ap-v2.dvi


Acta Polytechnica Vol. 50 No. 2/2010

Injection and Combustion of RME with Water Emulsions
in a Diesel Engine

J. Cisek

Abstract

This paper presents ways of using the fully-digitised triggerable AVL VideoScope 513D video system for analysing the
injection and combustion inside a diesel engine cylinder fuelled by RME with water emulsions.
The research objects were: standard diesel fuel, rapeseed methyl ester (RME) and RME – water emulsions. With the

aid of a helical flow reactor, stable emulsions with the water fraction up to 30 % weight were obtained, using an additive to
prevent the water from separating out of the emulsion.
An investigation was made of the effect of the emulsions on exhaust gas emissions (NOX, CO and HC), particulate

matter emissions, smoke and the fuel consumption of a one-cylinder HD diesel engine with direct injection. Additionally,
the maximum cylinder pressure rise was calculated from the indicator diagram. The test engine was operated at a constant
speed of 1600 rpm and 4 bar BMEP load conditions.
The fuel injection and combustion processes were observed and analysed using endoscopes and a digital camera. The

temperature distribution in the combustion chamberwas analysed quantitativelyusing the two-colourmethod. The injection
and combustion phenomena were described and compared.
A way to reduce NOX formation in the combustion chamber of diesel engines by adding water in the combustion zone

was presented. Evaporating water efficiently lowers the peak flame temperature and the temperature in the post-flame zone.
For diesel engines, there is an exponential relationship between NOX emissions and peak combustion temperatures. The
energy needed to vaporize thewater results in lower peak temperatures of the combusted gases, with a consequent reduction
in nitrogen oxide formation.
The experimental results show up to 50 % NOX emission reduction with the use of 30% water in an RME emulsion,

with unchanged engine performance.

Keywords: diesel engine, RME – water emulsions, injection, combustion, visualization.

1 Introduction
Among power-driving combustion engines, diesel en-
gines are the most efficient, and their fuel consump-
tion is 30 % lower than in petrol engines. However,
one of the major problems with diesel engines con-
cerns their exhaust gas emissions, which contain ex-
cessive amounts of toxic substances, such as nitrogen
oxides NOX and particulate matter PM. In the light
of environmental legislation, attempts to reduce these
toxic emissions remain a current issue.

Given the current state of the engineering knowl-
edge, simultaneous reduction of emission levels of the
two toxic substances through design modifications to
diesel engines is not possible. Recently new gas treat-
ment methods have been developed, though the gas
can be treated outside the engine only, after leaving
the cylinder. A major disadvantage of these methods
is their high costs, which preclude their widespread
use.

Extensive research is being undertaken to investi-
gate and modify the conditions for injection and com-
bustion of diesel fuels to eliminate, or at least to vastly
reduce, the zones of NOX formation (high temperature
and rich in oxygen zones) and the zones where condi-
tions are ripe for soot formation.

Theoretical and experimental data available so far
has revealed that NOX emissions can be most effec-
tively reduced when a carefully prepared fuel-water
emulsion is injected into the cylinder. The PM emis-
sions are reduced and, in certain conditions, fuel con-
sumption can also be lowered [8]. However, one issue
remains unsolved: how to prepare such an emulsion?

2 Preparation of the
RME-water emulsion

The experimental program uses a helical flow reactor
incorporated in the supply system of the engine. The
helical flow of fluids in a ring-shaped slit between coax-
ial cylinders, the inner one rotating, is interpreted as
a combination of Poiseuille’s axial flow and Couette’s
rotating flow. Because of the stability loss, the flow-
ing fluids begin to develop Taylor vortices, which cause
intensive mixing. The dispersion factors in the plane
perpendicular to the axis tend to be high, whilst the
axial dispersion is insignificant (as the flow is induced
by piston motion). So far, research data on the disper-
sion of the two mutually insolvent liquids has revealed
that the flow reactor can be used to produce an emul-
sion in a wide range of fluid flow rates and their actual
proportions.

