Diyala Agricultural Sciences Journal 2022, Vol (14) No 2: 62-72 

 

ISSN: 2073-9524 

eISSN: 2310-8746 

 

62 
 

The Consequence of Artisanal Gold Mining on Heavy 

Metals Exposure to Water in Anka, Zamfara State Nigeria 

Sharhabil Musa Yahaya
 1

, Nafiu Abdu
 2

, Nuruddeen Isa
1 3

 

1,3
 Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture/Institute for Agricultural Research, 

Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria.
  

2
 Faculty of Agriculture, Banat’s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary 

Medicine “King Michael I of Romania” from Timisoara, Romania. 
1
Corresponding author: smyahaya@abu.edu.ng  

Article history:  

Received: 5 September 2022 
Accepted: 16 October 2022 

 Published: 30 December 2022

Abstract 

   Over the decade many villages in Zamfara State Nigeria were known for 

artisanal gold mining which caused pollution of vast water bodies and area of 

land. This makes it imperative to analyze heavy metal contamination in wells and 

surface water. The present study evaluated the concentrations of heavy metals 

(iron, lead, cadmium, zinc, nickel, and chromium) in the ore processing water and 

well-water in some selected villages of Anka local government area in Zamfara 

State where mining is taking place. Anka town served as control due to absence 

of mining activities. The concentrations of heavy metals in the water samples 

were measured using atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The concentration of 

Fe, Pb, and Cd ranged from 23.3 – 921.46, 0 – 132.8, and 3.3 – 4.1 ppm 

respectively. While Zn, Ni, and Cr were not detected in the water samples. 

Virtually all the detected heavy metals in the water samples exceeded the 

international organizations (WHO, USEPA, and EPA-EUC) maximum 

permissible limit of 0.3 – 1.00, 0.01 – 0.05, and 0.03 – 0.05 ppm of Fe, Pb, and 

Cd in water samples respectively. Interestingly, all the well-water from all the 

study locations was not contaminated with Pb despite its high concentrations in 

the processing water. Meanwhile both the processing water and well water were 

contaminated with Fe and Cd. These revealed that artisanal gold mining is 

contributing to the pollution of surface water bodies (used for irrigation and 

drinking) with Pb, while Fe and Cd may be in addition to their abundance in 

natural soil deposits. 

Keywords: Artisanal 

mining, heavy metals, 

irrigation water, 

contamination, 

Zamfara. 

 

https://dx.doi.org/10.52951/dasj.221402007 
This article is open-access under the CC BY 4.0 license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Introduction 

Water serves a vital role in all life 

processes for being an essential component 

of all forms of life on earth. There are two 

major natural sources of domestic water; 

surface water and groundwater (Awomeso 

et al., 2010). Most rural communities in 

Nigeria use surface water directly without 

undergoing any water treatments for 

drinking and domestic purposes including 

irrigation. Artisanal mining in many rural 

communities in Nigeria has resulted in the 

release of many heavy metals into soil and 

water bodies (Abdu and Yusuf, 2013; Nuhu 

et al., 2014; Yahaya et al., 2020). The 

persistence, non-biodegradability, and toxic 

nature of heavy metals have rendered them 

a major threat to the environment (Islam et 

al., 2017; Wuana and Okieimen, 2011; 

Yahaya et al., 2022). Although some heavy 

metals such as iron, copper, zinc, and nickel 

are essential to some life processes, they are 

required in small quantities, while at a 

higher concentrations are toxic to both 

plants and animals (Kumar and Trivedi, 

2016). The heavy metals in the water bodies 

can move up the trophic levels in the food 

chain accumulating in human bodies. These 

heavy metals can then combine with DNA, 

proteins, and enzymes molecules to form 

stable and highly bio-toxic compounds, thus 

affecting their normal functions and 

preventing them from undergoing 

bioreactions, which leads to genotoxic, 

carcinogenic, organs failure, and mutagenic 

effects (Mishra et al., 2019). 

mailto:smyahaya@abu.edu.ng
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0159-8740
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8981-5959
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7426-5966
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0159-8740
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8981-5959
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7426-5966
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0159-8740
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8981-5959
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7426-5966


Diyala Agricultural Sciences Journal 2022, Vol (14) No 2: 62-72 

 

63 
 

The realization of the economic benefits 

of gold mining has increased the artisanal 

mining activities in Zamfara State Nigeria, 

especially Anka local government. The 

miners have no knowledge or regard for the 

harmful effects of illegal mining activities. 

