































   Advancements in Agricultural Development 
  Volume 6, Issue 4, 2025 
  agdevresearch.org 

 

1. Suzanna Windon, Associate Professor, Department of Agricultural Economics, Sociology, and Education, Pennsylvania State 

University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA sxk75@psu.edu,  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9103-5123 
2. Hosung You, Ph.D. Candidate, Workforce Education and Development Program, College of Education, Pennsylvania State 

University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA, hfy5138@psu.edul,  https://orcid.org/0009-0008-3920-8243 
3. Aastha Adhikari, Graduate Student, Department of Agricultural Economics, Sociology, and Education, Pennsylvania State 

University, State College, 16801, USA, aasthamsc2022@gmail.com  https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7614-6864 
 

76 

 

How Education Shapes Volunteer Motivation and Experience: 
Lessons from Master Gardeners and Watershed Stewards 

During COVID-19 
 

S. Windon1, H. You2, A. Adhikari3 
 

 
Article History 
Received: June 14, 2025 
Accepted: October 28, 2025 
Published: December 17, 2025 
 
 
Keywords 
master gardeners; master watershed 
stewards; graduate degree; non-
graduate degree;  
SDG 4: Quality Education   

Abstract 
This study investigates how educational attainment shaped the 
motivations and experiences of Extension Master Gardeners (MGs) and 
Master Watershed Stewards (MWSs) during the initial phase of the 
COVID-19 pandemic. The pandemic’s disruptions provided a unique 
context for examining how volunteers with differing educational 
backgrounds engaged with Extension programming and adapted their 
roles. This research is part of a larger project that examined the 
relationships between volunteer leadership competencies and 
stewardship behaviors within Penn State Extension's MG and MWS 
programs. An online questionnaire was distributed to 3,000 volunteers, 
yielding 1,196 responses (39.9% response rate). Of these, 331 
participants (27.7%) provided open-ended responses describing their 
motivations and experiences, which were analyzed in this study. A mixed-
methods design integrated thematic analysis, Latent Dirichlet Allocation 
(LDA) topic modeling, natural language processing, and principal 
component analysis (PCA). Results indicated that volunteers with 
graduate degrees frequently assumed strategic and leadership-oriented 
roles emphasizing virtual engagement and innovation, while those 
without graduate degrees focused on hands-on service, community 
outreach, and applied learning. Despite these variations, both groups 
demonstrated resilience and a strong commitment to service. Findings 
underscore the importance of aligning volunteer roles with educational 
backgrounds to enhance engagement, satisfaction, and program 
effectiveness. Implications for Extension programming and future 
research are discussed. 

 

mailto:sxk75@psu.edu
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9103-5123
mailto:hfy5138@psu.edul
https://orcid.org/0009-0008-3920-8243
mailto:aasthamsc2022@gmail.com
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7614-6864


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Introduction and Problem Statement 
 
Volunteerism involves individuals contributing their time and expertise to advance community 
or nonprofit goals (Stukas et al., 2014). In the United States, Extension organizations play a key 
role in empowering communities by providing volunteer education and training opportunities, 
even amid global uncertainty and rapid change (Osafo, 2020). Volunteers are critical to 
delivering educational outreach that enhances community resilience and facilitates knowledge 
sharing within the Cooperative Extension system. 
 
Among these efforts, the Master Gardener (MG) and Master Watershed Steward (MWS) 
programs are particularly significant, as they foster public awareness of horticulture and 
environmental conservation (Blair et al., 2021; Eiseman et al., 2020). Investing in volunteer 
learning and leadership within these programs produces social and economic returns. For 
example, the work of Master Gardener volunteers as community educators has been valued at 
approximately $9 million in economic impact (Strong & Harder, 2011). Through hands-on 
training and leadership development, MG and MWS programs prepare participants to share 
their gardening and watershed management expertise while serving as leaders within their 
local communities (Dorn et al., 2019). 
 
In 2020, the global COVID-19 pandemic disrupted these efforts in an unprecedented manner. 
Health restrictions halted most in-person volunteer activities, compelling organizations such as 
Cooperative Extension to swiftly transition to virtual platforms and implement new safety 
measures to sustain engagement (Israel et al., 2020). 
 
Although past crises have demonstrated that volunteers often intensify their commitment 
during emergencies, seeking purpose and social connection through service (Miao et al., 2021), 
the pandemic introduced distinctive challenges. Social isolation, health-related anxieties, and 
the abrupt shift to digital modes of participation complicated the traditional dynamics of 
volunteer engagement (Principi et al., 2022). 
 
Given the disruption caused by the pandemic, examining what motivates and sustains these 
volunteers is crucial for maintaining program continuity and community impact (Dorn et al., 
2021). This study examines how MGs and MWSs remained engaged during the early stages of 
the pandemic and investigates whether their educational backgrounds influenced their 
motivations for serving. 
 

