































   Advancements in Agricultural Development 
  Volume 4, Issue 4, 2023 
  agdevresearch.org 

 
1. Presley Nickens, Graduate Research Assistant, University of Tennessee, 101 McCord Hall, 2640 Morgan Circle Dr., 

Knoxville, TN 37996, pnickens@vols.utk.edu,  https://orcid.org/0009-0002-3030-370X  
2. David R. Ader, Assistant Director of the Smith Center for International Sustainable Agriculture, University of Tennessee, 

101 McCord Hall, 2640 Morgan Circle Dr., Knoxville, TN 37996, dader@utk.edu,  
 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3360-5017 

3. Max C. Miller II, Graduate Research Assistant, Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Tennessee State 
University, mmille60@my.tnstate.edu,  https://orcid.org/0009-0003-3667-3063 

4. Pao Srean, Dean of the Faculty of Agriculture & Food Processing, National University of Battambang, Road 5 Krong, 
Battambang, sreanpao@gmail.com,   https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2330-9660 

5. Tom Gill, Director of the Smith Center for International Sustainable Agriculture, University of Tennessee, 101 McCord Hall, 
2640 Morgan Circle Dr., Knoxville, TN 37996, tgill4@utk.edu,  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1367-8684 

6. Sovanneary Huot, Graduate Research Assistant, Pennsylvania State University, Armsby Building University Park, PA 16801, 
neary.psu@gmail.com,  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3214-256X 

39 

 

Conservation Agriculture and Cover Crop Adoption by 
Smallholder Farmers in Cambodia: Understanding 
Perceptions, Challenges, and Opportunities for Soil 

Improvement 
 

P. Nickens1, D. R. Ader2, M. Miller3, P. Srean4, T. Gill5, S. Huot6 
 

 
Article History 
Received: August 17, 2023 
Accepted: November 21, 2023 
Published: December 6, 2023 
 
 
Keywords 
soil fertility; mixed methods; 
sustainable agriculture 
  

Abstract 
Practical solutions for soil conservation are needed to ensure sustainable 
food production. Conservation agriculture and the use of cover crops are 
promising strategies for soil improvement in agricultural systems. These 
strategies are being promoted in Cambodia to address rapidly declining 
soil fertility; however, there is a lack of insight into the perceptions of 
Cambodian smallholders towards cover cropping within a conservation 
agriculture approach. A greater understanding of the utilization and 
perceptions of cover crops is needed to increase adoption and prevent 
further soil degradation. This study utilized a mixed methods approach 
with quantitative data from a farmer survey and qualitative data 
gathered from follow-up interviews with farmers. Analysis shows that 
farmers understand what conservation agriculture is and reported 
benefits, including increased yields, after practicing conservation 
agriculture. Conservation agriculture was viewed as a way to protect the 
environment and increase soil fertility, particularly by using cover crops. 
However, farmers reported that the use of cover crops as part of a 
conservation agriculture approach faces challenges, preventing further 
adoption. Understanding the benefits and challenges for farmers can help 
improve adoption, leading to improved soil and more resilient 
agricultural systems. Further research on how to address the challenges 
presented by farmers is needed.   

mailto:pnickens@vols.utk.edu
https://orcid.org/0000--0000-0000-0000
mailto:dader@utk.edu
https://orcid.org/0000--0000-0000-0000
mailto:mmille60@my.tnstate.edu
https://orcid.org/0009-0003-3667-3063
mailto:sreanpao@gmail.com
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2330-9660
mailto:tgill4@utk.edu
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1367-8684
mailto:neary.psu@gmail.com
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3214-256X


Nickens at al.  Advancements in Agricultural Development 
 

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Introduction and Problem Statement 
 
