收入/邪恶曲线的斜率越低，而竞争性则告诉我们收入/邪恶曲线的底部是零还是非零。但收入/邪恶曲线是一个更普遍的工具，它允许我们谈论货币化战略的权衡，远远超出了排他。 这个框架如何用于分析决策的一个实例是 Wikimedia 捐款。我个人从未向 Wikimedia 捐款，因为我一直认为她们能够也应该不依靠有限的公益资金来资助自己，只需增加一些广告。而这对她们的用户体验和中立性来说只是一个很小的代价。然而，维基百科的管理员不同意；她们甚至有一个维基页面列出了她们不同意的论据。 我们可以把这种分歧理解为对收入-邪恶曲线的争议：我认为 Wikimedia 的收入-邪恶曲线的斜率很低（广告并不那么糟糕），因此她们对我的慈善资金来说是低优先级的；其他一些人认为她们的收入-邪恶曲线的斜率很高，因此她们的慈善资金对 Wikimedia 是高度优先的。 收入-邪恶曲线是一个智力工具，而「不是」一个好的直接机制 从这个想法中得出的一个重要结论是，我们不应该尝试直接使用收入-邪恶曲线作为确定单个项目优先次序的方法。由于监测方面的限制，我们在这方面的能力受到了严重制约。 如果这个框架被广泛使用，项目就会有动力去虚报她们的收入-邪恶曲线。任何收取通行费的人都有动力想出巧妙的论据，试图说明如果通行费能降低 20%，世界就会好得多，但由于她们的预算严重不足，没有补贴她们就无法降低通行费。项目将有动力在短期内更加邪恶，以吸引补贴，帮助她们变得不那么邪恶。 由于这些原因，最好的办法可能是不把该框架作为直接分配决策的方式，而是确定哪些类型的项目应优先获得资金的一般原则。例如，该框架可以成为确定如何对整个行业或整个类别的物品进行优先排序的有效方式。它可以帮助你回答这样的问题：如果一家公司正在生产一种公共物品，或者在设计一种不完全是公共物品的物品的过程中做出了有利于社会但经济成本很高的选择，她们是否应该为此获得补贴？但即使是这样，最好也是把收入-邪恶曲线当作一种心理工具，而不是试图精确地测量它们，并利用它们来作出单独的决定。 结论 排他性和竞争性对一个物品来说是重要的维度，对其货币化的能力，以及对回答通过一些公共资金获得资助，可以避免多少伤害的问题，具有真正重要的影响。但是，特别是一旦更复杂的项目进场，这两个维度很快就开始变得不足以决定资金的优先次序。大多数的物品都不是纯粹的公共物品：它们是处于中间的一些混合体，在许多方面，它们或多或少都是公共的，且不容易映射到排他。 观察一个项目的收入-邪恶曲线给了我们另一种衡量真正重要的统计数据的方法：减轻一个项目 1 美金的货币化压力，可以避免多少伤害？有时，缓解货币化压力的收益是决定性的：就是没有办法通过商业渠道来资助某些种类的东西，直到你能找到一个从它们中受益的单一用户，足以单方面资助它们。其他时候，商业资金的选择是存在的，但有着有害的副作用。有时这些影响较小，有时较大。有时，个人项目的一小部分在亲社会的选择和增加货币化之间有明显的权衡。还有一些时候，项目只是自己筹资，没有必要对其进行补贴——或者，至少不确定性和隐藏的信息使得创建一个利大于弊的补贴时间表太难。按照从最大收益到最小收益的顺序排列资金的优先次序总是更好的；而你能走多远取决于你有多少资金。 * 我没有接受Athletic Greens的赞助费用。但播客主持人 Lex Fridman 接受了。以及，我也没有接受 Lex Fridman 的赞助费用。但也许有人接受了。反正管他呢，只要我们能继续为播客提供资金，让人们能免费收听，又不至于太烦，那一切就都很好了，对吧？ keywords: bob cache: vitalik-revenue_evil_zhCN.html plain text: vitalik-revenue_evil_zhCN.txt item: #418 of 458 id: vitalik-road author: vitalik title: The roads not taken date: None words: 3167 flesch: 64 summary: Well, there actually are Ethereum researchers who heavily explored a much more sophisticated sharding system: shards would be chains, there would be fork choice rules where child chains depend on parent chains, cross-shard messages would get routed by the protocol, validators would be rotated between shards, and even applications would get automatically load-balanced between shards! In some cases, Ethereum developers made conscious decisions to improve in some place where we thought that Bitcoin erred. keywords: block; ethereum; evm; lot; proof; stake cache: vitalik-road.html plain text: vitalik-road.txt item: #419 of 458 id: vitalik-rollup author: vitalik title: An Incomplete Guide to Rollups date: None words: 4638 flesch: 62 summary: Here's a chart for some other example use cases: Application Bytes in rollup Gas cost on layer 1 Max scalability gain ETH transfer 12 21,000 105x ERC20 transfer 16 (4 more bytes to specify which token) ~50,000 187x Uniswap trade ~14 (4 bytes sender + 4 bytes recipient + 3 bytes value + 1 byte max price + 1 byte misc) ~100,000 428x Privacy-preserving withdrawal (Optimistic rollup) 296 (4 bytes index of root + 32 bytes nullifier + 4 bytes recipient + 256 bytes ZK-SNARK proof) ~380,000 77x Privacy-preserving withdrawal (ZK rollup) 40 (4 bytes index of root + 32 bytes nullifier + 4 bytes recipient) ~380,000 570x Max scalability gain is calculated as (L1 gas cost) / (bytes in rollup * 16) * 12 million / 12.5 million. ZK rollups, which use validity proofs: every batch includes a cryptographic proof called a ZK-SNARK (eg. using the PLONK protocol), which proves that the post-state root is the correct result of executing the batch. keywords: batch; chain; data; rollups; root; state cache: vitalik-rollup.html plain text: vitalik-rollup.txt item: #420 of 458 id: vitalik-rollup_ES author: vitalik title: La Guía Incompleta de los Rollups date: None words: 4996 flesch: 54 summary: Y lo que es más importante, la falta de problemas de disponibilidad de datos significa que ya no es necesario asignar activos a los propietarios, lo que lleva a la razón clave por la cual la comunidad de Ethereum está mucho más entusiasmada con los Rollups que con las formas anteriores de escalado de capa-2: Los Rollups son totalmente de multi-propósito, e incluso se puede ejecutar un EVM dentro de un Rollup, lo que permite que las aplicaciones Ethereum existentes migren a Rollups casi sin necesidad de escribir ningún código nuevo. Incluso los sistemas en los que se puede cambiar el estado de un objeto sin el consentimiento del propietario (por ejemplo: los sistemas basados en cuentas, en los que puede aumentar el saldo de alguien sin su consentimiento) no funcionan bien con Plasma. keywords: