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   Advancements in Agricultural Development 
  Volume 4, Issue 3, 2023 
  agdevresearch.org 

 

1. Newlin Humphrey, Graduate Assistant, Oklahoma State University, 547 Agricultural Hall, Stillwater, OK 74078, 
newlin.humphrey@okstate.edu,  https://orcid.org/0009-0005-6328-8333 

2. Lauren Lewis Cline, Assistant Professor of Agricultural Leadership, Oklahoma State University, 444 Agricultural Hall, 

Stillwater, OK 74078, lauren.l.cline@okstate.edu,  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4187-8122 
3. Bradley Coleman, Assistant Professor of Agricultural Education and Leadership, Oklahoma State University, 445 

Agricultural Hall, Stillwater, OK 74078, b.coleman@okstate.edu,  https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5981-5747 
 

29 

 

Leadership Competencies Developed During a Short-Term 
Domestic Study Tour: An Exploration of Participants’ 

Perceptions 
N. Humphrey1, L. Cline2, B. Coleman3 

 
 

Article History 
Received: March 22, 2023 
Accepted: July 17, 2023 
Published: July 27, 2023 
 
 
Keywords 
agricultural leadership development; 
global perspective; social capital; 
youth development  
  

Abstract 
As short-term study abroad tours seek to develop globally competent 
leaders within the agricultural industry, the rich diversity present within 
the United States has led to the inception of short-term domestic study 
tours. To improve how global leadership competencies are developed 
among adolescent participants, understanding competencies gained 
during short-term international and domestic cultural immersion trips is 
vital. This case study analysis sought to explore state FFA officer 
perceptions of leadership competencies developed through participation 
in the National FFA Organization’s International Leadership Seminar for 
State Officers (ILSSO) which pivoted to a domestic study tour for 2022. 
The findings indicate participants perceived agricultural exposure and 
networking with peers as the development of leadership competencies. 
Participants also expressed perspective shifts around agricultural 
production methods and varied cultural experiences in the state of 
California. Recommendations include designing leadership curriculum for 
both short-term abroad and domestic tours with a framework grounded 
in leadership theory and replicating this study to compare findings in 
various contexts. Similar studies should also be conducted to assess 
outcomes of leadership development programs designed by the National 
FFA Organization.  
 



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Introduction and Problem Statement 
 
Globalization is an integral component of the agricultural, food, fiber, and natural resources 
(AFNR) industry, increasing the need for developing leadership competencies within a global 
context (Deardorff, 2006; Landon et al., 2017). Specifically, there is a need to expose young 
people to global experiences within AFNR (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and 
Medicine [NASEM], 2021). Higher education institutions offer many opportunities for student 
participation in faculty-led, short-term study abroad (STSA) programs within the context of 
agriculture (Hendrickson, 2015; Vetter & Wingenbach, 2019). Many STSA programs available to 
students in agriculture are designed to develop cultural awareness, build understanding of 
social responsibilities to society, gain technical knowledge within various agricultural industries, 
and foster personal growth (Bunch et al., 2018; Roberts et al., 2019; Smith et al., 2013; Vetter & 
Wingenbach, 2019).  
 
With barriers such as finances or reservations about international travel preventing students 
from participating in STSA programs, it is questioned whether domestic study tours designed to 
meet the same objectives as a STSA produce similar meaningful outcomes (Gomez-Lanier, 
2017; Sobania & Braskamp, 2009). Traveling abroad is not always necessary for a cross-cultural 
experience, as increased diversity within the United States provides rich opportunities 
(Sobania & Braskamp, 2009). Promoting cultural understanding, expanding personal worldview, 
and gaining understanding in one’s field of study can also be accomplished through domestic 
experiences (Gomez-Lanier, 2017; Sobania & Braskamp, 2009). However, little literature exists 
exploring the development of leadership competencies during a short-term domestic study 
tour (Radford, 2020); therefore, the need exists to study these experiences. Further 
investigation of the educational outcomes of domestic study tours could provide evidence of 
their viability as an alternative to STSA that has fewer barriers. 
 

