Diyala Agricultural Sciences Journal, 2023, Vol. (15) No. 1: 114-126
ISSN: 2073-9524
eISSN: 2310-8746
114
The Harmful Effects of Pesticides on the Environment and
Human Health: A Review
Israa Mahmood Ali
1
Rusafa Second Directorate of Education, Iraqi Ministry of Education, Baghdad, Iraq.
Corresponding author: is87raa@yahoo.com
Article history:
Received: 17 March 2023
Accepted: 1 June 2023
Published: 30 June 2023
Abstract
The population inflation that countries are witnessing during this century, makes
it imperative to provide sufficient quantities of agricultural products to meet their
urgent needs. Therefore, it became very necessary to use pesticides to improve
agricultural crop productivity and reduce losses resulting from agricultural pests.
The indiscriminate use of pesticides causes severe risks not only on agricultural
fields, but also workers in their manufacturing processes and individual use in
homes and institutions. The main adverse effects of utilizing pesticides on human
health, soil, microorganisms of soil, surface water and groundwater have been
covered in this review. This investigation is aiming to elevate environmental
awareness, highlight the serious harms of pesticides and provide guidance for
implementing a serious solution from the people and authorities. In addition, the
most important strategies to reduce the pesticides risks have been summarized.
Keywords: adverse
effects of pesticides,
human health,
pesticides, pesticide
risks, environment.
https://dx.doi.org/10.52951/dasj.23150112
This article is open-access under the CC BY 4.0 license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Introduction
Pesticides are chemical preparations
intended to kill fungal or animal pests. It can
also be defined specifically as any substance
or mixture of substances used for
preventing, destroying, repelling, or
mitigating any pest. They can also serve as
plant regulators, desiccants, or defoliants. A
pesticide is a poisonous chemical compound
or combination of biological agents or a
substance that is deliberately introduced into
the environment to prevent, dissuade,
control, kill, and/or eliminate populations of
weeds, insects, fungi, rodents, or other
undesirable pests. Pesticides function by
luring in, enticing, and then killing or
controlling pests. The term "pests" can
widely refer to “the animals or plants that
endanger our food, health and / or comfort”
(Mahmood et al., 2016).
On the other hand, the majority of
pesticides target not only the undesirable
pest; rather, they also affect non-target
animals and plants during their application.
Pesticides are lost in significant amounts
during application to weeds and pest, less
than 1% of the total amount of pesticides
can reach the target. The lost amounts may
have negative consequences on specific
communities, species, or ecosystems, as
well as on human health, through processes
including spray drift, off-target deposition,
run-off, and photodegradation, for example
(Hernández et al., 2013).
Pesticides, despite their benefits, can be
toxic compounds that are ecologically
stable, bioaccumulative, and
environmentally stable (Fenik et al., 2011).
Pesticides can persist in the environment for
years because many of them are persistent
and difficult to degrade. They persist in soil,
permeate groundwater and surface water,
and pollute the environment on a large scale.
Depending on their chemical properties,
they can enter organism cells,
bioaccumulate in food chains, and thus
impact human health. Humans can also be
exposed to harmful pesticide residues
through occupational use (Mostafalou and
Abdollahi, 2013). The cycle of pesticides in
mailto:is87raa@yahoo.com
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8017-2843
Diyala Agricultural Sciences Journal, 2023, Vol. (15) No. 1: 114-126
115
the environment is depicted in Fig. 1 (Rajmohan et al., 2020).
Figure 1. Pesticide cycle in the environment
The maximum development in pesticides
occurred during and after the World War-II
period, when there was a pressing need to
increase food production in response to the
situation at hand. Various powerful and
reasonably priced pesticides were
synthesized and produced during this time
period, including DDT, dieldrin, aldrin, 2,4-
D, endrin, and parathion. Acute poisoning
events in the late 19
th
century led to a public
concern for ecotoxicology ,where the
potential drawbacks of the indiscriminate
use of pesticides were discussed in " Silent
Spring" book by Rachel Carson (Bernardes
et al., 2015). The use of DDT was banned
internationally wide (Levengood and
Beasley, 2007). Despite the stringent
prohibition, DDT is still consumed
unlawfully in many places, particularly in
developing countries. The dangers of DDT
on human health were recognized and
widely disseminated in order to warn people
and prevent unforeseen events. DDT still
has negative health impacts on people even
though it is no longer used because of its
long-lasting effectiveness and
accumulations in the food chain.