batch; bob; bytes; cada; cadena; con; contrato; datos; del; ejemplo; estado; esto; hay; las; los; más; para; pero; plasma; por; prueba; puede; que; rollups; root; solo; son; transacción; una cache: vitalik-rollup_ES.html plain text: vitalik-rollup_ES.txt item: #421 of 458 id: vitalik-round4 author: vitalik title: Review of Gitcoin Quadratic Funding Round 4 date: None words: 3069 flesch: 50 summary: In the case of Gitcoin Grants, however, the matching funds are coming from Ethereum organizations, and so there is an expectation that the system is there to support Ethereum projects. Jan 28 See all posts Round 4 of Gitcoin Grants quadratic funding has just completed, and here are the results: The main distinction between round 3 and round 4 was that while round 3 had only one category, with mostly tech projects and a few outliers such as EthHub, in round 4 there were two separate categories, one with a $125,000 matching pool for tech projects, and the other with a $75,000 matching pool for media projects. keywords: ethereum; funding; good; public; quadratic; round cache: vitalik-round4.html plain text: vitalik-round4.txt item: #422 of 458 id: vitalik-round5 author: vitalik title: Gitcoin Grants Round 5 Retrospective date: None words: 2784 flesch: 54 summary: But as with recurring contributions, very few people made negative contributions, to the point where their impact on the results was negligible. People would be willing to give more recurring contributions, but there is some kind of market failure stopping them; that is, it's collectively optimal for everyone to give more recurring contributions, but it's not any individual contributor's interest to be the first to do so. keywords: contributions; people; projects; round cache: vitalik-round5.html plain text: vitalik-round5.txt item: #423 of 458 id: vitalik-round6 author: vitalik title: Gitcoin Grants Round 6 Retrospective date: None words: 1902 flesch: 55 summary: Since round 5, Gitcoin Grants has had three categories per round: tech, community (called media before), and some guest category that appears only during that specific round. In round 5 this was COVID relief; in round 6, it's Crypto For Black Lives. keywords: community; ethereum; funding; round cache: vitalik-round6.html plain text: vitalik-round6.txt item: #424 of 458 id: vitalik-round7 author: vitalik title: Gitcoin Grants Round 7 Retrospective date: None words: 1674 flesch: 54 summary: There are a few possibile motivations that are likely all in play to various extents: People are naturally altruistic to some extent, and this round defi projects got unexpectedly wealthy for the first time due to a rapid rise in interest and token prices, and so donating some of that windfall felt like a natural good thing to do Many in the community are critical of defi projects by default, viewing them as unproductive casinos that create a negative image of what Ethereum is supposed to be about. Contributing to public goods is an easy way for a defi project to show that they want to be a positive contributor to the ecosystem and make it better Even in the absence of such negative perceptions, defi is a competitive market that is heavily dependent on community support and network effects, and so it's very valuable to a project to win friends in the ecosystem The largest defi projects capture enough of the benefit from these public goods that it's in their own interest to contribute There's a high degree of common-ownership between defi projects (holders of one token also hold other tokens and hold ETH), and so even if it's not strictly in a project's interest to donate a large amount, token holders of that project push the project to contribute because they as holders benefit from the gains to both that project but also to the other projects whose tokens they hold. keywords: defi; matching; projects; round cache: vitalik-round7.html plain text: vitalik-round7.txt item: #425 of 458 id: vitalik-round7_FR author: vitalik title: 7ème tour des subventions Gitcoin - Rétrospective date: None words: 1725 flesch: 57 summary: De nombreux projets utilisants des rollups optimistes et ZK cherchent maintenant à collaborer avec des portefeuilles sur des intégrations directes, ce qui devrait rendre cette technique plus facile à utiliser et ce de façon plus sécurisée. Turbogeth, Nethermind, RadicalXchange et beaucoup d'autres projets pourraient encore faire beaucoup avec un dollar de plus. keywords: des; est; les; pour; projets; une cache: vitalik-round7_FR.html plain text: vitalik-round7_FR.txt item: #426 