































   Advancements in Agricultural Development 
  Volume 6, Issue 1, 2025 
  agdevresearch.org 

 

1. Hillary Miller, Graduate Student, Auburn University, Haley Center, Auburn, AL 36849, hzm0071@auburn.edu,  

 https://orcid.org/0009-0006-6447-5445 
2. Christopher A. Clemons, Associate Professor of Agricultural Education, Auburn University, 5040 Haley Center, Auburn, AL 

36849, cac0132@auburn.edu,  https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9879-0888  
3. Jason D. McKibben, Assistant Professor of Agricultural Education, Auburn University, Haley Center, Auburn, AL 36849, 

jdm0184@auburn.edu,  https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2080-202X  
4.  D. Adam Cletzer, Professor of Practice in Agricultural Communications and Leadership, 101A Comer Hall, Auburn, AL 

36849, adam.cletzer@auburn.edu,  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6664-8454 
5. James R. Lindner, Professor of Agricultural Education, Auburn University, 5058 Haley Center, Auburn, AL 36849, 

jrl0039@auburn.edu,  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1448-3846  
 

31 

 

Assessing the Readiness of Central California Agricultural 
Educators to Teach Multilingual Learners 

 
H. Miller1, C. A. Clemons2, J. D. McKibben3, D. A. Cletzer4, J. R. Lindner5 

 
 

Article History 
Received: October 29, 2024 
Accepted: February 1, 2025 
Published: February 7, 2025 
 
 
Keywords 
multilingual learners; culturally 
responsive teaching; language 
proficiency; SDG 4: Quality Education; 
SDG 10: Reduced Inequalities   

Abstract 
This study investigated the pedagogical readiness of United States 
secondary school-based agricultural education (SBAE) teachers to 
educate multilingual learners (MLs) in California's Central Region. The 
focus of this study addressed SBAE teacher qualifications, language 
proficiency, professional development experiences, and perceived 
competence to teach MLs. The theoretical frameworks for this study 
included culturally responsive teaching and andragogy as the lens when 
assessing SBAE teacher preparedness. The participants were licensed to 
teach SBAE with ML, but most needed more specific training and 
experience. Participants reported limited professional development 
related to multilingual learners. Findings also indicated that teachers feel 
most confident addressing the needs of fluent English speakers but need 
help with beginning-level ML students. Improving opportunities for 
professional development addressing culturally responsive teaching, 
academic vocabulary development, and ongoing training for SBAE 
teachers would help improve SBAE teachers' classroom pedagogy and 
enhance learning opportunities for MLs. Future research should explore 
the effectiveness of specific professional development programs and the 
impact of teacher preparedness on student outcomes for MLs. 

 

mailto:hzm0071@auburn.edu
https://orcid.org/0009-0006-6447-5445
mailto:cac0132@auburn.edu
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9879-0888
mailto:jdm0184@auburn.edu
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2080-202X
mailto:adam.cletzer@auburn.edu
https://nam11.safelinks.protection.outlook.com/?url=https%3A%2F%2Forcid.org%2F0000-0002-6664-8454&data=05%7C02%7Ccac0132%40auburn.edu%7C787208b2668e40b953c508dcac1013c5%7Cccb6deedbd294b388979d72780f62d3b%7C0%7C0%7C638574432263043821%7CUnknown%7CTWFpbGZsb3d8eyJWIjoiMC4wLjAwMDAiLCJQIjoiV2luMzIiLCJBTiI6Ik1haWwiLCJXVCI6Mn0%3D%7C0%7C%7C%7C&sdata=E%2Bj1wsaUQC1MyVrrrYEWf1IpBaWB%2F4PCKrOdVjLp2Ng%3D&reserved=0
mailto:jrl0039@auburn.edu
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1448-3846


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Introduction and Problem Statement 
 
Academic achievement disparities persist in U.S. classrooms, with multilingual learners (MLs) 
often academically behind their English-proficient peers (Echevarria et al., 2024). To bridge this 
gap, educators need tailored instructional approaches to support MLs' language development 
by ensuring access to quality curricula (Echevarria et al., 2024; Zacarian, 2023). Improving 
instructional delivery methods from teacher-centered direct instruction to more interactive, 
student-centered methods (collaborative projects, peer teaching, and problem-based learning) 
can help improve student engagement and learning.  
 