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Acta Polytechnica Vol. 50 No. 2/2010

Fig. 1: RME – water emulsion (30 % of water – m/m)

The helical flow reactor was used to produce stable
emulsions of rapeseed methyl ester (RME) and dis-
tilled water, the proportion of water being 10 % or
30 % by weight. A surface agent, Rokafenol, was first
added to distilled water, in volumetric proportion of
2 %, to ensure stability of the emulsion. The emulsion
was prepared directly before fuelling the engine.

3 Experimental setup and
methodology

The experimental setup incorporates a one-cylinder
HD diesel engine with a direct injection system SB3.1
(cylinder diameter D = 127 mm, stroke S = 146 mm)
equipped with a 4-nozzle injector, with outlet nozzle

diameter 0.34 mm. Measurements were taken at con-
stant speed (1 600 rpm and 4 BMEP load conditions),
regardless of the fuel type. The engine was fuelled
with: diesel fuel (sulphur content < 50 ppm), rapeseed
methyl ester RME, RME-water emulsions (in propor-
tions: 10 % water – 90 % RME and 30 % water and
70 % of RME, by weight).

The setup for the braking tests (see Fig. 2) incorpo-
rates the measurement and control apparatus for mea-
surements of the fast-changing pressures within the
cylinder and in the injection installation (AVL Indime-
ter), a set of analysers to measure the concentrations
of CO, THC, NOX, (AVL CEB II), an installation to
handle the PM emissions and the AVL VideoScope
513D video system for visualising the fuel injection and
combustion processes. The system enables archiving
of injection and combustion images, registered with
frequency approaching 0.1◦ of the crankshaft rotation
angle [1]. The measurement was repeated 10 times for
each shaft rotation angle, for the purposes of statisti-
cal treatment of the images (to define the probability
of the occurrence of an injection and/or a flame). In
addition, the two-colour method was applied [1] to de-
termine the isotherm distribution in the diffusion flame
in the function of the shaft rotation angle. Subsequent
stages of fuel injection, ignition and combustion were
monitored for each fuel type.

The effects of the fuel type on the energy-based
parameters, toxicity, presence of smoke in the exhaust
gas and the maximum rate of pressure rise in the cylin-
der are addressed below. Of major interest are other
parameters of the indicator diagrams, the heat release
rates and the injection characteristics.

Fig. 2: Experimental setup

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Acta Polytechnica Vol. 50 No. 2/2010

4 Energy-based parameters of
the diesel engine

During all the tests, the engine was operated at a con-
stant rate of 1 600 rpm, torque 60 Nm (equivalent
to 4 bar BMEP load conditions and effective power
N c = 10 kW). Of major interest was the temperature
of the exhaust gas at the outlet channel. The indi-
cator diagrams yield the retardation of ignition, the
maximum rate of combustion pressure rise, and the
maximum pressure in the cylinder. Fuel consumption
was measured by weight.

Diesel Fuel – standard diesel fuel,
RME – rapeseed methyl ester,
RME+10 % – emulsion 90 % RME+10 % water,
RME+30 % – emulsion 70 % RME+30 % water

Fig. 3: Fuel consumption Gh and specific fuel consumption
ge at 1600 rpm and BMEP=4 bar with different fuels

Diesel Fuel – standard diesel fuel,
RME – rapeseed methyl ester,
RME+10 % – emulsion 90 % RME+10 % water,
RME+30 % – emulsion 70 % RME+30 % water

Fig. 4: Total efficiency at 1600 rpm and BMEP=4 bar
with different fuels

The plot in Fig. 3 reveals a major increase in the
hourly and specific consumption of rapeseed methyl
esters (RME) and its water emulsions. This increase
is attributable to the fact that the calorific value of
RME (37.5 MJ/kg) is 1 % lower than that of stan-
dard diesel fuel (42 MJ/kg). In addition, the calorific
value of water emulsions of RME is lower by 10 %

and 30 % than that of pure RME, since water has no
calorific value at all. Still smaller differences between
particular fuel types are revealed in the total efficiency
plots ηo as the differences in their calorific value are
accounted for.