It was reported that approximately 163 

persons lost their precious lives to heavy 

metals contamination in some villages of 

Anka's local government of Zamfara State 

Nigeria (Ogelekaa and Alaminiokumab, 

2020). This was attributed to the illegal 

mining of gold and other minerals like 

chromite, limestone, and gypsum. The 

environmental consequences of illegal 

mining are particularly due to the nature of 

the chemical processes involved in gold 

extraction. In virtually all the villages, the 

mercury amalgamation method of gold 

extraction was used. The process includes 

manual digging of the metal ore, grinding 

of the extracted ore, washing of the ground 

soil, amalgamation using mercury, and 

melting of the amalgamated product to 

extract the gold from the ore (Nnaji and 

Omotugba, 2016). This process normally 

degrades and pollutes the environment, 

hindering the process of sustainable 

development, producing a morass of 

hazardous waste, and using large water. 

Considering all these negative effects, the 

need to evaluate the quality of surface water 

in relations to heavy metal concentration in 

all the gold mining areas of Zamfara state 

becomes crucial since water from these 

sources has been used for irrigation, 

livestock activities, domestic uses, and 

drinking. In addition, information from this 

study is necessary for developing strategies 

for site remediation and urban 

environmental quality management. The 

main objective of this study is to assess the 

status of heavy metal pollution in waters 

(well and ore-processing water) in the 

chosen villages of Anka Local Government 

in Zamfara State, Nigeria. 

 

Materials and Methods 

Chemicals and reagents 

 All experimental reagents used in this 

study were of analytical grade. This is to 

guarantee the accuracy of experimental 

data. Deionized distilled water was used in 

all the experimental processes. The 

chemicals used in this research were 

obtained from Sigma-Aldrich with an 

analytical grade without further 

purification. These include nitric acid, and 

distilled water.  

Study location 

The study location is Anka Local 

Government Area in Zamfara State, 

Nigeria. It was made up of six (6) towns ( 

Figure 1) including Anka town (control 

site) with no record of mining activities. 

The sampling sites were selected due to 

their prominent intense artisanal mining 

activities. Since 2010, all the sites were 

confirmed to be contaminated areas (Joint 

and Unit, 2010). The area has a typically 

tropical climate with dry and rainy seasons. 

The dry season spans from late October to 

May while the rainy season starts in early 

May and terminates in October. The 

harmattan season is in the dry season 

spanning barely from December to 

February every year. The mean annual 

rainfall is 899 ± 16 mm with a mean 

temperature of 38.8 ± 2.2 
0
C (Ogelekaa and 

Alaminiokumab, 2020). The major 

work/employment of the people in the area 

includes farming, mining, trading, and 

agricultural processing. The abundance of 

many mineral ores attracted people to 

mining activities. The process of mining 

includes manual digging of the metal ore, 

grinding of the extracted ore, washing of 

the ground soil, amalgamation with 

mercury, and melting of the amalgamated 

product to extract the gold from the ore 

(Nnaji and Omotugba, 2016). 

 

 



Diyala Agricultural Sciences Journal 2022, Vol (14) No 2: 62-72 

 

64 
 

 
Figure 1. Map of Nigeria – Zamfara State – Anka Local government depicting the study locations 

 

Sample collection 

Sixteen sampling sites were identified 

with the coordinates and altitudes detailed 

in table 1. At each site, three (3) subsamples 

were randomly collected in a pre-cleaned 1-

liter sampling bottle. Each bottle was rinsed 

3 times at the sampling point before 

sampling the water. The water collected 

was preserved before analysis by acidifying 

using 2 cm
3
 of conc. HNO3 to suppress 

microbial activities (Abdu and Yusuf, 2013) 

Determination of heavy metals 

concentration 

   Heavy metals concentration of water 

samples was determined using the digestion 

method as described by the APHA 

procedure (Nuhu et al., 2014). In the 

procedure, 1000 cm
3
 of the preserved 

sampled water were put into a beaker 

followed by addition of 50 cm
3
 conc. HNO3 

and heated to boiling. It was then 

evaporated to 20 cm
3
 on a hot plate. The 

addition of HNO3 and heating were 

continued until digestion was completed 

through observation of colorless, and clear 

solution. The digest was then turned into 

plastic bottles, diluted to 100 cm
3
 mark, and 

cooled. The solution was then used for 

heavy metal determination. 

