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240

Advances in Business Research

2010, Vol. 1, No. 1, 240-247

Hasan

 !"#$%""&'#()*+,-"&.*/&-0%&12st Century

S. M. Jameel Hasan, Eastern Washington University

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nimble and savvy, enjoying a competitive sustainable advantage in the market place. The paper will examine the 

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*0#1!"#=>st#7".13&/#8#,&(+".#9/#1!"#"7*.*-(7#0*&7"5#*0#)(9"&%)(<%1(*.2#-%&?"1(<%1(*.2#$&(+%1(<%1(*.2#%.,#1!"#(.0*&-%1(*.#

&"+*)31(*.#1!%1#,&*+"#,"-*7&%1(<%1(*.#%.,#4)*9%)(<%1(*.#*0#1!"#@*'#%.,#7*.1".1#*0#(.0*&-%1(*.A

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%$/!.'&#5*&3"/8*9&:%25&2!"#!$*&5%+&'(44*$*.#&/$(3(.+1&"%.3!%3*1&'$*++1&+/2(%"&8*5%)(/$&6%##*$.+1&%.'&2!+#/-+9& !"#!$%"&
2"!-+(.*++1&/$&2!"#!$%"&(3./$%.2*1&(+&%&+(3.(;2%.#&4%2#/$&(.&-%(.#%(.(.3&*#5./2*.#$(2&%++!-6#(/.+9&<.*&2%../#&*+#%8"(+5&
one culture as being superior to any other. It is necessary for people involved in cross-cultural communication to 

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%0%$*.*++&%.'&(.+(35#&(.#/&+/2(%"C8!+(.*++&+(#!%#(/.+&%.'&%22/-6%.,(.3&2($2!-+#%.2*+9&D(25/"%+&E*$,%*)&0$(#*+F

G2(*.2*&%.'&+2(*.#(;2&4/$*+(35#&3()*&-%.&6/0*$&%.'&+*2!$(#,1&8!#&#5*,&2%.&%"+/&'*)%+#%#*&5(+&2/.+2(/!+.*++&%.'&

sever him from reality. Indeed, it might be said that science is based upon the alienation of man from reality and of 

reality from man. The knower is outside reality, and the reality he knows is external to him. Everything becomes 

an object, i.e., foreign to man and opposed to him…the meaning of things is revealed not through their entering 

into man who is passive in relation to them, but through man’s creative activity reaching out to meaning beyond 

%.&!.-*%.(.3&0/$"'&=HIJ@1&669&K7LB9

In other words, there is a necessity of cross-cultural sensitivity at home and abroad in a new era of globalism. 

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indoctrinated and oriented in one culture - whereas global business management scenarios of the early decades of the 

21st&2*.#!$,&%.'&8*,/.'&$*N!($*&*44*2#()*&%.'&*4;2(*.#&2$/++72!"#!$%"&2/--!.(2%#(/.1&+!6*$)(+(/.1&%.'&2//$'(.%#(/.&
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The writer of this paper believes in creative adaptation of interpersonal relations in cross-cultural context. The 

challenge to American business and over 4,500 foreign corporations operating in the U.S. is to practice cultural 

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foreign peoples’ ways of life, plus the determined and willful restraint “not to judge them as bad because they are 

'(44*$*.#F&4$/-&/.*S+&/0.&0%,&/4&#5(.P(.31&4**"(.31&%.'&8*5%)(.39
The purpose of the paper is to pose a challenge to global business managers to be cultured, cross-cultured 

business diplomats of the 21st century - at home and abroad. The problem is how to live together not how to become 

alike - “a world in which our success as well as our very survival depends on our respect and understanding for 

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misunderstanding and then examine the feasibility and applicability of two practical models to minimize cultural 

clumsiness or blindness in the global business context of the 21st century.

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The scope of cross-cultural communication involves the whole complex of human life with a myriad of individual 

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based on research, observations, and impressions of scholars and practitioners of cross-cultural communications 

around the globe. For the convenience of the readers, the examples will be presented under ten general headings. The 

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241

Advances in Business Research

2010, Vol. 1, No. 1, 240-247

Hasan

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trying to hide something. In many Asian and Latin American countries, however, it is a long-established habit for a 

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good human relations with them.

