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http://journals.sfu.ca/abr  ADVANCES IN BUSINESS RESEARCH 
2016, Volume 7, pages 103-119 

	
	

103 
	

An Examination of Façades of Conformity  
as a Social Mobility Strategy  

T. Nichole Phillips  
Winston-Salem State University 

Felice Williams 
Louisiana State University at Shreveport 

Dorothy Kirkman 
University of Houston at Clear Lake 

 
This study examines the façade of conformity construct as a social mobility strategy 
employed by minority employees to enhance their social identity in organizations.  Results 
from a survey of 102 African Americans employed in higher education indicate that 
demographic dissimilarity moderates the relationships between both perceived value of 
diversity and ethnic identity and facades of conformity.  The creation of facades of 
conformity is positively related to work stress, and work stress is negatively related to job 
satisfaction. 
 
Keywords: Facades of conformity, Relational demography, Social identity, Social mobility, 
African Americans 
 

Introduction 
 

The impact of employee demographics on organizational operations is an area of research that has 
garnered much attention.  As the demographic composition of the labor force continues to evolve, 
organizations are forced to explore ways to properly manage this diversity, implementing systems and 
practices designed to facilitate an environment such that the potential for achieving the positive outcomes 
associated with diversity is maximized, and the possibility of the negative minimized (Cox 1991; Roberts 
2005).  Properly managed diversity is believed to assist organizations in achieving advantages in the areas of 
cost, resource acquisition, marketing, creativity, problem solving, and flexibility (Cox & Blake 1991; Konrad 
2003; Richard, Barnett, Dwyer, & Chadwick 2004).  

Although understanding the organization’s approach and outcomes is vital to the study of diversity 
management, it is equally essential for organizational leaders and researchers to explore the experiences of 
minority employees.  Many studies have highlighted how organizational outcomes differ between minority 
and majority employees (e.g., Avery, McKay, Wilson, & Tonindandel 2007; Chattopadhyay 1999; Cox & 
Blake 1991; Stewart & Garcia-Prieto 2004); understanding those differences will increase the likelihood that 
minority employees will be highly committed to, perform highly for, and intend to remain with organizations 
(Cox & Blake 1991; Jackson et al. 1991).  For our purposes, minorities are defined as employees who have 
salient features such as age, sex or race as well as other characteristics (i.e., beliefs, values) that are different 
from the majority of the organization (Ferris, Frink & Galang 1993; Hewlin 2009; Westphal & Milton 2000).  
According to the similarity-attraction paradigm, people tend to be drawn and attracted to those who are 
similar to them in terms of demographic characteristics, activities or attitudes (Byrne, Clore & Worchel 1966; 
Tsui & O’Reilly 1989).  Dissimilarity, particularly demographic dissimilarity, is often interpreted as a reflection 
of conflicting attitudes and goals, ultimately resulting in lower levels of attraction toward and expectations of 
negative interactions with dissimilar others (Riordan 2000).  Therefore, employees may anticipate negative 



FAÇADES OF CONFORMITY	

104 
	

encounters, experience undesirable outcomes, and voluntarily leave the organization when they are dissimilar 
to others or perceive there is not a fit between their norms and those of the organization.   

In this study, we draw upon the relational demography literature to assess the influence of 
demographic dissimilarity on employee behavior.  Introduced by Tsui and O’Reilly (1989), relational 
demography examines the comparative demographic composition of relevant others with whom the 
employee has significant and regular interaction, thus providing additional insight into the particular 
mechanisms through which demography influences behavior and outcomes (Tsui & O’Reilly 1989).  
Commonly studied relevant others include supervisors, coworkers, and/or a work team (e.g., Chattopadhyay 
1999; Liao, Joshi & Chuang 2004; Tsui & O’Reilly 1989).  Relational demography builds upon the similarity-
attraction paradigm (Byrne 1971) and social identity and self-categorization theories (Tajfel & Turner 1986) to 
understand the motivations and processes behind employee responses to dissimilarity (Riordan 2000; Stewart 
& Garcia-Prieto 2008).  Social identity and self-categorization theories propose that individuals seek to build 
self-esteem and a positive image through a process of self-categorization, whereby they classify themselves 
and others into categories that are salient in a particular context and ascribe a value to each (Chattopadhyay, 
Tluchowska, & George 2004; Turner 1987).  The categories to which the individual belongs constitute 
his/her in-group.  A positive social identity is achieved when he/she holds their group in high regard and 
perceives it to be socially desirable (Stewart & Garcia-Prieto 2008; Tajfel & Turner 1986); however, they also 
recognize that others may not share that valuation.  As minority employees have traditionally been relegated 
to a lower status in organizations (Amott & Mathaei 1991; Chattopadhyay et al. 2004; Konrad & Gutek 1987; 
Reskin, 1993; Reskin & McBrier 2000), employees in this category may seek to enhance their status by 
engaging in social mobility strategies in an attempt to pass from a low to high status group.  For example, a 
female attempting to improve her status in a predominantly male organization may adopt the “norms, values, 
and attributes that characterize men” in order to receive positive organizational outcomes (Reynolds & 
Turner 2001, 166-167; Chattopadhyay et al. 2004).  