The total efficiency for RME and diesel fuel is al-
most identical, approaching 29 %, whereas the use of
an emulsion with 30 % water content reduces the total
efficiency value slightly, to 28 %.

The next plot shows the temperature of the ex-
haust gas measured at the outlet channel. It is appar-
ent that the use of a water emulsion causes a signifi-
cant reduction in the exhaust gas temperature, which
is a most favorable feature particularly at higher loads,
when the thermal loading of the engine and turbo-
compressors becomes critical.

Diesel Fuel – standard diesel fuel,
RME – rapeseed methyl ester,
RME+10 % – emulsion 90 % RME+10 % water,
RME+30 % – emulsion 70 % RME+30 % water

Fig. 5: Exhaust gases temperature at 1600 rpm and
BMEP=4 bar with different fuels

Diesel Fuel – standard diesel fuel,
RME – rapeseed methyl ester,
RME+10 % – emulsion 90 % RME+10 % water,
RME+30 % – emulsion 70 % RME+30 % water

Fig. 6: Maximum rise of cylinder pressure at 1600 rpm
and BMEP=4 bar with different fuels

Depending on the fuel type, the retardation of ig-
nition also varies (10◦ of the shaft rotation angle for
standard diesel fuel and 9◦ for RMR). When the en-

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Acta Polytechnica Vol. 50 No. 2/2010

gine is fuelled with 10 %- and 30 %-water emulsions
of RME, the retardation of ignition reaches a level of
11◦ and 14◦ of the shaft rotation angle, respectively.
These reports are corroborated by images of the com-
bustion chamber taken at the instant when the self-
ignition process begins (see Fig. 14 and Fig. 15). Ad-
dition of water in the form of an emulsion increases
the ignition delay and causes the combustion process
to begin more rapidly, as evidenced by the differences
in the maximum rate of pressure rise inside the cylin-
der, well apparent in Fig. 6. The reported difference
between RME and its 10 % water emulsion seems the
most significant, and is accompanied by a slight in-
crease in the maximum pressure of combustion pcmax,
rising from 69 bar (standard diesel fuel and RME) to
71 bar (for a 30 % water emulsion of RME).

5 Toxicity of the exhaust gas

Measurements of the gaseous substances constituting
the exhaust gas were taken with the AVL CEB II
set of analysers, using the hot gas path. The oxy-
gen contents were measured with the PMD param-
agnetic analyser, whilst an NDIR infrared nondisper-
sive analyser was used to handle the carbon monoxide
and carbon dioxide. The NOX emissions were mea-
sured by a CLD chemo-luminescent analyser equipped
with an NO2/NO converter and hydrocarbons HC –
with a ionisation analyser with an HFID hot gas path.
The plots below show the proportions of toxic sub-
stances in the exhaust gas: nitrogen oxides NOX, car-
bon monoxide CO and incompletely combusted hydro-
carbons HC (re-calculated in terms of propane concen-
tration C3H8).

The PM emissions were obtained by the gravity
(gravimetric) method, using a diluting tunnel provid-
ing the partial gas flow PFDS and partial sampling.
The Bosch smoke number was measured using an AVL
SmokeMeter.

Diesel Fuel – standard diesel fuel,
RME – rapeseed methyl ester,
RME+10 % – emulsion 90 % RME+10 % water,
RME+30% – emulsion 70 % RME+30 % water

Fig. 7: Nitric Oxides NOX concentration at 1600 rpm and
BMEP=4 bar with different fuels

This plot shows the NOX emissions in the exhaust
gas. Fuelling the engine with RME instead of standard
diesel fuel causes a slight increase in NOX emissions,
whilst the use of a 10 % water emulsion of RME re-
duces the NOX contents by 30 %. When the 30 %
emulsion is used, the NOX concentrations are dou-
bly reduced, in relation to pure RME and standard
diesel fuel. It is worth mentioning that this is so even
though the beginnings of the combustion process are
more rapid (Fig. 7).