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework 
 
Motivation for Volunteering 
In the functional approach to volunteer motivation, Clary and Snyder (1999) and colleagues 
developed the Volunteer Functions Inventory (VFI) to categorize six primary motivations: 
values, understanding, social, career, protective, and enhancement (Clary et al., 1998). The 
Values function refers to altruistic motives, such as volunteering to help others and contributing 

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to the greater good, which reflects deeply held personal values and civic responsibility 
(Agostinho & Paço, 2012; Clary et al., 1998). This altruistic drive often brings personal 
fulfillment and is frequently cited as a core reason people engage in community service 
(Bruyere & Rappe, 2007).  
 
The Understanding function involves a desire for new knowledge and skills; volunteers are 
motivated by opportunities to learn and to apply their expertise in real-world settings (Clary et 
al., 1998). Especially in educational or environmental programs, volunteers seek to deepen 
their understanding of community issues and gain horticultural or scientific knowledge through 
service. The Career function pertains to utilitarian benefits, such as volunteering to gain 
experience, maintain skills, or explore new career paths (Clary et al., 1998). This motive is 
common among younger or early-career individuals who view volunteer service as a means of 
professional development or building their résumé. 
 
The Social function of volunteering emphasizes relationships and a sense of belonging. Many 
volunteers are driven by the social aspects, such as being part of a group, making friends, or 
engaging in an activity that is viewed favorably by one’s social network (Clary et al., 1998; Mohd 
Rashid et al., 2023). Social motivations can reinforce a sense of community and encourage 
sustained involvement through camaraderie and peer support. Finally, the Protective and 
Enhancement functions capture motivations tied to self-concept. The Protective function 
involves volunteering to reduce guilt or address personal issues, essentially to protect the ego 
from negative feelings (e.g., offsetting one’s relative privilege by giving back) (Clary et al., 1998). 
The Enhancement function goes beyond protection, seeking to enhance one’s self-esteem and 
personal growth through service (Clary et al., 1998). Volunteers motivated by enhancement 
report that volunteering lifts their mood, increases their self-worth, and provides satisfaction 
from doing something meaningful. Together, these functions demonstrate that volunteer 
motivation is multifaceted; many volunteers are drawn to service by a combination of altruistic 
and self-oriented incentives. 
 
Cultural and personal norms can also influence volunteer motivation. Social and moral 
obligations often play a role. For example, some individuals feel a sense of duty or moral 
obligation to engage in their communities. Those driven by duty may volunteer because they 
feel it is the “right thing to do,” or because of normative pressure from family, religion, or 
community expectations (Okun, 1994). Research has shown that fulfilling a moral obligation 
(e.g., to “give back” or serve one’s community) is a significant predictor of frequent 
volunteering, especially among older adults. Similarly, among college students, perceived moral 
obligation to help others can strongly predict intentions to volunteer for community service 
(Hyde & Knowles, 2013). In such cases, the value motive is intertwined with personal identity 
and ethical self-concept. Volunteers may publicly emphasize altruistic reasons for volunteering, 
which are socially applauded, even as they also pursue personal benefits, such as learning or 
networking (Grimm & Needham, 2011; Kiptot et al., 2016). This dynamic interplay, sometimes 
described as “altruistic individualism,” suggests that volunteers simultaneously seek to benefit 
others and themselves (Kiptot et al., 2016; Peachey et al., 2013). For Extension volunteer 
programs, recognizing the spectrum of volunteer motivations is crucial. Recruitment and 

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retention strategies should address this diversity, offering opportunities that fulfill volunteers’ 
desires to do good, learn, socialize, advance their careers, and find personal fulfillment. 
 
Impact of Volunteerism on Local Communities 
Community volunteer programs foster social cohesion, civic engagement, and resilience 
(Jenkinson et al., 2013). In community health, volunteer-led initiatives have improved access to 
essential resources, including nutritious food and healthcare information, which in turn 
correlates with better health outcomes for community members (Baker et al., 2020). By 
improving local food security—through community gardens, food drives, nutrition workshops, 
and other initiatives—volunteers help address public health issues such as hunger and poor 
nutrition, promoting social interaction and mutual support (Baker et al., 2020). These efforts 
can reduce isolation and foster supportive relationships, which are particularly valuable in times 
of uncertainty or crisis. 
 
Environmental volunteers support conservation efforts, promoting sustainability and ecosystem 
health (Demirović et al., 2018; Hsiao et al., 2019). Research indicates that volunteers in 
environmental programs contribute significantly to ecological outcomes, including increased 
recycling rates, improved urban green spaces, and the conservation of local watersheds (Hsiao 
et al., 2019).  
 
Beyond the direct ecological benefits, involving community members in environmental projects 
raises environmental awareness and advocacy. People who volunteer for environmental causes 
often adopt more sustainable behaviors in their personal lives and influence others to do the 
same (Demirović et al., 2018). Moreover, volunteer labor provides significant economic value 
by offsetting personnel costs and contributing millions of dollars’ worth of service to 
environmental and educational initiatives (Kirk-Ballard et al., 2024). For example, a coordinated 
community clean-up led by volunteers can save a municipality substantial funds while 
engendering community pride. Importantly, volunteers often become ambassadors for 
environmental issues, educating their peers and advocating for policy changes at the local level 
(Demirović et al., 2018).  
 
