































   Advancements in Agricultural Development 
  Volume 6, Issue 2, 2025 
  agdevresearch.org 

 

1. William Norris, Assistant Professor, New Mexico State University, 940 College Dr. Las Cruces, NM 88003, 

wnorris1@nmsu.edu,  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0336-370X 
 

73 

 

Stress versus Eustress: Evaluating the Effects of Compassion 
Fatigue and Secondary Traumatic Stress on Agricultural 

Educator Burnout 
 

W. Norris1 

 
 

Article History 
Received: April 6, 2025 
Accepted: June 10, 2025 
Published: July 1, 2025 
 
 
Keywords 
adverse childhood experiences 
(ACEs); childhood trauma; teacher-
student relationships; SDG 3: Good 
Heath and Well-being   

Abstract 
Traumatic events occurring during childhood (0-17 Years), or Adverse 
Childhood Experiences (ACEs), can have a negative influence on the life 
of the afflicted individual, including a substantially higher risk of 
addiction, poverty, cardiac issues, diabetes, and early death. These 
negative repercussions of ACEs can be mitigated through appropriate 
teacher-student relationships. Agricultural educators report supporting 
students with ACEs regularly, but are not confident in their abilities to 
emotionally support students in these unique situations. This ambiguity 
in the role of educators in supporting students with ACEs can cause 
compassion fatigue, secondary traumatic stress (STS), and, ultimately, 
burnout, which has proven to be one of the leading causes of agricultural 
educator attrition. This study sought to compare the effects of STS on the 
burnout of agricultural educators. The author utilized the Professional 
Quality of Life (ProQOL) survey to measure STS and burnout and gathered 
59 usable responses. The author used linear regression to compare STS’s 
effect on agricultural educator burnout, resulting in a statistically 
significant interaction that suggests STS contributes to teacher burnout. 
The findings lead the author to recommend providing mental health 
services to educators experiencing STS and offering training on strategies 
to support students facing ACEs. 

 

mailto:wnorris1@nmsu.edu
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0336-370X


Norris  Advancements in Agricultural Development 
 

https://doi.org/10.37433/aad.v6i2.595  74 
 

Introduction and Problem Statement 
 
Unfortunately, many students enrolled in agricultural education are experiencing ACEs (Norris 
& Norris-Parish, 2024) such as physical, emotional, or sexual abuse, parental divorce, neglect, 
etc. (Petruccelli et al., 2019). The presence of four or more ACEs can increase participation in 
risky behavior, such as being seven times more likely to abuse alcohol, 10 times more likely to 
use illicit drugs, and 12 times more likely to attempt suicide than individuals with no ACEs 
(Reavis et al., 2013). Additionally, individuals with ACEs have a significantly increased risk of 
health issues such as diabetes, addiction, and cardiac disease (Metzler et al., 2017; Murphey & 
Sacks, 2019; Petruccelli et al., 2019). Norris and Norris-Parish (2024) determined that 
agricultural educators often emotionally support students with ACEs but do not feel confident 
supporting students experiencing certain situations. Additionally, Schmidt et al. (2022) found 
that compassion fatigue from emotionally supporting students with ACEs can lead to secondary 
traumatic stress (STS) and contribute to educator burnout among early career educators in 
Oregon. One of the most significant challenges facing agricultural education is the difficulty of 
retaining quality agricultural educators (Lemons et al., 2015), and burnout has proven to be one 
of the primary factors driving educators out of the profession (Sorensen et al., 2016). Schmidt 
et al.’s (2022) findings suggest that STS is a significant contributor to burnout and attrition. 
Furthermore, Norris and Norris-Parish (2024) determined that approximately 10.4% of 
agricultural educators have personally experienced ACEs and are navigating their harmful 
effects. This combination of STS, compassion fatigue, and burnout, along with navigating 
personal trauma, could put some educators at an increased risk of negative health 
repercussions (Norris et al., 2025). Swedo (2023) reported that New Mexico has an above-
average incidence of ACEs, and assessing the effects of STS on New Mexico educators’ burnout 
could provide critical insight into this issue. 
 