Cambodia, with its agricultural-based economy, is at risk of depleting one of their most precious 
resources —soil. Cambodian soils are being lost at a tremendous rate due to continuous 
cultivation and rainfall patterns (Le et al., 2018). A loss of soil fertility is a limiting factor for rice 
production, the largest agricultural sector in Cambodia; thus, environmentally-conscious 
strategies that do not risk rice production are needed (Suong et al., 2019). To address this issue, 
a climate-smart approach that takes conservation agricultural practices into account has been 
suggested. Conservation agriculture (CA) aims to minimize soil disturbances, diversify cropping 
systems, and improve soil fertility through the addition of cover cropping and crop rotation 
practices (Chapuis et al., 2019). Cover crops are an essential part of a CA approach, offering soil 
health benefits and assisting in carbon sequestration. Cover crops are associated with 
improvements in soil physical, chemical, and biological properties (Adetunji et al., 2020). 
Benefits such as increased organic matter, yield, and available nutrients (Adetunji et al., 2020) 
have the potential to positively impact depleted soils in Cambodia. A greater understanding of 
the utilization and perceptions of cover crop production by smallholders is needed to further 
expand the adoption of cover crops under a CA approach. The problem we seek to address is 
the lack of insight into the perceptions of Cambodian smallholders towards cover cropping and 
what factors motivate them to adopt cover crops and conservation agriculture practices into 
their agricultural systems. The knowledge gained from this research can help increase cover 
crop adoption to remedy depleted Cambodian soils, consequently boosting fertility to meet the 
forty-two percent production increase needed to meet rice demands by the year 2050 (Ray et 
al., 2013). 
 

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework 
 
Cambodia has experienced mass deforestation as a result of the conversion of agricultural land 
driven by market demand for cash crops (Kong et al., 2019). Deforestation paired with 
degradative farming practices such as conventional tillage has negatively impacted soil health, 
with 5.93 million tons per hectare per year of soil lost in 2018 (Sourn et al., 2022). The resulting 
erosion has a negative effect on agricultural productivity, soil fertility, and biodiversity, thereby 
affecting the livelihoods and economies of those residing in degraded areas (Sourn et al., 2022). 
To remedy this spiral of events, a conservation agriculture approach is needed to restore soil 
health and fertility. A study by Le et al. (2018) found that conservation agricultural practices 
implemented in Cambodia had four times less sediment loss and an increase in soil organic 
carbon (SOC) stocks compared to conventional tillage methods. Conservation agriculture is 
associated with an increase in yields, reduced labor, and conservation of natural resources on 
Cambodian farms (Edralin et al., 2017).   
 
Previous studies have investigated the decision-making process and perceptions of Cambodian 
smallholders on the topic of conservation agriculture. Kong et al. (2021) created a simulation 
game to better understand why Cambodian farmers would adopt conservation agriculture. The 
results suggested that farmers would choose CA approaches in the absence of cash crops when 

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crop productivity declined. Sumner et al. (2017) used a mixed methods approach to understand 
the perceptions of CA through the lens of gender. The study found that CA was perceived to 
reduce labor for both genders; however, the decision to adopt was dependent on access to 
resources, the ability to make decisions within the home, and available space. Women were 
more involved in the household finances while men had greater control over input selection 
and agricultural production; however, the decision to transition to CA was largely a joint 
decision (Sumner et al., 2017).  
 
A specific focus on the farmer perceptions of cover cropping, a practice implemented in CA, is 
absent from the related literature. It has been well established that cover crops implemented 
under a CA system improve soil health (Hin et al., 2021; Suong et al., 2019). After an analysis of 
field data, Miller (2022) found a positive correlation between cover crop biomass and maize 
yield in Cambodian field trials. Farmers who had practiced CA for more than one year reported 
advancements in soil health, yield, or profitability (Miller, 2022). Unfortunately, the adoption of 
cover cropping technology has lagged among Cambodian smallholders (Hin et al., 2021). An 
understanding of the perceived advantages, disadvantages, barriers, and production practices 
can help researchers better understand the underlying causes of the lack of adoption. Thus, this 
study utilized the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991) for the conceptual framework. 