To better prepare teachers engaged with ML learners, pre-service secondary school-based 
agricultural education (SBAE) teacher educators should specifically address active learning 
methods with diverse learners, including MLs (Crunkilton, 1976; Howerton et al., 2019; Vommi 
& LaVergne, 2016). As teachers matriculate from pre-service to practicing educators, many  U.S. 
teachers feel inadequately trained to meet ML learning needs (Barajas et al., 2020; Heineke & 
Vera, 2022). The outcome of lowered teacher confidence significantly impacts their ability to 
address diverse student needs effectively (Ray et al., 2022; Hendrix et al., 2024). When teachers 
lack confidence in implementing active learning strategies with MLs, it can exacerbate existing 
achievement gaps. Improving teacher confidence could increase students' academic 
performance and enhance post-secondary opportunities for these students (García & Kleifgen, 
2018; Zacarian, 2023). 
 
Failing to address the unique needs of ML learners may have profound consequences, including 
diminished engagement/motivation, higher dropout rates, and reduced educational success 
(Hammond, 2015). Recognizing and responding to individual student needs is paramount to 
achieving educational equity (Gay, 2018). 
 

Theoretical Frameworks 
 
Culturally responsive teaching (Gay, 2018) and andragogy (Knowles, 1980) served as the 
theoretical frameworks for this investigation. This study specifically examined how these 
frameworks inform the assessment of teacher preparedness in agricultural education, focusing 
on acquiring essential instructional skills and strategies needed to effectively meet the needs of 
ML students. Culturally responsive teaching emphasizes recognizing and valuing students' 
cultural backgrounds and experiences. This framework is particularly relevant to the study's 
objective of understanding how SBAE teachers can best support MLs in developing language 
proficiency and accessing a quality curriculum. 
 
Andragogy, the art and science of teaching adults, provides a complementary lens for 
understanding the professional development needs of SBAE teachers. Knowles' (1980) 
assumptions and principles of learning specifically address adult learners' unique characteristics 
and motivations, emphasizing self-direction, experience-based learning, and problem-centered 

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approaches. This framework is particularly relevant to the study's focus on teacher confidence 
and developing effective instructional strategies for MLs. 
 
Integrating culturally responsive teaching with andragogy underscores the importance of 
culturally responsive professional development that acknowledges students' cultural diversity 
and leverages educators' experiential learning and self-directed growth. This integrated 
approach fosters teacher confidence and promotes effective pedagogical practices in 
agricultural education. 
 
Combining culturally responsive teaching and andragogy offers a comprehensive lens for 
assessing the readiness of secondary SBAE teachers to educate MLs. These frameworks 
highlight the importance of culturally relevant pedagogy, ongoing professional development, 
and teacher confidence in creating an inclusive and effective learning environment for all 
students. 
 

Objectives and Purpose 
 
This study investigated the qualifications, language proficiency, professional development 
experiences, and future needs of California's Central Region agricultural educators, offering 
insights into their specific challenges in serving MLs. To better understand the educational 
disparities between MLs and improve the pedagogical preparation of SBAE teachers, four 
objectives were investigated: (a) Identify the proportion of high school agricultural teachers 
with specific qualifications or training to teach students who are not fully proficient in English, 
(b) Identify participant characteristics for teachers and students. (c) Identify and describe the 
professional development in which agricultural educators in the Central Region of California are 
engaged, and (d) Describe the perceived level of instructor competence to teach students at 
various English proficiency levels.  
 

Methods 
 
We used a cross-sectional research design to address the study's objectives and collect participant 
data in May 2024 as defined by de Vaus (2013): not incorporating an element of time or 
longitude, dependence on pre-existing characteristic differences rather than implementing an 
intervention, and utilizing standing groups based on those pre-existing characteristics. The 
researchers developed a new instrument addressing professional development needs and 
multilingual learners.  
 
