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142

Advances in Business Research

2010, Vol. 1, No. 1, 142-151

Forbus, Newbold and Mehta

 !"#$%&"'()*+,,-'$%).'-/$!'&0)1",$)23!34$,$!'5).'%$&&)637'+%&)3!/)*+8"!4).'%3'$4"$&

Patricia Forbus, Sam Houston State University

John Newbold, Sam Houston State University

Sanjay Mehta, Sam Houston State University

Universities are evolving from the traditional, residential student population to institutions with a large population 

of commuter students. This study investigated the stress factors and methods of coping for these commuter students 

during their university experience as compared to residential students along with the time management capabilities of 

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their residential counterparts which related to differing levels of stress and methods of coping between the two groups 

of students.

From a demographic and involvement standpoint, this investigation was similar to earlier research. In studies 

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"-&+1.$%,1(* 1.5*$,.%*+%(("2"*718$,2*.5"7/*4!'.*%6*1((/*+51!1+."!$'.$+1(()*%(-"!*.51,*.!1-$.$%,1(*'.&-",.'/*&'&1(()*%#"!*

24 years of age, working full time, and typically having dependents to support. Many non-traditional students attend 

+%(("2"* 1!.*.$7"*9:"3;%(-/*<"5.1*=*>%!;&'/*?@A@BC*D%77&."!*'.&-",.'*51#"*;"",*'5%3,*.%*51#"*71,)*%6*.5"*'17"*

+51!1+."!$'.$+'*1'*.5%'"*-"4,"-*6%!*,%,0.!1-$.$%,1(*'.&-",.'*9E%3"*=*F1)("/*?@@GBC*H5"*$,+!"1'"*$,*+%77&."!*'.&-",.*

$,#%(#"7",.*$,*5$25"!*"-&+1.$%,*51'*-!$#",*'%7"*!"I"+.$%,*%,*.5"* !"''&!"'*.51.*'.&-",.'*7$25.*61+"*.5!%&25*.5"$!*

#1!$%&'*!"' %,'$;$($.$"'*9J';%!,"*".*1(C/*?@@ABC*

The experience of the more mature, commuting students and the many challenges that they face in their work, 

social life, family life, and study are dissimilar to those of the traditional, residential notion of university students 

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diverge from younger students in their expectations of the college or university, in their motivations for attending, 

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in life and in their careers that have broadened their general outlook. 

This study expands the previous research by investigating time management characteristics, the origins of stress 

in commuter and residential students, and the coping strategies typically used by each group. This paper sheds 

6&!.5"!*($25.*%,*.5"*+%,'"N&",+"'*%6*+%77&.$,2*;".3"",*1*3%!8*($6"/*'%+$1(*($6"/*1,-*617$()*1,-*+5$(-*!"1!$,2*35$("*

1..",-$,2*1,*$,'.$.&.$%,*%6*5$25"!*"-&+1.$%,*1,-*.5"*,"21.$#"*%&.+%7"'*.51.*71)*1!$'"C*H5"*3%!8O($6"O'.&-)*;1(1,+"*$'*

central to commuter student participation. An improved understanding of the complexity of the inter-relationship is 

important to theorizing lifelong learning and policy development.

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?@A@BC*Q".3"",*ARRL*1,-*?@@L/*.5"*,&7;"!*%6*.5"'"*&,-"!2!1-&1."*+%(("2"*'.&-",.'*$,+!"1'"-*1.*1*!1."*%6*S@T*.%*

U@T*9Q)"/*V&'581!/*=*D%,31)/*?@@GBC*H5"'"*'.&-",.'*;!$,2*3$.5*.5"7*-"'$!"'*1,-*,""-'*.51.*1!"*-$66"!",.*6!%7*.5"$!*

.!1-$.$%,1(*+%&,."! 1!.'*%,*+17 &'*9:"3;%(-/*<"5.1*=*>%!;&'/*?@@RBC*H5"*'5$6.$,2*+17 &'* % &(1.$%,*.%31!-*7%!"*

mature, married, working, and commuting students necessitates that colleges and universities understand and adapt 

to the changing student needs in order to improve student satisfaction and involvement with the college experience 

and their persistence toward degree attainment.

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demographic characteristics of the commuter student are reasonably well-understood, the sources of their stress 

with college life and the coping strategies they employ have not been as thoroughly researched. With their maturity 

come responsibilities associated with careers, social connections, and families. University students, in general, are 

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3%!8*1,-*617$()*($6"*51#"*;%.5* %'$.$#"*1,-*,"21.$#"*+%,'"N&",+"'C*H$7"*71,12"7",.*'8$(('*51#"*;"",*$-",.$4"-*1'*

1* %''$;("*$,-$+1.$%,*%6*5$25"!* "!6%!71,+"*1,-*(%3"!*'.!"''*1,-*1,K$".)*9Z"1!,'*=*F1!-$,"!/*?@@GBC*H5"*'$2,$4+1,.*



143

Advances in Business Research

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to be their coping strategies and the level of support from their families, employers, fellow students and from the 

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These more mature students are apt to be diverse from younger students in their expectations of the college 

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51#"* +%,'$-"!1;()*7%!"* .$7"* 1,-* !%("* '.!1$,'* .51,* !"'$-",.$1(* +%(("2"* '.&-",.'* 9<%!!$'/* Q!%%8'/*=*<1)/* ?@@SBC*

H5"'"*+%77&."!*'.&-",.'*%6.",*6""(*'.!"''"-/*71,12$,2*.5"$!*#1!$"-*!%("'*1,-*!"' %,'$;$($.$"'*9D&!1'$/*=*Q&!851(."!/*

?@@RBC*H5"*"K."!,1(*-"71,-'*1,-*-$66"!$,2*!"' %,'$;$($.$"'*+!"1."*.$7"*($7$.1.$%,'*.51.*!"'$-",.$1(*'.&-",.'*71)*,%.*

",+%&,."!*9E&,-;"!2/*?@@SBC*X$.5*.5"*$,+!"1'"*$,*+%77&."!*'.&-",.'*1..",-$,2*+%(("2"/*.5"!"*$'*1*,""-*.%*&,-"!'.1,-*

how the balancing of the multiple demands and roles of work, school, and life affects adult students. Academic 

stresses for commuter students include being capable of coping at a higher education level, time management, and 

study skills with additional concerns centered on coping with existing responsibilities and with the added study tasks 

