Diyala Agricultural Sciences Journal, 2023, Vol. (15) No. 1: 9-17
ISSN: 2073-9524
eISSN: 2310-8746
9
Comparative Physical and Organoleptic Properties,
Nutritional Composition, and Safety of Charcoal and
Oven Smoked Noiler Meat Spiced Asun.
Saheed A. Ahmed
1
, Ibrahim Kayode Banjoko
2
, Olanrewaju Majeed Shuaib
3
,
Muyideen A. Isiaka
4
1,2,3,4
Kwara State Polytechnic, Department of Agricultural Technology Institute of Applied
Sciences, P.M.B. 1375, Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria.
1
Corresponding author: olobin1@yahoo.com
Article history:
Received: 27 October 2022
Accepted: 8 January 2023
Published: 30 June 2023
Abstract
Five Matured Noiler chickens 3 months old weighing 3kg±120g were used for the
experiment. The birds have fasted for 16 hours without food but with a supply of
fresh cool water. The birds were slaughtered and dressed conventionally. The
breast meat was excised within one-hour post-mortem and used for the
preparation of Asun using charcoal and oven smoking. The breast meats were cut
into fillets of average weight without bone; the fillets were spiced, rubbed with
vegetable oil, and smoked using charcoal and oven to an internal temperature of
720C for 20 minutes with regular turning. The result shows a significant
difference (p<0.05) in the nutritional and chemical composition of raw and smoke
Noiler meat. The charcoal and oven-smoked Asun were not different, but both
differ from the raw. The organoleptic properties show no significant difference
(p>0.05) in color, aroma, and texture while flavor, juiciness, and overall
acceptability differ. There was a significantly different (p>0.05) in WHC,
cooking loss, and cooking yield. Preparation of Asun using charcoal and oven
smoking contributed to the nutritional component except for the moisture content.
The cholesterol, SFA, MUFA, PUFA, and amines were also increased. The value
obtained shows that charcoal and oven-smoked Noiler meat Asun is safe for
consumption and has no negative effect, also impacts positively on both the
physical and organoleptic properties of the prepared product and therefore,
recommended for the preparation of Asun using Noiler meat.
Keywords: Charcoal,
Noiler, Organoleptic,
Oven, Smoke
https://dx.doi.org/10.52951/dasj.23150102
This article is open-access under the CC BY 4.0 license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Introduction
Asun is a smoked grilled or barbecued
spiced goat meat. However, based on choice
or availability, Asun could also be prepared
from other animal types. As a delicacy,
Asun could be prepared at home by
individuals. It is also available as ready-to-
eat meat in nightclub centers, hotels, and
relaxation centers (Akharaiyi and Isunu,
2015). Meat and meat products are very
important sources of nutrients in human
diets. From farm to table, the whole process
of obtaining meat and its products includes
animal handling, transportation, and
slaughtering process, followed by
preservation techniques aimed at extending
the shelf life of fresh meat and processing
aimed at converting meat into desirable
meat products (Pal and Dervani, 2018). The
effort to preserve and make meat more
desirable for consumption has increased the
demand for meat processing. Consumption
of processed meat products has greatly
increased due to the availability and
accessibility of ready-to-eat meat products.
The food safety implication of processed
ready-to-eat meat products calls for global
concern, despite increased patronage (Sofos,
2008). The awareness of consumers about
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Diyala Agricultural Sciences Journal, 2023, Vol. (15) No. 1: 9-17
10
the influence of what they consume on their
health has led to the concept of functional
food; this has inspired investigation into
functional meat development and also in
conserving the nutritive values of the
product (Eze et al., 2017). Meat processing
plays an important role if fully utilizes meat
resources; including nearly all edible
livestock parts that can be processed for
human food consumption. Meat processing
is the transformation of animal muscle, fat,
and non-meat additives into meat products.