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The Japanese, everyone acts according to the rules, are great gift givers and one cannot outgift them - the lose 

face if they are outdone. On the other hand, the Arabs want to be outgifted “If you outdo him he loves it.” Never give 

3(4#+&0(#5&#5*&"*4#&5%.'&(.&G%!'(&T$%8(%&=#5*&"*4#&5%.'&(+&%&#/("*#&5%.'BY&.*)*$&3()*&%&6(37+P(.&8$(*4&2%+*&/$&"!33%3*&+*#&
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never gives an unwrapped gift in Japan or visits a Japanese home empty-handed - also do not open the gift in front 

of the giver. Japanese never give four of anything or an item with four in the name because the word sounds like the 

one for death; also, do not give a potted plant when your Japanese business friend is in a hospital, since you do not 

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In Spain and most of Latin America, if a visitor expresses admiration of a vase or a picture, the host is likely to 

pick it up immediately and hand it to his guest with such words as “Take it…it is yours”; the latter may mistake this 

polite gesture for a genuine gift and go off with the object, much to the chagrin of the unwilling donor. “Take it… it is 

yours” does not mean just that - it is simply a polite gesture with no real intent to give it away to the admiring guest. 

On the other hand, in the Arab countries, “do not admire an object openly, you may be the recipient of it, for example 

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Britain or in the United States; it is not only permitted but expected in many parts of Europe, Africa, Latin America 

%.'&#5*&>%$&:%+#&=c%""1&HIAIY&`"(.*8*$31&HIJa1&69&HbAB9
A gift of cutlery, in Latin America, conveys that you want to end a relationship; a handkerchief means that you 

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give cutlery, always ask for a coin payment so that the gift will not cut your friendship.

]*'&$/+*+&4/$&%&Z*$-%.&"%',&-*%.&QWS-&(.&"/)*&0(#5&,/!_R&̂ 5(#*&%.'&,*""/0&d/0*$+&%$*&./#&3//'&25/(2*+&(.&-%.,&
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3()*.S&/''&.!-8*$+&/4&d/0*$+&%$*&3()*.&%+&3(4#+1&8!#&./#&H?1&%.'&./#&%.&!."!2P,&Hb&=E!+(.*++&^**P1&O*2*-8*$&J1&
HIKJ1&69IHB9

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In overseas business relations, your business card is the ultimate proof of your identity, rank, and profession. In 

W#%",1&*)*.&%&8%25*"/$S+&'*3$**&*.#(#"*+&,/!&#/&6!#&%&O$9&(.&4$/.#&/4&,/!$&.%-*&=TU#*""1&HII@1&69&LB9&W.&e*U(2/&#(#"*+&
are also important. An individual with a bachelor’s degree in business administration is entitled to use the term 

“Licenciado” before his or her name.

W.&\%P(+#%.1&%&6*$+/.&0(""&6$(.#&5(+&.%-*F&[/5.&O/*1&E9&T9&%.'&*)*.&%''&%.&%##*-6#&%+F&[/5.&O/*1&E9T91&e9T9&
=4%("*'B9&W.&#5*&f9G91&#5(+&+/$#&/4&6*$+/.%"&Q%')*$#(+(.3R&(+&./#&%.&%22*6#*'&*U6$*++(/.&8,&%.&(.'()('!%"9&W.&T+(%1&(#&(+&./#&
+/&-!25&05/&,/!&%$*&%+&05*$*&,/!&%$*&(.&#5*&6*2P(.3&/$'*$&/4&%&3()*.&+(#!%#(/.&7&4/$&*U%-6"*&%.&(.#*$)(*01&-**#(.3C
.*3/#(%#(/.9&QW.&-/+#&/4&G/!#5*%+#&T+(%1&T4$(2%1&%.'&#5*&e(''"*&:%+#&=*U2*6#&W+$%*"B1&.*)*$&6$*+*.#&#5*&2%$'&0(#5&,/!$&
left hand. In Japan, present it with both hands, and make sure the type is facing the recipient and is right-side-up,” 

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G8& H*$4I%/<,)& %0,B#*/

The East Indians shudder at the American Hearty and “bone-breaking” handshake. In many Moslem countries, 

linking arms or putting your arm around the shoulders of your wife would in most cases cause some embarrassment, 