The study's objectives were addressed by providing participants with positively worded 
statements addressing SBAE teacher preparedness to meet the instructional needs of ML 
students. Participant responses were collected using a Likert-type five-point interval 
measurement scale including (a) strongly disagree, (b) disagree, (c) neither agree or disagree, (d) 
agree, and (e) strongly agree (Lindner & Lindner, 2024). 
 

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Participants reported their personal characteristics, teaching experience, and professional 
development history. They also noted the percentage of students in their classes who speak 
languages other than English and those identified as MLs. Teachers can access this information 
through school records, enrollment forms, English language proficiency assessments, direct 
communication with students and families, and classroom observations. 
 
Content and face validity were assessed (Creswell, 2014), and content validity was evaluated by 
SBAE and Special Education faculty at Auburn University, leading to minor revisions in the 
instrument's wording and formatting. These changes included grouping similar questions and 
aligning response options with standard practices. Researchers conducted a pilot study with 
SBAE teachers in Southern California (n = 15), and participants provided feedback through an 
open comment section at the end of the research instrument. Researchers made minor 
adjustments for clarity based on the pilot participant's feedback. Cronbach's alpha for internal 
consistency (α = .88) exceeded the minimum reliability threshold (Privitera, 2017), confirming 
the instrument's usability. 
 
The instrument was electronically distributed using Qualtrics and followed the tailored design 
method to encourage participant responses (Dillman et al., 2014). The researchers provided a 
preannouncement email detailing the study's relevance to the potential participants. Potential 
participants received three follow-up reminders at seven- and ten-day intervals as response rates 
declined (Dillman et al., 2014). Potential participant contact information was obtained through a 
publicly available database containing SBAE teachers in California, including their names and 
email addresses. The survey was distributed to a sample of high school agricultural educators in 
the Central Region of California (n = 266), yielding 62 responses (23.3%). After excluding 
incomplete responses (f = 6), we retained 56 fully completed instruments (21%) for analysis. Due 
to the low response rate, caution is warranted about generalizing the findings beyond the 
response sample (Lindner et al., 2001; Lindner, 2002) 
 

Findings 
 
This study objectively analyzed SBAE teachers' qualifications, language proficiency, and 
professional development experiences in California's Central Region instrument, including 19 
questions and statements organized into constructs based on the research objectives. These 
findings are explained in detail based on the data collected.  
 
Objective One: Identify the proportion of high school agricultural teachers with specific 
qualifications or training to teach students who are not fully proficient in English.   
California mandates additional certification for educators (California Department of Education, 
2023), requiring that all ML services "be provided by teachers authorized for such instruction 
until students are reclassified as fluent in English." Participants (f = 56) reported 100% hold 
credentials to teach SBAE courses in California. Because of this, all respondents have 
certification to teach MLs. The authorization requirements vary by year acquired and type of 
certification, meaning that the professional development and experience teaching MLs varies 
for each respondent.  
 

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Objective Two: Identify participant characteristics for teachers and students.    
The second objective focused on the characteristics of SBAE educators and their students, as 
reported by the teachers who completed the survey. Respondents provided self-reported 
information on years of teaching, race, ethnicity, languages spoken, and fluency in those 
languages. They also shared the languages their students speak, the percentage of multilingual 
learners in their classes, and the percentage of students they teach who speak languages other 
than English. Among the 56 valid responses, all questions received a 100% response rate, 
except for the question about years of teaching and the languages their students speak, which 
had 54 responses each. 
 
SBAE Teacher Characteristics 
Participants self-reported their personal and professional characteristics (Table 1) when 
completing the research instrument. Most participants were relatively new to the teaching 
profession, self-identified as White, and did not speak any language beyond English.  
 
