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   Advancements in Agricultural Development 
  Volume 4, Issue 1, 2023 
  agdevresearch.org 

 

1. Gary Wingenbach, Professor and Senior Scientist, Texas A&M University, 2116 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843-2116, 

wingenbach@tamu.edu,  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1675-8903 
2. Thesiana Graham, former undergraduate research scholar, Texas A&M University, 2116 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843-

2116, tjg100@tamu.edu  
3. Natalie Gomez, former undergraduate research scholar, Texas A&M University, 2116 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843-

2116, gomeznatalie31@tamu.edu  
32 

 

Becoming a Global Citizen: Belief vs. Action 
 

G. Wingenbach1, T. Graham2, N. Gomez3 
 

 
Article History 
Received: August 24, 2022 
Accepted: January 18, 2023 
Published: January 25, 2023 
 
 
Keywords 
intercultural competencies; 
international knowledge; 
transformative learning  

Abstract 
Postsecondary institutional mission statements include goals of 
preparing students to become global citizens. Transformative learning 
theory is central to global citizenship education (GCE). Many 
postsecondary institutions provide GCE initiatives through the global 
competencies approach, which includes self-awareness in intercultural 
encounters, communications, and general knowledge about world issues. 
The purpose of this study was to explore perceptions of global citizenship 
and general knowledge of international food and agriculture issues. A 
cross-sectional design and random samples of university members 
provided data. Differences in perceptions of global civic engagement 
were found; faculty members were significantly more globally engaged. 
Graduate students had significantly more awareness of being global 
citizens. Respondents were unknowledgeable about international food 
and agriculture. Transformative learning and GCE may be incorporated 
into postsecondary education by using disorienting dilemmas to promote 
critical self-examination of worldviews. To enliven university missions of 
preparing global citizens, we must encourage meaningful actions from 
local to global levels. 



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Introduction and Problem Statement 
 
Most postsecondary institutional mission statements include goals of preparing students to 
become global citizens. Increased knowledge about food production could improve 
understanding of global food security issues. Ideally, college students studying agriculture 
should know how international issues affect food security (Francis et al., 2019). Realistically, 
students are unknowledgeable about such issues. Morales et al. (2017) found university 
students lacked general knowledge about food and agriculture; only 4% achieved minimally 
satisfactory test scores (12/20 correct = 60% correct). Comparable results were found by 
Moriba et al. (2012), Moriba and Edwards (2015), and Wingenbach et al. (2003). 
 
We need leaders who understand the interconnectedness of food systems to address food 
security issues (Heinert & Roberts, 2016). International issues need to be taught in 
postsecondary education to prepare students for the global market (Zúñiga et al., 2015). Francis 
et al. (2019) concluded that university students cannot understand diverse economies or 
foreign production practices without studying issues affecting global food systems. 
 
This study concerns a southern U.S. university and its mission to develop global citizens in the 
context of food and agriculture. The university’s mission statement promotes principles of 
global citizenship among its students, faculty, and staff. We sought to determine if these ideals 
were evident by assessing university members’ perceptions of global citizenship and their 
general knowledge of international issues related to food and agriculture. 
 

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework 
 
Transformative learning theory (Mezirow, 1991) is central to global citizenship education (GCE). 
Transformative learning “is the process of effecting change in a frame of reference” (Mezirow, 
1997, p. 5). It occurs when we try to make sense of disorienting dilemmas (psychological, 
convictional, or behavioral) that challenge our assumptions. Through critical self-examination of 
perspectives, new information or experience contrasts with previous frames of reference 
(knowledge and/or emotional elements). We reject ideas misaligning with our assumptions, or 
we incorporate new information into pre-existing frames to create new meaning (i.e., learning), 
thereby changing our worldviews. Critical self-reflection of unfamiliar experiences leads to 
transformative learning (Brookfield, 2012). Thus, high quality GCE in postsecondary education 
should include disorienting dilemmas and planned reflection so students acquire new 
information/experience that challenges perspectives, foster new learning, and shift worldviews 
(locally and globally). 
 