+(.2*& +!25&65,+(2%"& 2/.#%2#& (+& $*3%$'*'&%+& %&6$()%#*&-%##*$& #5%#& +5/!"'&8*& 2/.;.*'& #/&6$()%#*&N!%$#*$+9& [%6%.*+*&
grimace when a foreign business friend walks into a home without removing his shoes at the doorsill, and American 

men shudder with distaste at the warm embrace of greeting men in some of the Latin American and South Asian 



242

Advances in Business Research

2/!.#$(*+&=`"(.*8*$31&HIJa1&669&Hba7bJB9&W.&M5%("%.'1&V%/+1&\%P(+#%.1&%.'&(.&-%.,&e!+"(-&2/!.#$(*+1&(#&(+&2/.+('*$*'&
insulting and rude to display the sole of the foot. 

A Pakistani may not eat with his left hand. At social gatherings, if a hostess offers food it is expected that at 

;$+#&#5*&3!*+#&0(""&$*4!+*9&M5*&5/+#*++&(+&#5*.&*U6*2#*'&#/&/44*$&(#&%3%(.9&M5*&3!*+#&-!+#&$*4!+*&/.2*&-/$*&8!#&./#&
N!(#*&%+&4/$2*4!"",9&M5*&5/+#*++&#5*.&/44*$+&#5*&4//'&%3%(.&05*$*!6/.&#5*&3!*+#&(+&+!66/+*'&#/&#5%.P&#5*&5/+#*++&4/$&
5*$&5/+6(#%"(#,9&W.&8/#5&#5*&f.(#*'&G#%#*+&%.'&\%P(+#%.&=%"+/&(.&/#5*$&2/!.#$(*+B&(#&(+&2!+#/-%$,&#/&+6/.#%.*/!+",&%+P&
4$(*.'+&/!#&4/$&%&2!6&/4&2/44**C#*%9&W.&T-*$(2%&(#&(+&!.'*$+#//'&#5%#&*%25&6*$+/.&0(""&6%,&4/$&5(+&'$(.P9&c/0*)*$1&(.&
\%P(+#%.&=%.'&/#5*$&2/!.#$(*+B&+!25&%.&(.)(#%#(/.&(-6"(*+&#5%#&#5*&6*$+/.&05/&+!33*+#+&0(""&6%,&4/$&8/#5&'$(.P+9

E*"25(.3&%.'&./(+,&*%#(.3&5%8(#+&=!.%22*6#%8"*& (.& #5*&f9G9&2!"#!$*B&%$*&*U6*2#*'&%+&*)('*.2*&/4&Q+%#(+4%2#(/.R&
(.&/#5*$+9&G/-*& 5(.*+*&2!"#!$*+&4**"&(#&(+&6/"(#*&#/&#%P*&%&6/$#(/.&/4&*%25&4//'&+*$)*'9&<.*&T-*$(2%.&8!+(.*++-%.&
"*%$.*'&/4&#5(+&2!+#/-&/.",&%4#*$&#%P(.3&+/-*& 5(.*+*&8!+(.*++-*.&#/&%&2%4*#*$(%9&:%25& 5(.*+*&0/!"'&!6&0(#5&#5$**&
#$%,+&/4&4//'&%.'&#5*&T-*$(2%.&*U2**'*'&5(+&'%(",&*U6*.+*&%22/!.#&=`./##+1&HILI1&69&b?B9

^('*",&%22*6#*'&%+&#5*&T-*$(2%.&Q/P%,R&+(3.&=>(.3*$+&2($2"*B1&*U2*6#&(.&E$%g("1&05*$*&(#&(+&2/.+('*$*'&)!"3%$&/$&
/8+2*.*9&M5*&3*+#!$*&(+&%"+/&2/.+('*$*'&(-6/"(#*&(.&Z$**2*&%.'&#5*&fGG]1&05("*&(.&[%6%.1&(#&+(3.(;*+&Q-/.*,1R&%.'&
(.&+/!#5*$.&>$%.2*1&Qg*$/R&/$&Q0/$#5"*++1R&=TU#*""1&HII@&69&aKB9&c%+&8/',&"%.3!%3*&25%.3*'&-!25&/)*$&#5*&,*%$+h&
The simple answer is yes - it changes constantly, just as spoken language changes, for example the “V for victory” 