Insecticides are thought to be the most
harmful type of pesticide, followed by
fungicides and herbicides, which are ranked
second and third in terms of toxicity. In the
recent past, around 2 million tons of
pesticides were used worldwide, with 47.5%
of those being herbicides, 29.5% being
insecticides, 17.5% being fungicides, and
5.5% being other pesticides (Sharma et al.,
2019).
Classification of pesticides
Pesticides can be categorized in a variety
of ways, including by the target they control
(EPA - Environmental Protection Agency,
2004):
Herbicides work on grasses, plants
and weeds, in another meaning they
are used as plant growth regulators.
Insecticides fight insect growth or
survival.
Rodenticides fight against rodents
and rats.
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Avicides act against undesirable bird
populations.
Fungicides work by inhibiting or
killing fungi and fungal spores.
Nematicides which combat
nematodes.
The division of pesticides can also depend
on their chemical structure as shown below
(EPA - Environmental Protection Agency,
2004):
Organophosphorus (like diazinon
and chlorpyrifos).
Organochlorine (aldrin and DDT).
Carbamates (like aldicarb and
carbaryl).
Benzoic acids (dicamba).
Pyrethrins and pyrethroids
(cypermethrin and cyfluthrin).
Triazines (simazine and atrazine).
Derivates of phenoxyacetic (2,4-D).
Derivatives of dipyridyl (like
paraquat and diquat).
Derivatives of glycine (glyphosate).
Dithiocarbamates (ziram and
maneb).
Adverse effects of pesticides on human
health
According to the World Health
Organization, developing nations record
220000 fatalities and approximately
3000000 cases of pesticide poisoning each
year (Lah, 2011). Approximately 2.2 million
people, primarily in developing nations, are
at an increased danger from pesticide
exposure (Hicks, 2013).
Pesticides enter the human body through
inhalation, ingestion or penetration via skin,
however, most people get affected through
the intake of contaminated food. Vegetables
and fruit have a higher rate of fatal
contamination since they receive the
greatest pesticide application rates (Van der
Werf, 1996). Pesticide toxicity is not limited
to people working in agriculture; workers in
industrial fields face increased risk as a
result of handling a variety of toxic
compounds, such as inert carriers,
pesticides, toxic solvents, and raw materials.
In the agriculture field, some observe that
farmers do not follow the safety
instructions, such as wearing safety masks,
gloves or other protective gear during the
spraying of pesticides (Bhandari, 2014).
Acute Effects
Immediate effects of pesticide exposure
could be through oral, respiratory or skin
exposure. They could appear in many days
and are sudden in symptoms like stinging of
the eyes and skin, headache, irritation of the
throat and nose, itching of the skin,
appearance of rash and blisters on the skin,
dizziness, abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea
and vomiting, blurred vision, blindness and
scarcely the death. organophosphate
pesticides are related with acute human
health problems.
Chronic Effects
Pesticides' chronic side effects can be fatal
and take years to manifest. Various body
organs deteriorate as a result of these long-
term impacts. Consequences of persistent
pesticide exposure include the ones listed
below.
Pesticide exposure can cause a
variety of neurological system
defects, including loss of memory
and coordination, decreased motor
signaling, and impaired vision (Lah,
2011). Many studies have found a
link between pesticides and the
diseases Parkinson's and
Alzheimer's.