 
Purpose 

 
The purpose of this research is to explore smallholder perceptions of cover crops within 
conservation agriculture in Cambodia. An increased understanding of the research questions 
can better inform future strategies to increase adoption, thus leading to improved soil health. 
The research questions presented for this study are:  
1. What are the conservation agriculture practices, particularly cover crop practices, being 

implemented by the farmers surveyed and what is their perception of the results?  
2. Why do Cambodian farmers choose to implement cover cropping on their farms? What are 

the perceived advantages and disadvantages of cover cropping for a Cambodian farmer? 
3. What are the perceived impacts of conservation agriculture, and in particular, cover 

cropping, on soil health and fertility?  
4. What are the perceived challenges preventing Cambodian farmers from practicing cover 

cropping? 
 

Methods 
 
This research follows a mixed method approach, using both quantitative and qualitative data 
gathering techniques (Creswell, 2014; Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018).  Mixed methods research 
in agriculture, by using both quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis 
techniques, allows researchers to gain a more comprehensive understanding of agricultural 
issues by exploring both the measurable and subjective aspects of a phenomenon (Harrison & 
Getz, 2015). Mixed methods can improve the robustness and triangulation of results (Leedy & 
Ormrod, 2012) and can provide insights into the attitudes and experiences of farmers, which 

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may not be captured through one method alone. Mixed methods research in agriculture can 
lead to a more nuanced understanding of complex agricultural issues and can inform policies 
and improve the efficiency of extension and outreach programs. In this research, the intent was 
to gather information from farmers to understand the situation of conservation agricultural 
practices and help inform policies and extension programs that are promoting soil health and 
conservation agriculture in Cambodia. The farmers were selected because they chose to 
participate in a cover cropping project led by the local government center known as The 
Cambodian Conservation Agriculture Research for Development Center (CARDEC).  These 
farmers have been engaging with CARDEC in Battambang Province to increase the adoption of 
conservation agricultural practices, specifically cover cropping, with mainly the use of the 
crotalaria species.  
 
 The mixed methods approach was executed by utilizing quantitative data from a farmer survey 
(N = 57), and qualitative data gathered from in-depth interviews with a subset of the farmers 
surveyed (n = 14). Cambodian enumerators, from the National University of Battambang, who 
have experience with farmer surveys, were contracted to implement the survey in the Khmer 
language. Trustworthiness was established with the interviewees by using in-country 
enumerators from a local university. In-depth interviews were conducted by the authors with 
the use of Khmer translators.  
 
A simple survey instrument was developed to gather basic information about the current CA 
and cover crop use by the farmers. The survey was tested at the National University of 
Battambang on a group of faculty and graduate students to ensure its validity. The survey 
consists of close-ended questions to capture data on the farmer themselves (age, years 
farming, etc.), their resources (land, irrigation etc.), and their practices (tillage, planting, etc.). 
The survey also contained questions about their use and perceptions of CA and cover crops. 
The survey responses were collected on paper and then input into Excel. All research protocols 
were approved by the university Institutional Review Board (16-03351-XP). IBM SPSS Statistics 
(Version 24) was used to analyze the survey data.  
 
The qualitative methodology for this study employed a semi-structured interview format. A 
total of 14 on-farm, in-depth interviews were conducted between the dates of December 16, 
2022 and December 25, 2022. Interviews lasted on average 40 minutes and included questions 
pertaining to farmer perceptions, experiences, and observations of CA and cover crops. Farmers 
were selected to represent individuals who have been practicing CA for varying lengths of time, 
which ranged from first year to veteran practitioners. Interviewees were also chosen to include 
farmers with operations under diverse crop rotations and in multiple agro-ecological contexts 
(upland and lowland). Field notes and interview guides were used to collect the interview data. 
The qualitative data was analyzed by reviewing the responses and organizing them based on 
themes. We present both findings from the farmer survey and the interviews. 
 
