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Coyle & Strong  Advancements in Agricultural Development 
  Volume 3, Issue 3, 2022 
  agdevresearch.org 

1. David Coyle, Master of Science, Texas A&M University, 2116 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843, dpcoyle@gmail.com  

  https://orcid.org/000-0002-8486-1689  
2. Jennifer Strong, Associate Professor, Texas A&M University, 2116 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843, dr.jen@tamu.edu  

  https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6718-6434  
29 

 

Conceptualizing High-Impact Practices within the Frame of 
Agricultural Leadership Education: A Content Analysis 

 
D. Coyle1, J. Strong2 

 

 
  

Abstract 
The use of high-impact practices in undergraduate leadership courses is a common and effective way 
of developing students studying agriculture. However, each of the ten high-impact practices (HIPs) 
recognized by the Association of American Colleges and Universities (Kuh, 2008) are not equally 
studied or utilized by leadership educators. This study will provide a content analysis of the use of 
HIPs as a leadership pedagogy in undergraduate education. In the studies analyzed, which were 
grouped by categories of HIPs, only five of the ten main HIPs were represented.  These were 
undergraduate research, diversity and global learning, internships, service learning, and capstone 
courses and projects. The analysis revealed each HIP resulted in one or more of Kuh’s (2008) 
proposed learning outcomes. Based on these findings, the researchers suggest HIPs be used more 
frequently in agricultural leadership curriculum and call on scholars to study the ten HIPs more 
closely.  
 
 
Keywords 

Internships, undergraduate research, global learning, community-based learning, service learning 



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Introduction and Problem Statement 
 
Creating courses and programs, which engage students in critical thinking and develop their 
leadership capacity, is a common struggle for educators in the field of agriculture (Arum & 
Roska, 2011; Peek et al., 2017; Strong et al., 2013; Strong et al., 2021). Traditional agricultural 
leadership education programs are built upon experiential learning pedagogies but there are no 
discipline specific accepted best practices (Williams et al., 2005). The use of high-impact 
practices is one method educators can overcome this challenge. High-impact practices, or 
“HIPs”, are pedagogies that seek to enhance student involvement in the learning process by 
exposing them to non-traditional forms of education. According to the Association of American 
Colleges and Universities, these practices should be conducted in order to achieve key learning 
outcomes, which are essential in the professional world (Kuh, 2008). These outcomes include 
knowledge of human cultures and the physical and natural world, intellectual and practical 
skills, personal and social responsibility, and integrative and applied learning (Kuh, 2008). Lane 
and Murphrey (2020) found the study of international experiences, through the lens of Kuh’s 
(2008) high-impact framework has increased but is limited to describing Kuh’s HIP categories 
and not focused on the impact of Kuh’s learning outcomes. In the field of agricultural leadership 
education, high-impact practices can yield tremendous value as it pertains to the development 
of undergraduate students studying leadership in the context of agriculture.  
 
This study sought to analyze the use of high-impact practices across multiple collegiate 
leadership programs. Separate studies were grouped based upon the type of HIP that was 
utilized and were examined for common outcomes and themes. The researchers then discussed 
the findings from the content analysis in order to determine best practices of using HIPs in 
leadership education, and to identify opportunities for further research. 
 

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework 
 
Kuh’s (2008) research on high-impact practices served as the base for this study. Studies were 
grouped according to which of the ten HIPs were examined, which are: 
1. First year seminars and experiences 
2. Common intellectual experiences 
3. Learning communities 
4. Writing-intensive courses 
5. Collaborative assignments and projects 
6. Undergraduate research 
7. Diversity/global learning 
8. Service learning, community-based learning 
9. Internships 
10. Capstone courses and projects (Kuh, 2008) 

 
According to Kuh (2008), high-impact practices should achieve several vital learning outcomes. 
The first learning outcome is knowledge of human cultures and the physical and natural world, 