The concentrations of metals in the sample 

solutions were measured using atomic 

absorption spectrophotometry. The heavy 

metals analyzed include lead (Pb), iron 

(Fe), Nickel (Ni), zinc (Zn), chromium (Cr), 

and cadmium (Cd). 

.

Table 1. Geographic coordinates and altitudes of the sampling points 

  GPS Coordination  

Locations Sampling site Latitude Longitude Altitude (masl) 

Bagega Mining 1 11
0
51.494

1
N 5

0
56.299

1
E 386m 

Bagega Processing 2 11
0
51.874

1
N 5

0
59.760

1
E 393m 

Bagega Village 3 11
0
51.486

1
N 5

0
54.394

1
E 390m 

Dareta Mining 4 11
0
59.196

1
N 5

0
59.507

1
E 386m 



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65 
 

Dareta Processing 5 12
0
02.331

1
N 5

0
57.391

1
E 358m 

Dareta Village 6 12
0
02.322

1
N 5

0
57.320

1
E 349m 

Sunke Mining 7 11
0
53.180

1
N 5

0
56.656

1
E 389m 

Sunke Processing 8 11
0
53.865

1
N 5

0
55.185

1
E 371m 

Sunke Village 9 11
0
53.718

1
N 5

0
55.339

1
E 366m 

Tunga Minning 10 11
0
57.303

1
N 5

0
57.419

1
E 375m 

Tunga Processing 11 11
0
53.865

1
N 5

0
55.185

1
E 371m 

Tunga Village 12 11
0
56.932

1
N 5

0
57.989

1
E 385m 

Abare Mining 13 12
0
05.280

1
N 5

0
57.216

1
E 363m 

Abare Processing 14 12
0
04.355

1
N 5

0
57.324

1
E 347m 

Abare Village 15 12
0
04.696

1
N 5

0
57.324

1
E 349m 

Anka town 16 12
0
06.648

1
N 5

0
56.443

1
E 318m 

  

Risk assessments of heavy metals 

pollution 

Enrichment Factor (EF) 

The enrichment factor is an index used 

to assess the origin of heavy metals 

contamination. The origin of the 

contamination may be either from 

anthropogenic sources or from the natural 

processes in the environment. A reference 

element (most abundant element) is often 

used as a normalizer to calculate the EF. In 

this study, iron was used as the reference 

element due to its abundance in the soil of 

the study area (Yahaya et al., 2021). The 

EF is calculated using equation 1. 

EF= (Mcw/REcw)⁄(Mnc/REnc)

 Equation (1) 

   Mcw and REcw represent the 

concentration of heavy metal and reference 

heavy metal in contaminated water, and 

Mnc and REnc are the concentration of 

heavy metal and reference heavy metal in 

control water respectively. 

An EF of < 2 indicates that there is no 

anthropogenic pollution due to the heavy 

metal, 2 - < 5 indicates moderate 

enrichment, 5 - < 20 indicates significant 

enrichment, 20 - < 40 indicates very high 

enrichment, and ≥ 40 indicates extremely 

high enrichment due to anthropogenic 

activities respectively (Sutherland, 2000). 

Contamination Factor (CF) 

The contamination factor (CF) is used 

to determine the severity of the 

pollution/contamination of a particular 

element using the fraction of the 

concentration of the heavy metal in the 

medium over the maximum allowable 

concentration of that particular heavy metal 

(equation 2) (Lacatusu, 2000). 

CF= (Concentration of heavy metal in the 

medium)/ (Maximum allowable 

concentration of the heavy metal) Equation 

2.   

   A CF of ≤ 1 indicates a low degree, 1 ≤ 3 

indicates moderate contamination, 3 ≤ 6 

indicates considerable contamination and ≥ 



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66 
 

6 indicates very high contamination 

(Adewumi, 2020; Islam et al., 2017). 

