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   Advancements in Agricultural Development 
  Volume 4, Issue 3, 2023 
  agdevresearch.org 

 

1. Kasey Harmon, Graduate Student, University of Nebraska, 143 Filley Hall, P.O. Box 830947, Lincoln, NE 68583, 

kaseyharmon99@gmail.com,  https://orcid.org/0009-0009-6794-1722 
2. Taylor Ruth, Assistant Professor, University of Tennessee, 201B Morgan Hall, 2621 Morgan Circle Drive, Knoxville, TN 

37996, truth2@utk.edu,  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5269-9154  
3. Bryan Reiling, Associate Professor of Animal Science, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, , ANSC C204a, UNL, 68583-0908, 

breiling2@unl.edu,  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5913-0614 
4. Nathan W. Conner, Professor of Agricultural Education, University of Nebraska-Lincoln 236 Filley Hall Lincoln, NE 68583-

0947, nconner2@unl.edu,  https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0063-4110 
5. Christopher T. Stripling, Professor and Department Head, University of Tennessee , 320 Morgan Hall, 2621 Morgan Circle 

Drive, Knoxville, TN 37996-4511, cstripli@utk.edu,  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5045-3492 
90 

 

Predicting Teachers’ Intent to use Inquiry-Based Learning in 
the Classroom After a Professional Development  

 
K. Harmon1, T. Ruth2, B. Reiling3, N. W. Conner4, C. T. Stripling5 

 
 

Article History 
Received: May 23, 2023 
Accepted: August 9, 2023 
Published: August 21, 2023 
 
 
Keywords 
Theory of Planned Behavior; science 
literacy; science proficiency 
  

Abstract 
In the United States, there is an increasing need for high school students 
to enhance their science proficiency. Inquiry-based learning (IBL) can 
serve as a teaching strategy to increase students’ science proficiency 
levels, but it is critical that teachers are equipped with the knowledge 
needed to teach IBL. In this study, we aimed to describe the impact that 
a professional development (PD) about integrating IBL into curricula has 
on science and agriscience teachers’ intent to use IBL. The theory of 
planned behavior, as well as confidence, guided this evaluation. A paper 
survey was distributed to the PD participants after the in-person part of 
a prolonged PD. Survey questions were related to respondents’ 
confidence, attitude, perceived behavioral control, subjective norms, and 
intent in using the IBL animal science concepts. Findings from this study 
indicate that teachers developed an increased confidence, possessed 
positive attitudes, were influenced by subjective norms, and felt that 
barriers could be controlled. However, attitude was the only significant 
predictor of intent to integrate the IBL animal science concepts. We 
recommend pursuing a follow-up with the teachers after implementation 
of the IBL lessons to gain a better understanding of the practicality of IBL 
in the classroom.   



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Introduction and Problem Statement 
 
Approximately half of all high school students in Tennessee (Tennessee Department of 
Education, 2022), and Nebraska are science proficient (Nebraska Department of Education, 
2022). As students graduate and pursue higher education or enter the workforce, it is 
important that they are science literate so they can effectively problem solve and make 
informed decisions (United States Department of Education [USDE], 2022; Zen, 1990). Science 
can be taught using inquiry-based learning which would help students enhance their critical 
thinking and science literacy skills (Warner & Myers, 2011). IBL prepares students to become 
productive citizens of society as they gain crucial skills such as problem solving, collaborating, 
analyzing information, and effective communication (Calalb, 2018; Savery, 2006).  

Students can enhance their science literacy (Zen, 1990) and foster their critical thinking and 
problem-solving skills through applying science to real-life contexts within career and technical 
education (CTE) (Pearson et al., 2013; Thoron & Myers, 2011; Thoron & Myers, 2012). Previous 
research alludes to teachers recognizing the value of IBL but do not have the appropriate 
instructional knowledge and skills to use IBL in their classroom (DiBiase & McDonald, 2015). 
Professional development is an effective method to change teacher’s attitudes (Guskey, 2002), 
and boost their confidence in their ability to use IBL (Kreifels et al., 2021; Thoron et al., 2011; 
Thoron & Myers, 2011). Prolonged PD programs over several months can be particularly useful 
in preparing teachers to integrate IBL into their classes (Kreifels et al., 2021). Therefore, the 
Science and Agricultural Academy was developed as a 12-month long PD program for science 
and agricultural teachers to learn how teach using IBL within the context of animal sciences. 
The PD program consisted of a 5-day, in-person training during the summer followed by 
continued support over the academic year as teachers integrated IBL into their classes. The 
purpose of this research was to describe the impact that the in-person PD program had on 
science and agriscience teachers' intent to use IBL during the following academic year. 