 
 

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Findings 
 
Survey results show that respondents have an understanding of what both cover cropping and 
conservation agriculture are and the benefits they can provide (Table 1).  Reported CA practices 
included growing cover crops, crop rotation, implementing no-till, and reducing fertilizer usage. 
Smallholders reported that cover cropping information came from projects provided by the 
Provincial Department of Agriculture, CARDEC, Smart Agro (private sector seed company), 
machine service providers, and other farmers. 93% of smallholders reported that they grew 
cover crops once a year (Table 1). Juncea (or Sun Hemp) was the primary type of cover crop 
grown. Farmers reported their motivation for growing cover crops: to improve soil, feed 
animals, produce seeds for sale, or improve diversity on their land. On average, farmers had 
been practicing CA for 3.1 years. 61.4% of respondents reported that their yields increased 
after practicing conservation agriculture (Table 2). After planting a cover crop, 28.1% of 
smallholders reported that they plowed the land. 
 
Table 1 
 
Smallholder Profile, N=57 
Parameter % or M f 
Demographics    

Male 86.0 49 
Age 48.5  
Hectares farmed 11.5  
Hectares of cover crops 2.8  

Farming Practices/ Experience   
Experienced past rice harvest loss (due to 

pest, weather, etc.) 
77.2 44 

Knows about cover crops 100.0 57 
Knows about conservation agriculture 94.7 54 
Gets cover crop seed from project 33.0 19 
Grows a cover crop once per year 93.0 53 
Broadcasts cover crop seed 77.2 44 

 
Table 2 
 
Percent of Farmers, Perceived Impacts of CA, N=57 
Parameter % f 
Increased water-holding capacity 86.0 49 
Increased drought resistance 70.2 40 
Increased insect resistance 40.4 23 
Increased yield 61.4 35 

 

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In the interview portion, many farmers said that they began practicing CA after observing the 
results of other farmers who practice CA or after attending a CA demonstration. In one 
interview a farmer stated, “Other farmers have noticed my improvements as a result of CA and 
have asked me about my practices. I have side-by-side plots to show other farmers to promote 
CA.” 
 
Respondents suggested the following reasons prevent farmers from adopting CA: lack of 
information, concerns about machinery availability, budgetary restrictions, and negative 
preconceptions about CA. Preconceptions stem from a belief that plowing multiple times is 
required to obtain high yields, with concerns about insects residing in soil surface residue, 
difficulties plowing after cover crops, timing of commodity crop harvest, and tillage 
requirements for certain commodity crops. “I believe many farmers still do not understand CA, 
which may make others hesitant to adopt it, despite many seeing positive results of farmers 
practicing CA,” the same smallholder said. Ensuring farmers are well-informed is integral to the 
adoption of CA, as a retired government official also stated, “I believe widespread adoption of 
CA is important, but may not take place unless the government makes a more concerted effort 
to promote it.” 
 
Smallholder Perceptions 
Cambodian smallholder farmers stated advantages of practicing CA included improved soil 
properties, erosion mitigation, added soil organic matter, reduced chemical inputs, added soil 
moisture retention, and reduced input costs. One farmer stated, “CA is an essential practice, 
especially for annual crops. It should be widely adopted for the sake of crop diversity and the 
improvement of soil quality.” Another farmer who had been practicing CA for three years said, 
“I am more comfortable with CA, because of its reduced impact on the environment and it is a 
healthier way of life for my family.” Disadvantages of practicing CA included climate, drought, 
difficulty in implementing CA practices, lack of equipment, difficulty in obtaining cover crop 
seeds, uneven land, associated pests, and a high cost to initiate CA practices. When asked what 
could be done to improve current CA practices in the survey portion of the study, many 
respondents suggested increased advertisement of CA techniques (35.1%) followed by more 
machinery (14%), water systems improvement (8.8%), and greater farmer participation (7%).  
An overwhelming majority of 94.7% of survey respondents stated that CA protects the 
environment (see Table 3). During an interview, one smallholder who has been farming since 
childhood said, “If Cambodian farmers can implement CA it would benefit their land and the 
environment while helping them adapt to climatic changes in the future.” To adapt to climate 
change, other smallholders stated that they implemented growing cover crops, crop rotations, 
or disease/weather-resistant varieties.   
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