GCE encompasses multidimensional, complex, interconnected, and competing concepts, which 
complicate its true origin and current practice. Citizenship typically refers to membership in a 
nation-state with rights and responsibilities to maintain that membership (Akkari & Maleq 
2020); we recognize some stateless societies exist, but this paper focuses on GCE in 
postsecondary education. Globalization implies differing nations consider and accept or adapt 



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other nation-states’ values and cultures, resulting in exchanges (economic, political, 
educational, technological) that benefit one or many nations. Conflicting national interests 
occur in the globalization process. 
 
Many postsecondary institutions provide GCE initiatives in one of two approaches: 1) the global 
competencies approach provides students with skills needed to compete in a global society; 
and/or 2) the global consciousness approach provides students with global orientation, 
empathy, and cultural sensitivity, stemming from humanistic values and assumptions (Dill, 
2013, as cited in Goren & Yemini, 2017). Our study used the global consciousness approach. 
That is, “global citizenship is understood as a multidimensional construct that hinges on the 
interrelated dimensions of social responsibility, global competence, and global civic 
engagement” (Morais & Ogden, 2011, p. 449), as known through coursework and campus 
experiences. 
 
Previous research (Braskamp et al., 2012; Chickering & Braskamp, 2009; Morais & Ogden, 2011) 
shows that one’s sense of social responsibility is based on interdependence and concern for 
others, society, and the environment. Fonseca et al. (2019) recommended including social 
responsibility across the curricula with courses involving social, scientific, and cultural activities 
because social responsibility influences community harmony. 
 
Global competence is understood as having an open mind, seeking to understand others’ 
cultural norms and expectations, and leveraging this knowledge to interact effectively with 
others (Morais & Ogden, 2011). Other global competency views include abilities such as living 
and working in multicultural societies (Kang et al., 2017), possessing universal awareness 
(Stankovska et al., 2019), and interacting and communicating in intercultural situations 
(Deardorff, 2006). Regardless of definition, most include aspects of self-awareness in 
intercultural encounters, communications, and general knowledge about world issues and 
events. Many postsecondary programs seek to increase global competence through short- and 
long-term education abroad, but some were realized in intercultural online class projects at U.S. 
and Korean universities (Kang et al., 2017). Thus, GCE is not confined to physical experiences 
but might be gained in non-travel experiences. 
 
Global civic engagement is when one recognizes and responds to local or global issues with 
actions such as volunteerism and community participation (Morais & Ogden, 2011). Global civic 
engagement is not one’s perceived global competence (ideals) but one’s actions and behaviors 
toward those ideals. Engagement could be through local civic actions with global intent, such as 
buying fair trade products that affect global markets. Service-learning courses and volunteerism 
provide common forms of civic engagement (Rossi et al., 2016). Some research shows limited 
volunteerism is common among young people who lack strong organizational affiliations (Hyde 
et al., 2014; Pozzi et al., 2019). 
 
Employers actively seek students with global competencies (Rampasso et al., 2020). Employees 
with global perspectives are especially needed in the food and agriculture industry (Rampasso 
et al., 2020; Wolff et al., 2018). The UN Sustainable Development Goals highlighted food 



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security, responsible consumption, and food production as necessary parts of future food 
systems to feed 9 billion by 2050 (King et al., 2017). Beyond increased food demand and 
resource use, we will be threatened with land degradation, desertification, altered carbon, 
nitrogen, and water cycles (Steffen et al., 2015, as cited in Wolff et al., 2018). 
 
Knowledge influences perception. Our perceptions of being global citizens are shaped partly by 
our knowledge of international issues. Morales et al. (2017) found U.S. and Latin American 
students lacked general knowledge of international food and agriculture issues, affirming 
earlier studies (Moriba & Edwards, 2015; Wingenbach et al., 2003). Morales et al. (2017) and 
Moriba and Edwards (2015) recommended internationalizing university education, such as 
adding a global component to the undergraduate curriculum, which might improve general 
knowledge of international issues. We believed that general knowledge of international food 
and agriculture issues may differentiate by selected demographics such as college (e.g., 
agriculture vs. others). 
 
Fostering values of global citizenship is central to many universities’ mission statements (Zúñiga 
et al., 2015) and GCE efforts. However, we do not know what should be included as a global 
component in undergraduate education or if GCE produces transformative learning without 
assessing current perceptions of global citizenship and general knowledge of international food 
and agriculture issues. 
 