An individual’s social identity plays a large role in the type of social mobility strategy he or she selects 
to employ.  For example, a Black person who has a low association with his black identity may engage in 
cultural inversion, choosing to accept that being black represents all that is not white, and therefore opt to 
idealize white culture and denigrate black culture in order to be accepted into white society (Cross, Parham, & 
Helms 1998; Chattopadhyay et al. 2004; Davis & Watson 1982; Ibarra 1995).  In contrast, a Black person with 
a strong black identity may choose to adopt certain aspects of white identity only in particular contexts, such 
as the “relatively peripheral domain of work,” in an attempt to achieve positive outcomes (Chattopadhyay et 
al. 2004 186).  Providing the illusion of similarity to others in the organization can possibly serve to counter 
negative stereotypes and reduce the likelihood that one is considered to be an out-group member, possibly 
leading to more positive employment-related benefits (Major, Quinton, McCoy, & Schmader 2000; Roberts 
2005).  However, denying certain personal attributes and engaging in behavior that is inconsistent with one’s 
self-concept can be emotionally demanding (Bell 1990; Hewlin 2009; Meyerson 2001; Meyerson & Scully 
1995) and may also lead to negative personal outcomes (Hewlin 2003; Kelman 2006; Roberts 2005).  

The goal of this study is to identify some of the potential factors that may influence minority 
employees’ decisions to enhance their status in organizations by utilizing a social mobility strategy and the 
potential outcomes of such behavior.  We do not propose that the antecedents or consequences presented 
represent an exhaustive list of the factors that influence employee decisions and behaviors, but rather aim to 
provide a contribution to the emerging work in this area and to provide a basis on which future empirical 
work can build.  Given the different facets of diversity (e.g., ethnic, religious, gender), all of which have the 
potential to influence employee and organizational outcomes, our analyses focus on racial and ethnic 
diversity. Specifically, we propose that the focal employee’s ethnic identity, as well as his or her perception 
that the organization values diversity, will affect decisions to engage in facades of conformity, and that this 
effect will be moderated by the degree of racial similarity between the focal employee and his/her supervisor 
and coworkers.  We further posit that work stress will mediate the relationship between facades of conformity 
and job satisfaction.  A model of the hypothesized relationships is presented in Figure 1 

 
 
 



Phillips et al.	

105 
 

 

 
Figure 1. Model of hypothesized relationships 
 
 
 
Social Mobility as Social Identity Enhancement 
 The fundamental tenet of social identity theory is the achievement of a positive social identity 
(Chattopadhyay et al. 2004; Jackson et al. 1996; Tajfel & Turner 1979).  When members of lower status 
(Chattopadhyay et al. 2004), or negatively distinctive (Jackson et al. 1996) in-groups seek to enhance their 
social identity, they use one of three possible strategies: social mobility, social creativity, or social change 
(Tajfel & Turner 1979).  Social mobility refers to an individual’s attempt to dissociate themselves from a 
lower status group and gain membership into a higher status group.  Of the three, only social mobility 
specifically examines an individual’s efforts to enhance his or her social identity (Chattopadhyay et al. 2004; 
Jackson et al. 1996) and is therefore most appropriate for our analyses. 

As white and male employees have traditionally been afforded higher status in organizations, the 
categories of racial minority and female employees are often devalued (Baron & Newman 1990; 
Chattopadhyay et al. 2004; Konrad & Gutek 1987; Reskin 1993).  In an attempt to enhance their status and 
achieve positive organizational outcomes, racial minority and female employees may adopt the norms, values 
and attributes that characterize higher status groups, altering their behavior to give the appearance that they 
are similar to the majority group in order to increase the likelihood of obtaining outcomes consistent with 
membership in the higher status group.  
Façades of Conformity 

Facades of conformity (FOC) are defined as “false representations created by employees to appear as 
if they embrace organizational values” (Hewlin 2003).  Conceptually distinct from similar constructs such as 
impression management, compliance and emotional labor (Hewlin 2003, 2009), FOC represent employee 
suppression of personal values and behaviors believed to be in conflict with those of the organization, 
outwardly expressing support in an attempt to navigate their work environments (Hewlin 2003). 