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An issue of prominence for commuter students is the stress of balancing multiple demands and roles at work, at 

school, and in their personal life. In keeping with the resource scarcity theory, entering a university produces another 

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contrast to the traditional, residential student, commuter students have additional responsibilities within their job and 

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M*6"3*%6*.5"*,&7"!%&'*-$64+&(.$"'*.51.*+%77&."!*'.&-",.'*61+"*$,+(&-"*1+1-"7$+*!"' %,'$;$($.)/*617$()*%;($21.$%,'/*

3%!8/*71$,.1$,$,2* "!'%,1(*!"(1.$%,'5$ '/*.$7"*71,12"7",./*4,1,+$1(*%;($21.$%,'/*1,-*;"+%7$,2*1++($71."-*.%*.5"*

&,$#"!'$.)*",#$!%,7",.*9:"221/*M  ("35$."*=*E$#$,2'.%,/*?@@GBC*].*51'*;"",*'&22"'."-*.51./*"#",*.5%&25*+%77&."!*

students are more apt to work full time, they are not as stressed by working, commuting, or time limitations because 

.5")* 51#"*7%!"* "K "!$",+"* 1.* .$7"*71,12"7",.* 9E&,-;"!2/* ?@@SBC* ],* %.5"!* '.&-$"'/*7%!"*71.&!"* '.&-",.'* 51#"*

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To enhance the progress of learning and persistence of commuter students, it is important for higher education 

institutions to understand the stress of these students and provide resources that can decrease stressors and assist 

commuters with coping. Student health issues have been found to involve stress management and the development of 

.$7"*71,12"7",.*'8$(('*9`1$0^"3/*?@@RBC*H5"* !"''&!"'*%6*71$,.1$,$,2*1*;1(1,+"*;".3"",*%++& 1.$%,1(*!"(1.$%,'5$ '/*

academic demands, and maintaining personal relationships can be a tremendous task (Negga, Applewhite & 

E$#$,2'.%,/*?@@GBC*_.!"''*51'*;"",*!"+%2,$P"-*1'*1,*$7 %!.1,.*#1!$1;("*3$.5*'$2,$4+1,.*!"(1.$%,'5$ '*.%*2!1-"* %$,.*

1#"!12"*9FVMB/*$,.",.*.%* "!'$'./*1,-*2%1(*+%77$.7",.*9_1,-("!/*?@@?BC*_.!"''*17%,2*+%77&."!*'.&-",.'*71)*-"#"(% *

6!%7*%#"!"K.",-"-*3%!8(%1-'/*-$64+&(.)*3$.5*.$7"*71,12"7",./*$''&"'*3$.5*$,."! "!'%,1(*!"(1.$%,'5$ '/*%!*+%,+"!,*

1;%&.*1+1-"7$+*61$(&!"*9V$"!+"1((*=*Z"$7/*?@@GBC

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transport which could provide the most environmentally friendly mode of commuting (Kerr, A. Lennon, A. J. & 

X1.'%,/*QC*DC/* ?@A@BC*D%77&.$,2* #$1* 1&.%7%;$("* $'* 1* 61+.%!* $,* #1!$%&'* "+%(%2$+1(* 1,-* .!164+* $7 "-$7",./* '&+5*

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!"(1."-*.%*.5"*5$25*("#"(*%6*.!164+/*1#1$(1;$($.)*%6* 1!8$,2/*1,-*.5"*17%&,.*%6*.$7"*1,-*","!2)*$,#%(#"-*$,*+%77&.$,2*

9`"!,1,-"P/*?@@?BC*H5"!"*$'*1('%*'.!"''*1''%+$1."-*3$.5*.5"*$,+%,#",$",+"*%6*,""-$,2*.%*!".&!,*.%*+17 &'*6%!*1++"''*

.%*($;!1!)*%!*+%7 &."!*61+$($.$"'*9`"!,1,-"P/*?@@?BC*D%77&."!*'.&-",.'*51#"*-$'+&''"-*6""($,2'*%6*2&$(./*'1+!$4+"*

1,-* +%,I$+.* $,* !"' "+.* .%* .5"$!* 617$()* !"(1.$%,'5$ '* 1(%,2*3$.5* 51!-'5$ '* $,* .5"$!*3%!8* ",#$!%,7",.'* +1&'"-* ;)*

'& "!#$'%!'*!"N&$!$,2*"K.!1*%#"!.$7"*.%*+%7 ",'1."*6%!*.5"*.$7"*' ",.*1.*.5"*&,$#"!'$.)*9E%3"*=*F1)("/*?@@GBC

Differences have been found between commuter and residential students in their perceptions of stressful events 

9V$"!+"1((*=*Z"$7/*?@@GBC*H5$'*7"1,'* .51.* 1* '$.&1.$%,* !"21!-"-*1'* '.!"''6&(*;)*%,"* '.&-",.*71)*,%.*;"* '.!"''6&(*

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can have a positive effect allowing individuals to react effectively in times of urgency. Stressed students need to 

understand that it is an individual’s perception of the demands placed upon them that cause stress and not the demands 

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6&,+.$%,$,2*1,-*1(("#$1.$%,*%6*6""($,2'*%6*'.!"''*9Z"1!,'*=*F1!-$,"!/*?@@GBC

D%77&."!*'.&-",.'*+%77%,()*51#"*1*;&')*($6"*3$.5*3%!8*1,-*617$()*!"' %,'$;$($.$"'*1,-*1,*"'.1;($'5"-*'%+$1(*

circle before they enroll in a university course. Study is taken on as an additional commitment (Kember & Leung, 

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'.&-)*1,-*+1,*;"*$-",.$4"-*1'*'1+!$4+"/*'&  %!.*1,-*,"2%.$1."-*1!!1,2"7",.'*9Z"7;"!*=*E"&,2/*?@@cBC*H5"*$-"1*