There are many types of cancer
associated with pesticides (especially
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DDT), like brain cancer, leukaemia,
lymphoma, breast cancer, ovarian
cancer, prostate cancer, and
testicular cancer anywhere that
cancer patients' blood has included
pesticide traces. Organophosphate
pesticides used in vegetables
gradually accumulate in the human
body and have been associated with
a link with cancer (Miah et al.,
2014). Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) is
a group of blood cancers that
includes all types of lymphomas
except Hodgkin lymphomas. NHL
is caused by pesticide ingestion,
mainly phenoxy acid herbicides,
NHL risk has been found to be six
times higher in Sweden in people
who use phenoxy acid herbicides
(Singh et al., 2018). The incidence
of cancer depends on the intensity
and exposure duration of pesticides.
Chlorpyrifos (CPF) is a chemical
compound that has been
demonstrated to cause a redox
imbalance in human cells when
coupled with pesticides. These
substances alter the antioxidant
defense mechanisms in cells, which
leads to breast cancer tumors (Rivero
et al., 2015). Heterocyclic aromatic
amines cause a number of cases of
colon or bladder cancer like
Imazethapyr which increases the
danger of colon and bladder cancer
by 78% and 137% respectively
(Asghar, 2016).
Long-term exposure to pesticides
alters the amounts of female and
male reproductive hormones, which
have an impact on an individual's
ability to reproduce. As a result, it
causes birth malformations,
stillbirths, abortions, and infertility.
It was found that testicular
dysfunction was caused by pesticides
widely used in plant pathogen
control Dibromochloropropane
(DBCP) which in turn caused human
infertility (Rajmohan et al., 2020).
Exposure to pesticides can cause
hypersensitivity, asthma and
allergies. Also, it may aggravate
asthma through irritability,
inflammation, immunosuppression,
and hormonal imbalances (Amaral,
2014). Pyrethroid insecticides are
regarded as being hazardous to the
respiratory system through
inhalation. The bronchial mucosa is
mostly damaged by the chemical
compounds generated by pesticides,
which makes the airways very
susceptible to allergens. Many
pesticides have been considered as
one of the most important links
between asthma, household or
environmental pollutants like
carbamate, organophosphate,
organochlorine, paraquat or
pyrethroid insecticides (Singh et al.,
2018).
Effects of pesticides on the soil
Pesticides can enter the soil via wash-off
from treated foliage spray, drift during
foliage treatment, or release from treated
seeds or granulates in the soil. Some
pesticides like nematocides and direct
application of soil fumigants dominate plant
diseases and pests presented in the soil. The
pesticides transportation, degradation or
persistence in the soil rely on their chemical
characteristics (like molecular structure,
solubility and the volatility) in addition to
the soil's chemistry, physics, and biology.
Soil properties, soil pH, and soil organic
matter all these factors affect sorption/
desorption, degradation, volatilization, run-
off, uptake by plants, and leaching of
pesticides. The most significant interaction
between soil and pesticides is sorption,
which determine both pesticides
decomposition and movement through soil.
Rapid sorption frequently happens shortly
after a pesticide application; as time passes,
the sorption mechanism becomes slower.
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However, it has been detected that sorption
of many pesticides proportional to
increasing time, and frequent application,
that could increase the formation of bound
non-extractable residues. Soil pH is one of
important factors that affect the adsorption
which increase for ionizable pesticides with
a declining soil pH (e.g. picloram,2,4-
D,2,4,5-T, and atrazine) (Andreu and Picó,
2004). Although adsorbed residues are
thought to have a low effect because they
are inert and non-available, it has been
discovered that they can release over time.
These residues may be released using
because of a pH change or the addition of
nitrate fertilizers to the soil, there is
evidence that certain organisms, such as
plants and earthworms, can absorb and
remobilize old, tightly bound residues
(Gevao et al., 2001).
The amount of organic matter in the soil is
the most important feature. The adsorption
of pesticides increases when the organic
matter content is large. The absorbing
ability of the soils to pesticides depends on
their large content of organic matter and
keeps water with dissolved compounds.