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which is achieved predominantly through science, math, social science, humanities, history, 
language, and arts courses (Kuh, 2008). The second learning outcome is the development of 
intellectual and practical skills, including inquiry and analysis, critical and creative thinking, 
written and oral communication, quantitative literacy, information literacy, and teamwork and 
problem solving (Kuh, 2008). Personal and social responsibility is the third mentioned learning 
outcome, which entails civil knowledge and engagement, intercultural knowledge and 
competence, ethical reasoning and action, and foundations and skills for lifelong learning (Kuh, 
2008) Finally, integrative and applied learning, which includes “synthesis and advanced 
accomplishment across general and specialized studies,” is the fourth vital learning outcome 
(Kuh, 2008, p. 4). These learning outcomes, and whether they were achieved in the analyzed 
studies, functioned as the standard for our content analysis. 
 

Purpose 
 
The leadership education, training, and development of undergraduate agriculture students is 
considered vitally important by many educators and scholars (Lemons & Strong, 2016; Moore 
et al., 2011b). As such, it is important to offer courses, programs, and experiences to students 
that will contribute the most to their development. HIPs, according to Kuh (2008), represent 
the most influential and impactful learning experiences available to students. The purpose of 
this content analysis was to add to the available knowledge base on the use and success of HIPs 
in undergraduate agricultural leadership education. By examining the types of HIPs being used 
and their impact, the researchers were able to draw conclusions on the use and effectiveness of 
HIPs in leadership courses and generate recommendations for future practice and research. 
 

Methods 
 
In order to understand the current methods of integrating HIPs in leadership education, Shapiro 
and Markoff’s (1997) and Krippendorff’s (2004) frameworks of content analysis were utilized. 
The initial search terms of “high impact practices, leadership education” were inputted into 
three different academic search engines: (1) Web of Science, (2) Google Scholar, and (3) Texas 
A&M University’s Library search (which includes ProQuest, Ebsco, and J-Store). These searches 
yielded 100 peer-reviewed results. Refining the search to include the word “agriculture” 
narrowed the results to 21 peer-reviewed articles. Cursory research focusing the parameters to 
include undergraduate education and including key terms from Kuh’s (2008) ten high-impact 
practices narrowed the results to ten. These articles were selected and reviewed for 
commonalities, including leadership settings, type of HIP, themes, and findings (Klenke et al., 
2016). Only five of the ten high-impact practices were represented among the ten articles: 
undergraduate research, diversity/global learning, service learning/community-based learning, 
internships, and capstone courses/projects. The articles were then grouped according to these 
five categories. Certain research articles were placed in more than one category because they 
included research on more than one HIP.  
 



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In order to accurately assess whether a particular HIP achieved some or all of Kuh’s learning 
outcomes, the results of each study will be reviewed with a focus on increased knowledge, 
critical application of new knowledge, practical skill development and community engagement. 
Participants’ responses as well as the authors’ conclusions will be considered when determining 
the overall effectiveness of a given HIP in an undergraduate leadership course. Once each study 
has been assessed, conclusions can be drawn as to the efficacy of each high-impact practice.   
 

Findings  
 
Undergraduate Research 
 
Although a less common practice in social science agricultural departments (including 
leadership, education, and communications), undergraduate research provides students with 
mentoring relationships, teaches them practical skills, and enhances their critical thinking 
abilities. However, in one study, an especially unique approach was taken in the creation of an 
Undergraduate Leadership Teaching Assistantship (Odom et al., 2014). This position provided 
students with the same opportunities as undergraduate research, but also allowed students to 
serve as mentors and role models to their peers (Odom et al., 2014). Researchers found the HIP 
to be successful, noting it “provides an opportunity for leadership students to apply course 
material and further develop their understanding of personal leadership strengths and 
weaknesses…” (Odom et al., 2014, p. 159). In accordance with Kuh’s (2008) learning outcomes 
for HIPs, the UTLA accomplishes three: intellectual and practical skills, personal responsibility, 
and integrative and applied learning.   
 