MG and MWS Challenges During COVID-19 and Educational Background 
The U.S. Cooperative Extension System effectively engages volunteers through specialized 
initiatives such as the Master Gardener (MG) and Master Watershed Steward (MWS) programs. 
These initiatives demonstrate how volunteer networks can expand the reach of educational 
institutions and enhance their community impact.  
 
Master Gardeners are community volunteers who receive extensive horticultural training to 
help Extension professionals share research-based gardening knowledge with the public. 
Training typically involves 40–80 hours of instruction covering plant biology, soil management, 
pest control, and sustainable gardening practices. In exchange, volunteers contribute service 
hours, commonly 50 hours in their first year and additional hours in subsequent years, to retain 
their certification (Blair et al., 2021). MGs engage in various outreach efforts, including 
conducting educational workshops, providing guidance through garden hotlines, creating 

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community gardens, and supporting public events such as fairs and farmers’ markets (Bennett 
et al., 2013; Kirk-Ballard et al., 2024). These activities promote environmentally responsible 
gardening and enhance community food production, urban green infrastructure, and public 
understanding of horticultural science (Strong & Harder, 2011; Windon et al., 2023). 
 
Beyond education, MG-led projects contribute to food security and nutrition by increasing 
access to locally grown produce and encouraging biodiversity by cultivating native plant 
species. In cities and suburbs, initiatives such as pollinator gardens and tree plantings help 
sustain ecosystem connectivity and mitigate biodiversity loss (Goddard et al., 2010). 
 
Similarly, Master Watershed Stewards complete in-depth training on water resource 
management and environmental stewardship. Their coursework emphasizes watershed 
dynamics, water quality assessment, stream restoration, and community-based pollution 
prevention strategies (Eiseman et al., 2020). MWS volunteers collaborate with Extension 
educators and conservation partners on stream cleanups, riparian buffer restoration, rain 
garden construction, and public education on stormwater management. Through these efforts, 
they help extend the capacity of local and regional agencies to monitor and protect water 
resources. 
 
The pandemic disrupted MG and MWS programs by limiting in-person activities, especially 
impacting older adults and those without digital access (Giua et al., 2021; Principi et al., 2022). 
Coordinators responded with virtual tools, solo projects, and urgent community support, such 
as addressing food insecurity (Corley et al., 2021; Eiseman et al., 2020; Lopez et al., 2021). This 
revealed volunteer resilience and increased altruism (Mak & Fancourt, 2021). Educational 
attainment influences engagement: volunteers with graduate degrees often prefer leadership 
and civic roles (Ferreira et al., 2012; Posner, 2015), whereas those without advanced degrees 
tend to emphasize hands-on impact and community ties (Van Sickle et al., 2015). Although 
motivations overlap, engagement differs (Windon et al., 2023). This study examines how 
motivations vary by education, analyzing narratives to inform the development of inclusive 
volunteer strategies. 
 

Purpose 
 
This study is an extension of a larger research project examining the relationship between 
volunteer leadership competencies and stewardship action-taking experiences among Penn 
State Extension Master Gardener (MG) and Master Watershed (MW) volunteers. Building on 
that foundation, the present study investigates the factors that influenced MGs and MWSs 
during the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic, with particular attention to how educational 
attainment, specifically, whether volunteers held a graduate degree, shaped their motivations 
and experiences. The pandemic provided a distinctive context for exploring volunteer 
engagement amid widespread disruption and uncertainty. Guided by the research question, 
'How did educational attainment shape volunteer motivation and experience among Extension 
MGs and MWSs during COVID-19?' this study seeks to advance the understanding of volunteer 

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behavior and resilience in times of crisis. The insights gained will help Extension program 
coordinators design engagement strategies that better align with volunteers’ intrinsic 
motivations, supporting crisis response and ongoing program effectiveness. 
 

Methods 
 
Research Design and Context  
This study analyzes open-ended responses from a broader cross-sectional online survey of Penn 
State Extension MGs and MWSs, focused on volunteer motivations during early COVID-19 
restrictions.  We followed Dillman et al’s (2014) method and surveyed 3,000 MGs and MWSs, 
receiving 1,196 responses (39.9% response rate). Of these, 331 participants (27.7%) provided 
open-ended responses describing their motivations and experiences, which were analyzed in 
this study. A mixed-methods design integrated thematic analysis, Latent Dirichlet Allocation 
(LDA) topic modeling, natural language processing, and principal component analysis (PCA). We 
consulted Braun and Clarke's (2006) thematic analysis and Latent Dirichlet Allocation topic 
modeling (Blei et al., 2003) to identify and interpret patterns in the narratives. Three 
researchers independently coded responses, refining a codebook collaboratively through 
inductive and deductive processes guided by volunteer motivation theory (Clary et al., 1998). 
Peer debriefing ensured rigor and confirmed consistency between the manual and web analysis 
results. Our mixed-methods approach integrated NLP preprocessing, LDA topic modeling (Blei 
et al., 2003) with hyperparameter tuning, and PCA visualization, followed by collaborative 
qualitative interpretation within Clary et al.'s (1998) motivation theory framework, as discussed 
above.   
 