of 458 id: vitalik-round9 author: vitalik title: Gitcoin Grants Round 9: The Next Phase of Growth date: None words: 2913 flesch: 55 summary: But the problem is more long-term and subtle: if there's a long-term pattern of projects making retroactive airdrops to Gitcoin contributors, then users will feel a pressure to contribute primarily not to projects that they think are public goods, but rather to projects that they think are likely to later have tokens. As Gitcoin Grants continues to establish itself as a successful home for Ethereum public goods funding, it is also continuing to attract legitimacy as a focal point for donations from projects wishing to support the ecosystem. keywords: gitcoin; mechanism; projects; round; team cache: vitalik-round9.html plain text: vitalik-round9.txt item: #427 of 458 id: vitalik-sales author: vitalik title: Analyzing Token Sale Models date: None words: 4130 flesch: 61 summary: Note that there are other mechanisms that should be tried to solve other problems with token sales; for example, revenues going into a multisig of curators, which only hand out funds if milestones are being met, is one very interesting idea that should be done more. Two years ago, the space was simple: there were capped sales, which sold a fixed number of tokens at a fixed price and hence fixed valuation and would often quickly sell out, and there were uncapped sales, which sold as many tokens as people were willing to buy. keywords: market; price; sale; time; tokens; valuation cache: vitalik-sales.html plain text: vitalik-sales.txt item: #428 of 458 id: vitalik-scaling author: vitalik title: The Limits to Blockchain Scalability date: None words: 3792 flesch: 67 summary: For a blockchain to be decentralized, it's crucially important for regular users to be able to run a node, and to have a culture where running nodes is a common activity. We don't know what the exact threshold is at which herd immunity against coordinated attacks kicks in, but there is one thing that's absolutely clear: more nodes good, fewer nodes bad, and we definitely need more than a few dozen or few hundred. keywords: blockchain; blocks; data; need; node; users cache: vitalik-scaling.html plain text: vitalik-scaling.txt item: #429 of 458 id: vitalik-sharding author: vitalik title: Why sharding is great: demystifying the technical properties date: None words: 4689 flesch: 58 summary: Hence, you have 2x more blocks of 2x the size, or 4x more chain capacity altogether. Suppose that you have a proof of stake chain with a large number (eg. 10000) validators, and you have a large number (eg. 100) blocks that need to be verified. keywords: availability; block; chain; computation; data; sharding cache: vitalik-sharding.html plain text: vitalik-sharding.txt item: #430 of 458 id: vitalik-sharding_faq author: vitalik title: Sharding FAQ date: None words: 11943 flesch: 53 summary: One possible route to solving this is to create a platform that offers both kinds of shards - some shards would be higher-security global shards that are randomly sampled, and other shards would be lower-security local shards that could have properties such as ultra-fast block times and cheaper transaction fees. That said, shard chains to actually agree on what data gets included into the shard chains in the first place is still required. keywords: attacker; block; chain; data; majority; model; proof; security; shard; sharding; state; time; transaction; validators cache: vitalik-sharding_faq.html plain text: vitalik-sharding_faq.txt item: #431 of 458 id: vitalik-snarks author: vitalik title: An approximate introduction to how zk-SNARKs are possible date: None words: 4692 flesch: 66 summary: What's a slightly more useful example of a computation being converted into a set of polynomial equations? Better ways to encode computation into polynomials: figuring out the most efficient way to encode complicated computations involving hash functions, memory access and other features into polynomial equations is still a challenge. keywords: \(p\; check; computation; number; polynomial cache: vitalik-snarks.html plain text: vitalik-snarks.txt item: #432 of 458 id: vitalik-soulbound author: vitalik title: Soulbound date: None words: 2053 flesch: 64 summary: Making more items in the crypto space soulbound can be one path toward an alternative, where NFTs can represent much more of who you are and not just what you can afford. Dark Mode Toggle Soulbound 2022 Jan 26 See all posts One feature