Diesel Fuel – standard diesel fuel,
RME – rapeseed methyl ester,
RME+10 % – emulsion 90 % RME+10 % water,
RME+30 % – emulsion 70 % RME+30 % water

Fig. 8: Carbon monoxide concentration at 1600 rpm and
BMEP=4 bar with different fuels

Diesel Fuel – standard diesel fuel,
RME – rapeseed methyl ester,
RME+10 % – emulsion 90 % RME+10 % water,
RME+30 % – emulsion 70 % RME+30 % water

Fig. 9: Total Hydro Carbon concentration at 1600 rpm
and BMEP=4 bar with different fuels

NOX emissions from engines fuelled by emulsions
can be significantly reduced due to the reduction in
the local peak combustion temperature, as shown in
Fig. 9, mainly due to evaporation of the water con-
tained in the emulsions. This positive effect is at-
tributable to the fact that water droplets injected in
the form of an emulsion get directly to the combustion
zone. In addition, dilution of gases by water vapour
inside the cylinder reduces the local oxygen concentra-
tion [8], which causes the thermal formation of NOX

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Acta Polytechnica Vol. 50 No. 2/2010

to proceed at a lower rate. In accordance with the
Zeldowicz’s extended model, the rate of NOX thermal
formation is associated with the atomic oxygen con-
centration (coming mainly from dissociation of atmo-
spheric oxygen molecules), and increases exponentially
with temperature and the proportion of oxygen.

These two plots show the concentration of carbon
monoxide and non-combusted hydrocarbons HC in ex-
haust gases. The use of pure RME and its water
emulsion causes the CO and HC emissions to increase
considerably, but this is of little importance as the
emission levels are still relatively low and these toxic
substances can be largely neutralised by incorporating
catalysers in the exhaust system.

Diesel Fuel – standard diesel fuel,
RME – rapeseed methyl ester,
RME+10 % – emulsion 90 % RME+10 % water,
RME+30 % – emulsion 70 % RME+30 % water

Fig. 10: Emission and specific emission ofParticulateMat-
ters at 1600 rpm and BMEP=4 bar with different fuels

Diesel Fuel – standard diesel fuel,
RME – rapeseed methyl ester,
RME+10 % – emulsion 90 % RME+10 % water,
RME+30 % – emulsion 70 % RME+30 % water

Fig. 11: Bosch Smoke number at 1600 rpm and
BMEP=4 bar with different fuels

The plots summarise the Bosch smoke number and
the PM hourly and unit emission data. For an en-
gine fuelled by emulsions, the PM emission level and
the smoke number increases with increased water con-
tent, which may be attributable to the reduced rate
of soot afterburning during the combustion process,
caused by a significant reduction of the combustion

temperature. Measurements of the exhaust tempera-
ture seem to corroborate this view. A comparison of
the exhaust temperature and the smoke number plots
reveals that the higher the temperature of the exhaust
gas, the lower the smoke number, which may be at-
tributed to excessive cooling of the combustion zone
under relatively small loads.

6 Visualisation of fuel
injection and combustion

These images are registered with the use of the AVL
VideoScope system for visualisation of fuel injection
and combustion inside the cylinder. Accordingly, the
images were registered from the instant when fuel in-
jection begins right through to the apparent end of
the combustion process. The sampling frequency was
equal to 1◦ of the shaft rotation angle. To enable im-
age recording, the combustion chamber was lit with
a stroboscope lamp. The measurement procedure was
repeated 10 times for each shaft rotation angle, for the
purposes of statistical treatment of the images (to de-
fine the probability of the occurrence of an injection
and/or a flame). In addition, the two-colour method
was applied [1] to determine the isotherm distribution
in the diffusion flame in the function of the shaft ro-
tation angle.