%6*'1+!$4+"*+%7"'*6!%7*.5"*+%,+" .*.51.*d'%7".5$,2*51'*.%*2$#"/e*1,-*$.*$'*&'&1(()*1''%+$1."-*3$.5*.5"*2$#$,2*& *%6*

2010, Vol. 1, No. 1, 142-151

Forbus, Newbold and Mehta



144

Advances in Business Research

 "!'%,1(* ("1'&!"*%!* .5"*'&!!",-"!*%6*1' "+.'*%6*%,"Y'*'%+$1(* ($6"* 9Z"7;"!*=*E"&,2/*?@@cBC*:"2%.$1.$,2*51'*;"",*

successful at the family level where the household division of labor and childcare are adjusted to accommodate for 

.5"*+51,2"'*$,*'+5"-&("'*1,-*3%!8(%1-'*9_3"".*=*<%",/*?@@GBC*Q&.*,"2%.$1.$%,*-%"'*,%.* "!6%!7*1'*'&++"''6&(()*

$,*.5"*3%!8*",#$!%,7",.*;"+1&'"*+1!""!'*1!"*'%*$7 %!.1,.*.51.*.5"!"*$'*($7$."-*I"K$;$($.)*6%!*71,$ &(1.$%,*9Z"7;"!*

=*E"&,2/*?@@cBC*D% $,2*$,*'.!"''6&(*'$.&1.$%,'*+1,*;"*1$-"-*;)*.5"*'&  %!.*%6*6!$",-'f*5%3"#"!/*6%!*71,)*71.&!"/*

commuter students, comparatively little time is devoted to actions traditionally associated with developing support 

groups. It is the residential students who are more involved with fraternal and social organizations, and dormitories, 

+(&;'/*."17'*9D%% "!*=*a%;$,'%,/*?@@@BC*D%77&."!*'.&-",.'*1!"*($8"()*.%*!"()*%,*.5"*'17"* "% ("*1'*.5")*-$-* !$%!*.%*

;"2$,,$,2*&,$#"!'$.)/*718$,2*.5"$!*,"3*6!$",-'5$ '*("''*$7 %!.1,.*6%!*.5"$!*'.!"''*+% $,2C*9Q&%."*".C*1(/*?@@GBC*

J#"!1((/* +% $,2* '.!1."2$"'* +1,* ;"* +(1''$4"-* 1'* "$.5"!* 1+.$#"* %!*  1''$#"C* M+.$#"* +% $,2* ;"51#$%!'* +1,* ("1-* .%*

+%,'.!&+.$#"*%&.+%7"'*.5%&25* (1,,$,2/*'&  %!.*1,-*.$7"*71,12"7",.*9F$1,+%(1/*F!13$.+5*=*Q%!+5"!./*?@@RBC*>%!*

+%77&."!*'.&-",.'*' "+$4+1(()/*.1'806%+&'"-/*1-1 .$#"*+% $,2*31'*!"(1."-*.%*("1!,$,2*2%1(*%!$",.1.$%,/*%!*("1!,$,2*6%!*

d$.'*%3,*'18"/e*35$+5*31'*!"(1."-*.%*5$25"!*FVM'*9<%!!$'*Q!%%8'*=*<1)/*?@@SBC*H1'80%!$",."-*+% $,2*1+.$%,*7$25.*

include engaging a tutor, setting aside more study time, or other active ways to solve the stress-causing problem. With 

the multiple roles of the commuter student, there is a basic increase in task-oriented strategy in supporting the focus 

%,*("1!,$,2*6%!*("1!,$,2Y'*'18"*9<%!!$'/*Q!%%8'*=*<1)/*?@@SBC*H5"!"*1!"*5%3"#"!/*'%7"*7%!"*71(1-1 .$#"*6%!7'*%6*

active coping behaviors. These are types of avoidance or escape and lead to more negative outcomes such as venting, 

denial, missing meetings or classes, and drinking alcohol, smoking and using illegal drugs.(Giancola, Grawitch & 

Q%!+5"!./*?@@Rf*V1(7"!*=*a%-2"!/*?@@Rf*1,-*V$"!+"1((*=*Z"$7/*?@@GBC*W1!($"!* '.&-$"'* 6%&,-* .51.* +%77&."!*1,-*

residential students utilize different active coping styles with more positive active coping skills being utilized more 

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Passive coping behavior involves emotional coping or modifying the meaning of events, in order to adapt to or 

downplay their importance.  Again, passive forms of coping can be both positive and negative, depending upon the 

' "+$4+*'$.&1.$%,C*H%*;".."!*&,-"!'.1,-*.5"*$''&"'/*+%,+"!,'/*1,-*,""-'*%6*+%77&."!*'.&-",.'/*1*'.&-)*31'*+%,-&+."-*

1.*1*'%&.53"'."!,*6%&!0)"1!*&,$#"!'$.)*3$.5*1*'$2,$4+1,.* !% %!.$%,*%6*+%77&."!*'.&-",.'*+%7 1!$,2*+%77&."!*1,-*

residential students and their stressors and coping methods.

<;.;=<*@)2;1@AB.

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To facilitate the development of the survey instrument, a focus group was conducted with a convenience sample 

of undergraduate students. The results of the focus group clearly demonstrated that the needs of commuter students 

71)*;"*'$2,$4+1,.()*-$66"!",.*6!%7*.5%'"*%6*!"'$-",.$1(*'.&-",.'C

The Survey Instrument

H5"* $,'.!&7",.* -"#"(% "-* 6%!* .5"* '.&-)*31'* 1* '"(601-7$,$'."!"-/* '.!&+.&!"-/* 1,-* &,-$'2&$'"-* N&"'.$%,,1$!"C*

Q"'$-"'*.5"*61+.*.51.*.5$'*.) "*%6*$,'.!&7",.*$'*.5"*61'."'./*("1'.*"K ",'$#"/*1,-*7%'.* % &(1!*9M(-!"8*=*_"..("/*?@@cB/*

our primary motivation for selecting this form of instrument was that it was the most appropriate methodology (given 