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework 
 
The contemporary trauma theory (CTT; Goodman, 2017) guided this study in its effort to 
quantify compassion fatigue and STS’ effects on educator burnout. This theory aims to provide 
insight into the effects of ACEs on psychosocial function and how coping and resilience affect 
the behavior of individuals struggling with ACEs and ultimately mitigate the negative 
repercussions associated with multiple traumas (Goodman, 2017). Goodman (2017) stated that 
childhood trauma can negatively affect a “person’s sense of control, which may lead to 
maladaptive internalization of the event. Such maladaptive internalization may result in 
disturbance to bio-psychosocial functioning, healthy development, and brain performance in 
regions that are related to emotions, behavior, and executive functioning” (p. 187). This 
negative effect on brain development (Petruccelli et al., 2019; see Figure 1) is evident in the 
increased risky behavior of some individuals with ACEs. 
 
 
 
 

https://doi.org/10.37433/aad.v6i2.595


Norris  Advancements in Agricultural Development 
 

https://doi.org/10.37433/aad.v6i2.595  75 
 

Figure 1 
 
Mechanisms Causing Long-Term Health Effects from ACEs 

 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
Note. Model developed by the CDC (2023) and Felitti et al. (1998). 
 
This disturbance to brain development can affect classroom behavior, and Scott et al. (2013) 
report that individuals with four or more ACEs are 32 times more likely to be labeled as a 
disciplinary issue and to have poor academic performance. The CTT relies on the curative 
nature of resilience and coping and operationalizes trauma-informed strategies to influence 
behavior. In the context of this study, if agricultural educators can be equipped to implement 
the CTT effectively, it could reduce STS and burnout, improve educator confidence, and 
ultimately mitigate the long-term effects of ACEs for some SBAE students. 
 

Purpose 
 
This study sought to replicate Schmidt et al.’s (2022) study with New Mexico agricultural 
educators and evaluate compassion fatigue and STS on educator burnout. The following 
research objectives guided this study: 
1. Assess the participating agricultural educators' compassion satisfaction, secondary 

traumatic stress, and burnout scores. 
2. Evaluate the effects of secondary traumatic stress on agricultural educator burnout. 
 

Methods 
 
This study utilized a descriptive correlational research design to assess STS’s effect on 
agricultural educator burnout. The population for this study was agricultural educators in New 

https://doi.org/10.37433/aad.v6i2.595


Norris  Advancements in Agricultural Development 
 

https://doi.org/10.37433/aad.v6i2.595  76 
 

Mexico (N = 132). To maximize participation and increase the study's response rate, the author 
asked agricultural educators present at the 2024 summer teacher conference to complete the 
electronic survey. After the conference, the researcher distributed the survey to all agricultural 
educators in New Mexico and asked them to participate if they had not completed the survey 
at the conference. This effort yielded 67 responses, which equates to a 50.8% response rate. 
Within the 67 responses, there were n = 59 complete responses and n = 8 incomplete 
responses. The incomplete responses were excluded from parametric analysis due to 
insufficient data. The demographics of the participating agricultural educators determined that 
55.9% of participants were female (f = 33), 62.7% were in the early stage of their career (f = 37), 
69.5% taught in a rural school system (f = 41), and 91.5% hold either a bachelor’s or master’s 
degree. 
 
This study sought to replicate Schmidt et al.’s (2022) inquiry. The instrument utilized in this 
study was developed from the Professional Quality of Life (ProQOL) survey (Stamm, 2010). The 
ProQOL survey measures three constructs, including compassion satisfaction (pleasure you 
derive from being able to support students), burnout (fatigue, frustration, animosity towards 
your career), and secondary traumatic stress (stress derived from supporting individuals with 
trauma) (Stamm, 2010). The ProQOL survey asked participants to rate how often they felt a 
particular emotion towards their work in the last 30 days and utilized a five-point Likert scale 
ranging from 1 = Never, 2 = Rarely, 3 = Sometimes, 4 = Often, and 5 = Very Often to measure 31 
items. The instrument was modified, and the word “helper” was replaced with “teacher” to 
better represent the population. The scores from these items are totaled to calculate each 
participant's final compassion satisfaction, STS, and burnout scores. When calculating the 
burnout scores, five positively worded items must be reverse-coded to determine an accurate 
burnout measurement (Stamm, 2010). 
 
