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Baker et al.  Advancements in Agricultural Development 
  Volume 3, Issue 1, 2022 
  agdevresearch.org 

1. Carrie N. Baker, Marketing Strategy Coordinator, Texas A&M University, 578 John Kimbrough Blvd, 2112 TAMU, College 

Station, TX 77843, carrie.baker@ag.tamu.edu,  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4765-8542   
2. Robert Strong, Associate Professor, 600 John Kimbrough Blvd, 2116 TAMU, Texas A&M University, 

robert.strongjr@ag.tamu.edu,  https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5279-4808   
3. Carly McCord, Director of Telebehavioral Care, Licensed Psychologist, Clinical Assistant, Professor, Texas A&M University, 

2900 E. 29th Street, Suite 300, Bryan, TX 77807, cmccord@tamu.edu, 

  https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4386-4928  
4. Tobin Redwine, Instructional Assistant Professor, Texas A&M University, 600 John Kimbrough Blvd, 2116 TAMU, College 

Station, TX 77843, tredwine@tamu.edu,  https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9975-8169  
 

57 

 

Seeking Support for Mental Health: Evaluating Social Identity 
and Social Capital Agricultural Producers and their Help-

Seeking Preferences 
 

C. Baker1, R. Strong2, C. McCord3, T. Redwine4 
 

 
  

Abstract 

Stigma, cultural norms, nature of work and lack of access to care are among the many variables that 
place agricultural producers particularly at risk for compromised mental health and related illness. 
One variable related to improved mental health outcomes is help-seeking intention, which can be 
mediated by variables such as social identity and social capital. The study’s purpose was to 
characterize these variables among producers and describe the intention of agricultural producers to 
seek mental health assistance. Researchers conducted a bi-regional state survey of agricultural 
producers in 32 Texas counties. A representative sample of Texas agricultural producers (n = 429) 
were surveyed to understand their social identity and social capital as well as their intentions to seek 
mental health assistance for personal or emotional problems and for suicide ideation. Results 
support the use of identity-based programming to increase social capital, in conjunction with tailored 
mental health education and training to promote healthy help-seeking behavior among agricultural 
producers. Researchers recommend innovative solutions for agricultural extension to consider for 
improving stakeholder’s lives. An agricultural extension central resource or information hub, which 
houses national resources and information about this growing area of research would be a valuable 
investment of time and resources. 
 
 

Keywords 

farmers, suicide, public health, extension, professional development 



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Introduction and Problem Statement 
 
Mental health issues are more common in rural areas due to the lack of accessibility, 
availability, and acceptability of mental health services (Newman et al., 2021). Included in this 
population of rural, underserved residents is agricultural producers and their families. Research 
shows that agricultural producers are at increased risk for stress, anxiety, depression, and other 
mental-health related problems (Milner et al., 2013; Saane et al., 2004). Evidence suggests that 
multiple factors relating to producer lifestyle, agrarian norms, and stigma surrounding mental 
health contribute to this growing epidemic within the agriculture industry and delay producers 
from seeking help (Peter et al., 2000; Roy et al., 2017). 
 
According to Cornally and McCarthy (2011), help-seeking behavior, provides insight to 
understand patient delay and intention to take action. Rural areas have higher suicide rates 
juxtaposed to those residing in urban areas (Harris et al., 2016). Research by Deane et al. (2001) 
found that higher levels of suicide ideation correlated with lower levels of intention in young 
people. This was further affirmed by research from Calear et al. (2014) which found that adults 
experiencing thoughts of suicide had lower intention to seek help than those who were not.  
 
Extension organizations and higher education institutions are increasingly challenged with 
producing societal impacts that improve the lives of stakeholders (Strong & Israel, 2009). Rural 
public health professionals desire to better collaborate and engage with other community 
organizations such as religious organizations, food pantries, and agricultural extension on 
programming (Ziller & Milkowski, 2020). Extension systems should identify local priorities to 
implement the highest quality and impactful programs (Harder et al., 2009) to improve 
producer mental health. Producing program impacts that improve stakeholders’ lives are 
expectations and recommended competencies of proficient and community-responsive 
agricultural extension workers (Benge et al., 2011; Harder et al., 2013; Strong & Harder, 2011). 
As evidenced by current health data, there is an immense need to understand help-seeking 
behaviors of agricultural producers for mental health, including their social groups and sources 
from which they would be willing to seek help. Findings could contribute greatly to rural health 
practice to better serve agricultural producers and their communities. 
 