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework 
 
The theoretical framework used for this study was the theory of planned behavior (TPB) (Ajzen, 
1991). TPB was used to describe the impacts that an IBL PD has on science and agriscience 
teachers' intent to integrate IBL animal science concepts. Ajzen’s (2012) TPB model shown in 
Figure 1 emphasizes that a person’s behavioral intent is influenced by their attitude, subjective 
norms, and perceived behavioral control (Ajzen, 1991). Attitude is defined as how one feels 
toward a behavior and whether their perception of a behavior is advantageous (Ajzen, 1991). 
Performing a behavior due to social pressure from peers is subjective norm, and perceived 
behavioral control refers to how a person perceives they can perform or control a behavior 
(Ajzen, 1991). Specifically, favorable attitudes, subjective norms, and a high perceived 
behavioral control positively influence an individual’s intent to perform a behavior (Ajzen, 
1991).   

 



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Figure 1.  
 
Ajzen’s (1991) Theory of Planned Behavior Model  
 

 
 
Effective PD enables teachers to become more confident in modifying curriculum as they gain a 
better understanding of their content, evaluate their performance, and identify their student 
needs (Patton et al., 2015). Desimone’s (2009) suggested components of a PD were used to 
enhance the TPB variables including behavioral control, attitude, and subjective norms. Content 
focus is a prominent factor when improving teacher knowledge and skills (Desimone, 2009). 
The Science and Agricultural Academy is a multi-part PD consisting of targeting behavioral 
control factors by increasing teacher knowledge on creating and teaching IBL science content 
(Ferand et al., 2020) through an animal science perspective and providing materials needed to 
facilitate the lessons. Active learning components of a successful PD enable teachers to engage 
in experiential learning of lessons and activities (Desimone, 2009; Patton et al., 2015) that 
increases teachers’ ability to facilitate the content on their own (Garet et al., 2001). In this 
specific PD, teachers were given the opportunity to be active learners where they participated 
as students and in collaboration with peers to broaden their perspectives and enhance their 
behavioral control. Additionally, coherence enabled teachers to form their attitudes and discuss 
the importance of addressing science and agricultural literacy efforts using IBL. Furthermore, 
the recommended duration of a PD is 20 or more hours contact time (Desimone, 2009). The PD 
for this study was held eight hours daily over a period of five days, giving the teachers 
prolonged time to engage in material and increase their skills and self-efficacy in facilitating IBL 
animal science concepts. The PD also allowed teachers to engage in collective participation as 
they participated in science and agriscience teacher pairs from their own school to create IBL 
animal science lessons from both a science and agricultural perspective that satisfies their 
school and student needs.  

Teachers’ intent to integrate IBL into their classrooms is influenced by attitudes, subjective 
norms, and perceived behavioral control (Conner et al., 2021). However, barriers that affect 
teachers’ intent to use IBL consist of lack of resources and support from school administration, 
high student-to-teacher ratios, and state-level expectations (DiBiase & McDonald, 2015; 



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Ramnarain, 2014). This PD attempted to address and provide solutions to some of those 
barriers through the activities previously described. There is an increasing need to explore the 
impact that PD has on teachers’ intent in using IBL animal science concepts as a context for 
teaching science.   

Purpose 
 
The purpose of this research was to describe the impact that a professional development about 
integrating inquiry-based learning into curricula had on science and agriscience teachers' intent 
to use IBL. The following objectives guided this study:  
1. Determine Science and Agricultural Academy participants’ change in confidence in 

integrating inquiry-based learning animal science concepts into their curriculum before and 
after and inquiry-based learning professional development. 