Purpose 
 
The purpose of this study was to explore perceptions of global citizenship and general 
knowledge of international food and agriculture issues. The objectives were to:  
1. Assess perceptions of global citizenship. 
2. Evaluate general knowledge of international issues related to food and agriculture. 
3. Determine if differences existed in perception or knowledge when compared by selected 

demographics. 
 

Methods 
 
A descriptive cross-sectional design (Creswell, 2005; Field, 2000) was used to collect 
quantitative data. The target population (N ≈ 75,000) represented members at Texas A&M 
University in spring 2021. The accessible population (n = 4,100) included students (n = 3,150) 
enrolled in one of 75 courses with global or international attributes and faculty and staff (n = 
950) associated with those courses. All courses were accessed through the university’s private 
online advising system. Stratified random samples were drawn using Dillman et al.’s (2009) 
methods for deriving probability samples after university ethics review board approval (i.e., 
IRB2020-1445M). A sample of 351 would represent 4,100; we rounded the sample to 400. 
Notices were sent three times via the Qualtrics platform. Student response rate was 32%. 
Faculty and staff response was 6%. 
 



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Total responses were 240, reduced to 184 because of partial or incomplete data. According to 
Dillman et al. (2009), sampling and nonresponse error are two of four possible sources of error 
in survey research. We used Lindner and Wingenbach’s (2002) method to compare early vs. late 
respondents. No significant differences in summed general knowledge existed between early 
(M = 9.06, SD = 2.29) and late (M = 9.59, SD = 2.43) respondents; t(182) = -1.50, p = .14. General 
knowledge of international agriculture is indicative of nonrespondents. 
 
The research instrument had three sections. The global citizenship scale (GCS; Morais & Ogden, 
2011) has 20 statements. Our version of the GCS was edited to remove ambiguity, redundancy, 
and double-barreled items. Respondents rated perceptions of global citizenship using a 6-point 
Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree … 6 = strongly agree). Negatively worded statements 
were reverse coded. Post-hoc reliability tests revealed reliable Cronbach’s coefficient alphas for 
GCS dimensions, consistent (αs = 0.66 – 0.85) with others (Morais & Ogden, 2011; Morales et 
al., 2017). Individual statements for social responsibility, global competence, and global civic 
engagement produced GCS dimension indices. Faculty and staff response was minimal, which 
limits the applicability of their results. 
 
General knowledge of international food and agriculture issues (20 questions) was measured 
with modified versions of international agricultural instruments developed by Wingenbach et 
al. (2003), Hurst (2013), Moriba and Edwards (2015), and Morales et al. (2017). Some questions 
were outdated; those were replaced with current issues reported in content-related media 
(e.g., online news and popular press). Questions had four response choices (one correct 
answer). Knowledge questions were not specific to one field but a range of topics that might be 
discussed across the university. Correct and incorrect responses were coded as dichotomous 
data (0 = incorrect, 1 = correct). 
 
The Kuder-Richardson 20 (KR20) formula test produced a reliability coefficient of 0.33 for the 
general knowledge section. Low reliability was attributed to item singularity, difficulty, and 
discrimination (Frisbie, 1988). Five knowledge questions were very difficult (P < 30%) and three 
were very easy (P > 70%) according to Musa et al. (2018) and Pande et al. (2013). When KR20 
scores are less than .60 (Ursachi et al., 2015), caution is necessary. General knowledge of 
international food and agriculture issues reported herein represents this study’s respondents 
only and should not be generalized beyond that group. Despite low reliability of the general 
knowledge portion, we included those questions and responses for comparative purposes to 
previous studies (Hurst, 2013; Morales et al., 2017; Moriba & Edwards, 2015; Wingenbach et 
al., 2003) and because knowledge influences perception. Hence, we remain in the belief that 
general knowledge of international food and agriculture issues in this study may be associated 
with perceptions of being global citizens. 
 
Several demographic questions were included to describe the respondent set. Descriptive 
analyses were used to report group data. Inferential statistics (ANOVA, t-test) were conducted 
with a-priori 0.05 levels to determine if significant differences existed in perceptions of global 
citizenship or knowledge when compared by selected demographics. 
 