+(3.&!+*'&8,&^(.+#/.& 5!$25(""&'!$(.3&^/$"'&^%$&WW&8*2%-*&%&6*%2*&+(3.&(.&#5*&HIJ@+9&D/#&#//&-%.,&6*/6"*&0/!"'&
!+*&#5*&QiR&+(3.&%.,&-/$*&=e%g!$1&HILb1&69&AKB9&T22/$'(.3&#/&#5*&*'(#/$&/4&%&8*+#&+*""(.3&8//P&/.&QO/S+&%.'&M%8//+&
Around, the World,” the smile is “one universal action, one signal, one form of communication that is used and 

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#5$**&,*%$+&%3/&0/$"'7$*./0.*'&+/2(%"&+2(*.#(+#&<##/&`"(.*8*$3&=/4&#5*&f.()*$+(#,&/4&\%$(+B&/8+*$)*'&#5(+&%8/!#&#5*&
-*%.(.3&/4&+-("*&(.&#5*&[%6%.*+*&2!"#!$*F

“A  Japanese will smile when he is amused, but he will also smile on certain other occasions; for example, it is 

customary for a servant to smile when he is scolded by his master. A smile is the appropriate response under these 

conditions, and serves the purpose of smoothing over an otherwise unpleasant situation. To a Westerner who 

employs a Japanese, such a response may be infuriating; he interprets it to mean that the servant is making fun 

of him. The Japanese servant will also smile when he is forced to report an unfortunate event, for example, the 

death of his child. This has been interpreted as a polite gesture meaning that the servant does not wish to burden 

his master with his personal tragedies and therefore smiles in order to indicate to his master that it is not necessary 

to take the tragedy too seriously; the servant himself can smile at it. This also may be interpreted by Westerners 

in contact with the Japanese that they see smile as a sign of cynicism or lack of concern for the most fundamental 

5!-%.&$*"%#(/.+5(6+1R&=`"(.*8*$31&HIJa1&69&HbJB9

J8& >/%:&C,#/KL&M:+<*)&*.&>/%,-&N%"(%;-

In Japan and several other Asian countries, many young business men take along an older man with grey hair 

to lend his prestige to their cause. In the U.S., competence and performance on the given task counts - whether or 

./#&,/!&5%)*&3$*,&5%($+&=c%""1&HIJ@1&669&A7H?B9&e%.,&+#!'*.#+&%+P&(.&/!$&(.#*$.%#(/.%"&-%.%3*-*.#&2"%++*+&%8/!#&#5*&
market potential of hair-coloring products in these countries!

O8& Colors Communicate

Each society has special meanings which it attaches to certain colors. Red, white, and blue are thought of as 

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red is a lucky color; the Thai would prefer yellow for the same reason. The combination of green and purple is 

%22*6#%8"*&#5$/!35/!#&T+(%9&M5*&2/-8(.%#(/.&/4&8"%2P1&05(#*1&%.'&8"!*&(+&+!33*+#()*&/4&%&4!.*$%"&#/&#5*& 5(.*+*9&M5*&
combination of red and white is widely regarded as appropriate to happy and pleasant occasions in Japan. The whole 

idea of color to an Asian is coupled with beliefs. Many promotional, as well as social, efforts have failed as a result 

of using wrong colors in other cultures.

For international business purposes, one cannot ignore the cultural meaning of color. For example, Pepsodent 

reportedly tried to sell its toothpaste in regions of Southeast Asia through a promotion which stressed that the 

toothpaste helped enhance white teeth. In this area, where some local people chewed betel nut in order to achieve 

the social prestige of darkly stained teeth, such an ad was understandably ineffective. The slogan “wonder where the 

,*""/0&0*.#R&0%+&%"+/&)(*0*'&8,&-%.,&%+&%&$%2(%"&+"!$&=](2P+1&HIKIF&JAB9

2010, Vol. 1, No. 1, 240-247

Hasan



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P8& M-,-!"KM#Q%&*.&-0%&R.S;%

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maverick in terms of compliance of the American language of objects and space; Intel’s former President Andrew S. 