of World of Warcraft that is second nature to its players, but goes mostly undiscussed outside of gaming circles, is the concept of soulbound items. keywords: governance; items; nfts; proof cache: vitalik-soulbound.html plain text: vitalik-soulbound.txt item: #433 of 458 id: vitalik-stable author: vitalik title: Two thought experiments to evaluate automated stablecoins date: None words: 2563 flesch: 64 summary: The system attempts to shore up stablecoin demand by issuing more volcoins. Dark Mode Toggle Two thought experiments to evaluate automated stablecoins 2022 keywords: price; rai; stablecoin; system cache: vitalik-stable.html plain text: vitalik-stable.txt item: #434 of 458 id: vitalik-starks_part_1 author: vitalik title: STARKs, Part I: Proofs with Polynomials date: None words: 2929 flesch: 68 summary: Dark Mode Toggle STARKs, Part I: Proofs with Polynomials 2017 Nov 09 See all posts Special thanks to Eli Ben-Sasson for ongoing help, explanations and review, coming up with some of the examples used in this post, and most crucially of all inventing a lot of this stuff; thanks to Hsiao-wei Wang for reviewing Hopefully many people by now have heard of ZK-SNARKs, the general-purpose succinct zero knowledge proof technology that can be used for all sorts of usecases ranging from verifiable computation to privacy-preserving cryptocurrency. Hence, what these tools will provide is proof of proximity - proof that most of the points on \(P\) and \(D\) correspond to the right kind of polynomial. keywords: points; polynomial; proof; prover cache: vitalik-starks_part_1.html plain text: vitalik-starks_part_1.txt item: #435 of 458 id: vitalik-starks_part_2 author: vitalik title: STARKs, Part II: Thank Goodness It's FRI-day date: None words: 3161 flesch: 64 summary: If the original polynomial has degree \(< n\), then the rows have degree \(< 2\) (ie. Note that this is only a proximity test, because there's always the possibility that most points are on the same low-degree polynomial, but a few are not, and the \(D+1\) sample missed those points entirely. keywords: \cdot; degree; points; polynomial cache: vitalik-starks_part_2.html plain text: vitalik-starks_part_2.txt item: #436 of 458 id: vitalik-starks_part_3 author: vitalik title: STARKs, Part 3: Into the Weeds date: None words: 5456 flesch: 60 summary: % modulus for i in range(precision)] print('Computed C(P, K) polynomial') [1] for i in range(1, precision): powers.append(powers[-1] * root_of_unity_to_the_steps % modulus) l_evaluations = [(d_evaluations[i] + p_evaluations[i] keywords: \cdot; degree; modulus; polynomial; proof; root; steps; values cache: vitalik-starks_part_3.html plain text: vitalik-starks_part_3.txt item: #437 of 458 id: vitalik-stealth author: vitalik title: An incomplete guide to stealth addresses date: None words: 3348 flesch: 63 summary: FHE could also be used to help stealth address protocols in a different way: to help Bob outsource the computation of checking the entire chain for stealth addresses containing assets without revealing his view key. Dark Mode Toggle An incomplete guide to stealth addresses 2023 Jan 20 See all posts Special thanks to Ben DiFrancesco, Matt Solomon, Toni Wahrstätter and Antonio Sanso for feedback and review One of the largest remaining challenges in the Ethereum ecosystem is privacy. keywords: address; alice; bob; key; stealth cache: vitalik-stealth.html plain text: vitalik-stealth.txt item: #438 of 458 id: vitalik-story author: vitalik title: In-person meatspace protocol to prove unconditional possession of a private key date: None words: 1158 flesch: 71 summary: Bob starts reading, as all four start typing into their phones at the same time: Alice's first key share is, 6-b-d-7-h-k-k-l-o-e-q-q-p-3-y-s-6-x-e-f. Applying the 100,000x iterated SHA256 hash we get e-a-6-6..., confirm? Confirmed, the others replied. Hello, Alice, the person sitting on the leftmost chair, whose name she intuits is Bob, says in a calm voice. keywords: alice; bob; key cache: vitalik-story.html plain text: vitalik-story.txt item: #439 of 458 id: vitalik-techno_optimism author: vitalik title: My techno-optimism date: None words: 11201 flesch: 56 summary: This core idea, that some technologies are defense-favoring and are worth promoting, while other technologies are offense-favoring and should be discouraged, has roots in effective altruist literature under a different name: differential technology development. This month, we saw a similar debate enacted