%&!*'17 ($,2*6!17"/*.1!2"."-*'17 ("*'$P"/*.$7"*6!17"/*".+BC*

Recognizing the fact that the instrument was meant to measure ideas and concepts that are abstract and non-

%;'"!#1;("/*"K.!1*+1!"*31'*.18",*$,*-"'$2,$,2*.5"*N&"'.$%,,1$!"*$,*."!7'*%6* !% "!* 5!1'$,2*%6*.5"*N&"'.$%,'/*1,-*1*,"1.*

layout of the various sections. Face validity was conducted with three researchers in the Marketing Department. A 

pilot study was conducted with a sample of the population to determine the accuracy of instructions, the best wording 

%6*.5"*N&"'.$%,'/*.5"*1  !% !$1.","''*%6*'+1("'/*".+C*_$,+"*.5"*.% $+*&,-"!*$,#"'.$21.$%,*31'*'%7"351.*'",'$.$#"/*"K.!1*

+1!"*31'*.18",*.%*"($7$,1."*1,)*17;$2&$.)*$,*.5"*N&"'.$%,,1$!"C*_"#",0 %$,.*E$8"!.*'+1("'*3"!"*&'"-*"K.",'$#"()*.%*

assess students’ time management strategies, their attitudes toward stress and their stress coping strategies.

Approximately 3-4 items were developed to represent each construct under investigation. Nominal to ratio scales 

3"!"*&'"-*.%*%;.1$,*+(1''$4+1.$%,*$,6%!71.$%,C*H5"*'&!#")*.%%8*;".3"",*A@*1,-*A?*7$,&."'*.%*+%7 ("."C*H%*",+%&!12"*

participation from respondents, all completed responses were eligible to participate in a random drawing.

A8$%3'"+!3D"F"!4)G*+,,-'$%).'-/$!'H

D%77&."!*'.1.&'*51'*;"",*% "!1.$%,1($P"-*1*,&7;"!*%6*-$66"!",.*31)'*$,*.5"* !"+"-$,2*!"'"1!+5C*J,"*+%77%,1($.)*

%6* 1((* -"4,$.$%,'* $'* .5"* !"N&$!"7",.* .51.* .5"* '.&-",.* ,%.* ($#"* 3$.5$,* U*7$("'* 6!%7* .5"* +17 &'C* >%!*  &! %'"'* %6*

2010, Vol. 1, No. 1, 142-151

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145

Advances in Business Research

this research, “commuter” was operationalized living outside of the county where the university is located. This 

constitutes a distance of over 5 miles. It was felt that students some students who, essentially, live “in town” also 

lived more than 5 miles from campus. These students were not considered commuter students for purposes of this 

'.&-)C*J6*.5"*%#"!1((*",-$,2*'17 ("*%6*cb@*!"' %,-",.'/*A?c*9?LTB*1!"*+(1''$4"-*1'*d+%77&."!e/*3$.5*.5"*!"71$,$,2*

356 being considered “non-commuters” or “residential” students.

A8$%3'"+!3D"F"!4)G=7'"#$)*+8"!4H)3!/)GI3&&"#$)*+8"!4H

M*7%!"*,"21.$#"*6%!7*%6*d1+.$#"*+% $,2e*$'*% "!1.$%,1($P"-*1'*1*61+.%!*+%,'$'.$,2*%6*.3%*$."7'*1'*6%((%3'\

1. “When I get overly stressed, I sometimes skip a class or two.”

2. “When I get overly stressed, I sometimes skip meetings (group meetings, meetings at work, meetings with 

6!$",-'BCe

H5"*D!%,;1+5*M( 51*%,*.5$'*61+.%!*$'*CLRG*9+1,*;"*!%&,-"-*.%*CG@B

dV1''$#"*D% $,2e*$'*% "!1.$%,1($P"-*1'*1*'$,2("*$."7*1'*6%((%3'\

- “When things aren’t going so well, I put things in a broader perspective, organize, and prioritize.”

This item, representing a form of passive coping behavior, is generally considered to be a more mature, positive 

6%!7*%6*+% $,2*;"51#$%!C*_$,+"*$.*$'*1*'$,2("*$."7*9$C"C/*,%.*1*61+.%!B/*$.*$'*,%.*1  !% !$1."*.%*+%7 &."O!" %!.*1,*M( 51*

score

.3,8D"!4)3!/)B3'3)*+DD$7'"+!

The study was conducted among a projectable sample of the student population at a mid-sized southwestern four-

year university. The general demographic of the students attending this university include 42% male and 58% female; 

Whites = 67%, African-Americans = 15%, Hispanics = 14%, and Others = 4%; and Freshmen = 21%, Sophomores = 

18%, Juniors = 21%, Seniors = 27%, and Others = 13%. 

In order to create the ability to generalize the responses and to eliminate any type of bias in the responses, 

students of an undergraduate marketing research course were trained to obtain 5 completed surveys each. To ensure 

1++&!1+)*%6*-1.1*+%(("+.$%,*1,-*+%7 (".$%,/*UT*%6*"1+5*'.&-",.Y'*+%&!'"*2!1-"*31'*.$"-*$,.%*.5$'* !%+"''C*M*'.!1.$4"-*

'17 ($,2* (1,*31'*-" (%)"-/*3$.5*'.!1.1*+%,.!%(($,2*6%!*;%.5*)"1!* $,*'+5%%(* 9$C"C/* 6!"'571,/*'% 5%7%!"/*".+CB*1,-*

+%(("2"*1..",-$,2*9D%(("2"*%6*Q&'$,"''*M-7$,$'.!1.$%,/*D%(("2"*%6*W-&+1.$%,/*".+CBC*H5"*",-$,2*'17 ("*31'*6%&,-*.%*

represent student population as a whole with a margin of error of ± 4.5%. The validity of the sample was examined 

;)*1*D5$0'N&1!"*2%%-,"''0%604.* ."'.*35"!"* .5"* '17 ("*31'* +%7 1!"-* .%* .5"* % &(1.$%,*%6* .5"* $,'.$.&.$%,*%,*8")*

-"7%2!1 5$+*#1!$1;("'C*M((*D5$0'N&1!"'*3"!"*-"."!7$,"-*.%*;"*,%,0'$2,$4+1,.*1.*.5"*@C@U*("#"(C*H5$'*$'*1,*$,-$+1.%!*

that the sample is projectable to the population under study.