Additionally, there are higher
microorganisms in these soils that can
breakdown the pesticides (Farenhorst,
2006). Pesticides bound to soil organic
matter or clay particles are immobile and
bioavailable, but they are also less
microbially degradable and thus more
persistent. The soil's capacity to attract
positively charged ions in an exchangeable
form is also essential with paraquat and
other pesticides that carry a positive charge.
These chemicals are stable and required a
strong mineral acid for their extracting
(Andreu and Picó, 2004).
Pesticide travel can also be influenced by
soil properties. One of these properties is the
soil structure, sands and gravel with a coarse
texture have higher infiltration rates, and
therefore, the water seeps over the soil to the
groundwater. While clays and other fine-
grained soils typically have modest seepage
capacity, therefore water tends to flow out
of these soils into lakes and streams, soil
with more clay in its texture has a larger
surface area available for adsorbing
pesticides. In terms of permeability, soils
with high permeability allow water
containing dissolved pesticides to leach
through them more easily, allowing the
pesticides to reach the groundwater. Texture
influences soil permeability (Lourencetti et
al., 2008).
Pesticides' behavior influences their final
fate in the soil; they can be classified as (a)
hydrophobic, nondegradable, and
bioaccumulable pesticides that are strongly
linked to soil particles, such as the
organochlorine DDT, endrin, endosulfan,
heptachlor, and lindane. Most of these
pesticides are presently prohibited in
agriculture but their residues are still
present. (b) Polar pesticides are represented
generally by herbicides but they also include
fungicides, carbamates and some
organophosphorus insecticides (Aktar et al.,
2009).
Pesticides' effects on soil microorganisms
Microorganisms include bacteria, algae,
actinomycetes, protozoa and micro fauna
they are also called microbial biomass.
Another definition of microbial biomass is
the part of organic matter in soil that
contains living microorganisms smaller than
5–10 cubic micrometers and it is a fraction
of soil organic matter that is affected by
control practices and pollution (Sai et al.,
2019).
Pesticides applied to soil are transformed
into one or more transformation products
through biological and nonbiological
actions. The microorganisms considered to
play an essential role in these
transformations through mechanisms
include oxidation, hydrolysis, reduction,
conjugation etc, catalyzed by many types of
enzymes resulting in less bioactive
compounds (Beigel et al., 1999). Therefore,
microorganisms are among the most
significant biological factors that remove
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and degrade waste materials and chemical
products into less complicated compounds
reducing their risks in the soil. In addition,
soil microflora, mainly fungi, algae, bacteria
and protozoa play a major role in making
the soil fertile through their primary
catabolic role in the degradation of animal
and plant residues in the cycling of the
organic, inorganic nutrients content of soil.
Overuse of chemical pesticides requires
adverse effects on the soil organisms,
because it can decrease of beneficial soil
microorganisms. Indiscriminate use of
chemicals will be beneficial for a few years,
but after a while, there are not enough
beneficial soil organisms to hold on the
nutrients (Savonen, 1997).
As a result, pesticides that slow down the
soil microorganism's effectiveness could
have an adverse impact on the soil's nutrient
quality and, consequently, cause significant
ecological issues. Therefore, an ideal
pesticide should be toxic only to the target
organism, biodegradable and undesirable
residues should not affect nontarget
organisms (Chowdhury et al., 2008).
Effects of pesticides on surface and
groundwater
Contamination of water by pesticides is
widespread. Pesticides can reach surface
water through runoff from treated soil and
plants or by being applied immediately to
the water
'
s surface e.g., for elimination of
mosquitoes. The pesticides can damage
aquatic vegetation, lower dissolved oxygen
content of the water causing harmful algal
blooms and could influence behavioral and
physiological alterations in fish populations.
A drop in the numbers of various types of
fish is noticed, that associated with the
excessive use of pesticides (Scholz et al.,
2012). Aquatic plants contribute about 80%
of the dissolved oxygen in surface water,
which is essential for the survival of aquatic
life. Destroying these plants with herbicides
causes a sharp drop in oxygen content,
which eventually kills fish and lowers their
production (Helfrich et al., 2009).