through the OpenAI dispute, which involved many discussions centering around the dangers of superintelligent AI and the possibility that OpenAI is moving too fast. keywords: acc; century; defense; example; future; good; human; need; people; power; superintelligent; technologies; technology; things; tools; way; world; years cache: vitalik-techno_optimism.html plain text: vitalik-techno_optimism.txt item: #440 of 458 id: vitalik-three_transitions author: vitalik title: The Three Transitions date: None words: 3978 flesch: 62 summary: ETH addresses, including smart contract addresses with CREATE2, have this feature. Smart contract wallets add more complexity, by making it much more difficult to have the same address across L1 and the various L2s. keywords: address; addresses; contract; key; privacy; users cache: vitalik-three_transitions.html plain text: vitalik-three_transitions.txt item: #441 of 458 id: vitalik-traveltime author: vitalik title: Travel time ~= 750 * distance ^ 0.6 date: None words: 1213 flesch: 64 summary: Now, I needed travel time data for longer distances, where the optimal route would include flights. Obviously, travel time would grow slower than linearly: the further you have to go, the more opportunity you have to resort to forms of transportation that are faster, but have some fixed overhead. keywords: point; time; travel cache: vitalik-traveltime.html plain text: vitalik-traveltime.txt item: #442 of 458 id: vitalik-triangle_of_harm author: vitalik title: The Triangle of Harm date: None words: 1295 flesch: 54 summary: We can play around with the factors; for example, it may be considered okay to allow griefing factors of 2 for majority attackers in exchange for keeping the griefing factor at 0.5 for minorities, with the reasoning that minority attackers are more likely. In Casper, protocol utility is zero for a perfect execution where every epoch is finalized and no safety failures ever take place, with some penalty for every epoch that is not finalized, and a very large penalty for every safety failure. keywords: majority; protocol cache: vitalik-triangle_of_harm.html plain text: vitalik-triangle_of_harm.txt item: #443 of 458 id: vitalik-trust author: vitalik title: Trust Models date: None words: 1516 flesch: 63 summary: I use small N to refer to the set of participants of the layer 2 system itself, and big N to refer to the participants of the blockchain; the assumption is always that the layer 2 protocol has a smaller community than the blockchain itself. Here are a few examples of trust models of a few blockchain layer 2 protocols. keywords: trust cache: vitalik-trust.html plain text: vitalik-trust.txt item: #444 of 458 id: vitalik-trustedsetup author: vitalik title: How do trusted setups work? date: None words: 2323 flesch: 69 summary: This article will explain how the KZG setup works, why it works, and the future of trusted setup protocols. To the extent that trusted setup ceremonies are necessary, it is important to remember that not all trusted setups are created equal. keywords: g_2; points; secret; setup cache: vitalik-trustedsetup.html plain text: vitalik-trustedsetup.txt item: #445 of 458 id: vitalik-using_snarks author: vitalik title: Some ways to use ZK-SNARKs for privacy date: None words: 3743 flesch: 69 summary: A recent blockchain state root \(R\) The post contents (mixed in to the proof to bind it to the post, but we don't do any computation on it) Private inputs: Your private key \(k\) Advanced readers: A very new and more efficient alternative to Merkle proofs for ZK-proving membership is Caulk. keywords: chain; post; proof; reputation cache: vitalik-using_snarks.html plain text: vitalik-using_snarks.txt item: #446 of 458 id: vitalik-ux author: vitalik title: Some personal user experiences date: None words: 1796 flesch: 64 summary: Along with the all-important issue of high transaction fees due to scaling not yet being fully solved, user experience is a key reason why many Ethereum users, especially in the Global South, often opt for centralized solutions instead of on-chain decentralized alternatives that keep power in the hands of the user and their friends and family or local community. If you send a transaction at the same time as when many others are sending transactions and the base fee is spiking up, you risk the base fee going too high and your transaction not getting accepted. keywords: time; transaction; wallet cache: vitalik-ux.html plain text: vitalik-ux.txt item: #447 of 458 id: vitalik-ux_zhCN author: vitalik title: 我在加密世界的一些个人体验 date: None words: 157 flesch: 66 summary: Oct 28 See all posts 译者：wonder @ GreenPill CN 原文：Some personal user experiences 我在加密世界的一些个人体验 2013 年，我去了旧金山互联网档案馆旁边的一家寿司店，因为我听说它接受比特币支付，我想去试试。