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Agard and Roberts  Advancements in Agricultural Development 
  Volume 1, Issue 3, 2020 
  agdevresearch.org 

1. Alexis C. Agard, Master Student, Louisiana State University, 131 J.C. Miller Hall, 110 LSU Union Square, Baton Rouge, LA, 
70803, ; aagard1@lsu.edu, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9261-6018  

2. Richie Roberts, Assistant Professor,  Louisiana State University, 131 J.C. Miller Hall, 110 LSU Union Square, Baton Rouge, 
LA, 70803, roberts3@lsu.edu, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2993-4945  
 

 
14 

 

A Reenvisioned Agricultural System in Thailand: The Growth in 
Human Capital Experienced by Agriculturalists After Adoption 

of the Sufficiency Economic Philosophy 
A. Agard1, R. Roberts2 

 
 

  

Abstract 

Investments in human capital have been shown to positively influence the development of the 
agricultural industry in regions across the globe. After the Asian Financial Crisis of 1997, therefore, 
Thailand’s King Bhumibol Adulyadej (The King) adopted the Sufficiency Economic Philosophy (SEP) 
that empowered the country through critical investments in human capital, which led to a 
transformation of its agricultural system. In this case study, we examined Thai agricultural leaders’ 
reflections on the role of SEP in catalyzing such changes. Findings from this investigation emerged in 
the form of two investments that Thailand made in human capital through the SEP: (1) education, 
and (2) the establishment of the Royal Projects. Three outcomes also emerged that represent how 
growth was experienced in the nation’s agricultural system as a result of such investments: (1) 
individual development, (2) economic development, and (3) societal development. As a result, this 
investigation’s findings could help extension professionals diffuse agricultural innovations in ways 
that align better with the unique values of Thailand while also helping to improve the production of 
agricultural commodities. 

 
 

Keywords 

Agricultural Development, Human Capital, Sustainability, Thailand  



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Introduction and Problem Statement 
 
After the Asian Financial Crisis of 1997, Thailand’s government was forced to reevaluate its 
financial policy, reallocate investments, and adopt an alternative development approach 
(Lauridsen, 1998). And a result, King Bhumibol Adulyadej (The King) implemented the 
Sufficiency Economic Philosophy (SEP) throughout the country (Essen, 2010). SEP emphasizes 
taking the middle way or finding a balance between self-indulgence and discipline (Barua & 
Tejativaddhana, 2019). As such, SEP is grounded on three pillars: (1) moderation, (2) 
reasonableness, and (3) and mitigating risk during decision-making (Kansuntisukmongkol, 
2017). It is also believed that individuals must possess knowledge and virtue to uphold each 
pillar (Wibulswasdi et al., 2012). And as a result, The King argued that SEP encompassed a 
holistic and ethical approach toward development that could coexist with other economic 
systems throughout the world while also allowing the country to uphold cultural norms rooted 
in Buddhist traditions (Essen, 2010).  
 
After being integrated as a core principle of Thailand’s National Economic and Social 
Development plan in 2002, SEP has been recognized by The U.N.’s Division for Sustainable 
Development Goals (DSDG) as a model for sustainable development (United Nations 
Development Programme, 2007). In particular, evidence has demonstrated that SEP has been 
transformative to various aspects of Thai society including: (1) sociocultural, (2) economics and 
policy, and (3) education (Kansuntisukmongkol, 2017; Mongsawad, 2010; Piboolsravut, 2004; 
Wibulswasdi et al., 2012). However, Wibulswasdi et al. (2012) argued the most important 
change occurred in its agricultural system. A need emerged, therefore, to better understand 
how the investments to human capital through SEP led to a reenvisioned agricultural system in 
Thailand (Pigg et al., 2020).  
 

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework 
 
This study was grounded in Schultz’s (1961) human capital theory. Through this lens, Schultz 
(1961) theorized that critical relationships existed between a society’s economic growth and 
the investments made in its citizens’ career preparation, education, and personal growth 
(Schultz, 1961). As a result, Schultz (1961) maintained that for a society to advance investments 
should be made to improve the knowledge and skills of its citizens – a concept Schultz (1961) 
called the development of human capital. Therefore, human capital is often linked to 
employability in which as an individual increases their human capital, they become more 
employable (Smith, 2010). A nation’s investments in human capital have been shown to 
increase the knowledge, skills, and expertise of citizens and can lead to a more prosperous and 
productive economy.  
 
