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Denny and Hardman  Advancements in Agricultural Development 
  Volume 1, Issue 1, 2020 
  agdevresearch.org 

1. Marina D’Abreau Denny, Assistant Professor, Mississippi State University 
P.O. Box 9745, Mississippi State, MS 39762 
mdd269@msstate.edu, https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7391-3204 

2. Alisha Marie Hardman, Assistant Professor, Mississippi State University 
P.O. Box 9745, Mississippi State, MS 39762 
a.hardman@msstate.edu, https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7558-5822 

86 

 

Mississippi Extension Undergraduate Apprenticeship Program: 
A Model for Critical Reflection through Community-Engaged 

Research and Outreach 
 

M. D. Denny1, A. M. Hardman2  

 

 

  

Abstract 

The Mississippi State University Extension Undergraduate Apprenticeship Program was implemented 
in 2017 to give undergraduate juniors and seniors the opportunity to work one-on-one with an 
Extension mentor and explore careers in agriculture, natural resources, family and consumer 
sciences, community resource development, or youth development, while participating in research 
and outreach activities that directly benefit Extension programs and community stakeholders. The 
program is rooted in the principles of mentoring adult learners in an organizational context. Kolb’s 
Experiential Learning Model and the DEAL Model for Critical Reflection serve as the conceptual 
framework, whereby students engage in critical reflection to enhance their integrated research-and-
outreach learning experience. An evaluation of the first two student cohorts (n=19) revealed a 
significant production of scholarship, an increase in discipline-specific knowledge, enhanced critical 
thinking and problem-solving skills, a greater understanding and appreciation for Extension, and a 
desire to pursue related graduate studies.  
 

Keywords 

undergraduate, apprenticeship, mentoring, integrated research, extension  



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Introduction and Problem Statement 

There is a need for Extension personnel qualified in the subject-matter most relevant to the 
identified needs of respective stakeholders in a county or region (Cooper & Graham, 2001). 
Very little research on training costs for non-profit and educational organizations exists, but 
studies in the for-profit sector indicate it may cost as much as six to nine months of a new 
employee’s salary -- entry-level equivalent of $30,000 to $40,000 -- for orientation and training 
(Bliss, n.d.). These costs include on-the-job training costs by supervisors and colleagues, lost 
productivity costs over the first few months of employment, and several intangible costs. 
Although subject matter may be taught on the job, the cost to an Extension organization to 
train an employee to a level at which he/she can most effectively address clientele needs is 
extensive and can be reduced simply by hiring employees that already have a technical 
background in a particular programmatic area. Extension has not done a good job of marketing 
itself as a career opportunity to undergraduate students earning technical degrees, and there is 
steep competition from the private job sector, which often can afford to offer higher starting 
salaries and other attractive amenities.  
 
The Mississippi Extension Undergraduate Apprenticeship Program was implemented in 2017. 
Participating students gain direct experience conducting research and assisting in the analysis 
and translation of that research into a related Extension process or product, such as an 
Extension publication, presentation, or educational curriculum. Additionally, they learn more 
about the mission of Extension and have the opportunity to consider the possibilities of 
applying their undergraduate degree to an Extension career upon graduation. Finally, students 
are exposed to additional opportunities for graduate studies and ongoing research. 
 
This paper seeks to briefly summarize the existing research supporting the need for 
undergraduate experiential opportunities such as this one and review the literature regarding 
mentoring of adult learners and critical thinking and problem-solving skills for college-educated 
young adults entering the workforce. Next the Mississippi Extension Undergraduate 
Apprenticeship Program model and how it is based on the DEAL Model for Critical Reflection is 
described. Finally, lessons learned from the first two years of this program are provided, with 
implications that may be informative for other Extension systems or institutions of higher 
learning interested in implementing a similar model. 

 
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework 

This apprenticeship program attempts to bridge the perceived research-practice divide by 
engaging the student in a fully integrated research and outreach experiential learning 
experience. It is rooted in the principles of mentoring adult learners in an organizational 
context. Kolb’s (1984) Experiential Learning Model and the DEAL Model for Critical Reflection 
(Ash & Clayton, 2009) serve as the conceptual framework for the program. Kolb’s theory utilizes 
a holistic perspective on learning which incorporates experience, perception, cognition, and 
behavior. The DEAL Model for Critical Reflection promotes and assesses student learning in 



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applied and experiential learning approaches such as service-learning, internships, practica, and 
study abroad courses. The DEAL Model is a process that scaffolds learners as they describe, 
examine, and articulate learning.   
 