Pollution Load Index (PLI) 

   This index determines the combined 

heavy metal contamination status of a given 

area. It is calculated as the geometric mean 

of the calculated contamination factors 

(Yahaya et al., 2021). 

PLI=〖(CF1 x CF2 x CF3 x…..CFn)〗
^(1/n) equation (3) 

The PLI value of < 1 indicates no pollution, 

1 < 2 indicates moderate pollution, 2 < 3 

indicates heavy pollution, and ≥ 3 indicates 

extreme pollution (Wang et al., 2010). 

Statistical analysis 

   Each water sample was analyzed in three 

replications, and a standard sample was 

used in between every three experimental 

samples. To ensure the accuracy of data, 

experimental blank and field blank samples 

were also analyzed. 

Data obtained were subjected to analysis 

using Microsoft Excel (Version 2016) and 

SAS (Version 9.0). 

Results and Discussions 

Heavy metals status in the water and the 

allowable concentrations 

   In this study, the concentrations of six 

heavy metals (iron (Fe), lead (Pb), cadmium 

(Cd), chromium (Cr), zinc (Zn), and nickel 

(Ni) in water samples from the wells and 

ore processing waters were determined. The 

samples revealed the presence of lead 

(figure 2), iron (figure 3), and cadmium 

(figure 4), and their concentrations were 

compared with the international 

organizations’ standards such as United 

State Environment Protection Agency 

(USEPA), World Health Organization 

(WHO), and Environment Protection 

Agency European Commission (EPA-

EUC). Heavy metal concentration in 

drinking water in the study area was 

assessed by (various) authors (Adewumi, 

2020; Nuhu et al., 2014; Ogelekaa and 

Alaminiokumab, 2020; Yahaya et al., 

2021). Each author has stated the 

concentrations of the heavy metals with 

their maximum permissible limits. None of 

the samples showed the presence of 

chromium, zinc, and nickel. This is in 

contrast to the finding of Nuhu et al. 

(2014), where nickel was recorded in the 

well-water of some of the study locations. 

Adewumi (2020) recorded high chromium 

in some places and attributed it to the illegal 

mining of chromite deposits located in the 

area. Although zinc was recorded by 

Ogelekaa and Alaminiokumab (2020), it’s 

far below the maximum allowable limits set 

by different organizations. The result 

obtained revealed that all the ore processing 

water contains a high concentration of iron, 

lead, and cadmium. Interestingly, none of 

the well-water recorded lead, but all have a 

high concentration of iron and cadmium. 

All the recorded concentrations of iron, 

lead, and cadmium was found to be above 

the permissible limits of WHO, USEPA, 

and EPA-EUC (EPA-EUC, 1998; USEPA, 

2016; WHO, 2004). 

   The concentration of Pb found in the ore 

processing water ranged from 0.40 ppm to 

132.80 ppm (Figure 2). These far exceeded 

the maximum permissible limit of 0.01 ppm 

(WHO) and 0.05 ppm (USEPA) for 

drinking water. The maximum permissible 

limit is of concern as Pb is a toxic metal 

that can cause impairment to nervous 

systems (particularly in children) which can 

result in brain and blood disorders (Metryka 

et al., 2021). Hematological damage is well 

noted with high Pb absorption, which is one 

of the most serious and important 

biochemical effects of Pb in drinking water 

(Ehi-Eromosele and Okiei, 2012). The 

presence of a high concentration of Pb in 

the ore processing water is a serious matter 

of worry and the potential for human 

contact, as the water is discharged to the 

main water bodies, and in some instances, 

the miners drink the water directly without 

any cautions (Mohammadi et al., 2019). 

This calls for immediate awareness and 



Diyala Agricultural Sciences Journal 2022, Vol (14) No 2: 62-72 

 

67 
 

remediation studies as the accumulation of 

this metal has a cumulative fatal effect and 

is a probable human carcinogen (Ghaffari et 

al., 2021). 