Data Collection 
For this study, we examined a subset of survey responses that included narrative comments 
submitted in response to an open-ended question about volunteer experiences and 
motivations during the COVID-19 pandemic. Specifically, participants were prompted to 
"describe your experiences as a Master Gardener/Watershed Steward during the COVID-19 
pandemic, including what motivated you to continue (or not continue) your volunteer service." 
We collected demographic information through the initial online survey.  Key variables included 
participants’ highest level of education, years of volunteer experience, and current employment 
status. For this study, we created a dichotomous education variable: “Graduate Degree” 
(master’s or doctoral degree) versus “Non-Graduate Degree” (associate’s degree, bachelor’s 
degree, or no college degree). After excluding incomplete or off-topic entries, we analyzed 
qualitative responses from 331 study participants in the final analytic sample. Of these, 150 
(45.3%) held a graduate degree, while 181 (54.7%) did not. Most participants had multiple years 
of experience, ranging from 1 to 2 years for newer volunteers to over 20 years for long-term 
participants.  
 
Table 1 displays the distribution of volunteer experience and employment status across 
educational levels. We conducted chi-square tests to determine whether significant differences 
exist between volunteers with and without graduate degrees on these variables. The 

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distribution of volunteer tenure did not significantly differ between those with graduate 
degrees and those without (p = .212). Both educational groups were similarly represented 
across all experience categories, from early-stage volunteers (1–3 years) to those with over a 
decade of service. This suggests that educational attainment did not correspond with longer or 
shorter engagement in Extension volunteer programs. 
 
Table 1 
Volunteer Characteristics by Educational Level: Years of Volunteer Experience and Employment 
Status 

Items  Graduate 
Degree, % 

Non-Graduate 
Degree, % n p-value 

 
Total  150 181 331  

Years of 
volunteering 
experience 

1-3 years 44 (46.6) 51 (53.4) 95 

.212 
3-5 years 21 (40.4) 31 (59.6) 62 
5-10 years 40 (46.5) 46 (53.5) 52 
11-19 years 27 (43.5) 35 (56.5) 86 
Unknown 18 (50) 18 (50) 36 

Employment Status 

Full-time 26 (44.8) 32 (55.2) 58 

≤.05 
Other 16 (25.8) 46 (74.2) 62 
Part-time 9 (42.9) 12 (57.1) 21 
Retired 82 (47.9) 88 (52.1) 170 
Self-employed 9 (42.9) 12 (57.1) 21 

 
Employment status, however, showed a marginally significant difference between groups (p = 
.05). Volunteers without graduate degrees were more likely to report "Other" forms of 
employment (74.2%) compared to their graduate-educated counterparts (25.8%). Conversely, a 
greater proportion of graduate degree holders reported full-time employment (44.8% vs. 
55.2%) and retirement (47.9% vs. 52.1%). These patterns may suggest subtle differences in time 
availability or employment flexibility, which could potentially shape how and why individuals 
engage with volunteer service. However, the overall comparability between the two groups 
supports the validity of subsequent thematic comparisons in volunteer motivations. 
 
Participants 
We divided participants based on their highest degree attained: 45.3% held a graduate degree, 
while 54.7% did not. The two groups did not differ significantly in volunteer tenure (χ² = 5.83, p 
= .21) but showed a slight difference in employment status (χ² = 9.49, p = .05), warranting 
further consideration. 
 
Data Preparation  
We exported 331 open-ended survey responses for qualitative analysis and applied multiple 
strategies to ensure credibility and analytical rigor. Three researchers independently coded the 
data and reviewed Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) topics, resolving discrepancies 
collaboratively to minimize bias (Creswell, 1998). We incorporated participant quotes to ground 
interpretations and triangulated findings from LDA, Principal Component Analysis (PCA), and 

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manual coding to enhance contextual accuracy (Griffiths & Steyvers, 2004). LDA provided a 
foundation for deeper qualitative interpretation. 
 
Quantitative data underwent verification, with chi-square tests (p < .05) and Fisher’s exact tests 
applied as appropriate. To maintain consistency, we performed standard text preprocessing, 
including lowercasing, cleaning, and tokenizing the text, correcting typographical errors, and 
standardizing terminology (e.g., combining “MG” and “Master Gardener” under a single label). 
We removed common stop words (e.g., “the,” “and,” “to”) and generated bigrams to retain 
meaningful fixed phrases such as “food pantry.” 
 
We eliminated personally identifying details, including names and geographic references, to 
protect respondent confidentiality. We also reviewed highly frequent context-specific terms 
like “COVID” and “pandemic,” flagging them to prevent these dominant words from 
overshadowing subtler motivational themes. 
 