Conceptual Framework 
 
Two conceptual frameworks, social capital (Coleman, 1988) and global perspective (Hanvey, 
1982), were utilized inductively to illuminate meaning in the findings. Social capital refers to the 
resources and benefits we may receive from relationships within a social structure (Coleman, 
1988). Within social structures, social capital can be depicted among its three main forms: 
obligations and expectations (i.e., trustworthiness among members of the group), information 
channels (i.e., acquisition of information through social relations), and social norms (i.e., beliefs 
and standards that guide or constrain behaviors; Coleman, 1988). 
 
Hanvey (1982) outlined five dimensions of a global perspective that could be attained by young 
people through formal and informal education. These five dimensions include (a) perspective 
consciousness, (b) ‘state of the planet’ awareness, (c) cross-cultural awareness, (d) knowledge 
of global dynamics, and (e) awareness of choices (Hanvey, 1982). Cross-cultural awareness is 
the ability to acknowledge and empathize with diverse ideas and practices from around the 
globe, and also recognize how the ideas and norms of one’s own society may compare and be 
viewed by another (Hanvey, 1982). It has been found that the development of social capital is 



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one primary motivator for students to engage in study abroad experiences, along with career 
preparation and global knowledge development (Roberts et al., 2020). Within a short-term 
domestic study tour, participants value the connections made with fellow participants to better 
develop themselves personally and professionally creating a high-impact learning experience 
(Homeyer et al., 2017). Therefore, the social capital and global perspective frameworks were 
selected as lenses through which we investigated this study to determine if similar outcomes 
hold true in domestic experiences in agricultural settings. Moreover, the need for AFNR 
workforce prospects to participate in experiences that build social networks, global 
perspectives, and other leadership skills has been emphasized by industry stakeholders and 
university faculty (NASEM, 2021).  
 

Purpose 
 
Each year the National FFA Organization hosts an International Leadership Seminar for State 
Officers (ILSSO) abroad, which is attended by state FFA officers. Participants of ILSSO will be 
able to demonstrate knowledge of global values and diversity, create a plan to articulate and 
interpret learning to constituents, and formulate empathy and awareness of domestic and 
global conditions through a facilitated immersion experience. The 2022 ILSSO experience was 
planned to take place in Costa Rica in January. However, due to COVID-19 travel restrictions, 
the destination of the trip pivoted domestically to California, resulting in a short-term domestic 
study tour in lieu of traveling abroad for that year. For 10 days, participants traveled to various 
agricultural operations across the state of California, met with industry leaders, and engaged in 
facilitated reflection at the end of each evening with a small group of fellow participants. The 
purpose of this study was to explore participants’ perceptions of leadership competencies 
developed through participation in a short-term domestic study tour, a modification of ILSSO. 
One research question guided the investigation: What leadership competencies did participants 
perceive they developed through the ILSSO experience?  
 

Methods 
 
The qualitative case study approach was selected for this study (Creswell, 2013; Stake, 1995; 
Yin, 2009). This single case was bound by time, location, and participants of the 2022 ILSSO 
experience. When studying this case, the researchers focused on the participants’ perceived 
leadership competencies developed as a result of participating in the ILSSO experience.    
 
Participants   
Purposive sampling was used to identify study participants (Creswell, 2013), who were college-
aged students elected to serve as state FFA officers within their respective states and attended 
ILSSO in January 2022 (N = 46). Consent and assent were obtained for 42 participants. The 
research participants represented 17 U.S. states. A majority of the participants self-identified as 
female (n = 28), with the remaining self-identifying as male (n = 14).  
 