Consumers’ perception of a meat product is
enhanced by meat additives. Meat additives
can be used to increase product value for
specific meat preparation. Animal by-
products such as internal organs, slain, and
blood is also well suited for meat
processing. Meat processing creates
different types of product compositions that
optimize the usage of edible livestock parts
making it tasty, attractive, and nourishing
(Chen et al., 2018).
The nutritional quality of Asun is
primarily determined by the chemical
composition of the muscle tissue used, post-
mortem biochemical changes that lead to the
conversion of muscle to meat and the
additive used in the preparation. Muscle and
connective tissues are the most abundant
tissues in meat; their properties and the
relative proportion of each tissue are
responsible for the leanness and quality of
meat (Astruc, 2014).
Asun is made from meat and meat is
considered rich to be in essential amino
acids, mineral contents to a lesser extent,
essential fatty acids, and vitamins (Eze et
al., 2017). Meat can be smoked using
different sources of smoke and smoking
materials using a smoker and outdoor grill,
oven grill, and saucepan (no grill no smoke)
(Ahmed et al., 2020). Smoking is an aged-
old preservation technique, where meat is
subjected to smoking; it affects the sensory
and nutritional composition of the meat
products. Smoking impacts positively on the
flavor, color, odor, and overall acceptability
of meat products. Effect of smoking, on
meat, increases with the time of exposure,
type of smoke and intensity of smoking. Hot
smoking, cold smoking, electrostatic
smoking, condensates smoke aromas and
liquid smoke are commonly used smoking
treatments. Meat is smoked at 20-250C at a
relative humidity of 70-80% and 75-800C
during cold and hot smoking respectively
(Beriain et al., 2011). Smoking reduces the
water activity of meat, which affects the
hardness and protein stability of the
products. One of the advantages of meat
processing is the integration of certain
animal tissues such as muscle trimming,
bone scraps, skin parts, and internal organs
which are usually not sold in fresh meat
marketing, into the food chain as valuable
protein-rich ingredients (Eze et al., 2017).
Smoking is considered an effective
treatment and a preservative measure
against pathogenic micro-organisms, it also
reduces lipid oxidation which usually causes
undesirable flavors and oxidative rancidity
in stored processed meat (Dieguez et al.,
2010). The study will provide accessible
information on the influence of charcoal and
oven smoking on nutritional safety,
consumers’ perception, and physical
attributes of Asun (spiced smoked meat)
made from Noiler chicken.
Materials and Methods
Experimental location
The experiment was conducted in the
Meat Science Laboratory, Department of
Agricultural Technology, Institute Applied
Science, Kwara State Polytechnic Ilorin,
Nigeria.
Sample Collection
The breast muscles of five mature Noiler
chickens aged 3 months were used. The
Noiler chickens were acclimatized and
conditioned for slaughtering and processing.
The Noiler chickens were fasted overnight
for 16 hours without feed but were supplied
with cool fresh water. Slaughter and dressed
conventionally within one-hour post
mortem. The muscle of the breast was
Diyala Agricultural Sciences Journal, 2023, Vol. (15) No. 1: 9-17
11
excised and cut into fillets of average weight
without bone, but with fat, skin, and
connective tissues (Omojola et al., 2012).
The meat fillets were cool in ice-packed
containers and transferred to the meat
laboratory for Asun production.
Preparation of Spice Mixture
The ingredients in table 1 were used for
the species formulation, each of the species
was dried, ground, sieved, and weighed
separately, and other species were weighed
and used as bought. The species were
combined, mixed thoroughly, and stored in
an airtight container for further use.
.
Table1. Composition of formulated recipe used for Asun production
Ingredients Scientific Names Quantity (g)
Salt Sodium chloride 7.0
Maggi Monosodium glutamate 12.0
Thyme Thymus vulgaris L. 6.0
Curry Murraya koenigii L. 6.0
Pepper Piper Nigrum L 25.0
African nutmeg Mobogora myristica 3.0
Ginger Zingiber afficinale 3.0
Garlic Allium sativum L 3.0
Clove Syzyjim aromaticum L 2.0
Onions Allium cepa L 23.0
Total 90.00g
Source: experimental research (2022).