After preprocessing, the dataset was ready for computational and thematic analysis. The final 
corpus contained several thousand words reflecting diverse volunteer perspectives on 
motivation, challenges, emotions, and actions during the pandemic. Three researchers each 
open-coded 20% of responses before developing and applying a shared codebook across the 
whole dataset, achieving intercoder agreement above 0.80. To further strengthen 
confirmability, we employed peer debriefing and negative-case analysis following Lincoln and 
Guba’s trustworthiness framework as summarized by Creswell (1998). 
 
Analytic Workflow 
As shown in Figure 1, our process unfolded in three phases. We administered a web survey that 
yielded 1,196 responses (39.9% return rate) and 331 (27.7%) for MGs and MWSs volunteers, 
with (n=150) and without (n=181) graduate degrees. We used LDA, a topic modeling technique, 
to identify latent themes in volunteer responses, treating each response as a mixture of topics 
(Blei et al., 2003; Inoue et al., 2022). To visualize topic relationships and reduce dimensionality, 
we applied Principal Component Analysis (PCA) (Hotelling, 1933). Using Python’s Gensim, we 
selected a five-topic model based on coherence scores (Röder et al., 2015). Separate LDA 
models were run to explore motivation differences for volunteers with (n=150) and without 
(n=181) graduate degrees. Topics were labeled collaboratively, combining inductive analysis 
with frameworks like the Volunteer Functions Inventory (Braun & Clarke, 2006; Clary et al., 
1998). Two researchers independently reviewed data and resolved discrepancies to ensure 
rigor (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Triangulating LDA, PCA, and manual coding grounded 
interpretations in participants’ words (Griffiths & Steyvers, 2004). Quantitative results were 
verified using chi-square and Fisher’s exact tests (p < .05). This mixed-methods approach 
strengthened the validity and depth of the findings. 
 
Two analysts identified topics by drawing on the Volunteer Functions Inventory and thematic 
heuristics (Braun & Clarke, 2006; Clary & Snyder, 1999), achieving a κ value of greater than .80. 
We translated the model outputs into meaningful insights during interpretation, identifying 
community non-graduates and leadership graduates. Three overarching themes—pandemic 

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adaptation, community commitment, and personal development emerged from the ten LDA 
topics listed in Table 2. We confirmed these findings through peer debriefing and triangulation 
across LDA, PCA, and manual coding (Griffiths & Steyvers, 2004; Lincoln & Guba, 1985). 
 
Figure 1 
Thematic Analysis Process (Consolidated): From LDA Topic Modeling to Emergent Themes in 
MGs and MWSs 

 
 
Analysis with Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) 
We applied Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA), a probabilistic topic modeling technique 
developed by Blei et al. (2003), to identify latent themes within the volunteer narratives. LDA is 
particularly effective for uncovering underlying thematic structures in large bodies of text. It 
operates under the assumption that each document, in this case, each volunteer comment, 
represents a mixture of topics, and that each topic consists of a set of words that tend to co-
occur across the corpus.  
 
We selected LDA for its ability to inductively generate topic clusters without predefined coding 
schemes, aligning well with the exploratory nature of our research. We followed three steps to 
conduct the LDA analysis.  
 
Step 1. We implemented the model using the Gensim library in Python and experimented with 
various model parameters, including the number of topics. We evaluated model performance 
using coherence scores and qualitative interpretability. Based on these assessments, we 
identified five topics as the optimal number for each subgroup (volunteers with graduate 
degrees and those without). Preliminary models indicated that additional topics offered 
diminishing thematic distinction, whereas five-topic solutions struck a balance between 
parsimony and thematic richness. 
 

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Step 2. We conducted separate LDA analyses on two subsets of the data: one comprising 
responses from volunteers with graduate degrees and the other from those without. This 
approach enabled us to identify topic structures that may be distinct for each educational 
group. The LDA model generated a set of topics for each subgroup, each defined by a list of 
high-probability keywords. To interpret these topics, we reviewed the top 10–15 keywords 
associated with each and examined representative excerpts—individual responses that the 
model assigned a high probability of belonging to a given topic. This process allowed us to 
anchor abstract topic structures in the language and expressions used by the volunteers 
themselves. 
 
Step 3. We collaboratively assigned descriptive labels to each topic (e.g., “Adaptation and 
Learning,” “Community Outreach Challenges”) through an iterative process involving discussion 
and cross-validation among the research team. While LDA facilitated the identification of 
thematic patterns in a large textual dataset, our interpretation was informed by inductive 
insights emerging from the data and deductive reasoning grounded in established frameworks 
of volunteer motivation. By integrating algorithmic modeling with human interpretive analysis, 
we aimed to maintain contextual sensitivity and enhance the trustworthiness and depth of our 
findings. 
 
Principal Component Analysis and Topic Visualization 
Following topic identification using the LDA, we examined the relationships among topics 
within and across the two volunteer subgroups. To achieve this, we used Principal Component 
Analysis (PCA), a dimensionality reduction method introduced by Hotelling (1933). PCA 
transforms high-dimensional data, in this case, the word probability distributions that define 
each LDA-derived topic, into a smaller set of orthogonal components that capture the greatest 
variance in the data. We used PCA to project the five topics from each subgroup into a two-
dimensional space, allowing for visual comparison of topic similarity and divergence. This 
visualization facilitated the identification of thematic proximity and potential overlaps or 
distinctions between topics generated for graduate-degree and non-graduate-degree 
volunteers. 
 