The U.S Geological Survey (USGS) has
conducted a set of comprehensive studies on
the main river basins that have shown that
more than 90% of water and fish samples
collected from all streams contained one, or
more pesticides (Kole et al., 2001).
In general, surface water pesticide
contamination is substantially higher than
that in groundwater, mainly as a result of
ground runoff from agricultural land and
pollution from spray drift. Pesticides can
infiltrate into the ground through polluted
surface water, incorrect disposal, and
unintentional leaks and spills (Mahmood et
al., 2016).
The factors that affect pesticide migration
in the environment are site depth down to
the groundwater, topography, geological
characteristics, and climate. When the
groundwater is shallow, a smaller quantity
of contaminants can be adsorbed and
degraded by the soil so pollution is a
significant worry. Topographically, flat
terrain, regions with closed drainage
systems where water flows into a basin's
center, and mostly sinkhole sites, are
vulnerable to groundwater pollution. In
terms of geological conditions, highly
permeable soils with gravel in their texture
increase groundwater contamination, as
does the presence of wells. On the other
hand, the surface water could be
contaminated by the rainfall or irrigation
that collected in streams, ponds and lakes if
they exist. In terms of climatic conditions,
heavy irrigation or rainfall could cause large
amounts of water seeping through the soil
and reaching groundwater. Furthermore,
rain can transport pesticides to far-off
locations and introduce them to surface
waters, contaminating rivers, lakes, and seas
(Bernardes et al., 2015). The nature of
pesticides (hydrophobicity, water solubility)
also plays a significant role in water
contamination. The higher solubility of
pesticides increases the possibility of
contamination.
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Effect of pesticide in aquatic environments
Water bodies are most at risk from
pesticide exposure. They can have an impact
on aquatic life at different trophic levels,
ranging from algae to fish. Through the food
chain, the pesticides that have accumulated
in the water become stronger and enter fish
that are dangerous to consume (Karr, 2000).
There are three typical ways that fish and
aquatic life can expose to various type of
pesticides: orally (by drinking contaminated
water), dermally (direct absorption via the
skin), and breathing (gill uptake through
breath).
The use of herbicides near weedy fish
nurseries, aquatic species' capacity to
reproduce was impacted (Helfrich et al.,
2009). The water contaminated by Atrazine
showed markedly reduced peripheral
leukocyte counts, indicating an effect on the
immunological system of fish and
amphibians (Forson and Storfer, 2006; Rohr
et al., 2008). With reports of fish poisoning
from pesticides like endosulfan, Winam
Gulf is the most polluted area of Kenya's
Victoria Lake. As a result, the European
Union banned the import of fish from the
lake (Abong’o et al., 2014). Endosulfan,
chlordanes, and hexachlorocyclohexane
isomers were detected in fish tissues and
dietary components of Cynoscion
guatucupa, demonstrating high
bioaccumulation and biomagnification of
these chemicals at various trophic levels.
Nineteen pesticide standards were employed
to detect the pesticides (Lanfranchi et al.,
2006).
The Great Barrier Reef in Australia's
keystone marine creatures, which include
seagrass, corals, and algae, have highlighted
the potential catastrophic effects of pesticide
runoff (Cantin et al., 2007).
Many amphibian families were negatively
impacted by carbaryl (1-naphthyl
methylcarbamate), and the herbicide
glyphosate increased the mortality rate of
tadpoles and young frogs (Relyea, 2005).
Tadpoles adversely affected by malathion's
alteration of periphyton and plankton
abundance and composition (Relyea and
Hoverman, 2008). Endosulfan and
chlorpyrifos both caused substantial harm to
amphibians (Sparling and Fellers, 2009).
The bioaccumulation of DDT was
evaluated, in Müller’s clawed frog Xenopus
muelleri that captured from South Africa's
lower Phongolo River floodplain, it was
revealed that its concentration had
significantly increased during the study
period (Wolmarans et al., 2018).