 



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Data Collection and Analysis   
Case study research requires an in-depth analysis of the case through the inclusion of several 
sources of data for analysis and triangulation (Creswell, 2013; Stake, 1995). Sources of data 
included (a) pre-experience reflection statements, (b) post-experience reflection statements, (c) 
deferred post-experience focus group interviews, (d) researcher observations, (e) captioned 
photos, and (f) trip artifacts and documents. Forty- two participants completed pre- and post-
experience statements which were hand-written by participants and transcribed electronically 
by the researchers. Six focus group interviews occurred three months post-experience via Zoom 
with 18 participants total. Auto-generated transcripts via Zoom were verified by the 
researchers. Observations were conducted by one researcher who attended the experience and 
kept journal notes. Captioned photos were collected via Qualtrics submission at the end of the 
experience. Primary data (pre- and post-experience statements and focus groups) were 
analyzed using the constant comparative method (Corbin & Strauss, 2015). The process began 
with open coding, where line-by-line analysis was conducted by one researcher to establish a 
set of open codes (Miles & Huberman, 1994). The open codes were then discussed, negotiated, 
and condensed, by the research team. All other sources of data were used for data 
triangulation. Finally, four themes were confirmed by the researchers.   
 
Rigor, Trustworthiness, and Researcher Reflexivity   
The considerations for establishing qualitative rigor and trustworthiness recommended by 
Lincoln and Guba (1985) were used: (a) credibility, (b) confirmability, (c) dependability, and (d) 
transferability. Specific practices included researcher and data triangulation (Creswell, 2013), 
researcher audit trailing, multiple data checks that led to inter-coder agreement (Lincoln & 
Guba, 1985), reflective bracketing to minimize researcher biases (Tufford & Newman, 2010), 
the inclusion of reflexive statements (Ary et al., 2010; Tracy, 2010), and the presentation of rich 
data descriptions (Stake, 1978). To accurately present the findings of this study, biases, context, 
and the experience must be properly acknowledged to uphold the sincerity and quality of 
research (Tracy, 2010). Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the ILSSO experience pivoted from 
abroad to a domestic experience and encountered many unforeseen itinerary changes during 
the trip. As a result, participants in this study are not reflective of the entirety of ILSSO 
participants since the program’s inception. Also, the lack of context available with the 
qualitative content analysis of pre- and post-trip statements limited the depth of understanding 
and interpretation of meaning of participants’ experiences. Each of the three members of the 
research team participated in an abroad ILSSO experience previously as student participants 
and were familiar with the program. One faculty member of the research team was invited by 
the National FFA Organization to lead the 2022 ILSSO experience as a trip chaperone.  
 

Findings 
 
Four emergent themes were revealed through the data related to perceived leadership 
competencies developed during the ILSSO short-term domestic study tour: (a) expanded 
relationships with fellow participants, (b) conflation of gained industry and technical exposure 



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as a leadership competency, (c) changed perspectives on agricultural production methods, and 
(d) varied perspectives of cultural experiences.   
 
Theme #1: Expanded Relationships with Fellow Participants    
Participants expressed their disappointment when the location of the trip moved from Costa 
Rica to California but continued to see it as an opportunity for expansion of relationships with 
fellow participants. Many of the National FFA Organization’s largest events for state FFA 
officers were cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic; as a result, participants wanted to 
attend ILSSO because they missed out on the ability to interact and network with each other 
during the year. Participants expressed networking with other state FFA officers is mutually 
beneficial as they continue involvement in the National FFA Organization, grow in their 
collegiate careers, and eventually move into the professional world. One participant 
summarized the sentiments communicated by many others writing, “I had the chance to 
network with industry professionals and other state officers and create those lifelong 
connections.” Having conversations and building friendships with fellow state FFA officers was 
one of participants’ biggest takeaways from the trip. When discussing the most impactful 
learning experiences during ILSSO in focus groups, one participant, Nick, stated, “Just the 
friendships and the relationships really laid the groundwork to have some really vulnerable but 
intentional and really fulfilling conversations.” Another participant, Josh, echoed a sentiment 
shared by most participants: 

I think for me personally, the most impactful learning experience came from 
conversations with people whether that was the other individuals on the trip or the 
producers we met and just kind of realizing impact can come from all directions. 