Registered images of the fuel injection and com-
bustion process, and measurement data: the rapidly-
changing pressure inside the cylinder and the rise of
the metering pin for each fuel type were utilised to
monitor the subsequent stages of fuel injection, igni-
tion and combustion and to compute the fuel injection
rate.

Figs. 12, 13, 14 show the fuel injection and combus-
tion processes registered for the shaft rotation angles
corresponding to the selected parameters of the work-
ing cycle of the engine. These parameters include:
maximum injection rate, commencement of the igni-
tion process (ignition timing) and maximum pressure
of combustion.

Figs. 15, 16, 17 show statistically-treated results of
10 repeated measurements taken for each shaft rota-
tion angle, corresponding to the maximum injection
rate, the ignition time and the maximum pressure of
combustion.

Fig. 18 shows measurement data for the shaft ro-
tation angle corresponding to the maximum pressure
of combustion, and also results of image analysis sup-
ported by the dedicated thermovision software.

This image was obtained after statistical treatment
of 10 data measurements collected for the shaft ro-
tation angle corresponding to the maximum injection
rate. In the regions marked in red, a fuel jet was regis-
tered during each repeated procedure. This should be
interpreted as 100 % likelihood of the occurrence of a
fuel jet at that point. In regions marked in black, no

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Acta Polytechnica Vol. 50 No. 2/2010

repeated imaging would reveal a fuel jet. This can be
interpreted as 0 % likelihood of the occurrence of a fuel
jet. Intermediate colours indicate that a fuel jet was
revealed only in some of the repeated measurements.

It is readily apparent that the shape and extent of
the fuel jet changes with the increased proportion of
water in the emulsion, but that the repeatability of the
injection process is impaired.

Fig. 12: Image taken inside the combustion chamber (one
fuel jet) for the shaft rotation angle corresponding to the
maximal injection rate αdqmax

ON – standard diesel fuel,
RME – rapeseed methyl ester,
RME+10 % – emulsion 90 % RME+10 % water,
RME+30 % – emulsion 70 % RME+30 % water

Fig. 13: Probability of the presence of injected fuel in the
given region of the combustion zone for the shaft rotation
angle corresponding to themaximuminjection rate αdqmax

Fig. 14 shows the images taken inside the combus-
tion chamber at the instant when ignition begins (first
visible flames). It appears that the addition of water
in the form of an emulsion retards the ignition timing,
which is line with the indicator diagrams.

ON – standard diesel fuel,
RME – rapeseed methyl ester,
RME+10 % – emulsion 90 % RME+10 % water,
RME+30 % – emulsion 70 % RME+30 % water

Fig. 14: Image taken inside the combustion chamber (one
fuel jet) for the shaft rotation angle corresponding to igni-
tion timing αps

ON – standard diesel fuel,
RME – rapeseed methyl ester,
RME+10 % – emulsion 90 % RME+10 % water,
RME+30 % – emulsion 70 % RME+30 % water

Fig. 15: Probability of the occurrence of a injected fuel or
a flame in the given region of the combustion zone for the
shaft rotation angle corresponding to ignition timing αps

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Acta Polytechnica Vol. 50 No. 2/2010

The image in Fig. 15 was obtained after statistical
treatment of 10 data measurements collected for the
shaft rotation angle corresponding to the ignition tim-
ing. In the regions marked in red, a fuel jet or a flame
was registered during each repeated procedure. This
should be interpreted as 100 % likelihood of the occur-
rence of a fuel jet at that point. In regions marked in
black, no repeated imaging would reveal a fuel jet or
a flame. This can be interpreted as 0 % likelihood of
the occurrence of a fuel jet or a flame. Intermediate
colours indicate that a fuel jet or a flame was revealed
only in some of the repeated measurements.

The following drawings show the images and the
statistically treated results of image analysis regis-
tered for the shaft rotation angle corresponding to
the maximum pressure of combustion. This stage of
the combustion process is of key importance, featuring
the local peak temperatures in the post-flame zones,
which in turn determine the amounts of NOX being
formed [8].