In her empirical assessment of the conceptual model, Hewlin (2009) found that perceived 
nonparticipative work environments, minority status, self-monitoring, and collectivism were all significantly 
related to the creation of FOC.  She also found support for emotional exhaustion as a consequence, 
mediating the relationship between FOC and employee intentions to turnover. This finding was consistent 
with her premise that employees who behave in a manner inconsistent with their true selves at work will 
experience negative personal outcomes (Hewlin 2003).  

Stormer and Devine (2008) conducted an exploratory qualitative study designed to assess whether 
FOC existed in organizations and to identify its characteristics and behavioral implications.  The results of 
their textual data analysis revealed that FOC can be described as either direct, i.e., employees conformed in 
both appearance and action, or indirect, i.e., they conformed in appearance but not in action (e.g., agreeing to 



FAÇADES OF CONFORMITY	

106 
	

support but not following through behaviorally) (Stormer & Devine 2008).  They further identified three 
thematic networks that provide more insight into the creation of FOC: 1. presence of FOC, 2. absence of 
FOC, and 3. the dynamic nature of FOC.  Respondents in their study (university faculty members) reported 
creating FOC in response to the following issues: diversity, job demands, the market model of the profession 
and group membership.  For example, some respondents reported creating FOC as a result of the sensitivity 
of the topics of equity and equality or using FOC to hide or exacerbate their enthusiasm for teaching given 
the demands of teaching, scholarship and service.  The second theme reflects respondents who chose not to 
create FOC, many citing the nature of academic freedom and the professoriate.  The third theme reflects 
situations in which respondents moved from expressing their opinions to withholding them, or vice versa.  
The results of their study provide valuable insight into the creation of FOC as well as support for the 
relationships originally proposed by Hewlin (2003). 

As Hewlin (2009) called for more detailed analyses on the relationships proposed in her model, and 
consistent with the salience of diversity outlined by Stormer and Devine (2008), the present study seeks to 
further explore Hewlin’s (2009) assertion of the importance of minority status in the creation of FOC by 
examining the experience of racial minorities.  We chose to focus on racial minorities as previous research has 
indicated that racial minorities report high levels of work stress, often leading to heightened intentions to 
turnover (Sanchez & Brock 1996). As a result of their perceived minority status, employees may create FOC 
to minimize the salience of their differences, emphasizing that although they may be different on a surface 
dimension, they are ultimately supporters of the organization’s values and norms, all in an attempt to gain 
acceptance in the workplace (Hewlin 2009).  

 
Demographic Dissimilarity 

Perceptions of a high level of distinctiveness can often lead individuals to experience isolation and 
stigmatization from majority group members and feelings of self-consciousness where they feel they are 
under intense scrutiny (Brewer 1991; Kanter 1977; Kramer 1998).  One factor which may reduce the 
negativity of these situations is the similarity of the employee with his/her supervisor and workgroup, as 
similarity may affect the type of relationships that develop (Brouer, Duke, Treadway, & Ferris 2009).  
Although the empirical results have been mixed, researchers have found support for the argument that 
demographic similarity of subordinate and supervisor leads to higher quality exchanges (Dienesch & Liden 
1986; Tsui, Xin & Egan 1995; Turban & Jones 1988).  Demographic similarity refers to the “degree to which 
individuals in dyads or groups are similar in characteristics such as age, race, and gender (Tsui & O’Reilly 
1989 403).  These arguments state that by being demographically similar, there is an inherent assumption 
between parties that they also share similar beliefs and values, thus causing the managers and subordinates to 
feel comfortable, communicate easily with one another, view the other as more predictable and have more 
confidence in each other (Pelled & Xin 1997; Tsui & O'Reilly 1989; Tsui, Xin, & Egan 1995).  Demographic 
dissimilarity has been found to predict negative attitudes towards supervisors, peers, workgroups, and 
organizations (Chattopadhyay 1999; Tsui et al. 1992).  Chattopadhyahy (1999) found that racial dissimilarity 
was negatively related to self-esteem and predicted employee engagement in citizenship behaviors.  
 In work environments where there is demographic dissimilarity, employees are likely to be “acutely 
aware” of their differences and will have to work hard to overcome the unfavorability of the relationship 
likely to exist as a result of the dissimilarity (Uhl-Bien 2003). As subordinates who are racially dissimilar from 
their supervisors and coworkers will likely have a more difficult time communicating and building quality 
relationships with organizational agents (Brouer et al. 2009; Stewart & Garcia-Prieto 2008), some beneficial 
attributes to navigate such situations include self-presentation, communication (Uhl-Bien 2003) and political 
skill (Brouer et al. 2009).  Those with political skill are able to adjust their behavior to various situational 
demands in a manner that appears sincere and genuine (Ferris, Davidson, & Perrewe 2005).  We argue that 
the creation of FOC reflects such political skill and posit that the decision to engage is often a function of the 
degree of dissimilarity of the focal employee from those in his or her immediate work environment.  
 