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Findings 
 
Participants (N = 184) were categorized by group, sex, race/ethnicity, and college. They were 
characterized as undergraduates (59%), female (55%), and white (67%), enrolled in sciences and 
engineering (30%) during spring 2021 (Table 1). 
 
Table 1 

Frequencies for Demographic Variables (N = 184) 

Variables Categories f % 
Groups Undergraduate students 108 58.7 

Staff member 39 21.2 
Graduate students 20 10.9 
Faculty member 17 9.2 

Sex Female 101 54.9 
Male 81 44.0 

Race/Ethnicity White 123 66.9 
Hispanic 32 17.4 
Othersa 29 15.8 

Colleges Sciences/Engineeringb 56 30.4 
Agriculture 52 28.3 
Other Collegesc 46 25.0 
Liberal Arts 28 15.2 

Note. Frequencies may not equal 100% because of missing data. aIncludes black (n = 5), Asian 
(n = 11), and others (n = 13). bIncludes sciences (n = 13) and health sciences (n = 13); cIncludes 
business (n = 14), education (n = 9), and others (n = 23). 

 
Respondents strongly agreed (M = 4.51-5.50) with global competency statements about 
communicating with others, adapting behavior when interacting with other cultures, and 
expressing views about pressing global problems to others (Table 2). They disagreed (M = 1.51-
2.50) with social responsibility statements about global justice and disparities (people around 
the world get the punishment they deserve, and people around the world get what they 
deserve). Their disagreement (M = 2.51-3.50) with action-oriented global civic engagement 
statements (e.g., In the next 6 months, I will…) could have been confounded by the novel 
coronavirus (COVID-19) restrictions during data collection. Some respondents misinterpreted 
action statements as requiring contact, although it was not implied (i.e., online interactions 
were possible). 
 
  



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Table 2 

Descriptive Statistics for Perceptions of Global Citizenship 

Statements GCS n M* SD 
I communicate with others from different cultures. GC 183 4.80 1.09 
I adapt my behavior when interacting with other cultures. GC 182 4.76 .97 
I adapt my communication style to others’ cultural backgrounds. GC 184 4.53 1.11 
I am comfortable expressing my views about pressing global 

problems to others. 
GC 182 4.51 1.22 

I can get others to care about global problems that concern me. GC 184 4.16 1.10 
I am informed about current international issues. GC 184 3.94 1.18 
I can develop a plan to solve a social problem. GC 184 3.82 1.07 
I know how to solve some of the world’s worst problems. GC 182 2.90 1.29 
When possible, I buy fair-trade or locally grown products. GCE 184 4.21 1.27 
I boycott brands that harm marginalized people or places. GCE 183 3.98 1.32 
I buy brands that are good stewards of marginalized people and 

places. 
GCE 184 3.86 1.18 

I express my concerns about global issues on social media. GCE 181 3.18 1.69 
In the next 6 months, I will participate in a campus forum, music, or 

other event where people express their views about global 
problems.a 

GCE 184 3.12 1.51 

Within 6 months, I will work informally to solve a global 
humanitarian issue.a 

GCE 184 3.11 1.34 

In the next 6 months, I will get involved with a global humanitarian 
organization or project.a 

GCE 184 3.02 1.43 

In the next 6 months, I will volunteer to help individuals abroad.a GCE 184 2.95 1.39 
Within 6 months, I will contact someone in government to seek 

public action on global issues.a 
GCE 184 2.74 1.45 

It is okay if some have more opportunities than others.b SR 184 3.36 1.32 
I think most people around the world get what they deserve.b SR 183 2.20 1.16 
I think people around the world get the punishment they deserve.b SR 179 2.13 1.11 
Note. GCS Dimensions: GC = Global Competence (self-awareness; intercultural 
communication; global knowledge); GCE = Global Civic Engagement (involvement in civic 
organizations; political voice; global civic activism); SR = Social Responsibility (global justice 
and disparities). *Scales ranged from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (6). aData were 
collected during COVID-19 restrictions; some statements may have been misinterpreted as 
actions requiring close contact during data collection. bDenotes negatively worded 
statements (Morais & Ogden, 2011). 