Z$/)*&*U6"%(.*'F
“We don’t have many of the visible perks prevalent in more traditional industries. We have no reserved parking 

+6%2*+1& ./& *U*2!#()*& '(.(.3& $//-+1& ./& 2/$6/$%#*& X*#+9&^*& %""& d,& 2/%259&^*& '/.S#& *)*.& 5%)*& %.,& /4;2*+& (.& #5*&
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the chairman of the board and the president on down. A journalist puzzled by all this once asked me, “Mr. Grove, 

(+.S#&,/!$&2/-6%.,S+&*-65%+(+&/.&)(+(8"*&+(3.+&/4&*3%"(#%$(%.(+-&X!+#&#//&-!25&%44*2#%#(/.hR&e,&%.+0*$&0%+&#5%#&(#&(+&
./#&%44*2#%#(/.1&8!#&%&-%##*$&/4&+!$)()%"R&=Z$/)*1&HILbF&?bB9

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The French prefer to locate key managers in the center of activities, with their assistants located outward “on radii 

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executive behind it does not wish to receive visitors but only that he or she deems open doors disorderly and sloppy 

=c%""1&HIJIF&Hba7HbAB9

T8& U/*V%+#;"K3*$B%/",-#*$,)&'#"-,$;%

In the U.S.A., the “proper” distance to stand when talking to another adult male you do not know well is about 

two feet, at least in a formal business conversation. To a Latin American, a distance of two feet seems to him 

%66$/U(-%#*",&05%#&;)*&4**#&0/!"'&#/&%.&T-*$(2%.9&M/&5(-1&T-*$(2%.+&+**-&'(+#%.#&%.'&2/"'9&M/&T-*$(2%.+1&5*&
gives an impression of pushiness. As soon as the Latin American moves close enough for him to feel comfortable, 

the American feels uncomfortable themselves enough “to outwait the silence of his hosts. It may be thirty minutes, 

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time is taken; whereas in the U.S.A., a delay in answering a communication is interpreted by the other party as a 

lack of interest. In Turkey, where a degree of fatalism seems to arise from the Muslim concept that tomorrow is in 

the hands of Allah, there is a propensity to do little forward planning. What happens tomorrow is decided by God, 

QW.+%""%51R&kZ/'70(""(.3Y&^(#5&#5*&5*"6&/4&Z/'9l&=E%""&j&e2 !""/251&HII@1&669&?JH7?JbB9
Punctuality is a virtue in the United States, Holland, Switzerland, and in many other countries, but is relatively 

!.(-6/$#%.#&(.&G6%(.9&M5*&/.",&#(-*&,/!&-!+#&#%P*&6!.2#!%"(#,&+*$(/!+",&(+&05*.&%##*.'(.3&%&8!"";35#9&e/+#&/4;2*+&
%.'&+5/6+&2"/+*&4/$&+(*+#%&%""&#5*&0%,&4$/-&HFb@&#/&aFb@&\9e91&%.'&$*+#%!$%.#+&'/&./#&/6*.&!.#("&%4#*$&I&\9e9&/$&Q3*#&(.#/&
4!""&+0(.3&!.#("&HH9R&=TU#*""1&HII@1&669&?I7b?Y&`"(.*8*$31&HIJa1&69&HbAB

W8& '#/%;-&,$6&3)%,/&I%/"!"&I,7!%&<!-&U*)#-%&X,)Y#$7

M5*&[%6%.*+*&8!+(.*++-*.C*U*2!#()*+&/4#*.&*U6$*++&#5*-+*")*+&(.&%&)%3!*&%.'&%-8(3!/!+&-%..*$&(.&2/.#$%+#&#/&
+6*2(;21&'($*2#&"%.3!%3*&#,6(2%"",&!+*'&8,&#5*&T-*$(2%.&8!+(.*++-*.C*U*2!#()*+9&W.&#5*&f.(#*'&G#%#*+1&-%.,&4**"&(#&
is not only desirable but natural to speak up to your superior, to tell the boss exactly what you think, even when you 