 

Figure 2. Mean lead (Pb) concentrations (ppm) in water samples of the study area 

All the samples revealed a detectable 

concentration of iron and cadmium, and all 

have a concentration above the maximum 

permissible values for surface and drinking 

water. Cadmium ranged from 3.3 ppm to 

4.1 ppm, while iron ranged from 23.3 ppm 

to 921.46 ppm respectively (figure 3 and 

figure 4). The maximum tolerable limit for 

Cd is 0.005 ppm (USEPA) and 0.003 ppm 

(WHO and EPA-EUC), and that of Fe is 0.3 

ppm (USEPA), 1.0 ppm (WHO), and 0.2 

ppm (EPA-EUC) respectively. Thus, the 

whole samples analyzed showed pollution 

of Fe and Cd including the control site 

(Anka town). Therefore, all the water 

samples were not suitable for drinking 

purposes until further purified. The higher 

concentrations of Fe and Cd in both the ore 

processing water and the well-water may 

not be due to mining activities alone, as 

much literature (Amusan et al., 2005; 

Solomon et al., 2016; Yahaya et al., 2021) 

reported that the soils of the study area 

including Anka town (control site) contain 

an abundant amount of Fe and Cd. 

Adewumi (2020) opined that the metals in 

the water samples are both from mining 

activities and geogenic, as geogenic sources 

contributed an important role in the 

discharge of toxic heavy metals.  

 

Figure 3. Mean iron (Fe) concentrations (ppm) in water samples of the study area 



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68 
 

 

Figure 4. Mean cadmium (Cd) concentrations (ppm) in water samples of the study area 

   Among the detrimental effect of Cd is its 

accumulation in the human body (especially 

kidney and liver (Genchi et al., 2020)) 

throughout life. Its toxicity is primarily in 

the proximal tubular cells of the kidney, 

which is the main site of accumulation, 

causing bone demineralization directly or 

indirectly because of renal dysfunction 

((Bernard, 2008)). Based on the 

epidemiological data, breast, kidney, 

pancreas, prostate, nasopharynx, and lung 

cancer were all associated with Cd toxicity 

(Genchi et al., 2020). Although Fe is an 

essential element for the growth and 

development of organisms such as electron 

transport, DNA synthesis, and oxygen 

transport, excess amounts beyond the 

permissible limits can cause tissue damage, 

anemia, iron overload, and 

neurodegenerative diseases (Abbaspour et 

al., 2014). 

Risk assessments of heavy metals in the 

water samples 

   The enrichment factor was used to 

evaluate the origin of the heavy metals in 

the water samples. Error! Reference 

source not found. shows the results of the 

enrichment factors of Pb and Cd. The 

results revealed that Bagega, Sunke, Tunga, 

and Abare processing waters have 

extremely high to very high enrichment of 

Pb. None of the well water shows any 

enrichment of Pb. This indicates that 

artisanal mining has a strong influence on 

the enrichment of the ore-processing water 

with Pb. This agrees with the finding of 

Nuhu et al. (2014) and Adewumi (2020) of 

some of the study locations. Therefore, 

based on the rating of Sutherland (2000), all 

the processing water except for Dareta, has 

an enrichment of Pb due to the 

anthropogenic activities in the study area. 

As for Cd, virtually all the water samples 

(except for Anka well (control site)) show a 

moderate to very high enrichment of Cd 

(table 2). The absence of Cd enrichment in 

Anka well suggests that enrichment of well 

waters in the mining communities is 

directly related to the mining activities. 

From the result of Ogelekaa and 

Alaminiokumab (2020), it was revealed that 

even after remediation of some of the study 

contaminated sites, Cd still recorded a very 

high enrichment factor, indicating that in as 

much as illegal mining is taking place, Cd 

will always record a high EF value, making 

it a more sensitive heavy metal. 

 

 



Diyala Agricultural Sciences Journal 2022, Vol (14) No 2: 62-72 

 

69 
 

Table 2. Enrichment factor of the heavy metals in water from all the study locations in Anka 

Local Government, Zamfara State 

Locations Enrichment Factor of Pb Enrichment Factor of Cd 

Bagega Processing Water 23.92 VE 2.14 ME 

Bagega Well 0.00 NE 2.41 ME 

Dareta Processing Water 1.24 NE 3.71 ME 

Dareta Well 0.00 NE 2.17 ME 

Sunke Processing Water 296.87 EE 2.36 ME 

Sunke Well 0.00 NE 8.08 SE 

Tunga Processing Water 275.20 EE 2.41 ME 

Tunga Well 0.00 NE 21.66 VE 

Abare Processing Water 590.33 EE 13.57 SE 

Abare Well 0.00 NE 36.65 VE 

Anka Well 1.00 NE 1.00 NE 

NE = no enrichment; ME = moderate enrichment; SE = significant enrichment; VE = very high enrichment; EE 

= extremely high enrichment. 