Diversity/Global Learning 
 
At a small liberal arts university, a study was conducted to discern if students grew in 
intercultural competency as a result of their participation in a five-week agricultural study 
abroad program (Armstrong, 2020). Using a pre-post survey, scholars discovered students did 
indeed experience significant growth in their intercultural competency, specifically in the 
dimensions of continuous learning, interpersonal engagement, and hardiness (Armstrong, 
2020). The distinct increase in intercultural competency as a result of this HIP achieves the 
Kuh’s (2008) learning outcome of cultural and world knowledge. 
 
Another study by Kerry Priest and Nicholas Clegorne (2015) analyzed three HIPs, including one 
based upon diversity/global learning. Sociocultural conversations (a unique pedagogy practiced 
at Kansas State University) are facilitated by the instructor, allowing students to openly and 
critically discuss issues of identity (Priest & Clegorne, 2015). Testimonies from students, 
teaching assistants and instructors all indicate the activity was successful, forcing students to 
grow more comfortable with difficult conversations and practice empathy (Priest & Clegorne, 
2015). The authors summarized that “when educators create a safe environment for 
sociocultural conversations, they can more intentionally challenge students to search out the 
root of their beliefs—without judgement—for the sake of learning and leadership 



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development” (Priest & Clegorne, 2015, p. 75). This HIP achieves Kuh’s (2008) learning outcome 
of increased cultural knowledge, as well as enhancing students’ personal and social 
responsibility.  
 
Service Learning & Community Based Learning 
 
Priest and Clegorne (2015) also study the use of a service learning & community-based learning 
HIP, detailing the involvement of students at the local YMCA. Some students first volunteered 
at the Y simply to meet a class requirement or complete a service project, but many continued 
to volunteer after their first experience (Priest & Clegorne, 2015). According to the former CEO 
of this program, “students who participated in reflections, mentoring, and additional training 
and development opportunities remained more engaged in Y programs and openly explored 
connections to academic coursework, personal values, and possible social innovations to meet 
evolving community needs” (Priest & Clegorne, 2015, p. 82). Of Kuh’s (2008) learning outcomes 
for high-impact practices, this assignment accomplishes personal and social responsibility, as 
well as integrative and applied learning by encouraging students to care for their community 
and critically relate their service back to coursework.  
 
In another course, instructors implemented three service learning and community-based 
learning high-impact practices, each coupled with a written reflection (Andreu et al., 2020). The 
first HIP required students to volunteer at a local non-profit and reflect on the experience in a 
paper (Andreu et al., 2020). The second HIP required students to contact a senior leader in the 
community and spend some time learning from them, followed by a reflection on the 
experience (Andreu et al., 2020). The final HIP required students to attend two meetings with a 
professional organization, network with at least three people at that meeting, and follow up 
with those three individuals. Afterwards, students were responsible to write a reflection on the 
experience (Andreu et al., 2020). The instructors received positive feedback from their students 
on all three HIPs. Participants expressed increased empathy for the disenfranchised after their 
work with a local non-profit, enhanced confidence and professional skills after their 
conversation with a senior leader, and greater understanding of the professional world after 
following up with their three network connections (Andreu et al. 2020) These activities clearly 
achieved several of Kuh’s (2008) learning outcomes for high-impact practices, specifically 
personal/social responsibility and intellectual/practical skill development.  
 
Meyers et al. (2014) integrated HIPs within agricultural leadership curriculum by focusing on 
teamwork and service-learning. Students enrolled in a similar agricultural leadership course at 
two different universities were assigned to teams and then challenged to find a community 
partner and identify a project the student team could complete to help the partner. Teams 
completed the identified project throughout the semester and then presented their projects to 
the partners and their classmates. Students were also asked to complete reflection assignments 
throughout the semester. Findings from this HIP include the importance of communication and 
clarity with community partners, the impact of teams on HIPs, and the significance of clear 
learning objectives (Meyers et al., 2014). This activity achieved Kuh’s (2008) learning outcomes 



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of development of intellectual and practical skills, personal and social responsibility, and 
integrative and applied learning. 
 