'(+%3$**&0(#5&5(-C5*$9&T-*$(2%.&2!"#!$*&*-65%+(g*+&#5*&#5$%+5(.3&/!#&/4&'(44*$*.2*+&(.&4%2*7#/74%2*&2/.#%2#+9
W.&-%.,&2/!.#$(*+C2!"#!$*+&%$/!.'&#5*&3"/8*1&6*/6"*&2/--!.(2%#*&/.&%&-/$*&(.#*$6*$+/.%"&+,+#*-&%.'&%&6%$#&/4&

this system is to avoid disagreements or embarrassment by being polite, agreeable and submissive at the expense of 

%22!$%2,&%.'&'($*2#.*++9&T&[%6%.*+*&05/&(+&#//&+6*2(;2&$!.+&#5*&$(+P&/4&8*(.3&)(*0*'&%+&$!'*",&'(+6"%,(.3&+!6*$(/$&
knowledge. The Japanese “avoid independent or individual action and prefer to make decisions based on group 

discussions and past precedent. The Japanese do not say no in public, which is why foreign business people often 

#%P*&%0%,&#5*&0$/.3&(-6$*++(/.9&>/$&*U%-6"*1&e$9&[/5.&D*)(.1& 5%($-%.&/4&>($*+#/.*1&05(25&0%+&8/!#&/!#&8,&#5*&
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“I’m seen as terribly abrupt and abrasive. If you’re very direct, you’re admired in American culture. The Japanese 

culture is much more subtle. I can never get them to tell me what the actually mean, and they may think I’m rude and 

crass. But both sides are only behaving in ways familiar to their own cultures.” (TIME, October 9, 1989, pp. 72-73; 

%22/$'(.3&#/&#5*&+%-*&MWe:&$*6/$#&A@n&/4&T-*$(2%.&-%.%3*$+&*(#5*$&$*+(3.&/$&%$*&;$*'&0(#5(.&HL&-/.#5+&/4&4/$*(3.&
takeover. Foreign bosses in the U.S., like American managers who landed in post-war Europe, will have to learn the 

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$(35#&8%"%.2*&8*#0**.&Q"*%'*$+5(6&%.'&%22/--/'%#(/.F&(.&%&2!"#!$%"",&%66$/6$(%#*&4%+5(/.9&W.&/#5*$&0/$'+1&*)*$,&
-%.%3*$(%"&#%+P&(+&2!"#!$%"",&'*#*$-(.*'&=T'"*$1&HIIH1&669&bI7J?B9

2Z8& @3,$&E&M)%%(&D#-0&[*!\]

The following is a powerful story of a Scottish businessman’s relationship with a Japanese colleague - an example 

of the cross-cultural communication process in terms of description, interpretation, evaluation, and empathy. The 

+#/$,&(+&#/"'&8,&#5*&G2/##(+5&8!+(.*++-%.&(.&#5*&4/""/0(.3&0/$'+F

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shortly make his “good-night” and retire, as he had been doing all week, to his own room. However, he stayed 

unusually long and was to me, obviously in some sort of emotional crisis. Finally, he blurted out, with great 

*-8%$$%++-*.#1&Q %.&W&+"**6&0(#5&,/!h_

As they say in the novels, at this point I went very still! My mind was racing through all the sexual taboos and 

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+/&W&2%.&;35#&5(-&/441&8!#&#5*.&5*S+&6$/8%8",&%.&*U6*$#&(.&#5*&-%$#(%"&%$#+1&8!#&/.&#5*&/#5*$&5%.'&5*S+&+5/0.&./&+(3.+&
of being gay up until now and he is my host and there is a lot of business talk at risk and there’s no such thing as rape, 

et cetera…!” 

It seemed a hundred years, though it was only a few seconds, before I said, feeling as if I was pulling the trigger 

in Russian roulette, “Yes, sure.”

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0/$$(*'&%.'&2/.2*$.*'&%3%(.1&%.'&+%('1&QT$*&,/!&+!$*hR&W&$*%++!$*'&5(-&%.'&5*&2%""*'&(.&#5*&-%('1&05/&4*#25*'&5(+&
-%##$*++&4$/-&5(+&$//-&%.'&"%('&(#&/.&#5*&d//$&%"/.3+('*&-(.*9&^*&8/#5&0*.#&#/&8*'&%.'&+"*6#&%""&.(35#&0(#5/!#&%.,&
physical interaction.