A study conducted in Brazil over a period
from 1994 to 2004 discovered residues of
DDT, chlordane, and hexachlorobenzene in
the blubber of franciscana dolphins. (Leonel
et al., 2010).
Generally, the polarity and water
solubility of the pesticides affect the amount
of bioaccumulation of certain pesticides in
fish. The bioaccumulation of a pesticide
chemical in fish is inversely correlated with
its water solubility. Water solubility is a
crucial factor in reducing pesticide
dynamics in aquatic habitats (Haque et al.,
1977).
Impact of pesticides on birds and honey
bees
Birds are extremely vulnerable to toxic
pesticides, which can kill them instantly or
cause physical deformities, lower mating
success, and a reduced ability to travel and
evade predators (Aktar et al., 2009).
DDT is sprayed in malaria-prone areas
annually following the rainy season,
according to information gathered from the
ministry of health. The regional office of
agriculture's information verified that DDT
is sprayed close to water bodies where
mosquito flies are thought to be nesting
(Yadav, 2010). Birds are most exposed to
DDT through the food chain when they prey
on fish, earthworms, and other aquatic
and/or terrestrial animals that have high
DDT body loads.
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According to studies, the contamination of
bird populations with chlorinated
insecticides is a factor in the decline of bird
populations (Mineau and Whiteside, 2013).
It has been reported in India that aldrin and
organophosphate insecticide
monocrotophos-related pesticide toxicity
has caused bird deaths (Muralidharan, 1993;
Pain et al., 2004).
The variety of pollutants also negatively
impacts adult water birds' ability to
reproduce and results in developmental
flaws in embryos. Through hormonal
mimicry of estrogens, the consequences on
embryos include mortality, decreased
hatchability, failure of chicks to flourish,
and other teratological effects such skeletal
deformities, defective differentiation of the
reproductive system and brain system.
Acute death, sublethal stress, decreased
fertility, eggshell thinning, suppression of
egg production, altered incubation and
chick-rearing behaviors are just a few of the
effects that chemicals can have on adult
birds (Fry, 1995).
According to a study, common bird
species experienced an average loss of 10%
between 1980 and 2006, however in the
United Kingdom, common agricultural bird
species experienced a reduction of up to
50% in 2006, leaving no chance for
recovery and pointing to the environment-
harming effects of pesticides (Gibbs et al.,
2009). In the United States, it is estimated
that pesticide applications kill 72 million
birds annually (Fimrite, 2011). 1211 species
of birds were threatened as a whole, and
86% of those are endangered because of
habitat loss and construction projects that
use pesticides and other synthetic substances
selectively (Mitra et al., 2011).
Pesticides have extremely detrimental
impacts on honey bees. Apiculturists and
ecologists have been alarmed by the decline
of bee species and collapse of honeybee
colonies during the past several years as a
result of widespread pesticide use on
agricultural crops. The excessive use of
pesticides in American and European
countries is to blame for a 25–30% drop in
the honey bee population. In North
American regions, more than half of native
bee species are threatened with extinction
(Sanchez-Bayo and Goka, 2014). The
effects of imidacloprid, diafenthiuron, and
ethofenprox were seen in response to
metabolic alterations in wild honey bee
larvae and adults. According to the
researches, honey bees' immune systems
were largely destroyed by pesticides
exposure. Bees' haemocytes were severely
damaged, which led to a lack of immunity to
illnesses as well as other abnormalities such
agglutination, denucleation, and cell shape
distortion (Perveen and Ahmad, 2017). The
quantity of haemocytes, the encapsulation
reaction, and the antibacterial activity were
all decreased by thiacloprid and
imidacloprid. These anomalies were brought
about by clothianidin at apparently high
amounts (Brandt et al., 2016). Pesticide
residues have also been discovered in honey
and bee-wax samples worldwide, Besides
bee damages, which is dangerous for the
final consumers (Al-Waili et al., 2012).