   Contamination factor and pollution load 

index were used to assess the severity and 

status of contamination of Fe, Pb, and Cd in 

the study area. Table 3 shows the CFs and 

PLI of the heavy metals. The CFs show that 

all the study areas were contaminated with 

Fe and Cd, and only Sunke, Tunga, and 

Abare processing waters were contaminated 

with Pb. This shows that the high 

concentration of the heavy metals in the 

soils of the study locations contributed to 

the contamination of the water samples with 

the heavy metals through geogenic 

processes (Adewumi, 2020). Remember as 

earlier reported that Fe and Cd were 

abundant in the soil of the study area 

including Anka the control site (Amusan et 

al., 2005; Solomon et al., 2016; Yahaya et 

al., 2021). The PLI revealed that 

cumulatively all the ore-processing waters 

have heavy to extreme pollution of the 

heavy metals. Looking at the results, it can 

be concluded that artisanal mining activities 

have a greatinfluence over Pb 

contamination in the study location, while 

Fe and Cd are in addition to their 

abundance in the soil of the study area. 

 

Table 3. Contamination factors and pollution load index of the heavy metals in water from all 

the study locations in Anka Local Government, Zamfara State 

Locations CF Fe CF Cd CF Pb PLI 

Bagega Processing Water 2.33 VC 283.34 VC 0.54 LC 7.43 EP 

Bagega Well 2.61 VC 285.24 VC 0.00 LC 0.16 NP 

Dareta Processing Water 2.89 VC 221.18 VC 0.02 LC 2.41 HP 



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70 
 

Dareta Well 2.68 VC 319.83 VC 0.00 LC 0.17 NP 

Sunke Processing Water 2.54 VC 304.71 VC 6.64 VC 17.45 EP 

Sunke Well 2.75 VC 119.95 VC 0.00 LC 0.11 NP 

Tunga Processing Water 2.61 VC 305.05 VC 6.17 VC 17.21 EP 

Tunga Well 2.82 VC 73.75 VC 0.00 LC 0.08 NP 

Abare Processing Water 2.89 VC 102.20 VC 2.61 CC 7.84 EP 

Abare Well 2.68 VC 58.67 VC 0.00 LC 0.06 NP 

Anka Well 2.89 VC 696.33 VC 0.01 LC 2.95 HP 

CF = Contamination factor; PLI = Pollution load index; LC = low contamination; CC = considerable 

contamination; VC = very high contamination; NP = no pollution; HP = heavy pollution; EP = extreme 

pollution. 

Conclusion 

    The study was conducted to assess the 

consequence of artisanal gold mining on 

heavy metals exposure to surface water in 

Anka local government, Zamfara State. The 

lucrative nature of the gold mining business 

makes many people living in those areas to 

be directly involved in artisanal mining 

activities, resulting in the pollution of the 

vast water bodies and area of land. It was 

observed that three heavy metals (Fe, Pb, 

and Cd) were all above the maximum 

permissible limits of the heavy metals in 

drinking water fixed by different 

international organizations. The 

contaminated/polluted water poses a very 

high risk to Fe, Pb, and Cd toxicities. The 

findings revealed that illegal mining 

activities are contributing to the pollution of 

water bodies with Pb, while Fe and Cd are 

in addition to their abundance in natural soil 

deposits through geogenic processes. In the 

future, research should be conducted to 

carry out epidemiological studies on 

contaminated environmental media. Finally, 

we recommend that periodic monitoring 

and evaluation should be conducted in the 

area to assist the government and other 

policymakers in mitigation strategies 

Conflict of Interest 

   No known conflict of interest for the 

research.  

 

Acknowledgements 

The authors wish to thank the Soil 

Science Department, Ahmadu Bello 

University, for offering a supporting 

atmosphere for the execution of the study, 

while also acknowledging Banat’s 

University for providing a favorable 

atmosphere for the write-up and data 

analysis of the manuscript. 

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