 
General knowledge (20 items) of international issues related to food and agriculture resulted in 
a mean correct score of 9.28 (SD = 2.36). Based on a normal distribution, minimal satisfactory 
knowledge (12 points = 60% correct) was achieved within two standard deviations for ~18% of 
respondents (n = 33). Minimally satisfactory knowledge ranged from 13% of undergraduates (n 



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= 14), to 21% of staff (n = 8), 25% of graduate students (n = 5), and 35% of faculty (n = 6). 
Respondents were most knowledgeable (correct responses in brackets in Table 3) about “The 
[Saharan] desert is the world’s largest hot desert” and “Economic strength and well-being of a 
country can be measured by [Gross Domestic Product, annual growth rate, and life 
expectancy].” 
 
Table 3 

Frequencies for Correct Knowledge of International Issues (N = 184) 

Questions f %a 
The [Sahara] desert is the world’s largest hot desert. 167 90.8b 
Economic strength and well-being of a country can be measured by [Gross 

Domestic Product, annual growth rate, and life expectancy]. 
156 84.8b 

In 2018, China was the world’s leading producer of [rice]. 135 73.4b 
[Social Media] has the most weekly users worldwide. 124 67.4 
[Wood] is the primary household fuel for low-income groups in Latin America. 115 62.5 
Projected world population for 2050 shows most growth in [Asia & Oceania]. 106 57.6 
Who carries out most of the field work on an African farm? [Women] 102 55.4 
[China] is the world’s leading producer of pork.  100 54.4 
[Chinese, Spanish, English, Arabic] are the four most spoken languages 

worldwide. 
98 53.3 

[Rice] is the basic cereal grain for more than half of the world’s population. 86 46.7 
[France, Ireland, Italy, Sweden] are part of the European Union. 81 44.0 
Where would you find a hand-dug underground irrigation system called a 

Qanat that extends from mountains to fields to plains? [Middle East] 
72 39.1 

Worldwide population will be about [10] billion by 2050. 70 38.0 
[Proteins] are most lacking nutrient in the diets of the world’s population. 70 38.0 
Which country is the largest producer of tea in the world? [China] 66 35.9 
Food production needs to increase [60%] to meet global demand in 2050. 53 28.8c 
Which food sector uses a greater variety of biological diversity than the other 

sectors? [Capture fisheries] 
36 19.6c 

In East Africa, it is expected that everyone will [shake hands] upon greeting 
and departure from meetings.  

36 19.6c 

As of 2018, [12%] of the world’s population suffered from chronic hunger. 25 13.6c 
Although large land areas are brought into cultivation worldwide annually, 

large amounts are also rendered useless or are reduced in agricultural 
capacity because of [lack of sufficient farm labor]. 

10 5.4c 

Note. Frequencies may not equal 100% because of missing data. Correct answers are in 
brackets. aOverall item difficulty. bItem was very easy (P > 70%). cItem was very difficult (P < 
30%). 

 
Significant differences in perceptions of global citizenship existed when compared by group 
status (Table 4). Games-Howell post-hoc analyses showed faculty members perceived global 



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civic engagement scores (M = 34.53, SD = 7.66) were significantly greater (p < 0.02) than were 
staff members’ scores (M = 27.97, SD = 8.78), F(2,181) = 3.42, p = 0.02. A medium (η² = 0.12) 
effect size (Cohen, 1992) was detected. No significant differences were found in when 
compared by race/ethnicity, college, or sex. 
 
Table 4 

ANOVA Results for Global Citizenship Dimensions by Group Status 

Dimensions Groups n M SD F p η² 
Social 
Responsibilitya 

Undergraduates 108 12.81 2.83 2.09 .10  
Graduates 20 14.45 2.78    
Faculty 17 12.88 3.39    
Staff 39 13.49 2.79    
Total 184 13.14 2.89    

Global 
Competenceb 

Undergraduates 108 33.16 5.35 1.69 .17  
Graduates 20 35.60 4.81    
Faculty 17 33.82 5.34    
Staff 39 32.08 7.41    
Total 184 33.26 5.83    

Global Civic 
Engagementc 

Undergraduates 108 29.62 8.29 3.42 .02* .12 
Graduates 20 33.05 8.04    
Faculty 17 34.53 7.66    
Staff 39 27.97 8.78    
Total 184 30.10 8.48    

Note. aScores ranged from 3-18. bScores ranged from 8-48. cScores ranged from 9-54. Effect 
sizes (Eta squared, η²) were based on Cohen’s (1992) guidelines for ANOVA tests; a medium 
(η² = 0.059) effect size was detected. 
* p < .05. 