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework 
 
This study utilized an integration of the Ajzen and Fishbein’s (1980) theory of reasoned action 
and social identity theory as the theoretical framework. These theories helped provide a 
foundation for understanding individuals’ intention to engage in certain behaviors from a social 
identity perspective.  
 
According to the theory of reasoned action, there are two main constructs that influence an 
individual’s intent, and in turn, their resulting behavior (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). These include 
attitudes and subjective norms. Attitude refers to a positive or negative feeling about someone 
or something, and subjective norms are determined by the motivation to behave according to 



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an important person or group’s beliefs. Each of these are influenced by various systems of 
belief. The theory of reasoned action and its subsequent models have been widely used and 
recognized as effective models for predicting and evaluating various determinants of health 
behavior and intention (Montaño & Kasyrzyk, 2015). 
 
Scholars have noted the relevance of using social identity theory in conjunction with health 
behavior models (Fielding et al., 2008). Thus, social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979) was 
included as an extension of this framework, as a variable influencing each of the theory of 
reasoned action predictor variables. Social identity theory posits that as highly social beings, 
individuals become invested in intergroup relationships that form their identity and influence 
their behavior (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). Through a social identity lens, researchers had the 
opportunity to assess dimensions and strength of the identity of agricultural producers as an 
occupational group.  
 
There are mediating variables that can influence attitudes and encourage health-promoting 
behavior. Studies by Groth et al. (2017) and Fielding et al. (2008) used social identity theory or 
variations of it to explain decision-making and behavior relating to certain agricultural practices. 
Others find that social identity and the cultural norms associated with that identity also affect 
help-seeking. Polain et al. (2011) reported agricultural producers over the age of 58 resisted 
help-seeking for mental health providers due to their lack of awareness of farmer lifestyle. 
Producers claimed provider services were insensitive to their culture and livelihood (Polain et 
al., 2011).  
 
Another dimension of societal influence on behavior is social capital, which explains 
relationships, networks, and various outside individuals or groups that impact one’s beliefs and 
actions. Like social identity, social capital has been used extensively in research involving 
agricultural producers and also in understanding mental health outcomes. Research suggests 
social capital promotes health and well-being when emphasized and shows that increased 
social capital can improve mental health outcomes and significantly contribute to reducing 
stress, illness, and depression (Haslam et al., 2009; Lin, 2001; Magson et al., 2014). In the 
current literature, little attention is given to understanding the social identity and social groups 
of agricultural producers or the potential impacts on their help-seeking behavior with regard to 
mental health. 
 

Purpose 
 
The purpose of this study was to better understand the intentions of agricultural producers to 
seek help for issues pertaining to their mental health, identify sources from which producers 
would be willing to seek help and determine if occupational degree of involvement effects help-
seeking intention. This study had three objectives: 
1. Characterize the social identity and social capital reported by agricultural producers. 
2. Describe the degree of help-seeking reported by agricultural producers. 
3. Describe scores for help-seeking sources reported by agricultural producers. 



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Methods  
 
Researchers developed a cross-sectional survey, adhering to Dillman’s Tailored Design Method 
(Dillman et al., 2014). In addition to this construct for personal characteristics, the instrument 
measured five variables. Producers were asked Likert-scale questions to characterize their 
social identity, social capital, self-stigma, likelihood of seeking help and preferred helping agent. 
Pre-existing scales for all constructs were adapted for use in the instrument. The scales 
examined in this manuscript included the Collective Occupational Identity Construct (COIC), 
Personal Social Capital Scale (PSCS) and the General Help-Seeking Questionnaire (GHSQ). 
 
Purposive sampling was used to target agricultural producers in Texas between the ages of 18-
89 years of age, using databases provide by Agriculture and Natural Resources (ANR) Extension 
agents in the West and East Texas Regions. Researchers operationally defined agricultural 
producers using the definition provided within the Code of Federal Regulations as one who is 
directly engaged in producing or has legal rights to harvest a commodity (Code of Federal 
Regulations, 2012). In total, county agriculture and natural resource extension agents from 32 
Texas counties sent recruitment emails to 5,137 potential participants via email. Of those 32 
Texas counties, 75% (n = 24) are designated as rural counties. Of those 5,137 emails, 92 were 
undeliverable, resulting in a population of 5,045. Of those 5,045 potential participants, 
researchers achieved a sample size of 429 participants, equating to a response rate of 8.50%.  
 