The instrument’s reliability was measured post hoc using Cronbach’s alpha reliability 
coefficients, which ranged from .75 to .92. According to Ary et al. (2010), these reliability 
coefficients meet the minimum threshold for a reliable analysis. The instrument’s validity was 
assessed by a committee of two New Mexico State University faculty members who evaluated 
its content, construct, and face validity for this population and deemed it acceptable. 
Additionally, the reliability and validity of the ProQOL instrument have been measured in 200+ 
studies and deemed appropriate (Stamm, 2010). The data for research objective one was 
analyzed using central tendencies, and research objective two was analyzed using linear 
regression and correlation coefficients. All the data in this study were analyzed using SPSS v. 
28.0. 
 
To evaluate non-response bias, the data of those who responded at the conference (n = 54), 
and those who responded to the email after the conference (n = 6) were compared using 
independent samples t-tests. Lindner et al. (2001) suggested contacting non-responders to 
collect their response and then comparing the two groups. The research accomplished this non-
response strategy by distributing an email after the conference to collect data from non-
responders. The results suggested that there were no statistically significant non-response 

https://doi.org/10.37433/aad.v6i2.595


Norris  Advancements in Agricultural Development 
 

https://doi.org/10.37433/aad.v6i2.595  77 
 

issues for burnout t(57) = -1.87, p = .85, or compassion satisfaction t(57) = .68, p = .50, and STS 
t(57) = -.02, p = .99. 
 
The results of this study are limited to the respondents because of the response rate. Krejcie 
and Morgan (1970) suggested that the sample size for a population of N = 132 should be n = 99 
to generalize to the entire population. This study received n = 59 usable responses, so the 
results should not be generalized beyond the participants in this study. 
 

Findings 
 
Research Objective One 
The first research objective aimed to assess New Mexico agricultural educators’ compassion 
satisfaction, STS, and burnout. The ProQOL survey utilized a five-point Likert scale with 31 items 
to measure these areas. The compassion satisfaction scale used 10 items to calculate the score, 
STS used 11, and burnout used 10 based on the ProQOL self-score guide (Stamm, 2010). Stamm 
(2010) suggests that a score of 22 or less indicates low impact, a moderate score is between 23-
41, and a high score is 42+. The results of this analysis suggested that the average participant 
gains moderate to high satisfaction (M = 40.08, SD = 5.76) from helping their students with 
traumatic situations such as ACEs. The compassion satisfaction scores in this study ranged from 
28 to 49, suggesting that all participants received moderate to high compassion satisfaction 
scores. Furthermore, 55.9% of participants had moderate compassion satisfaction scores, and 
44.1% had high compassion satisfaction scores. This finding aligns with Solomonson et al. 
(2021), who suggested that teachers' ability to engage students and their attitude toward 
students were among the top factors causing them to retain their career in SBAE. Agricultural 
educators’ deep admiration for their students causes many of them to retain their careers as 
educators (Solomonson et al., 2021) and leads them to support students with ACEs regularly 
(Norris et al., 2024). 
 
While this study's moderate to high compassion satisfaction scores are positive, the average 
participant also had moderate STS (M = 22.76, SD = 4.76) from supporting students with 
traumatic situations. The STS scores ranged from 14 to 33, with 47.5% (f = 28) reporting low STS 
and 52.5% (f = 31) reporting moderate levels of STS. Schmidt et al. (2022) suggested that 
compassion fatigue and STS significantly contribute to burnout in early-career agricultural 
educators in Oregon. Furthermore, Sorensen et al. (2016) determined that burnout is one of 
the leading causes of teacher attrition, which has plagued the profession for decades (Lemons 
et al., 2015). 
 
The average participant in this study reported moderate levels of burnout (M = 24.15, SD = 
5.53). The burnout scores ranged from 12 to 26, with 40.7% (f = 24) reporting low levels and 
59.3% (f = 35) reporting moderate levels (see Table 2). Table 2 reports each item's means and 
standard deviations and construct scores for compassion satisfaction, STS, and burnout. 
 
  

https://doi.org/10.37433/aad.v6i2.595


Norris  Advancements in Agricultural Development 
 

https://doi.org/10.37433/aad.v6i2.595  78 
 

Table 2 
 
Summative Scores for Compassion Satisfaction, STS, and Burnout. 