The recipe was added in the ratio 1:25 (40g
recipe to 1000g meat). The recipe was made
into a broth solution. The fresh onions were
peeled, sliced, weighed, and added to other
weighed ingredients and blend in an elective
blender with 200ml water to form a broth
solution. The broth solution was refrigerated
for subsequent use.
Cooking of meat
500g Noiler breast meat fillet each was
weighed rinsed in cool water and blotted dry
wrapped in foil paper. 20g of the prepared
broth recipe solution was rubbed separately
on each meat, wrapped and steam cooked
separately at 100
0C
for 30min, then cool
down to 28
0
C room temperature before
smoking (Omojola et al., 2012).
Smoking of Cooked Meat
Smoking was done in an electric oven
according to a modified method by
Soepamo et al. (2015). The oven was
preheated to an internal temperature of 100
degrees. The meat was rubbed with
vegetable oil (cholesterol-free) to prevent
the meat from having a dry crack surface.
The meat was smoked for 20min, with
regular turning for the meat to be evenly
smoked. Smoke was generated in the oven
by dropping drops of oil on the electric
filament of the oven. Smoking was done
using the open charcoal grilling (locally
made charcoal pot) method. The charcoal
was heated to cherry red with wire gauze
placed in the charcoal grill pot. The meat
was placed on the wire gauze and covered
allowing the meat to be smoked for 20min at
regular turning intervals.
Analytical methods
Proximate analysis: proximate composition
of the raw Noiler meat and the prepared
Asun was conducted using the method
described by AOAC, (2005). The total
cholesterol composition of Asun was carried
out as described by Weyant et al. (1976).
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH)
were determined using gas chromatography-
mass spectrophotometry (GCMS) according
to Duedal-Olesen et al. (2010). Heterocyclic
Aromatic Amines (HAAs) were determined
using a gas chromatography-mass
spectrophotometer (GCMS) according to
Duedahl-Olesen et al. (2010). The fatty
acids composition of the freshly prepared
Diyala Agricultural Sciences Journal, 2023, Vol. (15) No. 1: 9-17
12
Asun was assessed using the method
described by Lowry and Tinsley, (1976).
Cooking loss: loss in weight during
smoking was measured by weighing the
cooked meat samples before smoking for
20min until the meat reaches an internal
temperature of 72
o
C. The Asun was allowed
to cool down to room temperature of 28
0
C
and reweighed again to calculate cooking
loss (Omoloja et al., 2014)
Cooking loss (%) = initial weight of meat -
cooked weight of meat / Initial weight of
meat * 100
Cooking yield: increase in weight due to
smoking of Asun was calculated using the
method described by Omoloja et al. (2014).
Cooking (Product) yield (%) = Weight of
Asu / weight of raw meat * 100
Water holding capacity (WHC) was
assessed using a slightly modified method
described by Suzuki et al. (2001). 1g each of
differently smoke Asun sample was
sandwiched between two 9cm Whatman
No1 filter papers separately. The filter
papers were placed in between two 12 X 12
cm
2
Plexiglass and then pressed at about
35.2 kg/cm3 absolute pressure for 1 minute
using a vice. The meat samples were
removed and oven dried at 80 for 24 hours
to determine the moisture content. The
amount of water released from the samples
was measured indirectly by measuring the
area of filter paper wetted relative to the
area of pressed meat samples. The
procedure was carried out separately for
oven and charcoal smoke Asun and
replicated thrice. Thus, the water holding
capacity was calculated as follows:
WHC=100-{(Aw- Am * 9.47)} / Wm-Mo
Where:
Aw= Area of water released from meat
samples (cm
2
)
Am= Area of meat sample (cm
2
)
Wm= weight of meat sample (g)
Mo= moisture content of meat sample (%)
9.47 = a constant factor
Organoleptic Properties
Forty semi-trained panelists of mixed
gender, different backgrounds, and ages,
were used for the sensory evaluation. The
panelists were made to rate each of the
different smoke Asun replicates. Equal bite
sizes from each processed Asun were served
in a separate coded odorless plate. The
panelist rated each sample on a nine-point
hedonic scale with a maximum score of 9
for the extremely high condition while the
lowest score of 1 was assigned to the
poorest condition. The parameters evaluated
include flavor, aroma, juiciness, texture, and
overall acceptability (Omojola et al., 2014).