Later I learned that for the traditional Japanese one of the greatest compliments you can be paid is for the host to 

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really said was, “I trust you with my life. I do not think that you will kill me while I sleep. You are my true friend.”

To have said “No” to the invitation would have been an insult - “I don’t trust you not to kill me while I sleep” - 

or, at the very least, my host would have been acutely embarrassed because he had taken the initiative. If I refused 

because I had failed to perceive the invitation as a compliment, he would have been out of countenance on two 

3$/!.'+F&#5*&(.+!"#&#/&5(-&(.&#5*&#$%'(#(/.%"&2/.#*U#&%.'&#5*&*-8%$$%++-*.#&5*&0/!"'&5%)*&2%!+*'&-*&8,&Q4/$2(.3R&%&
negative, uncomprehending response from me.

As it turned out, the outcome was superb. He and I were now “blood brothers,” as it were. His assessment of me as 

8*(.3&Q$*%',&4/$&[%6%.(g%#(/.R&5%'&8**.&2/$$*2#&%.'&5(+&/8"(3%#(/.+&!.'*$&%.2(*.#&[%6%.*+*&2!+#/-&5%'&8**.&4!";""*'9&
I had totally misinterpreted his intentions through my own cultural conditioning. It was sheer luck or luck plus a gut 

feeling that I’d gotten it wrong, that caused me to make the correct response to his extremely complimentary and 

2/--(##*'&(.)(#%#(/.9R&k>//#./#*&2(#%#(/.&.!-8*$&/-(##*'l1&kT'"*$1&HIIH1&669&LK7LLB9
The above examples illustrate many pitfalls inherent in the cross-cultural communication process surrounding 

international business relationships around the globe.

The root cause of many international business problems is the unconscious reference to one’s own cultural values. 

The international businessmen’s natural tendency to interpret nearly all developments as if their foreign partners or 

2/-6*#(#/$+&4!.2#(/.&0(#5(.&#5*($&/0.&+,+#*-&7&+*"47$*4*$*.2*&2$(#*$(/.&=G] B1&#5*&#*$-&2/(.*'&8,&\$/4*++/$&[%-*+&T9&
V**&=HIJJB1&(+&%++/2(%#*'&0(#5&+#!',(.3&4/$*(3.&2!"#!$*+&4$/-&/.*S+&/0.&4$%-*&/4&$*4*$*.2*9&^5("*&/.*&2%../#&%)/('&
and escape completely from one’s own cultural heritage, international business managers should try to be aware of 

how their own cultural conditioning may be biasing their interpretation of behavior in other cultures.

Two Promising Practical Models

M5*$*&%$*&#0/&6$/-(+(.31&6$%2#(2%"&%66$/%25*+&#/&-(.(-(g*&2!"#!$%"&-,/6(%&%.'C/$&2!"#!$%"&8"(.'.*++&+/&2/--/.&
in international businesses operating in multicultural environments around the globe.

\$/4*++/$&[%-*+&T9&V**S+&e/'*"&/4&]*'!2(.3& !"#!$%"&E(%+9&c*$*&(+&%&+,+#*-%#(2&a7+#*6&/6*$%#(/.%"&-/'*"&4/$&f9G9&
8!+(.*++-*.&4/$&2!"#!$%"&%'%6#%#(/.F

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1. O*;.*&#5*&8!+(.*++&6$/8"*-&/$&3/%"&(.&#*$-+&/4&#5*&T-*$(2%.&2!"#!$*&#$%(#+1&5%8(#+1&./$-+1&/$&)%"!*+9

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1. G(#!%#(/.&O*+2$(6#(/.9&̂ 5%#&(+&#5*&+(#!%#(/.&4$/-&,/!$&2!"#!$%"&6*$+6*2#()*h&>$/-&#5*&/#5*$&2!"#!$%"&6*$+6*2#()*=+B

2.  !"#!$%"&W.#*$6$*#%#(/.9&^5%#&%$*&#5*&2!"#!$%"&%++!-6#(/.+&#5%#&*U6"%(.&,/!$&6*$+6*2#()*&%.'&8*5%)(/$h&^5%#&%$*&