Category M SD 
Compassion Satisfaction Scale 40.08 5.76 
 I get satisfaction from being able to teach others. 4.29 .67 
 I feel invigorated after working with those I teach. 3.53 .65 
 I like my work as a teacher. 4.37 .69 
 I am pleased with how I am able to keep up with teaching techniques and 

protocols. 
3.53 .82 

 My work makes me feel satisfied. 3.97 .77 
 I have happy thoughts and feelings about those I teach and how I could help 

them. 
4.05 .75 

 I believe I can make a difference through my work. 4.25 .80 
 I am proud of what I can do teaching. 4.25 .80 
 I have thoughts that I am a "success" as a teacher. 3.63 .83 
 I am happy that I chose to do this work. 4.22 .77 
Secondary Traumatic Stress (STS) 22.76 4.76 
 I am preoccupied with more than one person I teach. 3.73 .98 
 I jump or am startled by unexpected sounds. 2.53 .82 
 I find it difficult to separate my personal life from my life as a teacher. 3.22 1.1 
 I think that I might have been affected by the traumatic stress of those I teach. 2.10 .80 
 Because of my teaching, I have felt "on edge" about various things. 2.51 1.01 
 I feel depressed because of the traumatic experiences of the people I teach. 1.86 .68 
 I feel as though I am experiencing the trauma of someone I have taught. 1.76 .73 
 I avoid certain activities or situations because they remind me of frightening 

experiences of the people I teach. 
1.61 .74 

 As a result of my teaching, I have intrusive, frightening thoughts. 1.61 .81 
 I can't recall important parts of my work with trauma victims. 1.83 .85 
Burnout 24.15 5.53 
 I am happy.* 2.07 .76 
 I feel connected to others.* 2.05 .75 
 I am not as productive at work because I am losing sleep over traumatic 

experiences of a person I teach. 
2.10 .74 

 I feel trapped by my job as a teacher. 2.05 .99 
 I have beliefs that sustain me.* 1.71 .85 
 I am the person I always wanted to be.* 2.41 .85 
 I feel worn out because of my work as a teacher. 3.56 1.01 
 I feel overwhelmed because my workload seems endless. 3.37 .96 
 I feel "bogged down" by the system. 3.07 1.07 
 I am a very caring person.* 1.76 .80 

Note. The instrument was modified from the Professional Quality of Life (ProQOL) survey developed by 
Stamm (2010). The items designated with an asterisk (*) were reverse-coded following the ProQOL Self-
Score Guide (Stamm, 2010). The Likert scale used in this study ranged from 1 = Never, 2 = Rarely, 3 = 
Sometimes, 4 = Often, to 5 = Very Often. The ProQOL measured compassion fatigue, STS, and Burnout 
using the following scale: Low is a score of 22 or less, Moderate is a score between 23-41, and High is a 
score of more than 42. 
 
 

https://doi.org/10.37433/aad.v6i2.595


Norris  Advancements in Agricultural Development 
 

https://doi.org/10.37433/aad.v6i2.595  79 
 

Research Objective Two 
A simple linear regression was employed to execute objective two and measure the association 
between STS and burnout. The results of this analysis suggested that there is a statistically 
significant association between burnout and STS [F(1, 57) = 38.87, p < .001] with an adjusted R2 
of .40 (See Table 3). This suggests that STS explains 40% of the variance in burnout. 
Additionally, the analysis suggested that as STS levels increase, burnout subsequently increases. 
These results complement the findings of Schmidt et al.’s (2022) inquiry. 
 
Table 3 
 
Regression Analysis Assessing STS Effect on Burnout 

Note. n = 59 
 
A bivariate correlation was also implemented to further assess the relationship between STS 
and burnout among New Mexico agricultural educators. A positive correlation was observed in 
the analysis using Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r = .64). This correlation coefficient suggests 
a moderate to strong relationship between STS and burnout is present (Schober et al., 2018). 
Additionally, this positive correlation is represented visually in Figure 2. 
 