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Table 3 
 
CA Perceptions, N=57 
Parameter % Agree f 
Improves soil fertility 96.5 55 
Protects the environment 94.7 54 
Requires low production costs and 

increases crop yield 
75.4 43 

Sustainably improves soil 94.7 54 
Provides higher income than 

conventional tillage 
78.9 45 

Reduces soil erosion 93.0 53 
Controls pests 64.9 37 

 
Barriers 
Smallholder responses suggested that seed and machinery accessibility were barriers to 
production. However, when asked about cover crop seeds, farmers reported that seed was 
reasonably priced (100%) and easy to find (82.5%). Respondents reported that their farms were 
accessible by large agricultural machines (100%). Clear barriers to CA implementation were 
unsuccessful cover crop reproduction and crop failure due to a lack of water (Table 4).  “Seed 
germination,” one farmer stated about both cover crops and corn, “depends on rainfall under 
CA more than conventional tillage, as the soil is not as fine and the seed is not covered as well 
upon broadcasting or planting. This is the primary challenge of practicing CA.” 
 
Table 4 
 
Barriers to Cover Crop Implementation, N=57 
Parameter % f 
Cover crop reproduction unsuccessful 64.9 37 
Cover crop failure due to water 64.9 37 
Not enough water to grow cover crops 42.1 24 
No water system 17.5 10 

 
Conclusions, Discussion, and Recommendations 

 
This article sought to address the lack of insight into the perceptions of Cambodian 
smallholders towards cover cropping and what factors motivate them to adopt cover crops and 
conservation agriculture practices into their agricultural systems. These practices are vital 
components of the efforts to restore soil health and fertility in depleted Cambodian soils. A 
greater understanding of the utilization and perceptions of cover crop production by 
smallholders is needed to further expand the adoption of cover crops under a CA approach.  
 

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Most farmers surveyed both understood and implemented cover cropping and CA practices. 
Increased yield, water holding capacity, soil fertility, and income were favorable outcomes of 
implementation reported by smallholders. CA was cited as a way to protect the environment, 
adapt to climate change, and sustainably improve the soil in Cambodia. Clear barriers to 
implementation were negative preconceived notions about cover cropping, cover crop failure 
due to water (whether an excess or deficit), and unsuccessful cover crop reproduction. Farmers 
stated a disadvantage to CA was difficulty in finding cover crop seeds (see smallholder 
perception); however, when specifically asked about seed availability, a large majority of 
respondents said seeds were easy to find (see barriers).   
 
Recommendations for future research in this area should seek to delineate CA practices from 
cover cropping, since survey responses indicated that at times CA was used interchangeably 
with the term cover cropping. While closely associated, cover cropping falls under the umbrella 
of CA. Smallholder responses indicated there is an evident need to address cover crop seed 
reproduction, water-related barriers, and increased government support of cover cropping. 
Based on the presented benefits of CA and cover crops, we recommend that practitioners 
continue to increase CA adoption and communicate their experience with their communities. 
The insights into smallholder perceptions, motivations to adopt, challenges, and opportunities 
presented by this study can provide guidance on where to focus future soil health related 
research and programs in Cambodia. 
 

Acknowledgements 
 
This research was supported by the USAID Bureau for Food Security and Resilience and the 
Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Collaborative Research on Sustainable Intensification 
managed by the Kansas State University and was led by the University of Tennessee Institute of 
Agriculture (USAID Federal Award No.: AID-OAA-L-14-00006; Subaward No.: 5587-UT-KSU-
6056). The contents of this article are the responsibility of The University of Tennessee and do 
not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the United States Government. 
 
Presley Nickens - writing-original draft, writing-review and editing, formal analysis; David R. 
Ader - writing-original draft, writing-review and editing, investigation, conceptualization, data 
curation, funding acquisition, supervision; Max Miller - writing-original draft, investigation, data 
curation; Pao Srean - funding acquisition, supervision; Tom Gill - funding acquisition, 
supervision; Sovanneary Huot - funding acquisition, conceptualization 

 
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the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). 
 

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