 
No significant differences were found in general knowledge of international food and 
agriculture issues when compared by demographic variables. 
 

Conclusions, Discussion, and Recommendations 
 
A large southern U.S. university’s mission statement includes principles of global citizenship to 
be adopted and practiced among its students, faculty, and staff. Within the framework of 
transformative learning theory and the global consciousness approach to GCE, we found the 
university’s faculty members perceived themselves as being significantly more engaged as 
global citizens than did staff members. However, no differences existed when tested by the 
social responsibility or global competence dimensions. That faculty perceived themselves as 
having higher levels of global civic engagement was not surprising, given their greater 
opportunities (as opposed to staff members) for engagement in such activities. What was 



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surprising is that undergraduates did not view themselves as being more globally engaged. How 
can we explain this result? 
 
A disconnect exists between faculty members’ global civic engagement and their incorporation 
of it in classrooms or curricula. The disconnect might be resolved if educators 1) integrate their 
global civic engagement beliefs and actions into teaching activities, and 2) require students’ 
participation in global civic engagement activities in the classroom, across campus, or 
throughout their communities. The large southern U.S. university in this study, and others, can 
do much to enliven their mission statements through action, practice, and realistic global civic 
engagement. 
 
As is the case with many descriptive studies, we cannot determine with a high degree of 
specificity if students in courses with global or international attributes at a southern U.S. 
university did or did not acquire transformative learning in relation to becoming global citizens 
through coursework or experiences. No baseline of global perspective existed prior to the 
study. We intend to follow-up with respondents to ask about their global perspectives again; a 
beginning to measuring such attributes will take form. 
 
Based upon the literature and theoretical framework of this study, we postulate that if 
educators want to change students’ worldviews, then planning and incorporating disorienting 
dilemmas (psychological, convictional, or behavioral) into coursework and academic experience 
is needed. Christie et al. (2015) used a worldviews survey to 1) engage students in action 
research, 2) introduce disorienting dilemmas to spark discussion of differing belief systems, and 
3) encourage critical self-examination of mental models. The anonymous survey requires 
participants’ ratings of views on euthanasia, immigration quotas, genetics research, the death 
penalty, privatization, internet censorship, abortion, unemployment benefits, adoption by gay 
couples, and nuclear disarmament. Not all topics relate to international issues in food and 
agriculture, but several can be incorporated into many courses about globalization, markets, 
food production, labor, and government policies. 
 
Transformative learning and GCE can be purposefully planned and incorporated into 
postsecondary education. When administered effectively, educators will help students make 
critical connections between belief and action in becoming global citizens. We recommend 
using Christie et al.’s (2015) worldviews survey to initiate disorienting dilemmas that lead to 
transformative learning in postsecondary GCE. Doing so increases probabilities of changing 
students’ awareness of values and beliefs, while recognizing that opposing values and beliefs 
can co-exist in society. Finding common ground on disorienting dilemmas is the first step to 
effecting changes in one’s worldviews. 
 
Global civic engagement requires demonstrating or acquiring a predisposition to act, to do 
something, that addresses local or global issues outside one’s environment. “Volunteerism, 
political activism, and community participation” (Morais & Ogden, 2011, p. 448) can be 
incorporated into coursework, especially into courses about food security or social justice 
issues. Service-learning courses provide entry into civic engagement (Barrett & Zani, 2015; Rossi 



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et al., 2016) without the need to travel abroad. Volunteering at food pantries or other social 
programs helps students become engaged locally, which may foster global civic engagement. 
The university provides many functions, among them is a place where students gain a sense of 
community, a purpose of being and affiliation. Students gain feelings of organizational 
affiliation (Ascoli & Pavolini, 2017; Hyde et al., 2014; Meneghini et al., 2016, Pozzi et al., 2019) 
through volunteerism and service-learning projects. GCE and global citizenship skills are 
enhanced when postsecondary institutions and civic organizations partner to help students 
practice global citizenship principles. 
 