Figure 2 
 
Scatterplot of the Relationship Between STS and Burnout of New Mexico Agricultural Educators 

 
 

Variable B β   p 
(Constant) 7.22 -  .01 
STS   .74 .64 <.001 

https://doi.org/10.37433/aad.v6i2.595


Norris  Advancements in Agricultural Development 
 

https://doi.org/10.37433/aad.v6i2.595  80 
 

The positive correlation between STS and burnout creates concern for the profession due to the 
legal and ethical ramifications of supporting students with ACEs. Agricultural educators are 
bound by federal and state law to report suspected physical abuse (Rogerson, 2025). 
Additionally, many agricultural educators report emotionally supporting students with ACEs 
regularly (Norris et al., 2024), and some educators with prior trauma utilize personal stories to 
build rapport with students (Norris et al., 2025). This interaction could lead to inappropriate, 
unethical, or potentially illegal situations that could cause litigious concern for agricultural 
educators (Norris et al., 2025). Furthermore, Norris and Norris-Parish (2024) determined that 
approximately 10.4% of agricultural educators have four or more ACEs and, therefore, struggle 
with the negative repercussions associated with childhood trauma. When these repercussions 
are combined with STS and burnout, it could exacerbate these symptoms, especially if the 
educators are emotionally supporting students with similar situations to their past trauma 
(Norris et al., 2025). Norris et al. (2025) described this phenomenon and developed Figure 3 to 
visually represent this potentially destructive interaction. 
 
Figure 3 
 
Interaction Between the Negative Effects of ACEs and STS Experienced by Educators   
 

 
Note. This model was developed by Norris et al. (2025) and was originally modified from the 
framework of Felitti et al. (1998) and CDC (2023). 
 
Unfortunately, some populations have a higher incidence of ACEs, such as 32.4% of Native 
Americans, 31.5% of Multi-Race individuals, 23.2% of Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islanders, 18.6% 
of Hispanics, and 18.1% of African Americans having four or more ACEs (Swedo, 2023). Swedo 
(2023) found that New Mexico has comparatively high rates of ACEs and ranks among the top 

!
!

!
!
!

!
!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!

"#A#BCD!E)GHI-)#A.L0-N.HB-2CD!PBC4)C!

RH2-CD!SHAI-.-HANLTH2CD!SHA.#8.!

9I:#BN#!S;-DI;HHI!E8<#B-#A2#N!

=-NB4<.#I!>#4BHI#:#DH<)#A.!

RH2-CD?!E)H.-HACD?!@!
SHAA-.-:#!B)<C-B)#A.!

9IH<.-HA!HC!0#CD.;!
a-Nb!c#;C:-HB!

ECBDd!
=#C.;!

=-N#CN#?!=-NCG-D-.d?!
@!RH2-CD!eBHGD#)N!

9AB-24D.4BCD!EI42C.HBN!
E)H.-HACDDd!R4<<HB.!
R.4I#A.N!f-.;!9SEN!

9AB-24D.4BCD!EI42C.HBN!f-.;!
9SEN!)Cd!;C:#!>#AC.-:#!ECC#2.N!
E8C2#BGC.#I!Gd!R#2HAICBd!
PBC4)C.-2!R.B#NN!gRPRhi!

https://doi.org/10.37433/aad.v6i2.595


Norris  Advancements in Agricultural Development 
 

https://doi.org/10.37433/aad.v6i2.595  81 
 

10 states in some ACE areas, including 28.7% of the population experiencing physical abuse (3rd 
highest in the U.S.), 16.7% experiencing sexual abuse (2nd highest in the U.S.), 20.0% growing 
up around intimate partner abuse in the home (4th highest in the U.S.), and 31.9% experiencing 
substance abuse in the home (6th Highest in the U.S.). Larson et al. (2023) found a relationship 
between the prevalence of ACEs and food insecurity in the early stages of adulthood. 
Specifically, 45.3% of individuals with four or more ACEs were food insecure compared to 15.5% 
of individuals with no ACEs. This high prevalence of ACEs throughout New Mexico increases the 
need for intervention from trained adults to mitigate the negative effects of ACEs, such as food 
insecurity and health risks. Additionally, the high prevalence of ACEs in New Mexico could 
expose those educators to more students experiencing these traumatic situations, increase 
compassion fatigue and STS, and ultimately expose them to more risk if they are navigating 
personal trauma in addition to emotionally supporting students with ACEs. 
 