Data Analysis
All data obtained were subjected to
analysis of variance (ANOVA), and the
treatment means were compared using
Duncan’s multiple range test (Duncan,
1995). SAS 2000 computer software
package was used for the statistical analysis.
Results and Discussion
The moisture content of differently
smoke Asun and the raw meat of Noiler
differs significantly (P<0.005). The moisture
content of raw meat was higher than the
differently smoke Asun, while the charcoal-
smoked Asun had more moisture than the
oven-smoked. The loss in moisture may be
due to the high oven temperature. The result
also shows that oven smoking reduces
moisture content compared to charcoal
smoking. The result is within the range
reported by Alfaia et al. (2010) who stated
that maximum moisture content of 74.42%
was found in cooled samples of chicken
meat and a minimum of 54.4% was found in
a charcoal-roasted sample of chicken meat.
Omojola et al. (2014) reported that the
higher the cooking temperature the more
moisture will be lost. The protein, ether
extract, ash, and total cholesterol content in
raw meat was lower (p<0.05) compared to
differently smoked Asun. The protein, ether
extract, ash, and total cholesterol content
were not affected by smoking methods.
Diyala Agricultural Sciences Journal, 2023, Vol. (15) No. 1: 9-17
13
Both the oven and charcoal smoke Asun had
the same percentage of crude protein, crude
ether extract, crude ash, and total cholesterol
content which was higher than the raw meat.
Juaraz et al. (2010) reported an increase in
the nutritional content of Buffalo meat after
cooking. With the highest obtained in fried
meat samples. Nobrega et al. (2006) indicate
that all smoking treatments increase the
proximate content of processed meat. There
were only slight differences (p>0.05) in the
cholesterol content of raw meat and Noiler
meat processed into Asun. Alina et al.
(2012) results show that all cooking
treatments caused as an increase in
cholesterol content except microwave
cooking. Omojola et al. (2014) reported that
the processing method increased the
physicochemical properties of differently
processed Muscovy drake breast meat. The
fatty acid concentration was lower (p<0.05)
in raw Noiler breast meat as compared to the
processed Asun using charcoal and oven
smoking. Saturated fatty acids,
monounsaturated fatty acids, and
polyunsaturated fatty acids contents were
lower in raw Noiler meat but higher in
processed meat. There was no statistical
difference (p>0.05) in the fatty acids content
of both charcoal and oven smoked Asun.
Alina et al. (2012) reported an increase in
the fatty acid composition of raw, grilled,
boiled, fried, and microwave roasted
samples (18.5, 29.4, 30.2, 24.8 and 30.0%
respectively). The unsaturated fatty acids
mainly PUFA were affected by cooking
methods, considering the parts of the
membrane structure (Gerber et al., 2009).
THAAs (total heterocyclic aromatic
amines) and TPHA (total polycyclic
heterocyclic amine) were not detected in
raw Noiler meat. Charcoal smoking
increases the THAAs in Noiler Asun to
26.96ng/g and oven smoking to 24.88ng/g
which were not significantly different.