B3'3)J-3D"'(

The items in the survey were developed based upon the literature review, focus groups, and the special 

+$!+&7'.1,+"'* %6* .5"* $,'.$.&.$%,* 35"!"* .5"* !"'"1!+5* 31'* +%,-&+."-* 9D5&!+5$((* =* Q!%3,/* ?@@GBC* _$,+"* .5$'* 31'*

 !$71!$()* 1,* "K (%!1.%!)* '.&-)/* 1*7$,$7&7* 61+.%!* (%1-$,2*%6*@CS@* 9:&,,1(()/* ARGbB*31'*&'"-*1'* 1*2&$-"($,"* 6%!*

including items in a factor. The reliability of each factor was evaluated utilizing an internal consistency measure. 

>1+.%!'*3$.5*D!%,;1+5*M( 51*("''*.51,*@CG@*3"!"*,%.*&'"-*6%!*.5"*1,1()'$'C*],*'%7"*+1'"'/*.5"*1,1()'$'*31'* "!6%!7"-*

utilizing individual items.

@KIA1@;.;.

L+!M1%3/"'"+!3D).'-/$!'&

H5"* 4!'.* %;g"+.$#"* 31'* .%* -"."!7$,"* 35".5"!* +%77&."!* '.&-",.'* .%-1)* 1!"* '$2,$4+1,.()* -$#"!'"* 6!%7* ,%,0

commuter students. Previous research demonstrated that commuter students are more likely to have the characteristics 

2010, Vol. 1, No. 1, 142-151

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of the non-traditional student such as being over 24 years of age, working full time, and usually having dependents 

.%*'&  %!.*9E%3"*=*F1)("/*?@@Gf*Q)"/*V&'581!/*=*D%,31)/*?@@Gf*1,-*:"3;%(-/*<"5.1*=*>%!;&'/*?@A@;BC*H5$'*6%+&'*

("1-'*.%*.5"*4!'.*5) %.5"'$'C

`) %.5"'$'*A\*D%77&."!*'.&-",.'*1!"*7%!"*($8"()*.51,*!"'$-",.$1(*'.&-",.'*.%* %''"''*.5"*.!1$.'*%6*,%,0.!1-$.$%,1(*

students.

Stress

The differences in the characteristics of commuter and residential students lead to the opinion that there is a 

variation in the intensity of stress and the coping strategies in the college experience. Stress levels among commuter 

'.&-",.'*3"!"* "!+"$#"-*1'*7%-"!1."()*5$25/*1,-*4,1,+$1(*$''&"'*1!"*%,"*%6*.5"*;$22"'.*+%,.!$;&.%!'*.%*'.!"''*9D1,1("'0

F%,P1("'*=*Z!1,P/*?@@bBC*H5"*!"' %,'$;$($.$"'*+%,,"+."-*3$.5*"7 (%)7",.*$,+!"1'"'*'.&-",.'Y*'.!"''*("#"('/*35$("*1*

71g%!$.)*%6*3%!8$,2*'.&-",.'*!" %!.'*.51.*.5")*6""(*1,*%;($21.$%,*.%*3%!8*9a%;%.517/*?@@RBC*H5"*+%77&.$,2*'.&-",.*

tackles challenges that the non-commuting student typically doesn’t face, especially feelings of isolation, multiple life 

!%("'*1,-*-$66"!",.*'&  %!.*')'."7'*9:"3;%(-/*<"5.1*=*>%!;&'/*?@A@1BC*M,%.5"!*'%&!+"*%6*$,+!"1'"-*'.!"''*$'*($,8"-*

to the fact that commuter students have more time limitations on academics and campus activities because of a more 

+%7 ("K*($6"'.)("*.51,*!"'$-",.$1(*'.&-",.'*9:"3;%(-/*<"5.1*=*>%!;&'/*?@A@1BC*D%77&."!*'.&-",.'*1!"*.!1#"($,2*6!%7*

home or work to attend their university courses. For these students, hours are valuable and appreciated resources, and 

.5"*+17 &'*$'*1* (1+"*.%*d!",-"P#%&'e*6%!* 1!.*%6*.5"$!*.$7"*9a&+5.$/*:"3;%(-*=*<"5.1/*?@@bBC*H$7"*71,12"7",./*

balancing multiple roles, getting to campus are all issues that face commuter students. These lead to the next four 

hypotheses.

`) %.5"'$'*?\*D%77&."!*'.&-",.'*1!"*("''*($8"()*.51,*!"'$-",.$1(*'.&-",.'*.%*51#"*'&64+$",.*.$7"*.%*+%7 ("."*1((*

tasks.

`) %.5"'$'*S\*D%77&."!*'.&-",.'*1!"*7%!"*($8"()*.51,*!"'$-",.$1(*'.&-",.'*.%*51#"*1*5$25"!*("#"(*%6*'.!"''*!"(1."-*

to a general lack of time. 

`) %.5"'$'*c\*D%77&."!*'.&-",.'*1!"*7%!"*($8"()*.51,*!"'$-",.$1(*'.&-",.'*.%*51#"*1*5$25"!*("#"(*%6*'.!"''*!"(1."-*

to money issues. 

`) %.5"'$'*U\*D%77&."!*'.&-",.'*1!"*7%!"*($8"()*.51,*!"'$-",.$1(*'.&-",.'*.%*51#"*1*5$25"!*("#"(*%6*'.!"''*!"(1."-*

to work issues.

`) %.5"'$'*L\*D%77&."!*'.&-",.'*1!"*7%!"*($8"()*.51,*!"'$-",.$1(*'.&-",.'*.%*51#"*1*5$25"!*("#"(*%6*'.!"''*!"(1."-*

to commuting issues. 