Conclusions, Discussion, and Recommendations 
 
The results of this study suggest a positive association between STS and burnout, similar to the 
findings of Schmidt et al. (2022). While agricultural educators in this study and Schmidt et al. 
(2022) report experiencing a moderate level of STS, Norris et al. (2024) determined that SBAE 
educators emotionally support students with ACEs regularly. Additionally, Norris et al. (2024) 
also found that students with ACEs are drawn toward agricultural educators due to their strong 
teacher-student relationships and the experiential instruction provided by SBAE. Furthermore, 
Norris et al. (2024) found that agricultural educators implement numerous strategies to support 
students with ACEs, such as providing food to students who lack nutrition at home, donating 
clothing for official FFA dress or to wear casually, and providing hygiene items to students. The 
agricultural educator often funds these strategies, which could cause additional financial 
stresses when combined with low teacher salaries (Hanushek, 2016). 
 
The STS experienced by educators supporting students with ACEs can lead to compassion 
fatigue and burnout (Schmidt et al., 2022). The frequency at which agricultural educators 
interact with students with ACEs is significantly impacted by the socioeconomics of the school’s 
population (Norris et al., 2024). This is particularly true in states with a high prevalence of ACEs, 
such as New Mexico. Agricultural educators in New Mexico are uniquely positioned to support a 
large population of students with ACEs, especially since these unique students are drawn to 
agricultural education (Norris et al., 2024). While the support of an adult, such as an agricultural 
educator, can positively impact the afflicted students by influencing behavior choices and 
ultimately mitigating the negative repercussions of ACEs, Norris and Norris-Parish (2024) found 
that agricultural educators are not confident in their abilities to support students with ACEs. 
Overall, educators were the least confident in supporting students with issues such as sexual 
abuse and abuse among intimate partners in the household (Blinded Citation 1). This lack of 
confidence could further exacerbate the STS experienced by agricultural educators and lead to 
additional burnout. The burnout of agricultural educators is one of the leading causes of 
attrition (Lemons et al., 2015), which has plagued the profession for decades (Sorensen et al., 
2016). The attrition of agricultural educators caused the profession to lose 48 SBAE programs 

https://doi.org/10.37433/aad.v6i2.595


Norris  Advancements in Agricultural Development 
 

https://doi.org/10.37433/aad.v6i2.595  82 
 

and 86.5 positions in 26 states during the 2021-2022 academic year (Smith et al., 2023). This 
significant loss to the profession raises concerns about the effects of burnout and how to 
reduce teacher attrition. 
 
As Norris et al. (2024) noted, agricultural educators cannot replace professional mental health 
services for students suffering from ACEs. While educators have a legal and ethical obligation to 
assist students in certain instances, supporting students with ACEs cannot solely fall on 
educators due to the resulting STS. Furthermore, Harding et al. (2019) determined that teacher 
mental health and well-being are direct indicators of student well-being. Therefore, if 
agricultural educators experience STS, compassion fatigue, and burnout, their effectiveness in 
supporting students emotionally could be stunted. The researcher recommends providing 
mental health services to educators facing STS to reduce the risk of burnout and subsequent 
attrition. Additionally, providing comprehensive professional development on emotionally 
supporting students with ACEs in a constructive, legal, and ethical manner is recommended. 
This training could improve educators’ confidence in supporting students with ACEs and reduce 
STS and burnout. 
 
The researcher also recommends investigating this phenomenon through additional research 
inquiry. A qualitative study describing the effects of compassion fatigue and STS could be 
beneficial in understanding this issue. Additionally, replicating this study in other states to 
determine if STS has a positive relationship with burnout among different populations of 
agricultural educators could be valuable. 
 

Acknowledgments 
 
Funding Information: This research project was funded by New Mexico State University. 
 
Conflict of interest: There are no conflicts of interest. 
 
Previous Dissemination: This manuscript is based on data published in the paper proceedings 
of the 2025 Association of International Agricultural and Extension Education conference. 