Charcoal smoking increases the TPHAs in
Asun to 2.82ng/g and oven smoking to
4.180ng/g in the processed Asun. Reports
have suggested that amines are formed when
meat is cooked at high temperatures (Sinha
et al., 1995). The value of HAA obtained in
this study was lower than that obtained by
Liao et al. (2009) and Omojola et al. (2014)
who reported 53.3ng/g total HAAs in
processed duck breast meat. Different
smoking materials did not increase THCAs
broiler meat beyond the daily recommended
dose (Ahmed et al., 2020). The values
obtained in this study were lower than
32ng/g obtained for charcoal grilling of
duck breast meat by Solyakov, (2012). Liao
et al. (2009) suggested that poultry meat
prepared under different cooking conditions
contains variable levels of HAAs. Total
heterocyclic aromatic amine concentration
in cooked meat ranges from less than 1ng/g
to about 500ng/g, but usually less than
100ng/g (Sinha et al., 1995). Smoking,
Grilling, and barbecuing which are
categorized as dry heat cooking methods are
the most common methods for the
preparation of fatty meat, this usually
requires higher temperatures (above 200 °C)
that promote HAAs formation
Table 2. Nutritional and chemical composition of raw, charcoal, and oven smoked Noiler chicken Asun
Nutritional and
chemical composition
Raw unsmoked Charcoal smoked Oven smoked MSE Sig
Moisture % 70.88
a
57.01
b
51.18
c
1.059 0.000
Protein % 22.64
b
32.58
a
32.84
a
1.008 0.000
Ether extract % 9.93
b
12.62
a
12.41
a
315 0.000
Ash % 2.36
b
5.36
a
5.20
a
0.15 0.000
Total cholesterol mg/g 50.06
b
56.61
a
56.42
a
0.253 0.000
S.F.A ng/g 1.27
b
2.06
a
1.98
a
0.01 0.000
MUFA ng/g 1.87
b
2.56
a
2.49
a
0.01 0.000
PUFA ng/g 0.52
b
0.85
a
0.75
a
0.201 0.000
THAAs ng/g 0.00
b
26.96
a
24.88
a
0.257 0.000
TPHA ng/g 0.00
c
2.82
b
4.180
a
0.007 0.000
Mean values having the same superscripts were not significantly different p<0.05.
Diyala Agricultural Sciences Journal, 2023, Vol. (15) No. 1: 9-17
14
Mean values having different superscripts were significantly different p>0.05.
S.F.A (saturated fatty acid), MUFA (monounsaturated fatty acid), PUFA (polyunsaturated fatty acid), THAAs
(total heterocyclic aromatic amines), TPHA (total polycyclic heterocyclic amine).
The result of taste panelist perception
towards the differently smoked Asun made
from Noiler breast meat is presented in table
3 below. Three of the parameters; color,
aroma, and texture did not differ
significantly (p>0.05) while the other three
parameters; flavor, juiciness, and overall
acceptability were rated differently (p<0.05)
by the taste panelist. The color which is the
first point of attraction of consumers to a
particular product (Omojola et al., 2014)
was not affected by the two different
smoking methods employed in the study.
The aroma and texture were not impacted by
the charcoal and oven smoking. The color,
aroma, and texture were equally perceived
and rated by the taste panelist. The flavor
which is the response of the taste buds of the
tongue to a particular foodstuff (Beriain et
al., 2011) was rated differently by the
panelist. The flavor was rated high in
charcoal smoked Noiler Asun. This might be
a result of the wood the charcoal is made
from. Smoking foods by conventional wood
or charcoal smoke condensate flavors. The
juiciness and overall acceptability of
charcoal and oven-smoked Noiler Asun
were also affected by a high-value score for
oven-smoked Asun compared to charcoal-
smoked Asun. The use of different smoking
materials increases the palatability and
consumers’ perception of broiler meat
(Ahmed et al., 2020). Smoking affects the
eating qualities, consumers’ perception, and
nutritional information of meat products.
Smoking impacts desirable effects on flavor,
color, and odor in lamb meat. Changes in
the characteristics of meat increase with the
time of exposure to smoking temperature
(Ahmed et al. 2020; Beriain et al., 2011).