Figure 1 is an adaptation of Ash and Clayton’s (2009) DEAL Model for critical reflection to the 
Mississippi Extension Apprenticeship program and illustrates the collective framework for this 
program. This three stage critical reflection model provides programmatic structure and 
guidance to both the students and mentors to help them engage in a meaningful experience. 
Description of this conceptual model is woven into the description of the program model to 
follow. 
 
Figure 1. Alignment of the DEAL Model to the Mississippi Extension Apprenticeship Program 

 

Each apprentice has a faculty specialist or Extension associate mentor who facilitates the 
student’s opportunity to experience the research process and its extension application at a 
county, regional, and/or statewide level.  The student’s experience with the Extension mentor 
is an intense, research-to-extension process over the summer months. The student travels 
extensively, actively participates with the mentor in field visits, consultations, camps, 
workshops/presentations, etc., and assists with new or ongoing research (e.g. field trials, 
surveys), while interacting with and assisting county Extension agents in their roles with a 
diversity of stakeholders and clientele. Students interact with multiple Extension personnel and 



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industry stakeholders during this process so that they receive a broad, diverse experience of 
Extension, rather than a single, and possibly biased, perspective. 
 
The Extension mentors are expected to conduct periodic guided reflective conversations with 
their apprentices. It is recommended that these conversations occur at regular intervals 
throughout the summer. These reflective conversations incorporate the first two stages of the 
DEAL model. The first stage of the model, Describe, requires students to provide an objective 
and detailed description of the learning experience. To capture this, the mentors ask their 
apprentice to describe what main project(s) they have been working on and to identify their 
primary activities and responsibilities. The second stage, Examine, requires that the students 
analyze the experience in such a way as to generate important learnings across three reflection 
domains (i.e. cognitive, affective, and process). Each domain includes multiple questions which 
were adapted from Ryerson University (2009).  
 
The cognitive reflection prompts the student to examine what new knowledge or skills he/she 
has gained during the apprenticeship. The primary cognitive reflection question is “what new 
knowledge or skills did you learn as a result of these activities and/or responsibilities?” The 
affective reflection questions encourage the student to examine how they feel as a result of the 
apprenticeship experiences. For instance, students are asked “how do you feel you have grown 
as a result of these activities and/or responsibilities?” Finally, the process reflection requires 
the student to consider what he/she has learned from the process itself. A sample process 
reflection question is “how were the activities and/or responsibilities similar to or different 
from your expectations?” 
 
The third stage of the model, Articulate Learning, encourages students to set goals for future 
action that will allow them to apply this learning in future situations. The articulate learning 
stage is structured according to four guiding questions: (a) What did I learn? (b) How, 
specifically, did I learn it? (c) Why does this learning matter, or why is it significant? and (d) In 
what ways will I use this learning or what goals will I set in accordance with what I have learned 
in order to improve myself, the quality of my learning, or the quality of my future experience? 
(Ash, Clayton, & Atkinson, 2005). This stage of the critical reflection was captured through a 
weekly apprenticeship reflective journal that each student was required to complete. 
Responses to these questions or corresponding prompts (i.e. “I learned that…”, “I learned this 
when…”, “this learning matters because…” and “in light of this learning…”), can be compiled 
into articulated learning statements. The articulated learning process allows students to 
recognize what they have learned through reflection on the experience, place it in context, and 
express it concisely supporting them in thinking critically about their own learning (Ash & 
Clayton, 2004). The articulated learning statements are used for both formative and summative 
assessment of the apprenticeship program.  
 
The four guiding questions and corresponding writing prompts from the Articulate Learning 
stage of the DEAL model were mapped to Kolb’s (1984) Experiential Learning Cycle of action 
and reflection. Initially when we mapped Kolb’s four stages to the four questions/writing 
prompts of the Articulate Learning stage of the DEAL model, we mapped the first stage in Kolb’s 



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model (i.e. concrete experience) with the first prompt in the DEAL model (“I learned this 
when…”), the second stage of Kolb’s model (i.e. reflective observation) to the second prompt in 
the DEAL model (“I learned that…”), and so on. However, upon analysis of the first cohort of 
apprentice journals, we recognized that the “I learned this when…” prompt elicited descriptions 
of the learning experience whereas the “I learned that…” prompt evoked an interpretation of 
what was learned during the experience. Therefore Table 1 provides an overview of how Kolb’s 
stages were mapped to the DEAL Model reflective writing prompts. Although the reflective 
writing prompts are presented in the table in the order in which they align with Kolb’s stages, 
the first two prompts are presented to the students in reverse order when the students access 
their online reflection journals.  
 