Norris, W. (2025). Stress versus eustress: Evaluating the effects of compassion fatigue 
and secondary traumatic stress on agricultural educator burnout. Proceedings of 
the Association of International Agricultural and Extension Education (AIAEE) 
2025 Conference, Inverness, Scotland. 

 
References 

 
Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C., Sorensen, C. K., & Walker, D. A. (2010). Introduction to research in 

education (8th ed.). Cengage Learning. 

https://doi.org/10.37433/aad.v6i2.595


Norris  Advancements in Agricultural Development 
 

https://doi.org/10.37433/aad.v6i2.595  83 
 

Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2023). Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs): 
Preventing early trauma to improve adult health. 
https://www.cdc.gov/vitalsigns/aces/index.html 

Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D. F., Spitz, A. M., Edwards, V., & Marks, J. 
S. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the 
leading causes of death in adults: The adverse childhood experiences (ACE) Study. 
American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14(4), 245–258. 
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00017-8 

Goodman, R. (2017). Contemporary trauma theory and trauma-informed care in substance use 
disorders: A conceptual model for integrating coping and resilience. Advances in Social 
Work, 18(1), 186–201. https://doi.org/10.18060/21312  

Hanushek, E. A. (2016). School human capital and teacher salary policies. Journal of Professional 
Capital and Community, 1(1), 23–40. https://doi.org/10.1108/JPCC-07-2015-0002 

Harding, S., Morris, R., Gunnell, D., Ford, T., Hollingworth, W., Tilling, K., Evans, R., Bell, S., Grey, 
J., Brockman, R., Campbell, R., Araya, R., Murphy, S., & Kidger, J. (2019). Is teachers’ 
mental health and wellbeing associated with students’ mental health and 
wellbeing? Journal of Affective Disorders, 242(1), 180–187. 
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.08.080 

Krejcie, R. V., & Morgan, D. W. (1970). Determining sample size for research 
activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 30(3), 607–610. 
https://doi.org/10.1177/001316447003000308 

Larson, N., Mason, S. M., Bruening, M., Laska, M. N., Hazzard, V. M., & Neumark-Sztainer, D. 
(2023). Adverse childhood experiences and food insecurity in emerging adulthood: 
findings from the EAT 2010–2018 study. Public Health Nutrition, 26(11), 2343–2354. 
https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980023001349 

Lemons, L. L., Brashears, M. T., Burris, S., Meyers, C., & Price, M. A. (2015). Factors contributing 
to attrition as reported by leavers of secondary agriculture programs. Journal of 
Agricultural Education, 56(4), 17–30. https://doi.org/10.5032/jae.2015.04017 

Lindner, J. R., Murphy, T. H., & Briers, G. E. (2001). Handling nonresponse in social science 
research. Journal of Agricultural Education, 42(4), 43–53. 
https://doi.org/10.5032/jae.2001.04043 

Metzler, M., Merrick, M. T., Klevens, J., Ports, K. A., & Ford, D. C. (2017). Adverse childhood 
experiences and life opportunities: Shifting the narrative. Children and Youth Services 
Review, 72(1), 141–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.10.021 

https://doi.org/10.37433/aad.v6i2.595
https://www.cdc.gov/vitalsigns/aces/index.html
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00017-8
https://doi.org/10.18060/21312
https://doi.org/10.1108/JPCC-07-2015-0002
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.08.080
https://doi.org/10.1177/001316447003000308
https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980023001349
https://doi.org/10.5032/jae.2015.04017
https://doi.org/10.5032/jae.2001.04043
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.10.021


Norris  Advancements in Agricultural Development 
 

https://doi.org/10.37433/aad.v6i2.595  84 
 

Murphey, D., & Sacks, V. (2019). Supporting students with adverse childhood experiences: How 
educators and schools can help. American Educator, 43(2), 8–11. 
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1218833.pdf 

Norris, W., & Norris-Parish, S. (2024). The emotional duties of an agricultural educator: 
Evaluating the confidence levels of agricultural educators to support students with 
adverse childhood experiences. Journal of Agricultural Education, 65(1), 193–209. 
https://doi.org/10.5032/jae.v65i1.2460 

Norris, W., Norris-Parish, S., & Greene, P. (2024). More than a lesson: A qualitative analysis of 
agricultural educators’ impact on students with adverse childhood experiences. Journal 
of Agricultural Education, 65(4), 225–243. https://doi.org/10.5032/jae.v65i4.2900 