 
Three months after the ILSSO experience participants in focus groups expressed they were 
continuing to maintain the friendships developed in California through social media and phone 
calls. Jessica felt supported by her fellow participants even after the trip and shared her 
experience by saying, “My dad passed away unexpectedly [after ILSSO] and almost everyone 
reached out to me at some point … It solidified that making those connections that will last 
forever is just one of the best feelings in the world.” 
 
Small group discussions facilitated by the adult chaperones and informal conversations were 
most valued by participants and seen as opportunities to develop meaningful relationships with 
one another and process information learned on the trip together. However, one participant 
believed more intentional facilitated discussions could have enriched and brought more 
meaning to the experience. Shania wrote: 

Personally, I would have valued some more intense debriefings in small group 
with deeper curriculum. I believe there was room for a deeper dive into the 
issues facing the industry and discussing the relevance of the tours in small 
group. Personally, I did a lot of self-reflection to bring those things to fruition, 
but could have been pushed more by facilitators in the future. 
 

There was an apparent expectation of networking, reflecting on the experience with fellow 
state FFA officers, and interpersonal discovery in relation to small group discussions.  



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Theme #2: Conflation of Gained Industry and Technical Exposure as a Leadership 
Competency   
Through farm tours in California, participants were exposed to a variety of agricultural 
operations and production methods such as caviar and oyster farms, wineries, orchards, cattle 
feedlots, and operations centered around organic, sustainable, and regenerative practices. 
Participants shared they became more educated on California agricultural issues and gained 
valuable experience by observing various agricultural practices and engaging with producers as 
they shared production methodology. By having the opportunity to interact with the Secretary 
of Agriculture for the state of California, participants learned how public policy influences 
agriculture through regulatory action. One participant wrote, “I also learned that policy plays a 
huge role in the operations of farms in the United States.” Participants hoped to apply the new 
knowledge they gained when returning home. Josh said, “I have that raw information that I can 
take and apply and ask intelligent questions or be able to hopefully learn more about that side 
of the industry [in the future].”  
 
While intelligence is often a characteristic of a leader, leadership development programs do not 
focus on it as a skill to be developed. Developing a foundational perspective of domestic 
perspectives in agriculture is one of the main objectives of the ILSSO experience, the program is 
marketed more widely as a leadership development opportunity for the premiere leaders of 
the National FFA Organization. With that in consideration, when discussing what leadership 
competencies participants believed they developed and if the trip had influenced their 
approach to leadership, participants stated the ILSSO experience did not change their approach 
to leadership or the way they viewed themselves as leaders. As Crystal said, “I wouldn’t say it’s 
necessarily changed my approach to leadership.” Nick echoed her statement by saying, “It 
hasn’t really altered my leadership style or how I see myself as a leader.” One participant 
expressed not being able to understand why leadership would be a focal point of ILSSO. Peter 
communicated this sentiment by stating:    

I just viewed ILSSO as more of an advocate training and industry development 
and agricultural development of knowledge … I just don’t see the need to 
necessarily draw leadership back into it time and time again. [Sic] even thinking 
about the international experience, [sic] if we’re trying to develop leaders on this 
trip [sic] or develop leadership competencies, [sic] and you’re touring different 
places and you have adult leaders, how exactly are you exemplifying leadership 
just by listening, which all state officers should be good at, at that point? 
 

For most of the participants, acquisition of agricultural knowledge and technical exposure was 
most often referred to when asked to describe the leadership learning that occurred during 
ILSSO, rather than literature-based leadership competencies. While leadership competencies 
were alluded to throughout responses, participants did not make the clear connection that 
what was being described was leadership development. 
 