It is also important to note that unlike material capital, knowledge is infinite and does not 
devalue (Mongsawad, 2010). In fact, human capital can be expanded and passed on from 
generation to generation. Therefore, through investments in human capital, societies can 
create sustainable solutions that yield a positive return on their investment. Despite this, 



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however, Bowles and Gintis (1976) critiqued human capital theory because it placed too much 
responsibility on individuals to become educated, find employment, and be productive 
members of society. However, existing evidence has demonstrated that in many cases, 
employment is often influenced by factors such as socioeconomic status, ethnicity, gender, and 
more (Farnham, 2017; Kühn 2019).  
 
The role of government in creating human capital and developing equitable policies for its 
citizens cannot be understated. In the current study, therefore, we analyzed the growth in 
human capital that agriculturalists experienced after the Thai monarch enacted SEP through 
various initiatives and policies at the national level. SEP was not a new concept, however, its 
adoption emerged as a result of culmination of The King’s experiences during the beginning of 
his rule in the 1960s (Essen, 2010). For example, he discovered that many of the rural provinces 
were suffering from issues such as soil depletion, deforestation, and poor water quality (Essen, 
2010). To combat such issues, the Thai government developed the first royal project and 
developmental center, Doi Angkhang (Roy et al., 2005). The Royal Project in Thailand is a 
concept similar to the U.S. Land-Grant system in that it provides research, extension, and 
teaching of agricultural sciences throughout various provinces (Roy et al., 2005). The outcomes 
of such investments in human capital were explicitly explored in this investigation. 
 

Purpose 
 
The purpose of this study was to examine leaders’ reflections on the role of SEP in shaping 
Thailand’s agricultural revitalization and growth in human capital. In summer 2019, we 
collected data for this investigation over four weeks. During this time, she visited local markets, 
royal project sites in central and northern provinces in Thailand, and other cultural activities. 
She also had the unique opportunity to gain access and interact with prominent agricultural 
leaders who were key to the successful implementation of the philosophy. Because of her role 
as a participant observer, she was able to gain unique knowledge and insight into SEP, which 
greatly shaped and influenced the design of this investigation. 
 

Methods 
 
Methodologically, we grounded this study using Stake’s (1995) instrumental case study 
approach, which can provide valuable insight into bounded systems. As a result, our intent was 
to provide a rich description into the phenomenon that may have relevance and transferability 
for other similar circumstances (Stake 1995). This study was limited to the actors who had first-
hand experience of SEP’s implementation in Thailand. Further, we also bounded the 
investigation by time and location, which occurred in summer 2019 in Thailand. To achieve the 
purpose of this study, it was important to collect data from participants who had knowledge 
and insight into the impacts that SEP had on the agricultural industry. As such, we used a 
purposeful sampling technique (Patton, 2002) to select individuals who had a background and 
career involving agriculture before and after the implementation of SEP. A description of 
participants, using their pseudo-name, follows.  



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Our first participant, Ajaan Lee, was a former professor of plant taxonomy at the Kasetsart 
University in Bangkok, Thailand. Ajaan Lee was selected because of his vast experience teaching 
and applying SEP both domestically and internationally. The second participant, Chutiya, was a 
Hill Tribe farmer in Northern Thailand. Chutiya’s parents were farmers that participated in the 
original Royal Project and used SEP as a model to guide research and extension programming. 
The third participant, Prite, was an Extension agent for the Royal Projects in the Chiang Mai 
region. Meanwhile, Pui Fai, the fourth participant, was an elected representative for Chiang Mai 
region for the Thai parliament. It is also important to note that due to a language barrier, an 
interpreter was used during the interview with Ajaan Lee, creating an additional limitation for 
this study.  
 
Reflexivity Statement 
A critical aspect of qualitative research is to reveal the biases that influence one’s perceptions 
and judgments (Patton, 2002). First, it is important to reveal that both authors have previous 
international experience in Thailand with the second author having worked extensively with 
Chiang Mai University prior to the collection and analysis of data. It is also important to reveal 
that the lead author is a first generation American, who spent her early childhood in Eastern 
Africa. During this time, she had the privilege of interacting in a diversity of environments and 
cultures. As a result, these previous experiences greatly influenced our decision to study this 
topic as well as how data were approached.  
 
Data Analysis and Rigor 
To uphold standards of qualitative quality and ensure trustworthiness, we built Lincoln’s and 
Guba’s (1985) four principals (1) confirmability, (2) dependability, (3) credibility), and (4) 
transferability into the design of this investigation. For example, we: (a) demonstrated 
parallelism across sources of data, (b) described our role in the study, (c) mobilized findings that 
were transferable to other contexts, and (d) provided context-rich descriptions. 
 