 
 



Phillips et al.	

107 
 

Hypotheses 
 

Antecedents 
The context under which employees make decisions to create FOC is important to understanding the 

manner in which they navigate their professional environments.  We explore ethnic identity and perceptions 
of the degree to which the organization values diversity, both influenced by demographic dissimilarity, as 
antecedents to the creation of facades of conformity. 

Ethnic identity. Consistent with previous research, we argue that identity plays an important role in 
the method of social mobility exercised by minority employees (Chattopadhyay et al. 2004; Cross 1991; Cross, 
Parham & Helms 1998).  An employee who does not strongly identify with their in-group will likely employ a 
social mobility strategy resulting in complete disassociation with the group, opting to adopt the behaviors of 
the aspirational outgroup in order to be accepted (Chattopadhyay et al. 2004; Ibarra 1995; Phinney 1989).  
Alternatively, an employee with a higher level of identity with the in-group will likely be more strategic in the 
approach taken to enhance their social identity.  Specifically, the focal employee may selectively display 
behaviors within certain contexts believed to enhance his or her status with those in the out-group and 
ultimately the organization, in order to achieve an organization related goal (Chattopadhyay et al. 2004; Cross 
1991).  

Ethnic identity refers to an enduring, fundamental aspect of the self that includes a sense of 
membership in a particular ethnic group.  It is generally seen as embracing various aspects of one’s group, 
including self-identification, feelings of belongingness and commitment, and a sense of shared values and 
attitudes (Phinney 1996; Watts & Carter 1991).   

As ethnic identity influences the manner in which individuals examine their environments and 
experiences (Cox & Finley-Nickelson 1991; Phinney & Kohatsu 1997), it is likely that employees with higher 
levels of ethnic identity will be keenly aware of the lower status of their category and therefore strategically 
seek to improve their position.  We predict that there will be a positive relationship between ethnic identity 
and engagement in facades of conformity.  We further argue that the degree of racial dissimilarity from an 
employee’s supervisor and workers will influence this relationship such that the relationship will be stronger 
as the degree of dissimilarity increases. 

 
Hypothesis 1: Demographic dissimilarity will moderate the relationship between ethnic identity and facades of 
conformity such that the relationship will be stronger as demographic dissimilarity increases.  
 
Perceived value of diversity. The degree to which an organization values diversity serves as an 

indicator of support to employees (Avery, McKay, Wilson, & Tonindandel 2007), support that may be 
unavailable in work environments that are less diversity-friendly (Avery et al. 2007; Cox 1994).   

According to Avery et al. (2007), employees develop perceptions of the degree to which 
their employing organization values diversity from “cues,” or efforts or practices engaged in by 
organizations to create, promote, or maximize diversity.  In organizations that engage in such 
activities, minority employees are likely to develop positive workplace affect (Avery et al. 2007; Cox 
1994).  However, when minority employees perceive that their organization does not value diversity, 
the reactions and resulting behaviors are likely to be more negative.  Minority employees may 
perceive they have to create FOC to display a consistency with the organization’s norms in order to 
be successful and receive positive organizational outcomes (e.g., positive performance appraisals, 
promotions, pay raises). 

We posit that demographic dissimilarity will strengthen the negative relationship between perceptions 
that the organization values diversity and the creation of facades of conformity.  For employees who perceive 
greater dissimilarity from their supervisor and coworkers, the value placed on diversity in their workplace is 
likely to be salient and serve as a gauge of the need to engage in facades of conformity to be successful. 

 
Hypothesis 2: Demographic dissimilarity will moderate the relationship between perceived value of diversity and facades 
of conformity such that the relationship will be stronger as demographic dissimilarity increases. 