Theme #3: Changed Perspectives on Agricultural Production Methods   
Most frequently referenced in post-trip questionnaires, many participants expressed a shift in 
perspective around organic and alternative production methods. Many participants shared 



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their knowledge of agriculture was limited to conventional production methods and shared that 
the ILSSO experience allowed them to develop open-mindedness toward organic farming and 
other sustainable practices as a result of interacting with the producers. Harriet wrote, “In my 
agricultural background, we are always told that conventional farming is the only way to go. 
Seeing the feasibility of these practices opens up a whole new world.” Similarly, one participant 
wrote: 

We saw a lot of different agricultural operations on the trip and each were 
unique. While phrases like “organic” and “all natural” may have made me roll my 
eyes before, I now realize that these are not bad things, and they have a place in 
our market.  

 
Participants valued being able to hear the personal and passionate anecdotes from producers 
and better understand the “why” behind the choices of their operation practices. Stacey 
explained their newfound appreciation in this way: “Organic agriculture isn’t bad it’s just 
different, and there is a place for that. … The experience [sic] just gave me a way better 
perspective and understanding of [sic] why we have stuff like organic farming.” Other 
participants expressed excitement to share their newfound knowledge with others and 
hopefully influence others to change their perspectives on organic, sustainable, and 
regenerative production methods within their state and local communities. Philip shared:   

So when I came back [from ILSSO] a lot of those one sided farmers asked me 
questions, and so I was able to implement [sic] that open mindset [sic] and 
advocate for [organic and regenerative practices] and change some of their 
perspectives and help them understand why people choose that.   
  

Many participants described ILSSO as an eye-opening experience forcing them out of their 
comfort zones. In post-trip reflective statements, most participants communicated changed 
perspectives and open-mindedness, and when expanded upon in focus groups, these 
sentiments related back to a new appreciation and understanding of non-traditional 
agricultural production methods. Sterling shared in focus groups, “I honestly left the trip with a 
whole new perspective on organic farming.” Another participant wrote, “I learned that there is 
a place for farming practices I don't have at home (conventional, biodynamic, etc.) I learned 
that it is okay if opinions shift [sic] and being curious is extremely important.” Communicating 
these changed perspectives to peers and community members in participants’ home states as 
well as a desire to advocate for non-traditional production methods emerged as key takeaways 
for most participants.  
 
Theme #4: Varied Perspectives of Cultural Experiences   
When the trip location was moved to California, participants still expected to experience a new 
culture in a new area of the United States. In both the pre- and post-trip questionnaires, 
participants admitted they previously had a negative perception of the state of California as a 
whole. After attending ILSSO, participants expressed developing respect for the state of 
California. They liked being able to share their experiences and refute any negative stereotypes 
of California they feel FFA members and producers may have back in their home states. Lisa 
wrote, “I was able to break that thought that California is crazy and all hippies, and I can't wait 



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to share what I learned to everyone back home.” Another participant echoed that sentiment by 
writing, “I came in with preconceived notions about California after hearing from others how 
‘bad’ it was.”  
 
However, some participants expressed a desire to be immersed in California culture and felt the 
trip did not provide those experiences. Maren said, “Learning about a different culture was 
something I was kind of expecting to learn a little bit more about and … [I wanted] to 
understand some more of the differences between California and [my state].” Jessie shared 
similar thoughts: “One thing I was looking forward to in Costa Rica is [sic] seeing the diversity in 
their culture and music, so I think finding different ways to experience the different cultures in 
California [would have been beneficial].”  
 
One participant believed other students would not gain any cultural competencies from going 
to California because it was no different than any other place in the United States. Peter 
shared, “If [National FFA] were to continue the domestic experience, they have to change it 
from being a cultural experience because it won’t be anything new to [state FFA officers].” 
 
Several participants also perceived a domestic experience to be more beneficial than an 
international trip because they felt it was easier to apply the new information regarding 
agricultural production methods because of the similar context. Aspen said:  

California has access to the same machinery, same technology, [sic] same 
regulations [sic]. … We probably would not have been able to apply as much 
knowledge as we were able to take from California, as we would have been able 
to take from Costa Rica.                    