ON – standard diesel fuel,
RME – rapeseed methyl ester,
RME+10 % – emulsion 90 % RME+10 % water,
RME+30 % – emulsion 70 % RME+30 % water

Fig. 16: Image taken inside the combustion chamber (one
fuel jet) for the shaft rotation angle corresponding to the
maximum pressure of combustion αpmax

Fig. 16 shows the combustion process in the
same part of the chamber as in the previous images
(Figs. 12–14). During this stage of the process a dif-
fusion flame is registered, and a portion of a piston
bottom is revealed. The zone of the high-intensity
flame is clearly greatest for pure RME, with standard
diesel fuel being next in line. For the water emulsions,
particularly the 30 % emulsion, the flame is less in-
tense and occupies a smaller portion of the monitored
chamber.

ON – standard diesel fuel,
RME – rapeseed methyl ester,
RME+10 % – emulsion 90 % RME+10 % water,
RME+30 % – emulsion 70 % RME+30 % water

Fig. 17: Probability of the occurrence of a flame in the
given region of the combustion chamber for the shaft ro-
tation angle corresponding to the maximum pressure of
combustion αpmax

The shaft rotation angle at which the maximum
combustion pressure is registered is similar for all
tested fuel types, and the maximum pressures of com-
bustion are also similar.

The two-colour method was applied, supported by
dedicated software, to determine the isotherm distri-
bution in the diffusion flame in the function of the shaft
rotation angle [1]. The diagrams below show the tem-
perature distribution in the monitored section of the
combustion chamber for the shaft rotation angle cor-
responding to the maximum pressure of combustion.
The method is based on an analysis of the diffusion
flame radiation spectrum, enabling us to find the tem-
perature distribution inside the combustion chamber,
provided that it exceeds 1 800 K.

In the case considered here, the temperatures
would only slightly exceed 1 800 K, because of the rel-
atively low loading (BMEP pressure 4 bar). However,
a comparison of the combustion chamber regions oc-
cupied by the flame with temperatures in excess of
1 800 K reveals that in engines fuelled with RME the
maximum local temperatures are higher than in those
fuelled with standard diesel fuel. The use of RME-
water emulsions leads to a significant reduction in the
maximum local temperatures: the larger the propor-
tion of water, the more significant the reduction. Ac-
cordingly, the NOX concentration in the exhaust gases
is significantly reduced, as shown in Fig. 5. For 30 %
water emulsions, the NOX emission level is reduced by
nearly 50 % in relation to pure RME or standard diesel
fuel.

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Acta Polytechnica Vol. 50 No. 2/2010

ON – ON – standard diesel fuel,
RME – rapeseed methyl ester,
RME+10 % – emulsion 90 % RME+10 % water,
RME+30 % – emulsion 70 % RME+30 % water

Fig. 18: Temperature distribution in the flame (in excess
of 1800 K) for the shaft rotation angle corresponding to
the maximum pressure of combustion αpmax

An analysis of the registered images featuring the
injection and combustion phenomena leads us to the
following conclusions:

1. Fuel injection proceeds differently, depending on
the fuel type. For RME, a cloud of well-sprayed
fuel is formed around the injected jet (Fig. 11–12),
which is then combusted in a large volume (of the
chamber). In the case of RME-water emulsions,
the situation is entirely different. No straight-
forward relationship is available between the pro-
portion of water and the extent and angle of the
jet cone for the given emulsion type. Larger pro-
portions of water encourage a greater extent and
greater angles of the jet cone and the process is
similar to that observed for pure RME. This is
attributable to the fact that a low water content
in emulsions (from several to around ten percent)
would be revealed by the local viscosity extreme.
Stable emulsions with 10 % water content dis-
played the highest viscosity by far, followed by the
30 % water emulsion, RME and standard diesel
fuel. For fuels with a low water content, high vis-
cosity leads to a rapid increase in flow resistance
as the fuel has to push through the spray nozzle
openings. A further increase in the proportion of
water reduces the kinematic viscosity of fuels. For
emulsions, the injection process is similar to that
observed for pure RME.