2. Describe Science and Agricultural Academy participants’ perceived behavioral control, 
attitude, subjective norms, and intent toward integrating inquiry-based learning animal 
science concepts into their curriculum. 

3. Determine how attitude, behavioral control, and subjective norms influence the behavioral 
intent that the Science and Agricultural Academy participants have toward utilizing the 
activities and integrating inquiry-based learning animal science concepts into their 
curriculum.   

 
Methods 

 
To fulfill the purpose of this study, a paper survey with nine questions was distributed to the 
Science and Agricultural Academy participants in Tennessee and Nebraska immediately 
following an in-person PD. There were 32 respondents who participated in the study (n = 32, 
97% participation rate), and they had been teaching for a range of years (M = 9.75, SD = 8.32). 
Subjects that the teachers taught were: agriscience (65.63%), biology (18.75%), chemistry 
(9.38%), and other agricultural and science areas (62.5%). Six questions from the survey were 
reported for this study: perceived behavioral control, attitude, subjective norms, intent, and 
respondents’ pre and post confidence in using IBL.   

Confidence was measured using  two, 6-item, 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = strongly 
disagree to 5 = strongly agree. Respondents indicated their pre-PD and post-PD confidence in 
teaching the six animal science concepts covered in the PD. The averages for the pre-
confidence items (Cronbach’s α = .78) and the post-confidence items (Cronbach’s α = .83) were 
used to create the constructs. To ensure consistent interpretation of the findings, real limits 
were created (Sheskin, 2004). The real limits for confidence were 1.00 - 1.49 = strongly 
disagree, 1.50 - 2.49 = disagree, 2.50 - 3.49 = neither agree nor disagree, 3.50 - 4.49 = agree, 
4.50 - 5.00 = strongly agree.  

The remaining questions were based on Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991) variables, 
and the constructs were adapted from prior literature and research (Ajzen, 2002; Rogers-
Randolph et al., 2021) to align with the context of this study. Perceived behavioral control was 



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measured with a 4-item, 5-point Likert-type scale. The labels for the scale ranged from 1= 
strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. The average for the items was calculated and the 
original reliability was a Cronbach’s alpha of .62. This reliability fell below .70, which is the 
acceptable threshold for reliability (Field, 2013). Removal of an item did not improve the 
reliability of the construct; however, Nunnally (1978) has suggested a reliability above a .50 is 
acceptable when in the beginning phases of research. Because this survey instrument was 
adapted for a new context of the PD program, it was deemed acceptable for this research and 
the instrument was not edited. Real limits for perceived behavioral control were the same as 
confidence.  

Attitude was measured using a bipolar semantic differential 8-item, 5-point scale attaching the 
idea of integrating IBL animal science concepts to a set of adjectives that were antonyms. Items 
were coded so that a positive adjective was a five and a negative adjective was a one. The 
construct was created using the average for the items (Cronbach’s α = .86). The real limits for 
attitude were 1.00 - 1.49 = extremely negative, 1.50 - 2.49 = negative, 2.50 - 3.49 = neutral, 3.50 
- 4.49 = positive, 4.50 - 5.00 = extremely positive. Subjective norms were measured with seven 
items on a 5-point Likert-type scale with the same labels as perceived behavioral control. The 
initial reliability of the scale was below the acceptable value of Cronbach’s alpha of .70 or 
higher (Cronbach’s α = .55), but increased to a Cronbach’s alpha of .80 after two items were 
deleted. The average for the remaining five items was used to create the construct. Real limits 
for subjective norms were the same confidence. Intent was measured with a 2-item, 5-point 
Likert-type scale. The following labels for the scale ranged from 1 = extremely unlikely to 5 = 
extremely unlikely. The average for the items were used to create the construct (Cronbach’s α = 
.92). Real limits for intent were 1.00 - 1.49 = extremely unlikely, 1.50 - 2.49 = somewhat unlikely, 
2.50 - 3.49 = neither likely nor unlikely, 3.50 - 4.49 = somewhat likely, 4.50 - 5.00 = extremely 
likely. To address concerns of validity, the instrument was reviewed by a panel of experts with 
expertise in survey design, IBL, and animal sciences. 