We also collected multiple sources of data to triangulate findings. In particular, data included: 
(a) interviews, (b) written reflections, (c) field observations, (d) photographs, and (e) video 
reflections. To analyze this data, we began by breaking the data apart and grounding our 
analytic decisions in Saldaña’s (2015) recommendations. As such, we used the following coding 
techniques to facilitate the constant comparative method on each source of data: (a) open, (b) 
axial, and (c) selective (Saldaña, 2015). Open coding is the process by which researchers 
generate as many codes as possible through an inductive thinking process. Open coding was 
accomplished by employing Saldaña’s (2015) in vivo coding approach by which we used 
participants’ words to capture the essence and essential elements of the data corpus. After 
identifying open codes, we started organizing and linking relationships among the open codes 
through the axial coding approach (Saldaña, 2015). Through our analysis of the characteristics 
and dimensions of each code, we were able to reduce the data to categories (Saldaña, 2015).  
After developing categories, we reduced the data further using selective coding by which we 
used Shultz’s (1961) human capital theory to make sense of the categories. This process helped 
emerge the study’s findings (Saldaña, 2015). 



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Findings 
 
The findings for this study emerged in the form of two investments that The King made in 
human capital through the SEP: (1) education, and (2) the establishment of the Royal Projects. 
Three outcomes also emerged that represent the growth experienced in Thailand’s agricultural 
system as a result of such investments: (1) individual development, (2) economic development, 
and (3) societal development. In the presentation of findings, we offer a description of how the 
adoption of the SEP by The King and subsequent investments in human capital led to a 
reenvisioned agricultural system in Thailand. To promote the transferability of this 
investigation’s findings, we integrated such into a visual representation at the report’s 
conclusion and offer implications for future research, theory-building, and practice. 
conclusion and offer implications for future research, theory-building, and practice. 
 
Investment #1: Education 
During fieldwork, we conducted extensive observations and interactions with Ajaan Lee. As a 
result, she was able to gain insight in the types of investments in human capital (Shultz, 1961) 
made in agriculture as a result of the adoption of the SEP. When asked about his historical 
perspective on such investments, Ajaan Lee revealed that The King was “ [was] interest[ed] in 
agriculture so he traveled to many remote areas where even I cannot walk… so he knew a lot of 
the problems…” regarding agriculture. Through The King’s observations of agrarian life in 
Thailand, therefore, he came to understand the power of knowledge, the value of agriculture, 
and how to bring change to his country through education. Prite explained: 

… [The King] also knew a lot of the problems on the drug trafficking so he started the 
project called The King’s Royal Projects to tackle problems [regarding] drug 
trafficking…[and] poverty. [So] he used agriculture as the base for tackling the entire 
problems [of Thailand]. He devoted [his life] to this until he died… 

 
Although poverty and drug trafficking were rampant in these regions, previously no attempts 
had been made to resolve these issues until The King intervened in 1969. In response, he 
created several educational initiatives through SEP to combat the poverty, deforestation, and 
the trafficking of opium by the Hill Tribe villagers. Pui Fai explained these educational initiatives 
lead to the development of the original Royal Project, Doi Angkhan, located in the mountains of 
Chiang Mai. Chutiya also revealed that her “parents were the [original] farmers of the Royal 
project foundation.” And, as a child, she witnessed a great transformation to Thailand’s 
agricultural sector when The King eradicated the growing of opium and incentivized food crops 
such as rice and vegetables. Chutiya also described how such initiatives were key to her 
education: “after grade six [I] transitioned into the royal project where [I] was taught organic 
vegetables growing techniques” which she continues to expand today. She continued: “before 
the inception of the Royal Project there weren’t schools around here but since the project 
started they have schools here and a lot of people who work with the Royal Project are able to 
send their kids to the schools.” This investment in human capital expanded beyond Thailand’s 
boarders as well. For instance, Prite revealed through the SEP, some agricultural education 
initiatives were “organized by the military [so that] … people from Myanmar [could] learn 



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growing techniques.” Ajaan also added that “…in some countries like Kenya, Uganda, and 
Rwanda we sent people [from Thailand] to expand the idea of [SEP] and the Princess has some 
stations in Myanmar and Laos to try to help [educate] them” as well.  
 