In a fourth study, researchers examined the effect of participating in service-learning 
opportunities on student’s service leadership emergence and meaning schema transformation 
(Chen et al., 2018). They define meaning schema transformation as the obtaining a new and 
more intricate understanding of what is being studied (Chen et al., 2018). Kuh’s (2008) critical 
thinking serves as an integral part of the meaning schema transformation process. The 
researchers found service-learning opportunities had a greater effect on meaning schema 
transformation than other forms of learning (Chen et al., 2018).  
 
Internships 
 
In most cases, internships are opportunities for students to work with a company for a short 
period of time and develop their professional skills. However, in this particular study, a new and 
unique high-impact practice was created, combining the typical internship experience with 
service learning. In this model (entitled “Serviceship”), rather than working for a company, 
students were assigned to work for a community (Hastings et al., 2018). Participants in the 
program were assigned a specific rural community, and community leaders created and 
assigned a development project for the student to take on (Hastings et al., 2018). The 
Serviceship model was utilized and studied over four years, yielding very positive results. 
Authors stated that students who participated in the experience not only completed their 
assigned community development project, but also became very involved with the community 
and its leaders (Hastings et al.). One student shared that the experience “enhanced [their] 
appreciation for integrity, empathy, self-confidence, and social judgment skills” (Hastings et al., 
2018, p. 146). Meanwhile, community leaders also felt the HIP was a great success, with one 
stating, “I feel that I have learned just as much from their knowledge and their perspectives 
about our community and about rural [State], as they have about their experience here in our 
community (Hastings et al., 2018, pp.145-146). These positive outcomes align with Kuh’s (2008) 
learning outcomes of practical skill development, social responsibility, and cultural knowledge.  
 
Another study examined the impact of an undergraduate apprenticeship program, designed to 
give students a chance to be mentored by a local professional in their field of interest (Denny & 
Hardman, 2020). While meeting with their mentor, students also participated in research and 
helped with activities and programs in the community (Denny & Hardman, 2020). This aspect of 
the apprenticeship program also involves aspects of community-based learning, another of 
Kuh’s (2008) ten HIPs. Researchers discovered students who participated in the undergraduate 
apprenticeship program displayed increases in their professional knowledge, scholarship, 
interest in their field and related post-graduate opportunities, and critical thinking (Denny & 
Hardman, 2020). According to Kuh (2008), these learning outcomes (practical skill development 
and integrative and applied learning) are a direct indication that the undergraduate 
apprenticeship program was an effective HIP.  
 



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A third study examined differences between students who participated in internships and those 
who did not across various indicators of resilience, such as challenge orientation and 
adaptability (Goodenough et al., 2020). The researchers found student interns achieved and 
maintained a higher level of resilience than their classmates who did not (Goodenough et al., 
2020). Although resilience is not one of Kuh’s (2008) specific indicators of programmatic 
success, we firmly believe challenge orientation and adaptability fall under the ability to think 
critically.  
 
Capstone Courses and Projects  
 
In a study on the use of capstone projects in higher leadership education, an assignment was 
developed called “Leadership for Dummies” (Moore et al., 2011a). After completing the 
necessary core classes in their leadership major, students could participate in this project, 
where they were responsible to write and develop chapters of their own “for dummies” book 
on leadership (Moore et al., 2011a). Each student was instructed to critically synthesize their 
education into their own concise and understandable words, creating an 8–10-page chapter on 
every facet of leadership they choose (Moore et al., 2011a). The authors describe multiple 
positive outcomes in their study, summarized well by one student’s feedback, who said, “The 
assignment helped me further understand all the leadership concepts that I chose to write 
about....in order to explain and relate it to real life situations I had to grasp the concept and 
really apply it” (Moore et al., 2011a, p. 128). This ability to critically synthesize information 
illustrates the students’ practical skill development and integrative/applied learning, both of 
which are Kuh’s (2008) listed learning outcomes for high impact practices. 
 