Responses from the paper surveys were entered electronically to a replicated Qualtrics survey, 
and data were exported to SPSS version 26 for analysis. Paired samples t-tests were used to 
determine objective one. Descriptive statistics were reported for objective two. A multiple 
linear regression analysis was used for objective three. Assumptions for normality was not an 
issue because the variables’ skewness or kurtosis fell within +/-2. Assumptions for this multiple 
linear regression were met as well. Multicollinearity diagnostics were run, and no issues were 
identified as the tolerance and variance inflation factors (VIF) fell within the acceptable 
thresholds (Field, 2013).   

Findings 
 
Objective One 
Respondents’ confidence in teaching inquiry-based animal science concepts related to facility 
management, genetics, health, meat science, nutrition, and reproduction before and after the 
PD can be found in Table 1. Respondents' confidence was on average 3.36 (SD = 0.66) prior to 
the PD and 4.28 (SD = 0.50) after participation in the PD. To determine if there was a significant 



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change in confidence, a paired samples t-test was conducted and a statistically significant 
difference was detected (t = 9.012, p < .01), thus indicating that confidence in teaching animal 
science concepts increased after completing the PD. The effect size, using Cohen’s d, indicated 
a large effect (d = 1.62). 

Table 1 
 
Confidence in teaching the following concepts before and after PD (n = 32)  
  Pre PD confidence Post PD confidence 
Genetics  3.94 (0.88) 4.48 (0.63) 
Reproduction  3.81 (1.03) 4.42 (0.81) 
Health  3.56 (0.88) 4.42 (0.62) 
Nutrition  3.47 (1.02) 4.35 (0.55) 
Facility Management  2.94 (0.98) 4.03 (0.75) 
Meat Science  2.47 (0.95) 4.00 (0.68) 
Total Average  3.36 (0.66) 4.28 (0.50) 

 
Objective Two  
Respondents indicated they had behavioral control after completing the PD with a mean of 3.91 
(SD = .71). Majority of the respondents agreed or strongly agreed to feeling equipped with the 
knowledge and skills necessary to successfully integrate animal science concepts into their 
classroom (87.60%; Table 2) and indicated that finding the resources to integrate the concepts 
would not be challenging (75.0%). Additionally, some respondents agreed or strongly agreed 
that integrating the animal science concepts into their classroom would not inhibit their 
teaching of state standards (65.70%) and expressed that they will have enough time to utilize 
the IBL animal science lessons (62.50%). 

  



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Table 2 
 
Behavioral Control (n=32)  

  
Strongly 
Disagree Disagree 

Neither 
Agree or 
Disagree Agree 

Strongly 
Agree 

 % (f) % (f) % (f) % (f) % (f) 
I feel equipped with the knowledge 

and skills necessary to successfully 
integrate animal science concepts 
into my classroom. 

3.1 (1) 3.1 (1) 6.3 (2) 56.3 (18) 31.3 (10) 

I will have enough time in the 
semester to teach animal science 
concepts to students. 

3.1 (1) 18.8 (6) 15.6 (5) 25.0 (8) 37.5 (12) 

It would be challenging to find the 
resources to integrate agriscience 
into my classroom.a 

0 (0) 9.4 (3) 15.6 (5) 43.8 (14) 31.3 (10) 

Integrating animal science concepts 
into my classroom will inhibit my 
teaching of state standards.a  

3.1 (1) 6.3 (2) 25.0 (8) 34.4 (11) 31.3 (10) 

 a Items were reverse coded so that strongly disagree was a 5 and strongly agree was a 1.  
 
Respondents had extremely positive attitudes toward integrating IBL animal science concepts 
(M = 4.68; SD = 0.45). Overall, respondents' attitudes toward integrating IBL animal science 
concepts into their classrooms were more positive than negative (M = 4.84; SD = 0.37) and 
more good than bad (M = 4.81; SD = 0.40). The item with the lowest mean was essential/not 
essential (M = 4.50; SD = 0.84). Table 3 shows respondents’ response means for items in the 
attitude scale.  