This manuscript looks exclusively at descriptive statistics derived from participant responses 
from the COIC, PSCS and the GHSQ to understand the salience of the producer identity, the 
extent of producer’s social groups and the nature of those relationships. Additionally, items 
from GHSQ helped researchers characterize producers’ willingness to seek help and the sources 
from which they would be likely to turn to for help. Researchers calculated means and standard 
deviations for each item. Additionally, researchers calculated overall grand means for each of 
the three scales to get an analysis of the central tendencies social identity, social capital and 
help-seeking intention of the sample. Results from each construct were compared for 
deviations and similarities, leading to potential opportunities for building sustainable systems 
of support.    
 
To control for nonresponse error, researchers compared early to late respondents and found 
no statistically significant differences in their responses (Lindner et al., 2001). Thus, researchers 
were able to obtain support for the generalizability of responses to the population of Texas 
agricultural producers. In total, 39 respondents did not self-report as agricultural producers. 
However, when given the opportunity to self-describe involvement in the industry, 19 of those 
39 descriptions aligned with the utilized definition of agricultural producer and were recoded as 
such. Because we did not find the remaining 20 answers to be statistically significantly different 
from the remaining respondents, we did not exclude them from analysis. Content validity was 
achieved through collaboration with committee members and discussion with other 
agriculturalists and extension practitioners. Upon completion of data analysis, reliability was 



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confirmed using Cronbach’s alpha (Cronbach, 1951) for PSCS which had 38 items (α = 0.94), 
COIC which had 11 items (α = 0.82) and the GHSQ, which had 28 items (α = 0.89).  
 

Findings 
 
The descriptive statistics from the Collective Occupational Identity Construct (COIC) (Groth et 
al., 2017) is presented in Table 1. Collectively, the overall mean for social identity of agricultural 
producers within this sample (n = 355) was high (M = 4.68, SD = 0.75). 
 

There were four items used from the Personal Social Capital Scale in the instrument. Three of 
the four pertained to people or people groups in their social groups. These items and the 
descriptive statistics from the top four sub-item in the Personal Social Capital Scale (PSCS) 
(Chen et al., 2009) are listed in Table 2. 
 
 
 
 
 

Table 1  
 
Descriptive Statistics for the Collective Occupational Identity Construct  
Items n M SD 
In general, I’m glad that I’m an agricultural producer. 354 5.32 1.01 
I very much identify with agricultural producers in my 
area. 

351 5.01 1.04 

What happens to agricultural producers as a whole will 
have an effect on what happens in my life.  

350 4.84 1.07 

Being a part of the larger group of agricultural 
producers is an important reflection of who I am.  

350 4.62 1.22 

I have a strong sense of belonging or attachment to 
other agricultural producers.  

350 4.58 1.17 

In general, others respect agricultural producers.  348 4.57 1.07 
When someone criticizes agricultural producers, it feels 
like a personal insult.  

349 4.56 1.35 

My agricultural production activities distinguish me 
from those who are not agricultural producers.  

351 4.48 1.27 

I consider myself to be a typical agricultural producer in 
this area. 

351 4.26 1.31 

My regular social contacts and social relationships are 
with other agricultural producers.  

349 4.20 1.16 

Note. Participants scored statements from 1 =not applicable; 2= strongly disagree; 
3=disagree; 4=neutral; 5=agree; 6 = strongly agree.  



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Table 2 
 
How many of the people in each of the following categories do you keep in routine contact?  
Items n M SD 
Your immediate family members 345 1.67 .928 
Your friends 346 2.38 .812 
Your relatives 345 2.62 .888 
People in your community 345 2.83 .718 

Note. Participants scored each item from 1 = all; 2 = most; 3 = some; 4 = few; 5 = none. A lower 
mean represented a higher social capital score. 
 
There were five categories of utilized to assess farmer’s trust of members in their social system 
(see Table 3).  
 
Table 3 
 
Among the people in each of the following categories, how many can you trust? 
Items n M SD 
Your immediate family members 336 1.64 .96 
Your friends 336 2.03 .88 
Extension Agent 326 2.11 1.11 
Your relatives 335 2.26 .99 
Extension Specialist 341 3.79 1.01 

Note. Participants scored each item from 1= all; 2 = most; 3 = some; 4 = few; 5 = none. A lower 
mean represented a higher social capital score. 
 
Table 4 illustrates the five categories utilized to assess farmer’s trust of members in their social 
system.  
 