在结账的时候，我要求用 BTC 进行支付，我扫描了二维码，然后点击了「发送」。令我惊讶的是，交易并没有成功；看起来交易已经发送出去，但餐厅并没有收到这笔交易。我又试了一次，还是没有成功。我很快就发现了问题所在，原因在于当时我的网络信号不好。我不得不向附近的互联网档案馆走 50 多米，接入了它的 WiFi，才终于将这笔交易发送出去。 经验教训：互联网不是 100% 可靠的，用户互联网比商家互联网更不可靠。线下支付系统需要具备一些能让客户直接将交易数据传输给商家的功能（例如 NFC、客户出示二维码等等），假如这是传输的最佳方式的话。 2021 年，在阿根廷的一家咖啡店，我尝试使用加密货币为自己和朋友支付茶水费。店主表示，他们本不接受加密货币支付，只是因为他认出了我。他向我展示了他在加密货币交易所拥有的一个账户，所以我提议用 ETH 进行支付（在拉丁美洲使用加密货币交易所账户作为钱包是一种标准的面对面支付方式）。不凑巧的是，第一笔 0.003 ETH 的交易没有被接收成功，可能是因为它低于交易所 0.01 ETH 的最低存款额要求。于是我又发送了 0.007 ETH，很快，两笔交易都得到了确认。(我并不介意多付 3 倍的钱，就当作是小费吧）。 2022 年，在另一家店铺，我再次尝试用加密货币支付茶水费。第一笔交易失败了，因为我的手机钱包的默认交易只发送了 21,000 gas，而接收账户是一个智能合约，需要额外 gas 才能处理转账。试图发送的第二笔交易也失败了，因为我的手机钱包的用户界面出现了点小故障，无法向下滑动并编辑「gas 限制」这一字段。 经验教训：简单实用的用户界面要优于花哨华丽的用户界面。但是，大多数用户甚至不知道「gas 限制」是什么，所以我们的确需要优化默认值。 有很多次，我的交易被链上接收和系统确认交易之间的延迟出乎意料地久，甚至出现了「未确认」的状态。有时，我的确会担心链上的支付系统是否出现了一些故障。 还有很多次，发送交易和区块接收交易之间存在延迟，并且这种延迟是不可预测的。有时，一笔交易会在几秒钟内被接收，但更多时候一笔交易需要几分钟甚至几小时才被接收。最近，EIP-1559 大大优化了这一点，确保大多数交易被接收到下一个区块中，最近的合并通过稳定区块时间进一步改善了这种情况。 Yinhong (William) Zhao 和 Kartik Nayak 制作的报告 但是，异常值仍然存在。如果同时有许多人正在发送交易，那么基础 gas 费就会飙升，你就会面临基础 gas 费过高和交易不被接收的风险。更糟糕的是，钱包的用户界面对这种情况的提示也不够到位，既没有显眼的红色闪烁警报，也没有清晰的提醒告知用户应该做什么来解决这个问题。即使你是专家，知道在这种情况下，可以通过提高 gas 费并发布一个数据相同的新交易来「加速」交易，但往往找不到可操作的按钮在哪里。 经验教训：交易相关的用户体验仍需改进，改善方法其实相当简单。感谢 Brave 钱包团队认真对待了我在这个问题上的建议，首先将最大基本费用的限制从 12.5% 提高到了 33%；近期，他们还在探索如何在用户界面清晰地展示「交易被卡住了」这一状态的方法。 2019 年，我测试了一款早期的钱包，它提供社交恢复方案。与我偏爱的智能合约方案不同的是，社交恢复采取了沙米尔的秘密分享理念，即将账户的私钥分成五部分，集齐其中任何三个部分都可以恢复私钥。用户需要选择五个朋友（或者是当代术语「守护人（guardians）」），说服他们下载一个单独的移动应用程序，并提供一个确认码，通过 Firebase 创建一个从用户钱包到应用程序的加密连接，并将他们拥有的密钥发送给用户。 于我而言，使用这种方法很快就遇到了麻烦。几个月后，我的钱包出了问题，我需要使用恢复程序来恢复钱包。我请朋友们通过他们的应用程序和我一起执行恢复程序，但事情并没有按计划进行。其中两位朋友丢失了他们的密钥，因为他们换了手机，忘记迁移恢复程序。第三位朋友表示，Firebase 的连接机制在很长一段时间内不起作用。虽然最终我们还是想出了解决问题的办法，并恢复了密钥。但是，几个月之后，钱包又坏了。这一次的问题在于，一次常规的软件更新莫名其妙重置了应用程序的存储，并删除了密钥。由于 Firebase 的连接机制过于垃圾，我无法添加足够的恢复伙伴，最终损失了少量的 BTC 和 ETH。 经验教训：基于秘密分享的链下社交恢复实在是太脆弱了，在有其他选择的情况下，这绝不是一个好的方法。帮助恢复密钥的守护人不应该下载一个单独的应用程序，因为如果一个应用程序只有「恢复（密钥）」这一种特殊用途，人们很容易忘记和丢失。此外，独立的中心化通信渠道也会带来各种问题。相反，添加守护人的方式应该是提供他们的 ETH 地址，恢复过程应该由智能合约完成，例如使用 ERC-4337 账户抽象钱包。这样一来，守护人只需保证不丢失以太坊钱包即可；出于其他原因，他们也会更加小心翼翼，不让钱包丢失。 2021 年，我想通过使用 Tornado Cash 的「自我中继」选项来节省费用。Tornado Cash 采用的「中继器」机制是由第三方在链上来推送交易。因为当你取款时，你的取款地址中一般没有代币，并且你不想用你的存款地址来支付交易，因为这样会在两个地址之间形成公开的联系，这正是 Tornado Cash 试图避免的问题。但中继器机制往往很昂贵，中继器收取的百分比费用可能远远超过交易的实际 gas 费。 为了节约成本，有一次，我使用中继器先发起了一笔小额提款，这样收取的费用较低，然后在不使用中继器的情况下，我通过 Tornado Cash 的「自我中继」功能，发送了第二笔大额提款。然后，我搞砸了，我在登录存款地址时不小心进行了这项操作，所以我使用了存款地址而不是提款地址，支付了费用。糟糕！我在两者之间建立了一个公开的联系。 经验教训：钱包开发者应该开始更明确地考虑隐私问题。此外，我们需要更好的账户抽象形式，以消除对中心化、甚至是联合中继的需求，并使中继角色商品化。 其它事项 许多应用程序不兼容 Brave 钱包或 Status 浏览器；这可能是因为他们没有好好地做准备工作，并依赖于 Metamask 独有的 API。甚至在很长一段时间里，Gnosis Safe 也不兼容这些钱包，导致我不得不自己编写迷你 Javascript dapp 来进行确认。幸运的是，最新的 UI 已经修复了这个问题。 keywords: eth; gas cache: vitalik-ux_zhCN.html plain text: vitalik-ux_zhCN.txt item: #448 of 458 id: vitalik-verkle author: vitalik title: Verkle trees date: None words: 2664 flesch: 70 summary: This is the main constraint limiting Verkle tree widths. Hence, Verkle tree widths can go quite high; width 256-1024 seems like an optimal range. keywords: node; proof; tree; verkle cache: vitalik-verkle.html plain text: vitalik-verkle.txt item: #449 of 458 id: vitalik-voting author: vitalik title: Notes on Blockchain Governance date: None words: 4053 flesch: 53 summary: Now, let us go through some arguments against voting, and dissect how each argument applies to voting as layer 1 and voting as layer 2. Low Voter Participation One of the main criticisms of coin voting mechanisms so far is that, no matter where they are tried, they tend to have very low voter participation. The Role of Coin Voting Ethereum also has a history with coin voting, including: DAO proposal votes: https://daostats.github.io/proposals.html The DAO Carbonvote: http://v1.carbonvote.com/ The EIP 186/649/669 Carbonvote: http://carbonvote.com/ These three are all examples of loosely coupled coin voting, or coin voting as a layer 2 coordination institution. keywords: blockchain; coin; coordination; governance; layer; protocol; vote; voting cache: vitalik-voting.html plain text: vitalik-voting.txt item: #450 of 458 id: vitalik-voting2 author: vitalik title: Blockchain voting is overrated among uninformed people but underrated among informed people date: None words: 4419 flesch: 55 summary: This