FAÇADES OF CONFORMITY	

108 
	

 
Outcomes: Work Stress and Job Satisfaction  

Providing the illusion of similarity to others in the organization may serve to counter 
negative stereotypes and reduce the likelihood that one is considered to be an out-group member, 
possibly leading to more positive employment-related benefits (Major, Quinton, McCoy, & 
Schmader 2000; Roberts 2005).  However, denying certain personal attributes and engaging in 
behavior that is inconsistent with one’s self concept may also lead to negative outcomes (Hewlin 
2003, 2009; Kelman 2006; Roberts 2005).  In this study, we examine work stress and job satisfaction 
as consequences of the creation of FOC. 

Stress is an inescapable reality of most working environments and results in a variety of 
psychological, physiological, and behavioral consequences for employees.  Stress is defined as a state that 
results when individuals find themselves in a situation in which they perceive that they are unable to meet the 
demands facing them, and that the outcomes they will experience are a function of the degree to which they 
meet those demands (McGrath 1976). We argue that engagement in facades of conformity represents an 
additional role behavior beyond that of the general job position, and will therefore lead employees to 
experience work stress.  

 
 Hypothesis 3: The degree of creating facades of conformity will be positively related to work stress. 
 

Job satisfaction reflects the degree of fulfillment an individual derives from their work (Spector 2000) 
and is considered to be one of the most influential variables informing behavior in organizations (Whitman, 
Van Rooy, Viswesvaran 2010).  Studies have reported that workers who are satisfied are more likely to 
produce a higher standard of work performance (Judge, Thoresen, Bono, & Patton 2001) and remain with the 
organization (Tett & Meyer 1993).  Saari and Judge (2004) argued that among the many factors believed to 
affect job satisfaction, person-organization fit is the most influential.  A recent study evaluated the 
relationship between perceptions of employee and organization value congruence and job satisfaction of 
African Americans and reported that perceptions of fit explained variance in job satisfaction, accounting for 
43% (Lyons & O'Brien 2006).  

Research has reported that work stress and job satisfaction are interconnected, with the same 
characteristics influencing both outcomes (Cordes & Dougherty 1993; Lee & Ashforth 1996; Schaufeli & 
Enzmann 1998).  The majority of research on these variables noted a negative relationship wherein 
employees who experienced higher levels of stress reported lower levels of job satisfaction (Hollon & Chesser 
1976; Kemery, Mossholder, & Bedeian 1987; Miles 1976).  
As employees are likely to create facades of conformity as a result of a perceived lack of congruence between 
their norms and those of the organization (Hewlin 2003), we predict that work stress will mediate the 
relationship between facades of conformity and job satisfaction.  
 

Hypothesis 4a: The degree of creating facades of conformity will be negatively related to  
job satisfaction. 
 
Hypothesis 4b: Work stress will mediate the relationship between facades of conformity and job satisfaction. 
 

Methods 
 
Procedure and Sample 

Although this topic is of interest and applicable to other groups (i.e., other ethnic minority 
groups, women, religious groups), African Americans were chosen for this study due to their unique 
experiences in organizations relative to conformity expectations and pressures (Cox & Nkomo 
1986).  Also, the historical experiences of African Americans, specifically related to the ability to 
maintain and practice aspects of their culture (Domm & Stafford 1972), renders this group a 



Phillips et al.	

109 
 

relevant sample on which to test the relations in the model.  The participants in this study were 
African Americans employed in higher education. The final sample size was 102, 72.5% female with 
an average age of 41 (SD = 12).  Fifty-four percent held a bachelor’s degree or higher, and the 
average tenure with their current employer was 8 years (SD = 7.7).  Fifty-three percent were 
employed in professional positions, 27% in clerical, and 19% in administrative positions.   
 
Measures 

Survey data were collected to test the hypotheses in this study.  All measures in this study utilized a 7-
point Likert-type response format.  With the exception of work stress, which had anchors of 1 – never to 7 – 
always, measures had anchors of 1 – strongly disagree to 7 – strongly agree.  

Perceived value of diversity.  Perceptions of the degree to which the organization values diversity 
were assessed using Avery et al.’s (2007) 5-item Perceived Value of Diversity measure. A sample item is “I 
believe that my company is adequately striving for diversity in the workplace.”  The Cronbach alpha estimate 
for this measure was .84. 
 Demographic dissimilarity. For race similarity, a difference score was created, with 0 representing 
racial similarity to both supervisor and coworkers, 1 indicating difference from the supervisor or coworkers, 
and 2 indicating difference from both supervisor and coworkers (Brouer et al. 2009).  Information on 
supervisor, coworkers, and participant race were reported by the participant on the survey.  Participant 
reports of the race of his or her supervisor and coworkers reflect his or her perception of similarity and 
therefore inform how they will react to their work environment (Pelled & Xin 1997; Stewart & Garcia-Prieto 
2008; Turban & Jones 1988). 