*+8"!4)2$7E3!"&,&0)=7'"#$)#&N)I3&&"#$)*+8"!4)2$'E+/&

A coping style is the usual method in which an individual will deal with a stressful situation. With their 

characteristics similar to non-traditional and traditional students, commuter and residential students employ 

dissimilar coping styles with active coping skills being utilized more often by commuter students (Morris, Brooks 

=*<1)/*?@@SBC*X$.5*1+.$#"*+% $,2/* '.!"''* $'*1--!"''"-*-$!"+.()*3$.5* ."+5,$N&"'* ($8"* .$7"*71,12"7",./* (1,,$,2/*

and developing solutions. A passive coping style is related to mitigating the emotional impact of the stress, through 

'&+5*."+5,$N&"'*1'*7$,$7$P$,2*.5"* $7 %!.1,+"*%6* .5"*'%&!+"*%6*'.!"''*%!* (1+$,2*.5"*35%("*'$.&1.$%,*$,*1*;!%1-"!*

 "!' "+.$#"*9V1(7"!*=*a%-2"!/*?@@RBC*

For purposes of this study, active coping strategies and passive coping are represented by a factor consisting of 

.3%*$."7'*1,-*1*'$,2("*$."7/*!"' "+.$#"()/*1'* !"#$%&'()*-"'+!$;"-*9'""*dJ "!1.$%,1($P$,2*M+.$#"*D% $,2*1,-*V1''$#"*

D% $,2eBC*H5&'/*.5"*4,1(*.3%*5) %.5"'"'*1!"*1'*6%((%3'\

`) %.5"'$'* G\* D%77&."!* '.&-",.'* 1!"* ("''* ($8"()* .51,* !"'$-",.$1(* '.&-",.'* .%* &.$($P"* ,"21.$#"* 1+.$#"* '.!"''*

management methods. 

`) %.5"'$'* b\* D%77&."!* '.&-",.'* 7%!"* ($8"()* .51,* !"'$-",.$1(* '.&-",.'* .%* &.$($P"*  %'$.$#"*  1''$#"* '.!"''*

management methods. 

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147

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Results

H1;("'*A*1,-*?*'&771!$P"*.5"*!"'&(.'*%6*.5"*!"'"1!+5C*H5"*4!'.*5) %.5"'$'*1--!"''"-*+%77&."!*'.&-",.'Y*'$7$(1!$.)*

to non-traditional students. To assess this, each respondent was asked about the number of hours spent during a 

typical week studying, working, and traveling to college, their age, and family status. Table 1 shows that, like non-

traditional students, commuter students were more likely to work in excess of 21 hours per week and to spend more 

.51,*AA*5%&!'* "!*3""8*'.&-)$,2*%&.'$-"*%6*+(1''C*D%77&."!*'.&-",.'*3"!"*1('%*'$7$(1!*.%*,%,0.!1-$.$%,1(*'.&-",.'*

by being older, more likely to be married and caring for children. All of these results proved to be statistically 

'$2,$4+1,.C**H5&'/*`) %.5"'"'*A*$'*1++" ."-C

H5"*,"K.*4#"*5) %.5"'"'*$,#"'.$21."-*.5"*-$66"!",+"'*$,*.5"*'.!"''*;".3"",*+%77&."!*1,-*!"'$-",.$1(*'.&-",.'C*

Hypothesis 2 was concerned with commuter students feeling less likely to have enough time in a day to complete 

all the necessary tasks. On a 7-point scale, the mean for Hypothesis 2 was 3.6 for commuter students and 4.1 for 

residential students. The next four hypotheses addressed stress as it related to time, money, work, and commuting 

issues, respectively. Hypothesis 3, addressing a general lack of time, had a mean value of 5.2 for commuter students 

and 4.8 for residential students. Stress relating to money issues, Hypothesis 4, had a mean value of 5.4 for commuter 

students and 4.8 for residential students. Associated with Hypothesis 5, commuter students reported higher levels of 

stress related to work with a mean of 4.6 while residential students reported a mean of 3.9. As suggested in Hypothesis 

6, commuting issues showed a higher level of stress for commuting students with a mean of 5.1 compared to 2.6 for 

!"'$-",.$1(*'.&-",.'C*M((*%6*.5"'"*-$66"!",+"'*3"!"*'.1.$'.$+1(()*'$2,$4+1,.C*H5&'*"1+5*%6*.5"'"*4#"*5) %.5"'"'*31'*

accepted.

The last two hypotheses dealt with coping mechanisms. The research showed that commuter students are more 

apt to utilize more positive passive stress management coping strategies while residential students are more apt to 

turn to more negative active coping methods. The mean values for passive stress management was 5.3 for commuter 

students and 4.8 for residential students. The mean values for the more negative active stress management coping 

'.!1."2)*31'*SCU*6%!*+%77&."!*'.&-",.'*1,-*cC@*6%!*!"'$-",.$1(*'.&-",.'C*H5"'"*!"'&(.'*3"!"*'.1.$'.$+1(()*'$2,$4+1,.C*

Thus, these two hypotheses were accepted.

13OD$)P0)*+,,-'$%)#&N)<$&"/$!'"3D).'-/$!'&)Q;C3,"!3'"+!)+R)1%3"'&)+R)L+!M1%3/"'"+!3D).'-/$!'&S

13OD$)T0)*+,,-'$%)#&N)<$&"/$!'"3D).'-/$!'&)Q*+,83%"&+!)+R)2$3!&)+!)=''"'-/"!3D)B",$!&"+!&S

B"&7-&&"+!