Norris, W., Norris-Parish, S., & Greene-Lippard, P. (2025). Rising above the suffering: Assessing 
agricultural educators with traumatic situations involvement in supporting students with 
adverse childhood experiences. Journal of Agricultural Education, 66(1), Article 47. 
https://doi.org/10.5032/jae.v66i1.2930 

Petruccelli, K., Davis, J., & Berman, T. (2019). Adverse childhood experiences and associated 
health outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Child Abuse & Neglect, 97(2), 
112–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104127  

Reavis, J. A., Looman, J., Franco, K. A., & Rojas, B. (2013). Adverse childhood experiences and 
adult criminality: How long must we live before we possess our own lives? The 
Permanente Journal, 17(2), 44–48. https://doi.org/10.7812/TPP/12-072 

Rogerson, C. V. (2025). To report or not report? How attitudes, values, and knowledge play a 
role in mandated reporting. Journal of Public Child Welfare, 19(1), 168–189. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/15548732.2024.2307940 

Schmidt, K. J., Milliken, D. B., Morales, A., Traini, H. Q., & Velez, J. J. (2022). When teaching 
hurts: Exploring the secondary traumatic stress experiences of early-career SBAE 
teachers. Journal of Agricultural Education, 63(3), 216–232. 
https://doi.org/10.5032/jae.2022.03216 

Schober, P., Boer, C., & Schwarte, L. A. (2018). Correlation coefficients: Appropriate use and 
interpretation. Anesthesia & Analgesia, 126(5), 1763–1768. 
https://doi.org/10.1213/ane.0000000000002864 

Scott, B. G., Burke, N. J., Weems, C. F., Hellman, J. L., & Carrion, V. G. (2013). The interrelation 
of adverse childhood experiences within an at-risk pediatric sample. Journal of Child & 
Adolescent Trauma, 6(1), 217–229. https://doi.org/10.1080/19361521.2013.811459 

Smith, A. R., Foster, D. D., & Lawver, R. G. (2023). National Agricultural Education Supply and 
Demand Study, 2022 Executive Summary. 
http://aaaeonline.org/Resources/Documents/NSD 2022Summary.pdf  

https://doi.org/10.37433/aad.v6i2.595
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1218833.pdf
https://doi.org/10.5032/jae.v65i1.2460
https://doi.org/10.5032/jae.v65i4.2900
https://doi.org/10.5032/jae.v66i1.2930
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104127
https://doi.org/10.7812/TPP/12-072
https://doi.org/10.1080/15548732.2024.2307940
https://doi.org/10.5032/jae.2022.03216
https://doi.org/10.1213/ane.0000000000002864
https://doi.org/10.1080/19361521.2013.811459


Norris  Advancements in Agricultural Development 
 

https://doi.org/10.37433/aad.v6i2.595  85 
 

Solomonson, J., Still, S., & Maxwell, L. (2021). Factors influencing the decision of Illinois school-
based agricultural education teachers to remain in the profession. Journal of Agricultural 
Education, 62(3), 121–137. https://doi.org/10.5032/jae.2021.03121 

Sorensen, T. J., McKim, A. J., & Velez, J. J. (2016). A national study of work-family balance and 
job satisfaction among agriculture teachers. Journal of Agricultural Education, 57(4), 
146–159. https://doi.org/10.5032/jae.2016.04146 

Stamm, B. H. (2010). The Concise ProQOL Manual (2nd ed.). 
https://img1.wsimg.com/blobby/go/dfc1e1a0-a1db-4456-9391-
18746725179b/downloads/ProQOL%20Manual.pdf?ver=1622839353725 

Swedo, E. A. (2023). Prevalence of adverse childhood experiences among US adults—behavioral 
risk factor surveillance system, 2011–2020. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly 
Report, 72(26), 707–715.  http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm7226a2 

 
© 2025 by authors. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of 
the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). 
 

https://doi.org/10.37433/aad.v6i2.595
https://doi.org/10.5032/jae.2021.03121
https://doi.org/10.5032/jae.2016.04146
http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm7226a2