We generated two separate scatterplots to visualize the topic structures identified through 
LDA: one for the five topics derived from graduate-degree volunteers and one for those from 
non-graduate-degree volunteers. In each plot, individual points represent topics, positioned 
according to their coordinates on the first two principal components from the PCA. This 
visualization allowed us to assess which topics clustered closely, indicating thematic similarity, 
and which appeared as outliers, suggesting distinct or unique themes.  
 
We aimed to identify the shared and distinct motivational patterns of the two groups. We 
expected some conceptual overlap, such as themes related to adapting to pandemic-related 
changes, while anticipating that other topics would reveal experiences or values unique to each 
group.  
 

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We compared the two PCA plots (Figure 2 for the graduate group and Figure 3 for the non-
graduate group) to assess where themes converged or diverged qualitatively. When both plots 
displayed clusters related to education or learning, we interpreted this as evidence of an 
everyday motivational driver. In contrast, if the graduate-degree group exhibited a distinct and 
isolated cluster associated with “leadership,” we viewed this as an indication that leadership 
held greater relevance or was expressed differently among volunteers with higher educational 
attainment. 
 
Trustworthiness and Rigor 
We implemented several validation strategies to enhance the credibility and dependability of 
our findings. During data coding and interpretation, we employed investigator triangulation, 
where two researchers independently reviewed subsets of responses and LDA topics, resolving 
differences through discussion and refining topic labels collaboratively. This process minimized 
individual bias and supported analytic rigor (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, as cited in Creswell, 1998). 
We also incorporated long text descriptions by presenting illustrative quotes for each theme, 
grounding interpretations in participants’ words. Methodologically, we triangulated 
computational techniques (LDA and PCA) with manual qualitative review to ensure that 
algorithmically derived patterns were contextually meaningful (Griffiths & Steyvers, 2004). We 
treated LDA outputs as heuristic tools for deeper qualitative interpretation. For the quantitative 
analysis, we verified accuracy by double-checking the data and statistical procedures. Chi-
square tests were conducted at a 0.05 significance level, with Fisher’s exact test used when 
assumptions were not met. Together, these strategies enhanced trustworthiness and 
interpretive clarity of our results. 
 

Findings 
 
LDA-Derived Topics Among MG and MWS with a Graduate Degree 
Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) generated five distinct topics from the open-ended responses 
provided by volunteers with graduate degrees. Each topic was defined by a set of terms with 
high probability weights, as determined by the LDA model’s word distributions, rather than by 
simple word frequency.  
 
Topic 1: Personal Development and Pandemic Constraints. This topic captured volunteers’ 
reflections on the dual nature of their experience, highlighting both the opportunities and 
limitations associated with their involvement. Respondents frequently mentioned a desire to 
“gain experience” or improve their gardening skills, reflecting a motivation for personal 
enrichment amid the challenges of pandemic-related safety protocols and scheduling 
adjustments.  
 
Topic 2: Training Demands and Emotional Ambivalence. Comments on this topic expressed 
mixed feelings about increased training or volunteering expectations. While some respondents 
appreciated the chance to learn and contribute, others described feeling overwhelmed or 

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burdened. This tension between perceived obligation and personal growth underscored a 
complex emotional response to expanded responsibilities during a disruptive period.  
 
Topic 3: Collaboration and Adaptability. This theme emphasized group-based engagement, 
including online classes, virtual meetings, and collaborative community initiatives. Despite 
disruptions caused by COVID-19, many participants voiced a continued commitment to 
volunteering in whatever capacity was possible, signaling resilience and adaptability in the face 
of shifting circumstances.  
 
Topic 4: Leadership and Outreach Challenges. This topic reflected participants’ leadership 
orientation and focus on public engagement in horticultural and environmental domains. While 
there were many noted barriers to information sharing during in-person restrictions, they 
remained proactive in sustaining outreach efforts and engaging fellow volunteers.  
 
Topic 5: Optimism and Goal Orientation. The final topic highlighted a forward-looking 
perspective on horticultural expertise and institutional milestones. Respondents frequently 
referenced “native plants,” specific “requirements”, and organizational guidelines, often 
framing their involvement as a source of optimism and purpose, even amid pandemic-related 
disruptions. 
 
Visualization: MG and MWS with a Graduate Degree 
Figure 2 presents a two-dimensional PCA plot of five topics derived from MG and MWS 
volunteers with graduate degrees, explaining 83.7% of the variance (PC1: 59.4%, PC2: 24.3%). 
Topics 1, 3, and 4 cluster together, reflecting overlapping themes of community involvement, 
leadership, and hands-on volunteering. Their low cosine distances suggest that they share 
similar motivations. Topic 5, focused on horticultural knowledge (e.g., “native plants”), stands 
apart on the horizontal axis, indicating a distinct motivational dimension. Topic 2, located 
higher on the vertical axis, centers on emotional experiences, with terms like “feel” and 
“enjoy,” highlighting the personal and subjective aspects of volunteering. 
 