Table 1 
 
Kolb’s Experiential Learning Cycle Stages Mapped to DEAL Model Reflective Prompts 

Kolb’s 
Experiential 

Learning Cycle 
Stages 

Description of Stage DEAL Model 
Reflective 

Writing Prompt 

Application of DEAL Reflective 
Prompts to Kolb’s Model 

Concrete 
Experience 

Doing/having an 
experience 

2. I learned this 
when… 

Description of the concrete 
learning experience. 

Reflective 
Observation 

Reviewing/reflecting 
on experience 

1. I learned that… Interpretation of what was 
learned during the concrete 
experience. 

Abstract 
Conceptualization 

Concluding/learning 
from the experience 

3. This learning 
matters 
because… 

Initiation or modification of an 
existing abstract concept that 
has been learned through the 
concrete experience. 

Active 
Experimentation 

Planning/trying out 
what you have 
learned 

4. In light of this 
learning… 

Application of this learning to 
other situations and/or 
contexts. 

 
Purpose 

Undergraduates are paired with an Extension faculty or associate for approximately ten to 
twelve weeks in the summer months. The faculty or associate serves as a professional mentor 
for the student apprentice. Together, the mentor and apprentice establish learning objectives, 
set anticipated project outcomes, and lay out a plan of action for the direction of the 
apprenticeship. Additionally, the pairs identify potential academic conferences or industry 
meetings at which the apprentice can present their research as a poster or oral presentation. 
There are several goals of the Mississippi Extension Apprenticeship Program: 

1) Raise students’ awareness of Extension and Extension careers; 
2) Positively influence students’ decision to pursue graduate studies and/or enter a career 

field that ultimately benefits Extension and one or more of the US Department of 
Agriculture’s (USDA) priority areas; 



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3) Enhance students’ critical thinking and problem-solving skills; and 
4) Garner support for Extension’s mission as a non-biased, research- and evidence-based 

source of information. 
Methods 

The first step for this apprenticeship program is an invitation to Extension specialists and 
associates to submit an apprenticeship proposal. Proposals must meet specific criteria, 
including discreet learning objectives and demonstration of benefit to the Extension 
personnel’s research and/or Extension efforts. Apprenticeship opportunities are chosen based 
on the quality of the proposals and final approval by the Program Director and Mississippi 
Extension administration. Extension personnel whose proposals are accepted are required to 
submit a letter of commitment as a mentor to the undergraduate apprentice. 

 
Students electronically submit an application packet to the Program Director via Qualtrics. 
Applicants identify for which project(s) they are applying. Extension mentors select the final 
applicant(s) for their respective integrated project. 
 
Prior to the start of the summer apprenticeships, Extension mentors complete an assessment 
to determine their perceived level of efficacy as a mentor (Denny, 2017). The assessment was 
developed for use with Extension faculty, agents, and other personnel as part of a professional 
development curriculum on mentoring based on six constructs, or functions — relationship 
building, information delivery, facilitation, confrontation, modeling, and vision (Denny, 2016). 
The Adult Mentoring Assessment for Extension Professionals helps mentors develop an accurate 
profile of their mentoring style with adult learners (Denny, 2017). The scores on the various 
constructs help mentors identify specific proficiencies to maintain or strengthen and 
deficiencies to overcome. The overall score on the assessment is a general indicator of 
competence as a mentor of adult learners. By completing the assessment prior to starting a 
formal mentoring relationship, mentors should have a better understanding of how they can 
best contribute to the success of their mentees. In spite of difference among mentors and 
mentees, a structured mentoring plan was developed to provide the necessary training and 
guidance to both parties. This also helps ensure consistency in how apprentices were being 
mentored.  

Findings 

Since the summer of 2017, the Mississippi Extension Apprenticeship Program has provided 
undergraduate juniors and seniors the opportunity to explore Extension-related careers in 
agriculture and natural resources, family and consumer sciences, community resource 
development, or 4-H youth development, while participating in research and experiential 
learning opportunities that directly benefit Extension outreach to local communities. There 
were eight (8) paid apprenticeship opportunities in 2017 and nine (9) more in 2018. The 
primary mentor for each apprentice is a faculty member or staff with an Extension 
appointment, selected based on project proposals submitted to a review panel each year. The 
selected Extension personnel offered an integrated research and Extension experience for the 



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apprentices and mentored the apprentices to conduct new or ongoing research, assist in 
Extension activities at the county or regional level, and develop a related process, program or 
training tool. In 2017 and 2018, the apprenticeship program ran for twelve (12) weeks during 
the summer semester, paid a weekly stipend of $500, and provided a budget for travel and 
other material costs on the part of both the students and mentor.  
 