Investment #2: The Establishment of Royal Projects 
The King also invested in human capital through the establishment of the Royal Study Centers. 
During fieldwork, we observed the Royal Project and Study Centers on a trip to Khao Hin Sorn 
Royal Development Study Center. She also noted that the Royal Projects appeared to be 
modeled after the U.S. Land-Grant Institution system. For example, the Royal Development 
Centers work in cooperation with universities and government agencies to function as 
agricultural research stations. The knowledge gained from this research is then passed on to 
agriculturalist through Extension agents (see Figure 1). Often, farmers and others engaged in 
the agricultural industry are encouraged to visit the development centers to enhance their 
knowledge on sustainable agriculture practices. Khao Hin Sorn is dedicated to conducting 
research on land development and environmental conservation practices as well as transferring 
such knowledge to appropriate stakeholders.  
  
Figure 1 
Extension Agents in Thailand Providing Education 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
At Khao Hin Sorn, we noted how green, luscious, and vibrant the land was in the region. 
However, during our visit to Doi Angkhan, she collected historical artifacts that described this 
was mainly due to the sustainable development policies implemented by The King through SEP. 
We were also able to view images of the land before The King had intervened. The land was 
dry, the soil depleted, and there was little to no trees left due to the slash and burn methods 
used by the farmers (see Figure 2).  
 
 
 



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Figure 2 
Archival Images Depicting Northern Thailand in the 1960s Before the Adoption of SEP  
 

 

 

 

 

 

Note. Images collected from the Doi Angkhan Development Study Center. 
 
After 50 years, The King’s efforts helped transform the land in Northern Thailand (see Figure 3). 
However, Pui Fai argued that this transformation would not be possible without The King’s 
investments in the Hill Tribe people. For example, members of the Hill Tribe were educated and 
trained to operate the Royal Projects. Chutiya maintained “most people are happy to produce 
and send produce to the Royal Project.”  Now, what was once dirt and dust has been 
completely revitalized into a green, luscious farmland. 
 

Figure 3 
Images of Doi Angkhan captured in June 2019, Depicting the Transformation of Northern 
Thailand as a Result of Investments to Human Capital Made through the SEP 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Note. Images captured during fieldwork in 2019. 
 
 



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Outcome #1: Individual Development  
The investments in human capital in the form of education and the establishment of the Royal 
Projects resulted in the three key outcomes. The first outcome that emerged from our analysis 
was the fostering of individual development. As an illustration, instead of criminalizing the Thai 
people for growing opium, The King gave them an opportunity to create a sustainable livelihood 
through agriculture. In particular, he developed small projects, which Prite explained allowed 
each family to obtain “. . . one hectare of land to grow their food.” He maintained, “…the 
money doesn’t make [them] rich, but at least [they] are able to survive and take care of 
themselves….” By providing land, therefore, the Thai people were able to enhance their 
individual development by growing food, which reduced poverty. Ajaan Lee explained: 

. . .because Thailand is diverse in plants and animals that the people can use, if they 
have the knowledge they can plant it all together in a small area which is suitable for the 
situation for Thai famil[ies]… 

 
Through the implementation of the SEP, lower income individuals acquired the knowledge to 
be self-reliant, live in moderation, and be prepared for life’s unexpected challenges. Or as 
Chutiya suggested: “SEP is useful for everyone, you can adapt it to your own situation. You 
should be content with what you have and not be greedy.”  
 
Outcome #2: Economic Development  
Through our interactions with officials at the Royal Projects, we observed that SEP has 
contributed to the economic development of Thailand through sustainable agriculture and 
ecotourism. Further, it has also enhanced the livelihoods of Thai people through cooperatives 
as well as rehabilitated the environment in many regions. Further, the SEP also promoted the 
development of community economic wealth. Ajaan Lee described how economic development 
was fostered as a result of SEP in the following passage: “If you have some surplus production 
you can sell it to the local market.” As a result, the Hill Tribe people were able to grow their 
local markets, which helped to expand resources for their villages. Throughout much of 
Thailand, cooperatives are encouraged to help strengthen communities and bring economic 
prosperity. During one of our excursions, we visited Talaad Thai Market, which is Thailand’s 
largest wholesale agriculture product market. During this experience, we noted the critical role 
of cooperatives and observed how they aided in the country’s economic development (see 
Figure 4).   
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 



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Figure 4 
Images of Talaad Thai Market 
 
 
 
 

 

 

 

 

Outcome #3: Societal Development  
In our fieldnotes, we noted that Thailand appeared “peaceful” and the “people seemed to be 
less stressed and healthier” in comparison to more developed regions of the world. Through 
our analysis of the data, we interpreted such aspects of society to be largely influenced by the 
adoption of SEP. To this point, Pui Fai explained that because of SEP, many Thai people have 
adopted safer agricultural practices and adopted the perspective they should avoid the use of 
chemicals to protect “… the health of the consumer, the health of the farmer, and [the rest of] 
the food chain.” 
 