Table 4 
 
Among the people in each of the following categories, how many will definitely help you upon 
your request? 
Items n M SD 
Your immediate family members 336 1.64 .96 
Your friends 336 2.03 .88 
Extension Agent 326 2.11 1.11 
Your relatives 335 2.26 .99 

Note. Participants scored each item from 1 = all;, 2 = most; 3 = some; 4 = few; 5 = none. A lower 
mean represented a higher social capital score. 
 
Overall, the grand mean for responses within this construct for agricultural producers in this 
sample were relatively low (M = 2.73, SD = 0.56). Because anchors in this scale were reverse 



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coded, a lower mean represented a higher social capital score. So, while the mean appears low, 
the social capital of agricultural producers in this sample was relatively high. The last item in 
this scale asked about the resources possessed by these individuals. Participants scored each 
item from 1 to 5, with 5 representing none. The lowest resource reported as being possessed by 
these people groups was mental health education (M = 3.76, SD = 0.97). 
 
Objective two aimed to describe the degree of help-seeking reported by agricultural producers. 
In order to achieve this objective, researchers calculated a grand mean for both questions 
within the help-seeking construct. This resulted in a statistical mean of responses (n = 312) for 
help-seeking intention for both personal or emotional problems (M = 3.77, SD = 0.95) and 
responses (n = 296) for suicidal thoughts (M = 3.53, SD = 1.24). On the provided scale, these fell 
between anchors 3 and 5, where 3 was labeled as Unlikely and 5 was labeled Likely. According 
to the scale provided, narratively, these means fell between the statement Unlikely, and the 
most neutral anchor, which the creators of the original scale left unlabeled. Another important 
finding from this objective was the difference in means. While only slightly, the statistical mean 
for help-seeking for personal or emotional problems was greater than the mean calculated for 
help-seeking for suicidal thoughts. 
 
For objective three, researchers described scores for help-seeking sources reported by 
agricultural producers. The top four responses for help-seeking for a personal or emotional 
problem are listed in Tables 5. 
 
As shown, the top three sources identified by the sample as being the most likely to be sought 
out when experiencing personal or emotional problems were intimate partner (girlfriend, 
boyfriend, husband, wife, de’ facto) (M = 5.50, SD = 1.85), Friend (not related to you) (M = 4.70, 
SD = 1.54), and Other relative or family member (M = 4.45, SD = 1.67). The item that received 
the lowest means was Phone Helpline (M = 2.54, SD = 1.67). 
 
Unlike the first question which asked about likelihood of help-seeking for personal and 
emotional problems, the second question on the GHSQ asked about sources one would be 
likely to seek help from if they were experiencing suicidal thoughts. Responses pertaining to the 
second question in the General Help Seeking Questionnaire (GHSQ) (Wilson et al., 2005) were 
somewhat shocking. Similar to the first question, participants scored Intimate partner 
(girlfriend, boyfriend, husband, wife, de’ facto) (M = 5.06, SD = 2.26) the highest, as seen in 
Table 5.   
 
  



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Table 5 
 
Descriptive statistics from “If you were having a personal or emotional problem, how likely is it 
that you would seek help from the following people?” 
Items n M SD 
Intimate partner (girlfriend, boyfriend, husband, wife, 
de’ facto) 

309 5.50 1.85 

Friend (not related to you) 311 4.70 1.54 
Other relative or family member 310 4.45 1.67 
Minister or religious leader (e.g. Priest, Rabbi, Chaplain, 
Church leader) 

311 4.41 1.94 

Note. Participants scored items from 1 to 7. Anchors were labeled as 1= extremely  
unlikely; 3 = unlikely; 5 = likely; 7 = extremely likely. 
 
Within the item for suicidal thoughts, agricultural producers scored Minister or religious leader 
(e.g. Priest, Rabbi, Chaplain, Church leader) (M = 4.43, SD = 2.20) and Mental health 
professional (e.g. psychologist, social worker, counselor) (M = 4.36, SD = 2.07) high enough to 
grant them the second and third largest mean. According to the scale provided, these means 
fell between anchor statements 4 and 5, where 4 was the midpoint of the scale and 5 indicated 
that intention was Likely (see Table 6).  
 
Table 6 
 
Descriptive statistics from “If you were experiencing suicidal thoughts, how likely is it that you 
would seek help from the following people?” 