LDA-Derived Topics Among MG and MWS without Graduate Degree 
Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) identified five distinct topics from the open-ended responses 
of MG and MWS volunteers without graduate degrees.   
 
Topic 1: Resilience in the Face of Disruption. This topic captured volunteers’ reflections on the 
disruptions caused by the pandemic, alongside their continued determination to “keep going.” 
Many participants emphasized the importance of acquiring new knowledge and experiences, 
which suggested an adaptive mindset despite ongoing uncertainties and challenges.  
 
Topic 2: Community Education and Outreach Motivation. Respondents in this topic 
emphasized their enthusiasm for community education and their personal motivation to 
expand outreach efforts. While acknowledging the constraints of COVID-19 on public events 
and face-to-face interactions, volunteers expressed a strong desire to bridge knowledge gaps 
and connect with others through alternative means.  

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Topic 3: Volunteering and Personal Responsibilities. This topic highlighted the tension between 
volunteering and personal obligations, particularly family responsibilities such as caring for 
children. Volunteers emphasized their commitment to self-development, leadership skill-
building, and improving their local communities, despite the added challenges posed by 
balancing these competing demands.  
 
Topic 4: Hands-on Stewardship and Logistical Challenges. Participants in this topic emphasized 
the importance of hands-on, field-based stewardship, particularly in activities such as 
watershed conservation. While many volunteers noted logistical hurdles, such as limited 
funding or difficulties with coordination, they emphasized the importance of physical presence 
in these efforts, adapting to safety protocols as necessary.  
 
Topic 5: Teaching and Active Engagement. This topic focused on the shift to online platforms 
and the volunteers' continued success in meeting institutional requirements for certification. 
Despite these shifts, many respondents continued to express their preference for direct, hands-
on involvement in projects whenever feasible, reflecting a sustained desire for “active” 
engagement. 
 
Figure 2 
Principal Component Analysis (PCA) Plots of Emergent Themes among MG and MWS with Non-
Graduate Degrees. 
 

 
 
 
Visualization: MG and MWS without a Graduate Degree 
Figure 3 illustrates five topics from MG and MWS volunteers without graduate degrees, with 
PCA components accounting for 77.9% of the variance (PC1: 52.6%, PC2: 25.3%). Topic 4, 

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focused on fieldwork (“watershed,” “field”), stands apart, suggesting a distinct motivation for 
hands-on conservation. Topics 1 and 3 cluster together, highlighting shared themes of 
pandemic impact, community, and family obligations. Topic 2, located lower on the vertical 
axis, emphasizes education and aspiration (“love,” “education,” “opportunities”) as separate 
motivational drivers. Topic 5 sits near the center and overlaps with Topic 3, suggesting personal 
growth and teaching are core, cross-cutting motivations for this group. 
 
Figure 3 
Principal Component Analysis (PCA) Plots of Emergent Themes among MG and MWS with Non-
Graduate Degrees. 

 
 
 
Comparative Analysis 
Educational attainment influenced the motivations and experiences of Extension MGs and 
MWSs during the early COVID-19 pandemic. Both groups demonstrated strong commitment 
and resilience; however, graduate-degree volunteers focused on strategic leadership and 
program development, while non-graduate volunteers emphasized hands-on fieldwork and 
community-level adaptations. PCA visualizations confirmed these patterns, with graduate 
volunteers clustering around strategic themes and non-graduate volunteers around practical 
engagement. Graduate volunteers sought specialized knowledge and leadership roles; non-
graduate volunteers prioritized skill-building and community participation. These differences 
suggest the need for tailored volunteer management, offering leadership opportunities for 
graduates and hands-on projects for others, while both groups share a strong service 
commitment that supports effective Extension programs. 
 

 
 

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Conclusions, Discussion, and Recommendations 
 