Regardless of the Extension programmatic area or the research in which the students will 
participate as part of the apprenticeship experience, all apprentices are expected to achieve 
certain student-centered learning outcomes. As a result of participating in this program, 
students will be able to (a) summarize the significance of research-based outreach and 
education; (b) give examples of how their work contributed to the Extension mission; (c) 
demonstrate the way(s) in which target clientele can use/benefit from the research conducted 
during their apprenticeship experience; and (d) evaluate the effectiveness of a particular 
educational activity or tool as part of a larger Extension program. Table 2 describes the various 
assessment methodologies identified for each student-centered outcome. 
 
Table 2 
 
Assessment Methodologies Employed for Targeted Student-centered Outcomes 

Student-centered outcomes Assessment methodology 

Summarize the significance of research-
based outreach and education Periodic reflective discussions between the 

student and his mentor; Analysis of the 
students’ reflective journals Give examples of how their work contributed 

to the Cooperative Extension mission 

Demonstrate the way(s) in which target 
clientele can use/benefit from the research 
conducted during their apprenticeship 
experience 

Student poster or oral presentation at a 
professional meeting/conference; 
Contribution to development of Extension 
publication(s) 

Evaluate the effectiveness of a particular 
educational activity or tool as part of a larger 
Extension program 

Development of an evaluation tool and/or 
analyzing and interpreting data 

In order to complete the requirements of the program, each apprentice must: a) successfully 
meet the learning objectives identified by and with the Extension mentor for their specific 
apprenticeship experience; b) maintain and submit a weekly electronic critical reflection 
journal; and c) develop and present a poster or presentation at an industry-related conference 
or meeting identified by the Extension mentor. Additionally, the apprentices are expected to 
work with Extension personnel to coordinate research and implement related outreach 
activities; participate in meetings where local issues are identified and prioritized, and program 



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results and plans are discussed; assist in preparations for planned events and activities; and 
conduct teaching, training or other Extension program presentations, as appropriate. 
 
As the apprentices travel with their mentor and other Extension personnel, they will inevitably 
interact with individuals that represent the industries, commodities or communities that 
Extension research and outreach are intended to impact. Observational visits, as part of an 
apprenticeship -- to existing or potential clientele -- can stimulate innovative ideas through the 
sharing of tacit knowledge (Leonard & Sensiper, 1998). While these types of interactions are 
not tracked formally through this program, it is expected that the students contemplate and 
write about them in their reflection journals as meaningful experiences.  
 
Additionally, the Program Director regularly monitors student progress through site visits, 
observations, and informal discussions with the faculty mentors. Although this process is 
limited because of its potential subjectivity, the lack of formality may encourage more honest 
and open feedback that will contribute to strengthening the program for the future. In order to 
determine the long-term impacts and possible correlations between the apprenticeship 
experience and career and/or graduate school decisions, student participants are contacted up 
to a year after completion of their apprenticeship to track their current job and/or educational 
status and future plans. 
 
The Mississippi Institutional Review Board deemed an evaluation of the 2017 and 2018 cohorts 
to be exempt from review. An analysis of the first two years of the program revealed the 
following positive outputs and outcomes (Denny & Hardman, 2018). In collaboration with their 
respective mentors, apprentices produced fourteen poster presentations and six Extension 
publications, gave eight oral presentations at professional conferences – one international, and 
co-authored two journal manuscripts. Fifty-three percent (n=9) will “likely” pursue an 
Extension career as a result of their experience as an apprentice. Sixty-eight percent (n=13) 
reported that they are “likely” or "extremely likely" to pursue a graduate degree related to 
agriculture, natural resources, family and consumer science, youth development, community 
resource development, or human sciences as a result of the apprenticeship.  
 
Students agreed or strongly agreed they had an increase in: knowledge of their discipline of 
study (74%, n=14), ability to interact and work with people of different disciplines (79%, n=15), 
and skills in critical (63%, n=12), problem-solving (84%, n=16), teamwork (74%, n=14), written 
(63%, n=12) and oral (74%, n=14) communication. To date, three (38%) of the seventeen 
students have chosen to pursue an agriculture- or extension-related graduate degree as a direct 
result of their apprenticeship experience. All but one student said they would share their 
experience with others. 
 