applies to quadratic funding, it applies to multisig and social recovery wallets, and it can apply to voting systems too. And it's not just random tech journalists: Bruce Schneier is against blockchain voting, and researchers at MIT wrote a whole paper arguing that it's a bad idea. keywords: blockchain; coercion; key; resistance; security; vote; voting cache: vitalik-voting2.html plain text: vitalik-voting2.txt item: #451 of 458 id: vitalik-voting3 author: vitalik title: Moving beyond coin voting governance date: None words: 5221 flesch: 57 summary: Dark Mode Toggle Moving beyond coin voting governance 2021 Aug 16 See all posts Special thanks to Karl Floersch, Dan Robinson and Tina Zhen for feedback and review. I will argue for one key part of the answer: we need to move beyond coin voting as it exists in its present form. keywords: chain; coin; decision; funding; governance; protocol; time; vote; voting cache: vitalik-voting3.html plain text: vitalik-voting3.txt item: #452 of 458 id: vitalik-zk_snarks author: vitalik title: [Mirror] Zk-SNARKs: Under the Hood date: None words: 2480 flesch: 62 summary: Hence, we need to add yet more data to the trusted setup; specifically the sequence: \(G, G \cdot t, G \cdot t^2, G \cdot t^3, G \cdot t^4 ...\). To get a bit of a feel for how you would do this, here's a simple algorithm for taking an existing set (\(G, G \cdot t, G \cdot t^2, G \cdot t^3...\)), and adding in your own secret so that you need both your secret and the previous secret (or previous set of secrets) to cheat. keywords: \cdot; points; setup cache: vitalik-zk_snarks.html plain text: vitalik-zk_snarks.txt item: #453 of 458 id: vitalik-zkevm author: vitalik title: The different types of ZK-EVMs date: None words: 2383 flesch: 58 summary: In such a future, we would have multiple ZK-EVM implementations which could be used both for ZK rollups and to verify the Ethereum chain itself. Disadvantage: prover time Ethereum was not originally designed around ZK-friendliness, so there are many parts of the Ethereum protocol that take a large amount of computation to ZK-prove. keywords: ethereum; evm; evms; type cache: vitalik-zkevm.html plain text: vitalik-zkevm.txt item: #454 of 458 id: vitalik-zkevm_TR author: vitalik title: Farklı ZK-EVM Türleri date: None words: 1963 flesch: 59 summary: ZK dostu olma çabasıyla modifikasyonlarını benimsemesi durumunda Tip 1 ZK-EVM haline gelebilir. Bu avantajı bu yazımda sadece bir cümleyle açıklıyorum (aşağıdaki, uyumlulukla ilgili dezavantajlar için olan büyük listeyle karşılaştırıldığında), ancak bu bir değer yargısı olarak yorumlanmamalıdır! keywords: ancak; bir; birçok; bunu; daha; dengi; dostu; ethereum; evm; evm'ler; farklı; gibi; ile; inşa; için; kanıtlayıcı; olarak; tam; tip; veya cache: vitalik-zkevm_TR.html plain text: vitalik-zkevm_TR.txt item: #455 of 458 id: vitalik-zkevm_zhTW author: vitalik title: 不同類型的 ZK-EVM date: None words: 540 flesch: -37 summary: Dark Mode Toggle 不同類型的 ZK-EVM 2022 Aug 29 See all posts 特別感謝 PSE, Polygon Hermez, Zksync, Scroll, Matter Labs and Starkware 團隊參與討論和協助校稿 近來各家 ZK-EVM 紛紛登場。Polygon 的 ZK-EVM 以開源的方式釋出，ZKSync 公佈了 ZKSync 2.0 的規劃，相對晚進場的 Scroll 也推出了他們的 ZK-EVM。正在開發 ZK-EVM 的，還有 PSE, Nicholas Liochon 等人，以及 Starkware 正在開發的 alpha compiler (能把 EVM 編譯成 Starkware 所開發的 Cairo)，族繁不及備載。 上述專案有一個共同的目標：利用 ZK-SNARK 進行密碼學證明，驗證以太坊生態（Ethereum-like）交易的執行。這樣更好驗證以太坊 L1 鏈上的交易與狀態，也建立（接近）與以太等價且擴展性更好的 ZK-rollups。但這幾個專案之間的些微的差異，反映在實用性和速度之間的取捨。本文試著提出分類不同 EVM 的方法，並說明其中的利弊得失。 懶人包（以圖表呈現） zkevm 第 1 類：等價以太坊（fully Ethereum-equivalent）的 ZK-EVM 第 1 類 ZK-EVM 志在完整、毫無妥協的達到以太坊等價。它沒有改動以太坊生態任何部份的設計以讓證明更簡單，也沒有換掉雜湊的運算（hashes）、狀態樹（state trees）、交易樹（transaction trees）、預編譯的合約（precompiles)，而且再怎麼邊陲的共識邏輯（in-consensus logic），都沒有換掉。 優點：完美的相容性 一切的用意在於用現況下的以太鏈—至少，要驗證執行層（也因此不包含信標鏈（Beacon Chain）的共識邏輯，但是所有交易執行和智能合約、帳戶的概念，都有涵蓋）。 第 1 類的 ZK-EVM 是以太坊 L1 更有擴展性的最終解。長遠來看，對以太坊的修正，可能會在第 2 類或第 3 類測試之後，引入到正規以太坊。然後，要作架構的重規劃，則會有其複雜之處。 第 1 類的 ZK-EVM 也對 rollups 很理想，因為 rollups 能夠重複利用許多的基礎設施。舉例來說，以太坊的執行端可以被用來生成和處理 rollup blocks（退一步來說，等到解除質押存款生效後，這個功能可以被重新用在 rollup 的以太質押存款），所以比如區塊鏈瀏覽器、block production 等工具，都很容易重複利用。 缺點：證明者運算時間 （prover time) 以太坊原生不以零知識證明基礎建構，所以有許多以太坊固有元件，若要作零知識驗證，需要消耗龐大的運算時間。第 1 類 ZK-EVM 為求完全複製以太坊運作，因此沒有避開低效率的證明流程。就現階段來說，從以太坊既有區塊產生零知識證明，要花上好幾個小時。然而，這個障礙可以透過巧妙的工程設計，大幅提升驗證者平行化產出零知識證明的能力，或建構出 ZK-SNARK ASIC 等方式，緩解其缺點。 實例 PSE 正在蓋的 ZK-EVM 屬於第 1 類。 第 2 類：等價以太坊虛擬機（fully EVM-equivalent）的 ZK-EVM 第 2 類 ZK-EVM 試作到跟 EVM 等價，但又不完全跟以太坊等價。也就是說，他們「內部」跟以太坊一樣，但是從外面看上去會有些差異，尤其是區塊結構（block structure）、狀態樹（state tree）等資料結構。 