We believe undergraduates were naïve idealists, perceiving themselves as global citizens but 
lacking demonstrable knowledge or actions to justify such worldviews. They talked the talk but 
didn’t walk the walk. This situation might be due to the social distancing restrictions during the 
COVID-19 pandemic when these data were collected. However, we know that some gaps 
between perception and action can be narrowed with virtual exchange programs (Kang et al., 
2017). The virtual exchange program needs more research to determine if GCE produces 
meaningful changes in worldviews. 
 
Measuring general knowledge of international issues related to food and agriculture remains a 
mystery in postsecondary education, as found in our and previous studies (Hurst, 2013; Morales 
et al., 2017; Moriba & Edwards, 2015; Wingenbach et al., 2003). Knowledge is critical to 
attaining global competencies, yet less than one in five undergraduates and only one-fourth of 
graduate students achieved passing scores (i.e., >60% correct) in the general knowledge test. 
While nominally better, about one-third of faculty and one-fifth of staff achieved passing 
scores, yet those results were not significantly greater than students’ marks. Of note was the 
faculty perception of being informed about current international issues, which was 
unsupported by their lower-than-expected general knowledge score. Considering the emphasis 
placed on developing globally competent students, faculty, and staff in higher education, much 
work remains in obtaining evidence to support such ideals. 
 
Such evidence may be found through studies of employers’ needs for global-ready citizens in 
workplace settings. Harder et al. (2015) found employers at a University of Florida career expo 
stressed the importance of global competencies as skills, knowledge, and perspectives. Greater 
numbers of students must increase their general knowledge of international food and 
agriculture issues. The same might be true for postsecondary educators and staff; however, our 
results are limited by low response rates among faculty and staff. Still, we believe all 
postsecondary institution members should increase their general knowledge of international 
issues, especially those affecting future global food production, if they wish to achieve changed 
worldviews consistent with being global citizens. 
 
Some progress is being made to improve students’ general knowledge of international issues 
and agricultural facts. Morales et al. (2017) found only 4% of university students passed the 
knowledge test, while Wingenbach et al. (2003) found about 5% had passed a similar test. 
Moriba and Edwards (2015) found about 19% had passed the general knowledge test, but that 
result came from students who had participated in one of three international dimension 



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undergraduate courses at Oklahoma State University. Students achieved statistically significant, 
yet small gains in general knowledge after one semester of studying emerging global challenges 
and trends. More research is needed to determine better measures of the general knowledge 
of international issues in food and agriculture, especially the knowledge gained through specific 
coursework, campus activities, or international study/work abroad experiences. 
 
Wingenbach et al. (2003) suggested students’ lack of general knowledge of international issues 
related to food and agriculture was from lacking connections between knowledge and 
application to international contexts or situations. Wingenbach et al. (2003) mentioned that 
formal education had limited resources to expand students’ general knowledge of international 
issues related to food and agriculture; however, useful methods now exist in virtual study 
abroad programs. Many students supported the idea of learning more about international 
issues related to food and agriculture; however, when asked if they would take action to 
improve their knowledge of international issues related to food and agriculture, they were 
unlikely to do so. We think virtual international experiences may prove useful in expanding 
students’ general knowledge of international issues related to food and agriculture. More 
research is needed to support this claim. 
 
In the end, we found that developing global citizens requires actionable efforts from faculty, 
staff, and students to enliven their institutional mission statements. When purposeful actions 
match idealized beliefs about global citizenship, then worldviews can be changed, giving way to 
societal changes that align with truer definitions of a global society. 
 

Acknowledgements 
 
We thank participants at Texas A&M University for contributing to this study. We acknowledge 
Mikaela Seeger for making suggestions to the original manuscript. And we thank Advancements 
in Agricultural Development editors for assistance in preparing the final draft.  
 
Author Contributions: G. Wingenbach-conceptualization, methodology, validation, 
investigation, data curation, analysis, writing-original draft, review & editing, supervision; T. 
Graham-methodology, writing-original draft; N. Gomez-analysis, writing-original draft. 
 

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