Ethnic identity. Ethnic identity was assessed using 14 items from Phinney’s (1992) Multigroup 
Ethnic Identity Questionnaire.  A sample item is “I have a strong sense of belonging to my ethnic group.”  
The Cronbach alpha estimate for this measure was .85. 

Facades of conformity. FOC was assessed using Hewlin’s (2009) 6-item Facades of Conformity 
Measure.  A sample item is “I withhold personal values that conflict with organizational values.”  The 
Cronbach alpha coefficient for this measure was .71. 

Work stress. Work stress was assessed using 15 items from the Job-Related Tension Index (Kahn, 
Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, & Rosenthal 1964) where participants were asked to rate how often they had certain 
experiences in their work roles.  A sample item is “Feeling that you have too little authority to carry out the 
responsibilities assigned to you.”  The Cronbach alpha coefficient for this measure was .88. 
 Job satisfaction. Job satisfaction was assessed using Hackman and Oldman’s (1975) 6-item General 
Satisfaction Scale.  A sample item is “Generally speaking, I am very satisfied with this job.”  The Cronbach 
alpha estimate for this measure is .80. 
 

Results 
 

Means, standard deviations, scale reliabilities and correlations of the study variables are included in 
Table 1.  Work stress and facades of conformity as well as work stress and job satisfaction were negatively 
and significantly related.  Similarly, perceived value of diversity and demographic dissimilarity were negatively 
and significantly related to each other.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 



FAÇADES OF CONFORMITY	

110 
	

Table 1  
Means, Standard Deviations, Scale Reliabilities and Correlations 

Variable M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 

1. Ethnic Identity 85.18 10.10 (.85)      

2. Perceived Value of Diversity 24.96 6.60 -.118 (.84)     

3. Facades of Conformity 18.43 6.27 .058 .153 (.71)    

4. Work Stress 40.94 14.87 .005 -.122 -.320** (.88)   

5. Job Satisfaction 34.43 6.15 .051 .142 -.072 -.392** (.80)  
6. Demographic Dissimilarity 2.00 1.68 -.035 -.293** -.020 .110 -.120  

Note. N = 102. Internal consistency reliability coefficients (alphas) appear in parentheses along the main 
diagonal. 
* p < .05. ** p < .01. 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Perceived value of diversity and ethnic identity, which are proposed antecedents to facades of 

conformity, were not significantly related to the outcome.  Table 2 shows the relationships between perceived 
value of diversity and ethnic identity with facades of conformity.  Hypotheses 1 and 2 predicted that 
demographic dissimilarity would moderate the relationship between the antecedents of perceived value of 
diversity and ethnic identity with the facades of conformity.  These hypothesized relationships were explored 
using two models of hierarchical multiple regressions with mean-centered variables (Aiken & West 1996).  In 
the first model, the main effect terms (demographic dissimilarity, perceived value of diversity, and ethnic 
identity) were entered into the regression equation.  The second model included the main effect and 
interaction terms (demographic dissimilarity x perceived value of diversity and demographic dissimilarity x 
ethnic identity).  In both models, the dependent variable was facades of conformity.  Table 3 shows that both 
demographic dissimilarity x perceived value of diversity and demographic dissimilarity x ethnic identity had a 
significant relationship with facades of conformity.  Hypotheses 1 and 2 were therefore supported by the 
results. 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 



Phillips et al.	

111 
 

Table 2 
Regression Results for Predicted Antecedent Variables of Facades of Conformity 

Predictor β SE 

Ethnic Identity .058 .062 

Perceived Value of Diversity .153 .094 

!! .030  

Adjusted !! .001  

F 1.018  
Note. N = 102.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Table 3 
Moderated Regression Results (Hypotheses 1 and 2) 

Variable and Statistic 

Facades of Conformity 

Model 1 β Model 2 β 

Perceived Value of Diversity (PVOD) .172 -.001 

Demographic Dissimilarity (DD) .033 -.180 

Ethnic Identity (EID) .079 .141 

PVOD x DD  .326* 

EID x DD  -.244* 

F 1.018 2.968* 

!! .030* .134 

Adjusted !! .001 .089 

Δ !! .030 .104 
Note. p* < .05. 
 