Conclusions, Discussion, and Recommendations  
 
Conclusion and Discussion 
 
High-impact practices provide students with a rich academic experience that often exceeds 
what can be accomplished with conventional teaching methods. These practices are designed 
to challenge perspectives, prompt critical thinking and develop skills which are essential in the 
professional world. Lunsford and Brown (2016) concluded collegiate leadership programs 
should strive to connect research-based practices with leadership development. To ensure that 
these high standards are met, Kuh (2008) lists specific learning outcomes that high-impact 
practices should accomplish, including cultural and world knowledge, intellectual and practical 
skill development, personal and social responsibility, and integrative and applied learning. Each 
of the aforementioned high-impact practices easily achieves one or more of these learning 
outcomes. This content analysis found integrative and applied learning objectives were the 
most frequently reported learning outcome, met in seven of the articles. Intellectual and 
practical skills (n=6) and personal and social responsibility (n=6) were the second most 
reported. Knowledge of human cultures and the physical and natural world was mentioned in 
three studies. These findings fill the gap in the literature found in HIP by Lane and Murphrey 
(2020). 



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This content analysis clearly illustrates high-impact practices are diverse, engaging, and unique 
ways of teaching that can be easily and effectively applied in undergraduate leadership courses 
and the impact of self-directed learning is imperative to document for leadership students 
(Strong et al., 2013; Strong & Williams, 2014). However, perhaps the most interesting takeaway 
from this study is which HIPs were most often practiced and studied in undergraduate 
agricultural leadership courses. The Association of American Colleges and Universities lists ten 
high-impact practices. Among the articles reviewed by the researchers, only five of the ten 
practices were implemented and studied by agricultural leadership educators: undergraduate 
research, diversity/global learning, service learning and community-based learning, internships, 
and capstone courses and projects. First year seminars and experiences, common intellectual 
experiences, learning communities, writing-intensive courses, and collaborative assignments 
and projects were not found in our content analysis. Articles were identified that addressed 
some of these practices but were written in a practical application or “how to” manner that did 
not address the assessment of effectiveness. These articles were written more for the 
practitioner to replicate the activities, therefore were not included in this analysis. The absence 
of these high-impact practices may be a result of insufficient published research, or it may be 
these specific pedagogies remain unused in the leadership development of undergraduate 
agriculture students.  
 
Recommendations  
 
In order to discern why only half of Kuh’s (2008) high-impact practices were studied in these 
ten articles, scholars would need to conduct further research. However, we believe discoveries 
made as a result of further inquiry could enhance the integration of HIPs in agricultural 
leadership education as a whole. Future researchers could conduct a study with a large and 
diverse sample of agricultural leadership educators from multiple universities. These educators 
would be interviewed in order to determine which HIP they believe would be/is most effective 
in their undergraduate leadership course. We hypothesize agricultural leadership educators 
utilize more of Kuh’s (2008) HIPs than reported but do not translate their classroom practices 
into impactful research. Measuring the cross-cutting skills high-impact practices develop further 
validates the pedagogy and adds to the body of literature and practice (Andrade, 2020).  If the 
findings from this proposed study show undergraduate leadership, diversity/global learning, 
service learning and community-based learning, internships and capstone projects are all 
preferred, then the results of this content analysis would be validated.  
 
Additionally, we recommend that agricultural leadership educators continue integrating HIPs 
into their undergraduate coursework as a way of engaging students in new forms of learning 
and achieving positive learning outcomes. Our findings revealed such pedagogies regularly yield 
positive results and would therefore be an asset to the practice of agricultural leadership 
beyond the classroom. 
 
 



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Acknowledgements  
 
David P. Coyle was the principal researcher for this article. He conducted the content analysis. 
Jennifer Strong was the co-researcher for this article. She contributed findings and 
recommendations. 
 

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