Items n M SD 
Intimate partner (girlfriend, boyfriend, husband, wife, de’ 
facto) 

292 5.06 2.25 

Minister or religious leader (e.g. Priest, Rabbi, Chaplain, 
Church leader) 

292 4.43 2.20 

Mental health professional (e.g. psychologist, social worker, 
counselor) 

292 4.36 2.07 

Friend (not related to you) 292 4.35 2.08 
Note. Participants scored items from 1 to 7. Anchors were labeled as 1 = extremely  
unlikely; 3 = unlikely; 5=likely; 7 = extremely likely.  
 

Conclusions, Discussion, and Recommendations  
 
Data provided evidence for the strength and salience of farmer identity and its potential 
implications on behavior. When agricultural producers identify broadly to their social group, 
especially when this identity is salient, it can positively impact their help-seeking behavior 
(Haslam et al., 2009). This is an imperative finding, given the positive effects that enhanced 
social identity and increased social capital can have on help-seeking behaviors and improved 
mental health outcomes of agricultural producers (Hedge et al., 2017; Magson et al., 2014).   



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Intimate partner, friend, and other relative or family member surfaced as top help-seeking 
sources for personal or emotional problems and for suicide ideation as well. This aligns with 
research that suggests that agriculturalists have closer familial relationships than those in other 
occupations—both in proximity and degree of contact (Fraser et al., 2005). Similarly, data from 
the personal social capital scale (PSCS) showed that immediate family members, friends, and 
relatives play a large role in agricultural producers’ social capital and support networks.  
 
Mental health professional represented the second highest mean in the dataset for the help-
seeking in regard to thoughts of suicide. This is an important finding, as it contrasts an 
abundance of literature on help-seeking and mental healthcare service use. Research suggests 
that there is a vast underutilization of mental health services and that various factors, such as 
availability, accessibility, and affordability, all influence likelihood of help-seeking (Newman et 
al., 2021). This is especially true for agricultural producers, who battle accessibility and 
availability of care and whose insurance coverage might not include basic mental healthcare.  
 
Immense opportunity exists to increase help-seeking intentions of production agriculturalists in 
order to achieve improved mental health outcomes. Researchers recommend that attention be 
given to improving professional mental healthcare in rural areas, or those dense with clientele 
in agriculture. However, due to shortage of mental health professionals and facilities and 
barriers specific to producers like geographical distance to care, lack of insurance coverage, 
etc., researchers recommend that agricultural extension systems, community leaders and local 
legislators consider other ways in which agricultural producers might receive these services.  
 
Innovative solutions for agricultural extension to consider for improving stakeholder’s lives 
(Benge et al., 2011; Harder et al., 2013; Strong & Harder, 2011) include telehealth, traveling or 
regional rural ’farm’ counselors, faith-based counselors through places of worship of religious 
organizations, or conjoining mental health services with other events or agriculturally-focused 
conventions/meetings—perhaps in conjunction with agricultural agencies and farmers 
associations (Wynn et al., 2013). These partnerships will help practitioners offer culturally 
appropriate and sustainable intervention and treatment options for agricultural producers. 
These efforts will be maximized if the agencies push these educational materials community-
wide, to raise awareness and promote help-seeking within the agricultural community, reduce 
stigma, and grow support networks and increase social capital of agricultural producers.  
 
Lastly, one of the largest barriers to investigating mental health and resources within the 
agricultural industry was the lack of information both in peer-reviewed literature and in the 
media. This would suggest that struggling producers, practitioners, or researchers looking for 
guidance would be met with the same frustration. Creating an agricultural extension central 
resource or information hub, which houses national resources and information about this 
growing area of research would be a valuable investment of time and resources. Additionally, 
continued research broadly on health behaviors and help-seeking intention of agricultural 
producers for mental health-related struggles cannot be understated. 
 



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Acknowledgements  
 
We thank the Texas A&M AgriLife Extension Service, specifically Mandi Seaton, Larry Pearce 
and Robert Pritz, the Regional Program Leaders who championed this research within the 
agency and helped coordinate efforts to administer this survey. A special thank you to Mason 
Parish and the Montgomery County Farm Bureau for their support and monetary contribution 
to fund the participation incentives for this research.  
 
This research is linked with Dr. Robert Strong’s USDA National Institute of Food and 
Agriculture’s Hatch Project #TEX09890 “The Adoption Impact of Food and Agricultural Sciences 
Curricula on Public Health.” This respective Hatch Project and the research contained in this 
article aligns with the USDA Critical Issue “Connecting Agriculture and Health (1862).” 

 
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