2. The zone occupied by the flame at the time of ig-
nition is largest for RME and smallest for 30 %
water emulsions (Fig. 14–15). This is associated

both with the spraying spectrum in the macro-
scale and with the latent heat required for evap-
oration of the water contained in the emulsion.
Ignition becomes retarded with an increase in the
proportion of water in the emulsion.

3. For the maximum combustion pressure (Fig.
16–17), the phenomena inside the cylinder pro-
ceed differently for the different fuel types. When
the engine is fuelled with RME, the maximum
combustion temperatures are higher and, as a re-
sult, the NOX emissions are higher than when
standard diesel fuel is used. Addition of water (to
form RME-water emulsions) significantly reduces
the “maximum maximorum” temperature of the
working medium, both in terms of the duration
of the process and the cylinder volume covered
by isotherms featuring high combustion tempera-
tures. In consequence, the NOX emissions in the
exhaust gas are significantly reduced.

7 Conclusions
The application of fuel-water emulsions to the fuelling
of diesel engines reduces the amounts of toxic sub-
stances present in the exhaust gas. The selection of key
parameters of the emulsion requires extensive analyses,
and the present study is a contribution to the body of
research. Research work is now underway in several
research centres worldwide [2, 3, 4, 5, 6] and also in
Poland [10]. Giving a better insight into the processes,
and searching for vital relationships between the prop-
erties of water-fuel emulsions and energy-based, en-
vironmental and operational parameters of the diesel
engine will enable Poland to offer a more substantial
contribution to the undergoing research work.

References

[1] Cisek, J.: Options for the Analysis of Fuel In-
jection using Visual Digitized Methods. Journal
of Middle European Construction and Design of
Cars, No. 3, September 2004.

[2] Miyamoto, N., Ogawa, H., Wang, J.: Significant
NOX Reductions with Direct Water Injection into
the Sub-Chamber of an IDI Diesel Engine. SAE
Transactions, 1995, No. 950 609.

[3] Miyano, H., Sungawa, T., Tayama, K., Nagae, Y.,
Yasueda, S.: The Ship Test For Low-NOX By
Stratified Fuel-Water Injection System. 21st In-
ternational Congress on CombustionEngines. In-
terlaken 1995. CIMAC 1995.

[4] Murayama, T., Morishima, Y., Tsukahara, M.,
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Smoke, and BSFC in a Diesel Engine Using
Uniquely Produced Water (0–80 %) to Fuel Emul-
sion. SAE Transactions, 1978, No. 780 224.

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[5] Velji, A., Remmels, W., Schmidt, R. M.: Water
to reduce NOX – Emission in Diesel Engines. A
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bustion Engines. Interlaken 1995. CIMAC 1995.

[6] Mello, J. P., Mellor, A. M.: NOX Emission
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ter/Steam Dilution. SAE Transactions, 1999.

[7] Merkisz, J., Piaseczny, L.: Wp
lyw zasila-
nia emulsją paliwowo-wodną na toksyczność i
wskaźniki pracy okrętowego średnioobrotowego
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[8] Banot, K.: Wykorzystanie wody w strefie spala-
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GRES, Czasopismo Techniczne, Wydawnictwo
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[9] Cisek, J.: Research Project No. 5 T12D 033 25.
Politechnika Krakowska. Kraków, 2008.

[10] Szlachta, Z., Cisek, J.: Research Project No. 8
T12D 035 20. Politechnika Krakowska. Kraków,
2008.

Jerzy Cisek, Ph.D., M.E.
Phone: +048 (12) 628 36 75
E-mail: jcisek@pk.edu.pl
Cracow University of Technology
Institute of Automobiles and Internal
Combustion Engines, Division of Diesel Engines
31-864 Kraków, al. Jana Pawla II 37, Poland

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