Table 1 
 
Secondary SBAE Teacher Characteristics 
 
Description f % 
Years Teaching 

  

0-5 19 35.18 
6-10 12 22.22 
11-20 15 27.78 
>20 8 14.81 

Teacher Race 
  

White  44 78.57 
Hispanic/Latinx  4 7.14 
Multiple  3 5.35 
Asian  2 3.57 
Prefer not to answer  3 5.35 

Teacher Ethnicity 
  

Not Hispanic / Latinx 47 83.93 
Hispanic/Latinx 5 8.92 
Prefer not to answer 4 7.14 

Teacher Languages Spoken   
English Only 42 75.00 
Conversational Spanish 12 21.43 
Fluent Spanish 1 1.79 
Conversational Mien 1 1.79 

 
 
 

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SBAE Student Characteristics 
In addition to reporting their characteristics, secondary SBAE teachers in California's Central 
Region reported (Table 2) language information about their students. Teachers reported that 
Spanish is their predominant language, in addition to English, in their classes. 
 
Table 2 
 
Percent of ML Students 
 
Percent of MLs  f % 
1-10 15 26.76 
11-20 14 25.00 
21-30 12 21.40 
31-40 6 10.70 
41-50 2 3.60 
51-60 1 1.80 
61-70 4 7.10 
71-80 2 3.60 
81-90 0 0.00 
91-100 0 0.00 
Note. N = 56 
 
Not all students who speak a language other than English (Table 3) are classified as MLs. Some 
may have received language support earlier in their education, while others may have been 
designated fluent in English since primary school. Students who have been redesignated as 
"Fluent English Proficient" still need ongoing support in language development (Echevarria et 
al., 2024; Zacarian, 2023).  
 
Table 3 
 
Percent of Secondary SBAE Students Who Speak a Language Other Than English 
 
Students Speaking Other Language f % 
1-20 10 17.88 
21-40 16 28.57 
41-60 19 33.93 
61-80 6 10.71 
81-100 5 8.93 

Note. N = 56 
 
 
 

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Objective Three: Identify and describe the professional development in which agricultural 
educators in the Central Region of California are engaged.  
 
Participants were asked to identify and report the most common types of content-based and 
pedagogical training (Table 4) in which they have participated: animal science, plant 
systems/horticulture, and agricultural mechanics.  
 
Table 4 
 
Professional Learning Participation of Secondary SBAE Teachers in the Last 5 Years 
 
PD Type PD Specific f % 
SBAE  FFA related 34 62.96 
 SAE related  31 57.41 
 Other tech skills related to SBAE 39 72.22 
 Plant Systems/Horticulture 25 46.30 
 Introduction to Agriculture 22 40.74 
 Animal Science 20 37.04 
 Agricultural Mechanics 22 40.74 
 Environmental Sciences / Natural Resources 24 44.44 
 Agribusiness 11 20.37 
 Food Products 9 16.67 
 Engineering 4 7.41 
 Biotechnology 3 5.56 
Pedagogical  Instructional practices 34 62.96 
 Classroom management 28 51.85 
 Meeting the needs of MLs 28 51.85 
 Meeting the needs of students with disabilities 24 44.44 

Note. n = 54, 2 participants did not complete the instrument 
 
Participants reported their professional development experiences beyond content-based 
development, including instructional strategies, classroom management, and meeting the 
needs of MLs and students with disabilities. We categorized participant responses into SBAE-
specific content and general pedagogical practices. The results indicate that SBAE teachers 
engage in various professional learning experiences. Notably, while much of the training 
focused on FFA (f = 34/54) and SAE (f = 31/54), an equal number of respondents reported 
participating in professional development related to pedagogical practices (f = 34/54) within 
the last five years. 
 
When we asked an open-ended question about participants' professional learning related to 
MLs throughout their entire careers, 16 out of 52 respondents reported engaging in any such 
training beyond their credentialing program. Additionally, fewer than half of the respondents 
recalled receiving any ML-specific training during their credentialing process. Despite the 

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requirement for certification to teach MLs in the state, most participants did not recall receiving 
adequate preparation.  
 
Objective Four: Describe the perceived level of instructor competence to teach students at 
various English proficiency levels.  
Of the 56 respondents, 52 rated their confidence in meeting students' instructional needs at 
different levels of English proficiency (Table 5). Secondary SBAE teachers feel most confident 
addressing the needs of students with higher English proficiency.  
 