一切的用意在於要跟既有的應用軟體完全相容，但是針對以太坊作一些微調，讓開發更容易、生成證明更快速。 優點：等價於虛擬機 第 2 類 ZK-EVM 改動了儲存諸如 Ethereum state 的資料結構。幸運的是，這是都是 EVM 本身無法直接存取的結構，所以在 Ethereum 之上執行的應用程式幾乎都可以在第 2 類 ZK-EVM rollup 上使用。你無法直接利用以太的執行端，但經過微調之後可以，EVM 的除錯工具，和多數的開發設施，也都能照常使用。 也有少數的例外的情況。對於使用以太坊歷史區塊（historical Ethereum blocks）的雜湊數驗證（Merkle proofs） 來驗證對歷史交易、交易明細、或狀態（claims about historical transactions, receipts, or state）（例如：跨鏈橋有時候會這麼作）就會有不相容的情況發生。如果有 ZK-EVM 用其他雜湊函數取代 Keccak，這些證明會失效。然而，我本來就不建議這樣設計應用程式，因為未來以太坊會引用的改變（例如 Verkle trees）會讓這些應用程式連在以太坊上都不能使用。比較好的替代方案，是以太坊本身應該要新增不容易被未來科技淘汰的歷史取用預編譯合約（future-proof history access precompiles）。 缺點：證明者運算時間稍有改善到仍然很慢 第 2 類 ZK-EVM 的證明者運算速度，比第 1 類更快，主要的原因，是因為不再使用某些以太坊上，對零知識技術毫無意義地不友善的密碼學。尤其，他們可能會改變 Ethereum 的 Keccak 和基於 RLP 的 Merkle Patricia tree，還有或許區塊及交易明細的結構。第 2 類 ZK-EVM 可能會使用不同的雜湊函數，例如 Poseidon。也很自然發生的改變是修正狀態樹，以儲存合約碼雜湊值（code hash）和 keccak，免除對於執行EXTCODEHASH和EXTCODECOPY所需要的雜湊驗證。 這些改動大幅的改善證明者運算時間，但不會完全解決所有問題。證明現況下的EVM的緩慢效率，以及源自於EVM的其他不效率、對zk的不友善，都還留著。舉一個簡單例子：記憶體。因為一個MLOAD只能一次讀 32 bytes，包含「沒有對齊的」字節（起始端和終端都不是32的倍數），一個 MLOAD 無法被直接讀取為一個 chunk，它可能需要讀超過兩個連續的 chuck，並作一些運算，合併結果。 實例 Scroll 的 ZK-EVM 以及 Polygon Hermez 都屬於第 2 類。然而，兩個專案距離到位都還早。尤其因為還沒加入比較複雜的預編譯，因此，以目前來說，兩個專案都更應該被分類在第 3 類。 第 2.5 類：跟以太坊虛擬機結構一樣，但是 gas 訂價例外 想要大幅減少最壞可能的證明者運算時間（worst-case prover times）的方法，就是針對 EVM 內很難的零知識證明運算，大幅提升所需的 gas 訂價。這會牽扯到預編譯、KECCAK 操作碼、以及或許呼叫合約的特殊模式（specific patterns of calling contracts）、存取記憶體（accessing memory）、 儲存空間（storage）或還原（reverting）。 改善 gas 訂價可能會降低開發者工具的相容性，並會讓一些應用程式不能用（break），但是它比起更「深層」的 EVM 改動風險較低。開發者應該要注意，不要在一筆交易中花費超過一個區塊能容納的 gas，也永遠不要把呼叫合約時所需要花用的 gas 寫死（這本來就是會給開發者的標準建議）。 另一個解決資源限制問題的替代方式，是直接對每一個運算可以被呼叫的次數設下硬性的限制。這在電路上更容易實作，但是對 EVM 的安全性假設就沒有那麼合適。這種作法我認為屬於第 3 類而非第 2.5 類。 第 3 類：接近以太坊虛擬機等效（almost EVM-equivalent） 第 3 類 ZK-EVM 是接近 EVM 等效，只有作了退讓，以改善證明者運算時間，並讓開發更容易。 優點：更容易實作，證明者運算時間縮短 第 3 類 ZK-EVM 可能會拿掉一些特別難改成 ZK-EVM 的功能。最有可能被拿掉的，就是預編譯。此外，各種第 3 類 ZK-EVM，在處理合約程式碼（contract code）、記憶體（memory）或堆疊（stack）上，也有些微差異。 缺點：不相容性 第 3 類 ZK-EVM 的目標是跟多數的應用程式相容，並且只需要重寫極少部分。即便如此，還是有一些需要重寫的應用程式，因為他們要麼使用了第 3 類 ZK-EVM 拿掉的預編譯功能，或是在特殊情況（edge cases）之下，某些之間虛擬機處理方法不同的相依性問題（dependencies）。 實例 Scroll 和 Polygon，雖然它們預期會在未來改善相容性，但目前都屬於第 3 類。Polygon 有一個特別設計，是要驗證自己的語言，zkASM，而他們編譯 ZK-EVM 程式用的是 zkASM。雖然如此，我還是認為這是第 3 類 ZK-EVM。它仍能驗證EVM程式碼，只是換了內部邏輯。 現況下，沒有哪個 ZK-EVM 團隊是想要成為第 3 類 ZK-EVM。第 3 類只是一個過渡期，正在等待預編譯功能完成，再換到第 2.5 類。但是在未來，第 1 或 2 類可能會加入 ZK-SNARK 友善的預編譯，自發的變成第 3 類，讓證明者運算時間和 gas 都降低 keywords: evm; snark cache: vitalik-zkevm_zhTW.html plain text: vitalik-zkevm_zhTW.txt item: #456 of 458 id: vitalik-zkmulticlient author: vitalik title: How will Ethereum's multi-client philosophy interact with ZK-EVMs? date: None words: 3143 flesch: 57 summary: Once that happens, ZK-EVMs de-facto become a third type of Ethereum client, just as important to the network's security as execution clients and consensus clients are today. It would realistically take a long time (even if eg. 15 seconds) to generate proofs valid for other clients. keywords: client; ethereum; layer; multi cache: vitalik-zkmulticlient.html plain text: vitalik-zkmulticlient.txt item: #457 of 458 id: wbnns-ethereumbook-2021 author: wbnns title: wbnns-ethereumbook-2021 date: None words: 4479 flesch: 52 summary: Two of the critical differences from most general-purpose computers are that Ethereum state changes are governed by the rules of consensus and the state is distributed globally. Two hard forks, Berlin and London, have also been announced, and we are now in the final stage of Ethereum development, codenamed Serenity. keywords: bitcoin; blockchain; computer; consensus; ethereum; machine; purpose; state; turing cache: wbnns-ethereumbook-2021.txt plain text: wbnns-ethereumbook-2021.txt item: #458 of 458 id: wood-etherium-2024 author: wood title: Ethereum Yellow Paper: a formal specification of Ethereum, a programmable blockchain date: 2024-09-02 words: 26832 flesch: 70 summary: if σ[r] = ∅∧v 6= 0 σ′1[r] ≡ ∅ if σ[r] = ∅∧v = 0 σ′1[r] ≡ a′1 otherwise (126) a ′ 1 ≡ (σ[r]n,σ[r]b + v,σ[r]s,σ[r]c) (µs[1] + µs[2] − 1)] ζ ≡ ∅ (σ′,g′,A′,z, o) ≡   Λ(σ∗,A,Ia,Io,L(µg),Ip,µs[0], i,Ie + 1,ζ,Iw) if µs[0] 6 σ[Ia]b ∧ Ie < 1024 ∧‖i‖6 49152( σ,L(µg),A, 0, () ) otherwise σ∗ ≡ σ except σ∗[Ia]n = σ[Ia]n + 1 µ′g ≡ µg −L(µg) keywords: account; address; appendix; array; bit; block; byte; code; contract; data; ethereum; execution; fee; function; gas; hash; instruction; ledger; machine; memory; message; mod; number; operation; order; set; shanghai; size; state; storage; transaction; trie; value; version; µs[0; µs[1; µ′s[0 cache: wood-etherium-2024.pdf plain text: wood-etherium-2024.txt