Table 3 
 
Respondents Attitudes (n=32)  
  M (SD) 
Good: Bad  4.81 (0.40) 
Positive: Negative  4.84 (0.37) 
Beneficial: Not Beneficial   4.69 (0.78) 
Acceptable: Unacceptable  4.81 (0.59) 
Necessary: Unnecessary   4.59 (0.62) 
Important: Unimportant  4.69 (0.54) 
Essential: Not Essential  4.50 (0.84) 
Crucial: Trivial  4.53 (0.72) 
Scale Average  4.68 (0.45) 

 



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Respondents indicated they felt subjective norms associated with IBL animal science concepts 
(M = 3.70; SD = .80). Most respondents agreed or strongly agreed that they did not feel 
pressure to focus only on standardized testing and nothing else (78.20%; Table 4). Some 
respondents also agreed or strongly agreed that people who are important to them want them 
to integrate animal science concepts into their classroom (64.50%). Respondents also expressed 
that their school administration encourages them to increase their knowledge and confidence 
in teaching animal science concepts (62.50%), as they are expected to possess the necessary 
confidence in teaching the concepts (53.20%). Furthermore, the majority of respondents 
agreed or strongly agreed that they did not feel pressure to focus only on standardized testing 
and nothing else (78.20%). Approximately one-third of respondents indicated they do feel social 
pressure from their communities to increase their confidence in teaching animal science 
concepts (34.40%), while others neither agreed nor disagreed (34.40%).   

Table 4 
 
Subjective Norms (n=32)   
  

Strongly 
Disagree Disagree 

Neither 
Agree nor 
Disagree Agree 

Strongly 
Agree 

 % (f) % (f) % (f) % (f) % (f) 
I feel pressure to focus only on 

standardized testing and 
nothing else.a 

0 (0) 6.3 (2) 15.6 (5) 31.3 (10) 46.9 (15) 

People who are important to 
me want me to integrate 
animal science concepts 
into my classroom. 

0 (0) 
 

12.9 (4) 
 

22.6 (7) 
 

35.5 (11) 
 

29.0 (9) 
 

My school administration 
encourages me to increase 
my knowledge and 
confidence in teaching 
animal science concepts. 

3.1 (1) 6.3 (2) 28.1 (9) 21.9 (7) 40.6 (13) 

It is expected of me to have 
great confidence in 
teaching animal science 
concepts before I integrate 
it into my classroom. 

3.1 (1) 6.3 (2) 37.5 (12) 34.4 (11) 18.8 (6) 

I feel social pressure from my 
community to increase my 
confidence in teaching 
animal science concepts  

12.5 (4) 18.8 (6) 34.4(11) 15.6 (5) 18.8 (6) 

a Items were reverse coded to that strongly disagree was a 5 and strongly agree was a 1.  
 
Table 5 shows respondents’ intent to use the IBL animal science curriculum learned during the 
PD (M = 4.75; SD = .42). The majority of respondents were extremely likely to utilize the hands-
on activities (78.10%) and integrate the animal concepts (71.90%). However, a minority of the 



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respondents indicated they were only somewhat likely (21.90%; 28.10%). Furthermore, nobody 
said they were unlikely utilize the activities from the PD (0%). 

Table 5 
 
Intent (n=32)   

  
Extremely 
Unlikely 

Somewhat 
Unlikely 

Neither 
Likely nor 
Unlikely 

Somewhat 
Likely 

Extremely 
Likely 

 % (f) % (f) % (f) % (f) % (f) 
Please indicate how 

likely you are to utilize 
the hands-on 
activities related to 
animal science in your 
classroom  

0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 21.9 (7) 78.1 (25) 

Please indicate how 
likely you are to 
integrate animal 
science concepts into 
your classroom  

0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 28.1 (9) 71.9 (23) 

  
Objective Three  
Attitude, subjective norms, and behavioral control were included in the regression model, 
shown in Table 6, to predict intent to use IBL animal science concepts in the future. This model 
was statistically significant (F (3, 30) = 10.33, p < .001) and could account for 53.4% of the total 
variance in intent to integrate IBL animal science concepts (r2= .534). The only significant 
predictor in the model was attitude, and as it increased one point, intent increased by .49 
points (b = .49, p < .01). Subjective norms (b = .14, p = .18) and behavioral control (b = .02, p = 
.81) were not statistically significant predictors of intent. 