Table 5 
 
ML Levels and Teacher Confidence 
 
 M SD Qualifier 
Beginning 3.08 1.33 Neither Agree nor Disagree 
Intermediate 3.65 1.01 Agree 
Advanced 4.25 0.88 Agree 
Recently Redesignated 4.58 0.73 Strongly Agree 
Fluent English Speakers 4.88 0.43 Strongly Agree 

 
Specifically, 50 out of 52 teachers "Strongly Agree" (Lindner & Lindner, 2024) that they are 
prepared to meet the needs of fluent English speakers (M = 4.88, SD = 0.43) and the students 
who were recently redesignated (M = 4.58, SD = 0.73). The same teachers report "Neither 
Agree nor Disagree" when asked about their confidence in meeting the instructional needs of 
beginning-level students. (M = 3.08, SD = 1.33). The "beginning level" ML students possessed 
the least fluency and required the most assistance. 
 

Conclusions, Discussion, and Recommendations 
 
This study highlights the critical need for ongoing and targeted professional development for 
SBAE teachers (Clemons, Heidenreich, et al., 2018) to effectively support MLs. As U.S. 
classroom demographics shift, teachers need the skills and confidence to address diverse 
student needs, which can influence their retention (Coleman et al., 2020; Hansen-Thomas et al., 
2014; Clemons & Lindner, 2019). Failing to address the unique needs of MLs can have far-
reaching consequences, including diminished engagement, higher dropout rates, and reduced 
educational success (Hammond, 2015).  
 
Professional development is crucial for preparing teachers to work with MLs, regardless of 
experience, as teacher confidence improves with professional learning opportunities (Hansen-
Thomas et al., 2014). Inconsistent access to continued professional education exacerbates the 
challenges in meeting the needs of MLs, particularly those with lower English proficiency. 
 

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Teacher education programs and school systems should prioritize culturally responsive 
teaching, integrating students' cultural and linguistic backgrounds into instruction (Gay, 2018). 
Ongoing and focused training is crucial given the predominantly White, English-speaking 
respondents and the increasing diversity of student populations in this study. Opportunities for 
professional growth should address instructional strategies for developing academic 
vocabulary, essential for making content accessible, particularly in agricultural education with 
its prevalent technical language (Clemons et al., 2024; Echevarría et al., 2024). For many MLs, 
academic vocabulary is a barrier to understanding content and broader academic concepts 
(Lindner et al., 2016). 
 
Teachers should employ strategies to help students acquire specialized language through 
meaningful activities. Fostering vocabulary development helps MLs navigate complex texts and 
discussions, improving comprehension and preparing them for academic success (Hansen-
Thomas et al., 2014). Building literacy skills using familiar terms can facilitate more meaningful 
professional development (Clemons, Lindner, et al., 2018). Longitudinal studies should track the 
impact of professional development on teacher confidence and competence.  
 
Future research should explore the most effective types of professional development for 
serving MLs. Comparative studies across states or regions could illuminate best practices and 
guide the development of more effective programs. Further research is needed to address how 
race, ethnicity, and language proficiency could improve teacher preparation and student 
academic performance. Addressing these professional development needs is essential to 
cultivate a more equitable educational landscape where all students, regardless of language 
background, can thrive (Zacarian, 2023). Additionally, potential studies should investigate the 
long-term impact of professional development on teacher competence and student outcomes, 
explore the most effective types of training for serving MLs, and examine how teacher 
demographics and language proficiency influence student academic performance. 
 

Acknowledgments 
 
This manuscript is a component of a successfully completed and defended research dissertation 
by Hillary Miller. The entire dissertation may be accessed at: 
https://etd.auburn.edu//handle/10415/9485  
 
No LLM or Multimodal AI systems were used in the development of this manuscript. Grammarly 
was employed to improve punctuation and adherence to established writing and grammar 
rules.  
 
Author Contributions: H. Miller - initial document development, C. Clemons - manuscript 
writing, preparation, submission, and publishing, J. McKibben - data analysis, D. A. Cletzer - pre 
submission editing, J. Lindner - post submission review considerations and advising.  
 
 

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