 
Conclusions, Discussion, and Recommendations 

 
We explored the perceived leadership competencies developed by participants of ILSSO, a 
short-term domestic tour. The four emergent themes revealed participants’ takeaways from 
the experience. Students valued the social capital developed through participation in the 
experience and can build upon the relationships post-trip as resources for future goals and 
endeavors. Participants appreciated the networking opportunities on ILSSO and how these 
connections were perceived to be beneficial as they continue into college and the professional 
world. Students did not necessarily view ILSSO as a leadership development experience and 
often conflated the attainment of knowledge with leadership competency development. A 
disconnect between an intended outcome of the program, leadership competency 
development, and student perceptions was apparent. However, students did suggest ILSSO 
expanded their perceptions about the diversity of agricultural production methods in the 
industry, and it allowed them to build social capital via relationships formed with fellow 
participants (Coleman, 1988). Participants expressed an expansion of personal worldview 
related to agriculture and gained a technical understanding of the varying facets of the industry 
as a result of ILSSO (Bunch et al., 2018; Gomez-Lanier, 2017; Smith et al., 2013; Sobania & 
Braskamp, 2009; Roberts et al., 2019). Exposing participants to non-traditional agricultural 



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production methods allowed them to explore other facets of the AFNR industry through the 
tours and engagement with industry leaders to explore potential career opportunities Such 
experiences are critical in conveying awareness and shifting perspectives of the vast industry 
opportunities while participating in peer-to-peer engagement (Homeyer, 2017; NASEM, 2021).  
 
Finally, participants’ opinions of the domestic location for the trip and lack of cultural learning 
perhaps reveals U.S. culture was centered during the experience and not brought to light to 
generate more critical thought about cultural differences within the continent. Regarding cross-
cultural awareness, participants seemed to acknowledge and empathize with the diversity of 
agricultural practices and ideas they encountered; however, the failure to recognize cultural 
differences by centering United States culture during the experience kept them from 
considering external perceptions of their own norms (Hanvey, 1982). It appears there was a 
missed opportunity to expose participants to the vast micro-cultures within the United States 
and more specifically within the state of California. 
 
We recommend those hoping to lead similar short-term study abroad tours, whether domestic 
or abroad, design curriculum with a global leadership competency framework to better guide 
the learning experience as it relates to leadership development and cross-cultural awareness. 
Simply participating in international or domestic leadership experiences with some guided 
independent reflection and facilitated conversation may not be enough to ensure the 
development of cultural competence and global leadership competencies (Bunch et al., 2018).   
 
While this study explored perceived outcomes of a domestic experience, it is hard to know 
whether the findings would be different from an abroad ILSSO experience. It is encouraged that 
this study be replicated the next time ILSSO can travel outside the U.S. continent to compare 
findings in different contexts. If findings are similar, regardless of locale, creating domestic 
study tour experiences for students may be a viable way to create more accessible unique 
learning opportunities producing positive outcomes. Among agricultural students, there may 
also be an opportunity to utilize domestic study tour experiences reflective of cultural 
differences within the United States and diverse agricultural practices to create knowledge 
growth in students and allow participants to develop awareness surrounding industry 
opportunities and build relationships with fellow agriculturalists (NASEM, 2021) Future studies 
should be conducted to assess the leadership development outcomes of similar youth 
leadership development programs. 
 

Acknowledgements 
 
We thank the National FFA Organization for their support and assistance with this study. This 
study was funded through Oklahoma State University’s Ferguson College of Agriculture, 
including the OSU Agricultural Research/Ferguson College of Agriculture Undergraduate 
Research Scholars Program.  
 



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Author Contributions: N. Humphrey – data collection, data transcription and formal analysis, 
writing-original draft; L. Cline – instrument development, data collection, formal analysis, 
writing- review and editing; B. Coleman – conceptualization, instrument development, data 
collection, formal analysis, writing- review and editing 
 

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