H5"*4,-$,2'*%6*.5$'*!"'"1!+5*-$' &."*.5"*$,+($,1.$%,*.%*'""*'.&-",.'*%,()*1'*("1!,"!'/*1,-* %$,.*$,'."1-*.%*1* $+.&!"*

of a student as a whole person with roles as partner, parent, worker, and money manager for which time must be found 

$,*;&')*'+5"-&("'*9E%3"*=*F1)("/*?@@GBC*H5"*4,-$,2'*1('%* %$,."-*%&.*.51.*"-&+1.$%,1(*'&++"''*+1,*;"*!"1($P"-*;)*

students who experience a variety of life stresses if the right support is available. Their success can also be related to 

.5"*I"K$;$($.)*%6*.5"*&,$#"!'$.)C*`$25"!*"-&+1.$%,* !%2!17'*.51.*1!"*1#1$(1;("*.%*'.&-",.'*$,*1*#1!$".)*%6*'.)("'/*6!%7*1*

-"4,"-*6&((*.$7"*+%&!'"*.%*1* "!'%,1($P"-* !%2!17*%!*1*5);!$-*+%&!'"*%6*'.&-)*3%&(-*5"( *+!"1."*1,*",#$!%,7",.*.51.*

 

Related  

Hypotheses 
Item 

Commuter Students 

(n= 124) 

Resident Students 

(n= 356) 

Chi- 

Square 

p- 

value 

H1 

 

More than 21 Hours Working 54.4% 30.4% 28.656 .000 

More than 11 Hours Studying 36.8% 26.0% 5.247 .073 

More than 5 Miles Commuting 98.4% 18.7% 247.212 .000 

Older than 25 Years 33.6% 7.2% 77.932 .000 

Married 24.0% 3.9% 47.447 .000 

Caring for Children 19.2% 3.9% 30.121 .000 

38 

.014 

2 

02 

.000 

stress management methods 24 

 

Related 

Hypotheses 
Item 

Commuter  

Students (n = 124) 

Resident  

Students (n = 356) 
p-value Accept Reject 

H2 Sufficient time for tasks 3.6 4.1 .038    

H3 Stress related to lack of time 5.2 4.8 .014    

H4 Stress related to money issues 5.4 4.8 .002    

H5 Stress related to work issues 4.6 3.9 .002    

H6 Stress related to commuting issues 5.1 2.6 .000    

H7 

Item: More positive passive stress 

management methods 
5.3 4.8 .002    

H8 Factor: Active stress management methods 3.5 4.0 .024    

 

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148

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 !"#$%! &%$$#&'()& "**()!&+%&"%#$) !,%#+%-&!.$&/()012+'$1 !"#3&4,2,%5$&67(/$&8&9,32$:&;<<=>?

There is an increase in the number of older, working, commuting students who attend institutions of higher 

$#"5,!+(%&69+,%5(2,:&9),/+!5.&,%#&@()5.$)!:&;<<A>?&B%23&,4("!&(%$&!.+)#&('&"%#$)-),#",!$& !"#$%! &,)$&%(!&/()0+%-&

,#"2! &6@$)0$):&C()%&8&D,))(22:&;<<E>?&F+!.&,%&+%5)$, $&+%&5(GG"!$)& !"#$%! &,!!$%#+%-&5(22$-$:&!.$)$&+ &,&%$$#&!(&

"%#$) !,%#&.(/&/()01 5.((212+'$& !)$  $ &+G*,5!&,#"2!& !"#$%! ?

There is a difference between the coping styles of commuter and residential students. Since they tend to be younger 

and less mature, residential students are more likely than their commuting counterparts to choose to “skip out” on 

course when they become too stressed. More prone to utilize more positive active coping strategies, commuter college 

 !"#$%! &/$)$&'("%#&!(&G()$&('!$%&5(*$&!.)("-.&*( +!+H$:&*,  +H$&G$!.(# &6+?$?:&!,0+%-&,&I4)(,#$)&*$) *$5!+H$J>&!.,%&

did the younger residential college students who relied more on active coping methods associated with cutting class, 

2$,H+%-&.(G$/()0&"%#(%$:&,%#&#)+%0+%-&G()$&6K())+ :&@)((0 :&8&K,3:&;<<E>?&

Students who reported more effective problem solving skills were more likely to use coping strategies aimed 

towards task-oriented or problem solving. Learning goal orientations were associated with increased use of task-

oriented coping that may imply, for example, that a student, who chooses to cope with stress more actively, sets up 

*2,% &,%#&G,* &("!& (2"!+(% &6K())+ :&@)((0 :&8&K,3:&;<<E>?&L%&)$M$5!+%-&"*(%&!.+ & !"#3:&+!&/("2#&,**$,)&!.,!&!.$&

commuter students are already engaging in many of these positive, active coping strategies.

Success can be achieved by students who experience a variety of life circumstances if the right support is 

,H,+2,42$&67(/$&8&9,32$:&;<<=>?&N&0$3&)(2$&'()&.+-.$)&$#"5,!+(%&+% !+!"!+(% &+%&)$2,!+(%&!(& !)$  &+ &!.$&,H,+2,4+2+!3&

('& "+!,42$&)$ (")5$ & !(&$%,42$& +%#+H+#",2 & !(&G,%,-$& !)$  &6O$G4$)&8&7$"%-:&;<<P>?&D(GG"!$)& !"#$%! &,)$& +%&

need of solutions to deal with the increasing encumbrances on their lives and their ability to cope with and juggle 

competing demands on their time. The time management experience of commuter students has the effect of improved 

'"%5!+(%+%-&,%#&,22$H+,!+(%&('&'$$2+%- &('& !)$  &6O$,)% &8&9,)#+%$):&;<<=>?&Q.$&G"2!+*2$&'"%5!+(% &!.,!&')+$%# &'"2R22:&

and their provisions of support and well-being, suggest that having a close friend during stressful experiences would 

.$2*&+%#+H+#",2 &5(*$&6@"(!$&$!?2!:&;<<=>?&

S!"#$%! & /.(& 2((0& *( +!+H$23& (%& !.$& (*$%%$  & ('& ,#G+%+ !),!+(%& !$%#& !(& 4$& G()$&  ,!+ R$#& /+!.& !.$& 5,G*" &

$%H+)(%G$%!&6T+5(2 (%&8&@$  :&UAA=>?&D(GG"!$)& !"#$%! &.,H$& !)(%-$)&)$2,!+(% .+* &/+!.&,#G+%+ !),!() &,%#&*2,5$&

,&-)$,!$)&H,2"$&(%&',5"2!3&+%!$),5!+(%&!.,%&!.$+)&%(%V5(GG"!+%-&$W"+H,2$%!&6T$/4(2#:&K$.!,:&8&X()4" :&;<U<>?&

 !"!#$#!%&'($&)(*+#+,-(.-'-$,/0

The research was conducted concerning the stress and coping mechanisms of commuter and residential students.  