The potential strategies for minimizing
pesticide effects
Many environmental disasters that were
recorded over the past decades, it has
become necessary to develop global
strategies for dealing and applying
pesticides in the correct manner to protect
humans and the environment from their
risks. Legislations were put in place to
prevent the use of some pesticides that were
classified as highly toxic like DDT. There
are Many international agreements that
states accept obligations to incorporate into
their national policies. One of the most
relevant international policies and tools for
reducing risks associated with the use of
pesticides is:
The Rotterdam Convention aims to
protect the environment and human
health by regulating global trade in
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dangerous chemicals (the majority of
which are pesticides).
The Stockholm Convention is an
international environmental treaty,
signed in 2001 and effective from
May 2004 that aims to restrict or
eliminate the production and use of
persistent organic pollutants (POPs),
some of them are pesticides.
The FAO Members have endorsed
the International Code of Conduct
for Pesticide Management, which is
supported by key pesticide industry
associations and civil society
organizations (FAO and WHO,
2014).
The Strategic Approach for
International Chemical Management
(SAICM) is a voluntary policy
framework and approach that UNEP
has helped to implement in order to
improve chemical safety globally its
objective by 2020 “that chemicals
are used and produced in ways that
minimize adverse effects on human
health and the environment”.
The Joint Meeting of Pesticide
Residues (JMPR) is a specialized
entity that is jointly run by FAO and
WHO which recommends the
maximum levels of pesticide
residuals in food and feed products
and offers recommendations on the
quality standards for pesticide
products (Eyhorn et al., 2015).
In contrast, the efforts directed towered
changing the agronomic practices. Some of
these steps that recommended to be
following are:
Increasing the organic farming
application which is
environmentally friendly and
sustainable that leads to
increasing the earth fertility, and
consequently protect human
health (Dubey, 2013).
Managing the irrigation in
appropriate manner to avoids
water stress (wasting or
reducing water) that reduces
proliferation of weeds, and
makes crops vulnerable to
diseases and pests.
Rotating crops stopes the spread
of pathogens, pests, and weeds
into the following season.
Using gene technology to create resistant
crop types, this can be achieved using
conventional breeding techniques such as
selection and crossing through genetic
engineering. In both situations, an identified
resistance is combined into a plant with high
yield potential and other desired agronomic
traits. Conventional breeding considered a
main role to improvement the crop, but their
disadvantage requires a long time in the
growing and testing of large samples of
crops over multiple generations. Genetic
engineering and marker assisted breeding
can make this process faster (Jiang, 2013).
Genetic engineering, which refers to the
direct modification of an organism’s genetic
material using biotechnology. Gene editing
is based on the CRISPR (clustered regularly
interspaced short palindromic repeats)
mechanism, which enables highly precise
introduction of particular genes into types
(Christou, 2013).
Conclusion
While the society couldn't live without
using pesticides to enhance agricultural crop
production, even though their disadvantages
to humankind and the environment. DDT is
a major contributor to many cancers in
humans, lung damage, reproductive organ
damage, acute and chronic nervous system
injury, endocrine and immune system
dysfunction, and birth defects. The negative
environmental effects of pesticides have
been recognized for decades and are still
being recognized today. To overcome these
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_law
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty
Diyala Agricultural Sciences Journal, 2023, Vol. (15) No. 1: 114-126
123
risks, it is necessary to emphasize
compliance with international legislation,
and orientation towards the manufacture of
organic pesticides, raising farmers’
awareness mainly to regulate pesticide
usage and follow the safety precautions, this
also includes the workers in the
manufacturing field. Suitable agronomic
practices are essential in order to obtain
healthy crops and prevent the build-up of
weed, pest, and disease pressure. It is
necessary to generalize the dangers of
pesticides to human health and the
environment in order to raise awareness
among individuals worldwide and reflect
well on societies.
Conflict of Interest
Regarding the publication of this
manuscript, the authors declare that there
are no conflicts of interest.
Acknowledgements
Great acknowledges to editor in chief of
the Diyala Agricultural Sciences Journal.
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