Table 3. Organoleptic properties of charcoal and oven smoked Noiler chicken Asun
Organoleptic properties Charcoal smoked Oven smoked MSE Sig
Colour 4.00
a
3.00
a
2.125 0.231
Flavour 8.00
a
5.00
b
1.792 0.004
Aroma 7.00
a
7.00
a
2.646 0.137
Texture 7.00
a
7.00
a
4.125 0.201
Juiciness 4.00
b
5.00
a
2.000 0.001
Overall 6.00
b
8.00
a
0.625 0.000
Mean values having the same superscripts were not significantly different p<0.05
Mean values having different superscripts were significantly different p>0.0
The result of the physical properties of
Asun; spiced smoke meat made from Noiler,
and processed using oven and charcoal
smoking methods are shown in table 4
below. The result shows that there was a
significant difference (p<0.05) in the water
holding capacity, cooking yield, and
cooking loss of Asun therein produced.
Water holding capacity (WHC) is the
amount of moisture meat can retain after
subjecting to heat treatment for a particular
period. The water holding capacity was high
in Asun prepared from Noiler meat using the
charcoal smoking method compared to the
oven smoking method. The result revealed
that different smoking methods impacted the
WHC while oven smoking causes more
water loss. Charcoal smoking was able to
retain water in the final products (69.70 and
73.58 respectively). Cooking loss refers to
weight loss when meat is subjected to heat
treatment at a particular temperature for a
particular period (Alina et al., 2012; Ahmed
et al., 2020). Cooking loss is a determinant
of meat fat content and leanness of the meat.
There was a significantly different (p<0.05)
in the shrinking of meat in Noiler during
processing using an oven and charcoal.
Cooking loos was low in charcoal smoked
Noiler and high in oven smoked Noiler
respectively (18.68 and 21.05 respectively).
Cooking yield is the opposite integral of
cooking loss, the lower the cooking loss the
higher the cooking yield (Omojola et al.,
2014). There was a significantly different
Diyala Agricultural Sciences Journal, 2023, Vol. (15) No. 1: 9-17
15
(p<0.05) in the yield of meat in Asun made
from Noiler during processing using oven
and charcoal. The cooking yield was high in
charcoal smoked Noiler while it was least in
oven processed Noiler (81.32 and 78.95
respectively). The change in yield of the
differently processed Asun might be due to
temperature and time combination effects,
as reported by Omojola et al., 2014; Beriain
et al., 2011 and Dieguez et al., 2010).
Table 4. Physical properties of charcoal and oven smoked Noiler chicken Asun
Physical properties Charcoal smoked Oven smoked MSE Sig
WHC % 73.58
a
69.70
b
7.933 0.002
Cooking loss % 18.68
a
21.05
ab
0.253 0.000
Cooking yield % 81.32
a
78.95
ab
0.253 0.000
Mean values having the same superscripts were not significantly different p<0.05.
Mean values having different superscripts were significantly different p>0.05.
Conclusion
Investigation into the healthiness, safety,
and wholesome of processed meat products
plays an essential function in maintaining
the health status of humans. Wood smoking
is one of the ancient methods of meat
processing, charcoal, and the oven is
relatively new and gaining prominence in
outdoor meat processing. The result of the
experiment concluded that smoking poultry
meat using charcoal and an oven increases
the nutritional content of the Asun made
from Noiler chicken meat as compared to
raw meat. Other components such as
cholesterol, saturated fatty acid,
monounsaturated fatty acids, and
polyunsaturated fatty acid also increased
with charcoal and oven smoking. Other
aromatic amines were also generated due to
temperature and the smoking effects
involved in the processing of Noiler chicken
meat into Asun but below the daily
recommended doses. The processing
methods also impacted positively on both
the physical and organoleptic properties of
the prepared product and therefore,
recommended for the preparation of Asun
using Noiler meat.
Conflict of Interest
The above research work has no conflict
of interest whatsoever with any completed
findings, before, during, and after the
collection of data and writing of this paper.
Acknowledgements
The authors appreciate the management
of Kwara State Polytechnic, Ilorin, Kwara
State, North Central Nigeria, for hosting the
research at the meat science and
biochemistry laboratory. Also to the
students who were resiliently available to
render assistance and learn during the
process.
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