As detailed in Figure 1, we conducted a three-phase analytic workflow, encompassing data 
collection, preprocessing with Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA), and thematic interpretation, to 
demonstrate how educational attainment influences the ways Extension Master Gardeners 
(MGs) and Master Watershed Stewards (MWSs) translate motivation into action. We began by 
dividing the 331 open-ended survey narratives into two groups: graduate (n = 150) and non-
graduate (n = 181). We then cleaned, tokenized, and weighted the text. Guided by Röder et al.’s 
(2015) coherence metric and an elbow-curve inspection, we trained separate five-topic LDA 
models using Gensim. We used Principal Component Analysis to distill topic probabilities for 
visual comparison and applied chi-square and Fisher exact tests (α = .05) to quantify differences 
between groups. Two analysts independently identified the topics, integrating inductive term 
patterns with the Volunteer Functions Inventory and reflexive thematic heuristics (Braun & 
Clarke, 2006; Clary & Snyder, 1999), achieving a κ value greater than .80. We secured analytic 
rigor by triangulating LDA output, PCA results, and manual codes, and by incorporating peer 
debriefing and negative-case analysis (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Comparative LDA outcomes 
identified three primary themes by level of education. Adaptation to Pandemic Restrictions 
accounted for 37.2% of graduate accounts and 42.3% of non-graduate accounts, which 
correlated at .68 (p < .01). Resilience manifested within both groups, according to studies (Mak 
& Fancourt, 2021; Windon et al., 2023); graduates emphasized online innovation "I assisted in 
the launch of an off-campus consulting program where residents could submit photos of plant 
problems and get expert advice" and non-graduates mentioned hyper-local solutions such as 
front-yard demonstration plots on view from the sidewalk. A Commitment to Community and 
Collective Action was evidenced in 45.2% of graduate texts and 38.4% of non-graduate texts 
(cosine similarity = 0.54, p < 0.01), illustrating the association between altruism and 
stewardship (Hyde & Knowles, 2013; Kiptot et al., 2016). Graduates highlighted leadership and 
program design, such as "I convened a strategic planning committee to redesign service 
delivery," whereas non-graduates emphasized direct outreach, including dispensing grow-at-
home kits through food pantries. Personal Development and Acquisition of Skills emerged in 
approximately one-third of narratives (29.1% graduates, 33.3% non-graduates), demonstrating 
that motivation to learn propels service (Agostinho & Paço, 2012; Bruyere & Rappe, 2007). 
Graduates acquired leadership certificates, "I completed advanced training modules for a 
program-wide role," while non-graduates acquired hard skills such as diagnostic photography 
for online pest identification.  
 
Consolidated Findings 
The LDA and PCA analyses confirmed that Extension MG and MWS volunteers remained 
engaged during the COVID-19 pandemic, demonstrating resilience, community commitment, 
and personal growth. Educational background shaped how these motivations manifested. 
Volunteers with a graduate degree adopted a strategic, leadership-oriented approach, focusing 
on virtual adaptation and program innovation. Meanwhile, volunteers without graduate 
degrees emphasized hands-on service, local outreach, and acquiring practical skills. Despite 

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these differences, both groups demonstrated strong resilience and dedication, with 
volunteering serving as a tool for community support and personal coping. 
 
Implications for Research and Practice 
The findings of this study confirm that educational background plays a crucial role in shaping 
volunteer motivations, providing valuable insights for future research and program 
development, both during and beyond the global pandemic. These insights should be viewed as 
lessons learned that can inform ongoing and post-pandemic volunteer engagement strategies. 
 
Because this study employed a convenience sampling approach, the results cannot be 
generalized to all volunteer populations. However, we encourage other volunteer-based 
programs to explore aligning volunteer roles with participants’ educational backgrounds, as this 
may enhance both volunteer satisfaction and program impact. For example, volunteers with 
graduate degrees may be well-suited for leadership, mentoring, or strategic planning roles, 
while those without advanced degrees may prefer more hands-on service and applied learning 
opportunities. Designing flexible, inclusive volunteer programs that recognize and leverage 
these differences can strengthen retention, increase engagement, and build resilience among 
volunteers who can adapt to changing circumstances. 
 
Further research should investigate how education influences volunteer engagement across 
diverse contexts and organizational settings, not only during crisis periods, such as the COVID-
19 pandemic, but also in more typical operational environments. Studies employing mixed 
methods that combine computational analysis with qualitative interpretation could yield 
deeper insights into the complex relationship between educational background, motivation, 
and engagement across various volunteer sectors. 
 

Acknowledgments 
 
Funding Information: This research was funded by the Science to-Practice Grant, College of 
Agricultural Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University. 
 
Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest. 
 
Previous Dissemination:  
• Windon, S., You, H., & Adhikari, A. (November 2025). "Assessing Educational Influence on 

Volunteer Motivation and Engagement: A Study of Master Gardeners and Watershed 
Stewards During COVID-19." This Research poster was presented at the 2025 National 
Association of Extension Program and Staff Development Professionals (NAEPSDP) 
conference in Pittsburgh, PA. https://naepsdp.org/page-18525   

• Windon, S., Buchko, O., You, H., & Adhikari, A. (May 2025). "Extension Master Gardeners 
and Watershed Stewards’ Motivation Amidst COVID-19." This research poster was 
presented at the 2025 American Association for Agricultural Education conference in 
Lubbock, TX. https://aaea.wildapricot.org/  

https://doi.org/10.37433/aad.v6i4.635
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Windon et al.  Advancements in Agricultural Development 
 

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Artificial Intelligence: Grammarly and ChatGPT were utilized as AI tools to assist in refining 
language and correcting grammar during manuscript preparation. 
 
Author Contribution Statement: S. Windon contributed to conceptualization, methodology, 
instrumentation, data collection, investigation, triangulation, writing-original draft, review, & 
editing, supervision, project administration; R. H. You – Contributed to formal analysis, data 
coding, investigation, writing-original draft, review, & editing; A. Adhikari - Contributed writing 
original draft, review and editing. 
 

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© 2025 by authors. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of 
the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). 
 

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