 
 
 
 
 



FAÇADES OF CONFORMITY	

112 
	

 
 

To further examine the effect of demographic dissimilarity on the creation of FOC, we calculated the 
contributions of ethnic identity and perceived value of diversity at both high and low levels (Schoonhoven 
1981).  Figures 2 and 3 present the predicted values of facades of conformity at one standard deviation above 
and below the means for both independent variables. Although support for demographic dissimilarity as a 
moderator of the relationship between ethnic identity and FOC was significant and in the predicted direction 
for employees who perceived lower levels of dissimilarity, its effect for employees who perceived higher levels 
of dissimilarity was contrary to our prediction.  Employees who perceived they were more racially dissimilar 
from their workgroup and had higher levels of ethnic identity were less likely to engage in FOC.  

 
Figure 2. Joint effect of ethnic identity and demographic dissimilarity on facades of conformity  
 
 
 
 

 

-4 

-3 

-2 

-1 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

Fa
ca

de
s 

of
 C

on
fo

rm
ity

 (F
O

C
)  

   
   

  

Ethnic Identity (EID)          

DD 
high 
low 



Phillips et al.	

113 
 

 
 

Figure 3. Joint effect of perceived value of diversity and demographic dissimilarity on facades of conformity 
 
 

Similarly, the effect of demographic dissimilarity as a moderator for the perceived value of diversity 
and FOC relationship was consistent with our prediction for employees who perceived lower levels of 
dissimilarity.  Employees who perceived that they were more similar to their workgroup were less likely to 
engage in facades of conformity as perceptions that the organization valued diversity increased.  However, the 
relationship was opposite for employees who perceived higher levels of dissimilarity, as the likelihood of 
engaging in facades of conformity increased as perceptions that the organization valued diversity increased.  

Hypothesis 3 proposed that the degree of creating facades of conformity would be positively related 
to work stress.  Ordinary least squares regression was used to test this relationship and support was found for 
the relationship where facades of conformity was significantly and negatively related to work stress, thus 
providing support for hypothesis 3.  

To examine the model of the outcome and mediated relationships as predicted by Hypotheses 4a and 
4b, Shrout and Bolger’s (2002) approach to test mediation was employed.  To utilize their methodology, the 
relationship between the distal predictor (facades of conformity) and outcome (job satisfaction) must first be 
supported theoretically.  Second, the distal predictor (facades of conformity) must have a significant 
relationship with the mediator (work stress). Third, the mediator (work stress) must have a significant 
relationship with the outcome (job satisfaction) after controlling for the distal predictor (facades of 
conformity).  Lastly, if the relationship between the distal predictor (facades of conformity) and the outcome 
(job satisfaction) is not significant in the presence of the mediator (work stress), the relationship is fully 
mediated.  If both relationships are significant, then the relationship is partially mediated. As shown in the 
correlation table (see Table 1), although the relationship is in the hypothesized direction, facades of 
conformity and job satisfaction are not significantly correlated.  Work stress and facades of conformity are 
significantly correlated.  Given that the initial relationship between the distal predictor and outcome was 
unsupported, hypotheses 4a and 4b are unsupported.  The regression results for testing mediation are 
reported in Table 4.  

 
 

-2 

-1.5 

-1 

-0.5 

0 

0.5 

1 

1.5 

2 

2.5 
Fa

ca
de

s 
of

 C
on

fo
rm

ity
 (F

O
C

)  
   

   
  

Perceived Value of Diversity (PVOD)         

DD 
high 
low 



FAÇADES OF CONFORMITY	

114 
	

 
Table 4 
Mediation Test – Linking Facades of Conformity and Job Satisfaction via Work Stress  

Factor Job Satisfaction β !! 

Facades of Conformity -.072 .005 

Work Stress -.392*** .154 
Note. *** p < .001 
 
 
 

 
Discussion 

 
The present study contributes to the organizational management and workplace diversity literatures 

through the examination of facades of conformity as a means for minority employees to enhance their social 
identity.  As the workplace becomes more diverse, a better understanding of employees’ ability to be 
authentic at work could provide insight into outcomes such as turnover rates, employee morale and 
citizenship behaviors.  As our study focused on the experiences of African American professionals, additional 
research is needed to determine whether the relationships evaluated are generalizable to other identity groups.  
Hewlin’s (2009) study focused on a primarily Caucasian sample, for which minority status was significant in 
the creation of facades of conformity.  As her study assessed perceived minority status on various dimensions 
as a direct effect, we chose to focus on racial dissimilarity as a specific type of minority status, as well as its 
role as a moderator, to further examine the decision to create FOC.  