A further breakdown of the commuter students could be helpful in understanding student needs if a determination 

were made between the non-traditional commuter students and the more traditional students (many of whom may 

4$&R) !V-$%$),!+(%& !"#$%! >&/.(&.,**$%&!(&4$&5(GG"!+%-?&N%(!.$)& +-%+R5,%!&H,)+,42$&4$!/$$%& !"#$%! &!.,!&/("2#&

.$2*&#$R%$&!.$+)&!+G$&G,%,-$G$%!&5,*,4+2+!+$ &#$,2 &/+!.&!.$&*$) (%,2+!3&!3*$&('&!.$& !"#$%!?&@3&!.$+)&+%#$*$%#$%!&

%,!")$:&,&Q3*$&N&*$) (%,2+!3& !"#$%!&/("2#& $$G&!(&4$&4$!!$)&$W"+**$#&'()&-(,2& $!!+%-:&G(!+H,!+(%:&,%#&*( +!+H$&

thinking. At the opposite end of the spectrum, Type D personality students might experience more uncertainty when 

',5$#&/+!.&5.,%-$?&D(%!)(22+%-&!.+ &H,)+,42$&/+!.+%&!.$&)$ $,)5.&('&5(GG"!$)& !"#$%! &,%#&)$ +#$%!+,2& !"#$%! &/("2#&

'")!.$)&#$R%$&!.$&)$ "2! &('&'"!")$&)$ $,)5.?

Future research is needed to better understand the balance of work lives and school for both commuter and 

)$ +#$%!+,2& !"#$%! ?&L!&+ &#+'R5"2!&'()&"%+H$) +!+$ &!(&+G*2$G$%!&5,G*" &,5!+H+!+$ &,%#&*)(-),G &/.$%&!.$3&#(%Y!&'"223&

understand the lives of either group. Students, in theory, are sharing much of the same burden of work and school 

commitments and have less time for school functions. Perhaps research should be done on why commuter students 

and residential students share the somewhat similar stress factors, and have divergent coping methods.

Some particular variables that complicate the study of stress in commuter students and residential students relate 

!(&!.$& !"#$%!Y &)(2$&+%&!.$&',G+23&,%#&!.$&,G("%!&('&5(%M+5!&/+!.+%&!.$&',G+23&*,)!+5"2,)23&, &+!&)$2,!$ &!(& ,5)+R5$#&

',G+23&!+G$&'()&,& !"#$%!Y & !"#+$ ?&Q(&4$!!$)&"%#$) !,%#&!.$&R%,%5+,2& !)$  &('&!.$&#$5+ +(%&!(&)$!")%&!(&5(22$-$:&+!&

would be advisable to research the income level of the commuter students and residential students and the number of 

dual income households that are represented in the study. In future research, time as a stress factor could be reviewed 

from the standpoint of the amount of time a student has allocated for taking university classes as compared to the 

,5!",2&,G("%!&('&5(") $V/()0&!+G$&)$W"+)$#?&N%(!.$)&H,)+,42$&/.+5.&/("2#&,  + !&+%&"%#$) !,%#&!.$&2$H$2 &('& !)$  &

)$2,!$ &!(&!.$&,5!",2&5(GG"!$&$Z*$)+$%5$#?&L!&/("2#&4$&+G*()!,%!&!(&"%#$) !,%#&!.$&W",2+!3&('&!.$&5(GG"!$:&!.$&2$%-!.&

('&!.$&5(GG"!$&, &/$22&, &/.$!.$)&!.$&5(GG"!$&)$W"+)$ &#)+H+%-&+%&.$,H+23&!),'R50$#&,)$, &()&!.)("-.&,&5,2G&5("%!)3&

area.

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Advances in Business Research

Research has shown that some universities are developing a framework and assessment tool to evaluate their 

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Along with this, it is pertinent for universities to reexamine the methods for informing students of the programs that 

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Friendship and adjustment among 1st-year university students. Journal of Adolescent Research:&;;_&[[eV[gA?

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Sandler, M. 2002. A structural examination of academic integration, perceived stress, academic performance, 

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Patricia Forbus earned her MBA from the University of Arkansas, and has completed post-graduate work at 

S,G&C(" !(%&S!,!$&j%+H$) +!3?&S.$&+ &)$!+)$#&')(G&NQ8Q17"5$%!1S@D&,%#&., &/()0$#&, &,&4" +%$  &#$H$2(*G$%!&

H(2"%!$$)&'()&!.$&a$,5$&D()* &+%&!.$&j0),+%$?&C$)&5"))$%!&)$ $,)5.&+%!$)$ ! &+%52"#$&*$#,-(-+5,2&)$ $,)5.&)$2,!$#&!(&

R) !&-$%$),!+(%:&%(%V!),#+!+(%,2&,%#&5(GG"!$)& !"#$%! ?

J%0&(2-D<%:) is an associate professor of marketing at Sam Houston State University. He received his DBA in 

marketing from St. Louis University. His current research interests include pedagogical research with commuter, 

%(%V!),#+!+(%,2&,%#&R) !&-$%$),!+(%& !"#$%! :&G,)0$!&)$ $,)5.&,%#&5(G*$!+!+H$&+%!$22+-$%5$:&,%#&G,)0$!+%-& !),!$-3?&&

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Research, and the Academy of Educational Research Journal, among others.

4$&N$9(O-0#$&$,)%$#&.+ &a.?c?&,!&!.$&j%+H$) +!3&('&T()!.&Q$Z, &+%&UAAA?&D"))$%!23:&.$&+ &*)('$  ()&('&G,)0$!+%-&,!&

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non-traditional and commuter students. Also, he conducts research in the area of small business, entrepreneurship, 

and franchising.

2010, Vol. 1, No. 1, 142-151

Forbus, Newbold and Mehta