Although the adoption of SEP greatly contributed to Thai agricultural development, it also 
deemphasized greed. For example, Prite explained that SEP promoted prudence by 
discouraging the overabundance of resources, which shifted the perspective that individuals 
should strive to “… get a lot of money.” In recent years, however, Ajaan Lee described that 
changes were occurring by which “…the present government is more stressed on the industrial 
sector…they don’t pay much attention to the agriculture sector.” As a consequence, Pui Fai 
cautioned that “…the land area is the same, you cannot expand [it] and you have less and less 
resource[s]. If you don’t have a good agriculturist this [will] be the problem for the whole world, 
not only for Thailand…” By practicing SEP, therefore, Thai agriculturist learned how to live a 
balanced life with the consideration of others by monitoring how and what they consume. The 
adoption of the SEP and key investments in human capital, therefore, led to a reenvisioned 
agricultural system in Thailand.  
 

Conclusions, Discussion, and Recommendations  
 
In this study, we demonstrated how Thailand’s adoption of SEP led to the two key investments 
in human capital: (1) education, and (2) the establishment of Royal Projects. Because such 
investments, three outcomes for Thailand’s agricultural industry also emerged: (a) individual 



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development, (b) economic development, and (c) societal development. Therefore, we 
conclude that Thailand’s adoption of SEP and subsequent investments in human capital led to a 
transformation in the agricultural industry (see Figure 6) (Essen, 2010).  
 
Figure 6 
A Visual Representation of How Investments in Human Capital through SEP Led to a 
Reenvisioned Agricultural System in Thailand 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The first outcome, individual development, emphasized the development of the Thai people 
through the Royal Projects. For example, participants reported individuals were able to increase 
their knowledge and skills through improved educational systems as well as opportunities to 
develop professionally through experiences at Royal Project sites. We conclude that such 
investments appeared to decrease the Thai people’s external dependency and enabled them to 
be self-reliant while also improving their overall well-being. Findings from this study, therefore, 
provided new insights into the importance that personal development made in allowing the 
Thai people to acquire the resources needed to be self-reliant. The second outcome, economic 
development, demonstrated the role of policies in supporting the growth of local cooperatives 
and the tourism industry. As an illustration, the policies enacted under SEP by The King helped 
create one of the largest markets in Thailand, Taalad Thai Market, which contributed greatly to 
the economic growth in the region. This finding aligns with those reported by Mongsawad 

Sufficiency 
Economic 

Philosophy 

Long-Term Change: 
Reenvisioned 

Agricultural System 
in Thailand   

Outcome #1: 
Personal 

Development  

Outcome #2: 
Economic 

Development  

Outcome #3: 
Societal 

Development 

Investment #1: 
Education 

Investment #2: 
Royal Projects 



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(2010) regarding the importance of the governmental policies on influencing the development 
of community enterprises and local markets. Societal development, the final outcome, referred 
to how SEP encouraged a culture of balance and sustainability in Thai agriculture. Such a 
change promoted health as well as unity among the Thai people. Previous literature on the role 
of societal development suggested that self-evaluation and self-accountability were critical 
cultural implications to the adoption of SEP. 
 
Future research should explore the ways in which various regions and cultural groups (Roberts 
& Edwards, 2017) in Thailand interpret and operationalize SEP in diverse ways. Such an 
understanding could also help Extension agents to introduce new agricultural techniques and 
principles by tailoring the messaging and educational programming in ways that align with the 
unique values of each region while also helping to improve the production of agricultural 
commodities throughout the country. Further, additional work is also needed to explore the 
dimensions of the outcomes – individual, economic, and societal – identified in the 
investigation. For example, future research should seek to explore how each outcome 
influences the social dimensions of Extension work in Thailand and examine which outcome has 
yielded the most transformative benefits for agriculture since the Asian Financial Crisis of 1997 
(Lauridsen, 1998).   
 
This study also suggested important insights into how SEP and human capital theory are 
intimately connected and bolster each other when considered in tandem. As such, we 
recommend that future theory-building efforts be dedicated to describing the interrelations 
between the two concepts. Finally, this investigation also opened up critical implications for 
future practice. For instance, individuals who seek to create change in Thailand’s agricultural 
system should become well versed in the principles of SEP and be able to use the language of 
the philosophy when communicating with Extension agents and other locals. In recent decades, 
SEP, and its associated terminology, has become central to the everyday life, especially in the 
northern and central regions of Thailand where the production of agricultural commodities is 
most prominent. Consequently, we recommend that the principles of SEP be more significantly 
integrated into the schooling and professional development of agricultural professionals 
throughout the region.  
 

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