Table 6 
 
Regression Model to Predict Intent to use IBL Animal Science Concepts in the Classroom  
Predictor Variable  B SE B β t p 
Constant  1.86 .603  3.074 .00* 
Behavioral Control  .02 .10 .04 .25 .81 
Attitude  .49 .17 .52 3.00 .00* 
Subjective Norms  .14 .10 .25 1.40 .18 

* p < .01  
 

 
 
 



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Conclusions, Discussion, and Recommendations 
 
The purpose of this study was to describe the impact that professional development has on 
Science and Agricultural Academy participants’ intent to integrate IBL in their classroom. This 
study was guided by the TPB to describe the teachers’ attitudes, subjective norms, and 
perceived behavioral control, and the influence that those variables have on their intent to 
utilize IBL teaching strategies within the context of animal sciences (Ajzen, 1991).   

After the PD, respondents showed an increased confidence in teaching the following animal 
science areas: genetics, reproduction, health, nutrition, facility management, and meat science. 
Possessing an increased confidence positively influences teachers’ ability to use IBL in their 
classrooms which further supports prior research of PD boosting teacher confidence (Kreifels et 
al., 2021; Thoron et al., 2011; Thoron & Myers, 2011). Respondents reported feeling in control 
of perceived behavioral control factors that include finding time to teach the lessons and being 
able to locate the resources needed to facilitate the IBL lessons. Additionally, aligning with prior 
literature (Guskey, 2002), respondents possessed strongly positive attitudes after the PD. 
Respondents also indicated that they feel pressure from subjective norms, such as standardized 
testing and school administration, which aligns with previous studies that identify those as 
barriers that affect teachers’ intent to use IBL (DiBiase & McDonald, 2015; Ramnarain, 2014). 
Barriers previously identified further demonstrates the need for teachers to engage in collective 
participation with other teachers during future PD programs to create potential solutions for 
subjective norms (Desimone, 2009).   

The regression model could account for the large variance in intent to integrate IBL animal 
science concepts. Although perceived behavioral control and subjective norms are relevant, 
attitude was found to be the only significant predictor of intent. Replicating this research in 
other states could help better validate these findings and explore the relevancy and influences 
that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control have on one another. 
Furthermore, when providing future PD, it would be beneficial to ensure that PD is enjoyable 
for teachers by including hands-on, active learning strategies that enable them to increase their 
positive attitudes (Desimone’s 2009).   

Our findings indicate that the PD was effective in increasing teacher intent to integrate IBL 
lessons in the context of animal science in their classrooms. The findings would also provide 
guidance to researchers and agricultural education faculty in planning future teacher PD and 
developing IBL curriculum. Additionally, as teachers continue to lack the knowledge and skills to 
use IBL in their classroom (DiBiase & McDonald, 2015), school administrations should 
encourage their teachers to seek inquiry-based learning PD.    

To gain a broader understanding of the research problem, a qualitative study should be 
conducted exploring specific attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control that 
affect intent (Moustakas, 1994). Future research should also work to further refine the 
behavioral control measurement to increase the overall reliability of the study. Additionally, 
there could be value in exploring specific differences between science and agriscience teachers’ 



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confidence and intent to use IBL. Since the findings from this study focus on animal science 
concepts, it would be beneficial to replicate other PD programs that address other agricultural 
topics such as agricultural mechanics or plant science. Also, because this study was only 
conducted in Tennessee and Nebraska, it should be conducted at other universities and states 
to better understand the impacts that an IBL PD program has on science and agricultural 
teachers across the United States. Furthermore, pursuing a follow-up with the teachers 
following implementation of the IBL lessons would contribute to a better understanding of the 
practicality of IBL in the classroom.   

Acknowledgements 
 
Supported by USDA, National Institute of Food and Agriculture, USDA-NIFA-PDAL, Program 
A7501, Grant Award 2021-67037-34298 

K. Harmon – formal analysis, Investigation, writing original draft; T. Ruth – formal analysis, 
investigation, writing-review and editing, funding acquisition; B. Reiling - writing-review and 
editing, funding acquisition; N. Conner - writing-review and editing, funding acquisition; C. 
Stripling - funding acquisition. 

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