Consistent with Hewlin’s (2003, 2009) argument and finding that employees who display behaviors 
or values inconsistent with their own are likely to experience negative emotions and tensions, the present 
study found a significant positive relationship between FOC and work stress.  Contrary to our predictions, a 
relationship was not found between FOC and job satisfaction, thus negating the argument that work stress 
would mediate that relationship.  These findings suggest that minority employees may consider FOC as 
essential to overcoming the liability of being different in any organization and thus not sufficiently significant 
to impact the overall level of satisfaction.  Consistent with prior research, work stress was positively related to 
job satisfaction. 

Of most interest is racial dissimilarity having differential effects on the creation of FOC at the higher 
and lower levels of similarity.  When evaluating the effects of both ethnic identity and perceived value of 
diversity on the creation of FOC, the results were diametrically opposed to our predictions in the case of 
higher dissimilarity and these results are therefore the focus of our assessment.  When levels of ethnic identity 
were higher, those who were more dissimilar were less likely to engage in FOC.  As employees with strong 
ethnic identities often have a desire to incorporate their ethnicity into their professional images and 
organizational roles (Bell & Nkomo 2001; Chrobat-Mason, Button, & DiClementi 2001; Liujters et al. 2006), 
the inauthenticity associated with FOC may be perceived as a threat to their identity, resulting in a resistance 
to engage in such behaviors.  In contrast, employees who perceive more similarity and a lower value of 
diversity may use FOC to help distinguish themselves from others in their workgroup.  

Employees who perceive greater dissimilarity and report higher perceptions that their organization 
values diversity may use FOC as a means to overcome the lower status and potential negative assertions 
associated with being different from the majority of their workgroup.  Although organizations that value 
diversity engage in practices to create, promote, or maximize diversity (Avery et al. 2007), employees who 
perceive they are different from others in their workgroup may sense that they are under a microscope and 
scrutinized more than their counterparts (Brewer 1991; Kanter 1977) and may therefore engage in FOC in an 
attempt to increase the appearance of similarity of others and alignment with the organization’s norms. 



Phillips et al.	

115 
 

The nonsignificant main effects of ethnic identity and value of diversity lead us to infer that, given 
that these variables are very specific to the topic of diversity management and experiences of minority 
employees, the FOC construct and measure may not accurately capture these occurrences.  Future research 
could focus on the role of cultural assimilation in assessing minorities’ creation of FOC.  Further analyses can 
be conducted to determine whether the results vary significantly from the FOC measure, thus warranting the 
examination of both in assessing the manner in which minority employees navigate their work environments.  
Additionally, perceived minority status implies that an individual’s status on that dimension is salient to them, 
and thus their perception of their status is likely to influence the degree to which they create FOC.  For 
example, if a minority employee is familiar with and comfortable navigating in a white male-dominated 
corporate world, he or she may not see race as a salient challenge simply as a result of being in the numerical 
minority.  Therefore, future research in this area could examine the salience of the minority category in order 
to more accurately assess the role it plays in the creation of FOC.  Similar to previous research which 
examined the role of political skill in overcoming minority status (Brouer et al. 2009), future studies could also 
examine the power of social networks as another potential moderator. 

 
Conclusion 

 
Our goal in this paper was to examine FOC as a social mobility strategy, focusing on racial minorities 

as the population of interest.  We also expanded on Hewlin’s (2003) model by presenting additional 
antecedents to the creation of facades of conformity (demographic dissimilarity and perceived value of 
diversity) as well as additional consequences (work stress and job satisfaction).  In addition, we presented 
demographic dissimilarity as a moderator to the antecedent relationships, resulting in opposite effects for 
those with higher and lower perceptions of dissimilarity.  Given the novelty of this topic, it is our hope that 
our findings will help guide further research in this area, further examining the relationships proposed by 
Hewlin (2003) and presenting additional moderating variables to aid in the promotion of this very important 
phenomenon of employees behaving inauthentically and the resulting consequences for both employees and 
organizations. 

 
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T. Nichole Phillips is a Visiting Assistant Professor in the Department of Management and 
Marketing at Winston-Salem State University. She received her Ph.D. in Business Management from 
the University of Central Florida. 
 
Felice Williams is an Associate Professor in the Department of Management and Marketing at 
Louisiana State University Shreveport. She received her Ph.D. in Business Management from 
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. 
 
Dorothy M. Kirkman is an Associate Professor of Management at the University of Houston–
Clear Lake. She received her Ph.D. in Organizational Management from Rutgers -The State 
University of New Jersey. 