Mentors reported a positive experience with their respective undergraduate apprentice. Six of 
the eight Extension mentors in 2017 submitted applications for 2018. Of those, four were again 
selected to mentor students in 2018. Total Mississippi faculty submissions of applications for 
the 2018 round of undergraduate apprenticeships increased by 16%.  
 



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Based on faculty and student feedback to date and a process evaluation of the overall program 
after Year 1, minor changes were made for the 2018 cohort to enhance the efficacy of the 
program and the students’ and mentors’ experience. These include moving the reflective 
journals to an online, Qualtrics-based survey format; providing more guidance to faculty about 
their roles and expectations as mentors to the students throughout the summer, rather than 
just at the beginning; and providing more opportunities for the students and faculty to 
communicate and share ideas as a true cohort throughout the summer, rather than function as 
separate mentor-mentee pairs. 
 
An additional bank of questions aimed at determining the students’ perceptions of their 
mentor’s effectiveness on several key criteria were added to the follow-up surveys 
administered to the nine students that participated in Year 2, the summer of 2018. The 
students reported that their mentors were either “Very Effective” or “Extremely Effective” at 
helping them: find and understand information (56%, n=5); understand the relationship 
between Extension and research (89%, n=8); think critically (89%, n=8); solve problems (89%, 
n=8); articulate their learning (89%, n=8); work independently (89%, n=8); engage in teamwork 
(78%, n=7); take strategic risks in their learning (67%, n=6); and take responsibility for their 
learning (89%, n=8). From this, the authors determine that the mentor relationship with the 
student apprentices are generally effective, though there is always room for improvement via 
additional mentor training and formative evaluations of the mentor-mentee relationship. 
 

Conclusions, Discussion, and Recommendations 

As this program continues, there will be some major changes to the program process. First, in 
light of complications with 2017 and 2018 students’ academic schedules and issues with non-
Mississippi students’ ability to obtain housing after July, the apprenticeships will be reduced 
from 12 weeks to 10 weeks, starting after May 1st (to accommodate students’ various spring 
semester schedules) and ending by July 31st of each year.  
 
Second, rather than send a blanket request for proposals from all specialists and associates 
with Extension appointments, the Program Director will communicate with Mississippi 
Extension administration to identify specific personnel with Extension research and education 
programs that are critical to the needs of Mississippi stakeholders but are at risk of ending 
because of retirements, attrition, reduced budgets and resources, and/or limited staff. These 
individuals will be asked to submit integrated research and extension project proposals that can 
start the process to train students in their area(s) of specialization, in the hopes that these 
students will carry on these Extension research and outreach programs and/or pursue graduate 
studies in support of them in the future.  
 
Finally, selected individuals will be allowed to mentor more than one student at a time, if 
desired. This hopefully will encourage the students to learn from and build relationships with 
not just the mentor, but each other. When asked what they would change about the program, 
the apprentices commented that opportunities to work more cohesively as a student cohort, 



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rather than solely with individual mentors, would have enhanced their overall experience. 
Allowing a single Extension personnel to mentor multiple students simultaneously will allow 
students the opportunity to work with one another. 
 
From a practical perspective, the integrated approach of the Mississippi Extension 
Undergraduate Program of engaging students in the various aspects of Extension research, 
program planning and development, implementation via outreach, and evaluation embody 
Nancy Franz’s (2009) Engaged Scholarship Model. Extension administrators expressed a desire 
to improve awareness of Extension and recruitment of potential candidates for Extension 
careers in Mississippi, after noticing a growing trend of higher turnover and fewer applicants for 
open positions. The initial design of the overall program was proposed with the intent to 
address this issue, or discovery of new knowledge. A U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) 
National Institute of Food and Agriculture (NIFA) Education and Literacy Initiative (ELI) Research 
and Extension Experiences for Undergraduates (REEU) Fellowship Program grant enabled the 
development of new knowledge via the implementation of the apprenticeship program for two 
years. The tangible outputs developed by the students in the form of journal manuscripts, 
scientific posters, Extension publications, and direct teaching based on related research 
represent a dissemination of new knowledge. Finally, the program evaluation data has revealed 
a significant change in learning and behavior. Since the authors received a five-year renewal 
grant to continue this program through 2023, there is the expectation of evidence of a change 
in condition, such as sustained administrative support and funding beyond the grant period, 
buy-in from Extension faculty and other personnel to support and engage students in 
undergraduate research, and a broader audience of stakeholders that understand and value the 
Cooperative Extension system. 
 
 

Acknowledgements 

This research was supported by the FY16 USDA NIFA AFRI ELI REEU Fellowships Program of the 
NIFA, USDA, Grant #2017-67033-26015. 
  



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