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%.'& /8+*$)*& #5*& (-6%2#& 4$/-&-/$*& #5%.& /.*& 2!"#!$%"& 6*$+6*2#()*9& ]*;.*& #5*& +/"!#(/.& 8%+*'& /.&-!"#(2!"#!$%"&

4**'8%2P&=T'"*$1&HIIHB9

Professor Nancy Adler’s 3-step “cultural synergy” model incorporates the best aspects of all members’ cultures 

in their strategy, structure, and process without violating “the norms of any single culture. Managers in synergistic 

/$3%.(g%#(/.+&!+*&'()*$+(#,&%+&%&P*,&$*+/!$2*&(.&+/")(.3&6$/8"*-+&=T'"*$1&HIIHB9

LUU=E3LXERH&R^&XC9&L RI9&XDR&5R'9=M

f.'*$&#5*&G] &-/'*"1&5/0&2%.&0*&'*%"&0(#5&%.&*U%-6"*&/4&%&4/$*(3.*$&05/&-%P*+&%.&%66/(.#-*.#&#/&+**&%.&
T-*$(2%.&8!+(.*++-%.&(.&#5*&T-*$(2%.S+&=/)*$+*%+B&/4;2*1&8!#&+5/0+&!6&aA&-(.!#*+&"%#*h

1. `./0& #5*& f9G9& G] & %8/!#& #(-*oT-*$(2%.+& 5%)*& 5%'& -*%.+& =3//'& 6!8"(2& #$%.+6/$#%#(/.1& 2%$+1& 2"/2P+& %.'&

0%#25*+1&4$**0%,+1&*#29B&#/&8*&/.&#(-*&4/$&+*)*$%"&3*.*$%#(/.+9&T"+/1&-%.,&T-*$(2%.+&%$*&#5*&'*+2*.'%.#+&4$/-&

time-conscious ancestors going back several centuries.

2. `./0&#5*&4/$*(3.&2!"#!$*S+&G] &%8/!#&#(-*9&<.*&2%.&/4#*.&$*%'(",&+**&6//$*$&#$%.+6/$#%#(/.&%.'&2/--!.(2%#(/.+&

facilities and make less sense to set right time schedules. Also, in some foreign cultures there will be some kind 

of fatalism and get-through the day carryover from centuries of survival struggles which serves as a deterrent to 

the development of planning skills.

3.  /-6%$*&G#*6&H&%.'&G#*6&?&#/&'*#*$-(.*&5/0&(#&2/-6"(2%#*+&#5*&6$/8"*-&/4&"%#*.*++&4/$&%66/(.#-*.#+Y&(+/"%#*&

#5*&G] &8(%+(.3&(.d!*.2*9&M5*&T-*$(2%.&G] &2%.&8*&+**.&#/&5%)*&8"(.'*'&#5*&8%+(+&/.&05(25&/.7#(-*&8*5%)(/$&

'*6*.'+1& #5*$*8,& 3*.*$%#(.3& (.2/.+(+#*.#& *U6*2#%.2(*+& (.& $*"%#(/.& #/& #5*& %2#!%"& +(#!%#(/.%"& =4/$*(3.& 2!"#!$*B&

demands. Moral judgment as to a foreigner being lazy, irresponsible, untrustworthy should be avoided.

4. ]*'*;.*&#5*&6$/8"*-&0(#5&#5*&G] &(.d!*.2*&%.'&+/")*&4/$&#5*&/6#(-!-&8!+(.*++&3/%"&+(#!%#(/.9

Under the circumstances certain looseness in the other culture’s time system is both “desirable and functional.” 

c/0&2%.&#5*&T-*$(2%.&%'%6#&#/&#5*&+,+#*-h&G*)*$%"&+#$%#*3(*+&%$*&/6*.&4/$&#5*&T-*$(2%.9&E*3(.&#/&6"%.&/.&"%#*.*++&(.&
others as a rule; arrange to be busy with other work until the foreigner arrives. As Professor Lee correctly observed, 

Qc*&+5/!"'&%"+/&#$,&#/&#%P*&2/-4/$#&(.&#5*&P./0"*'3*&#5%#&5(+&4/$*(3.&)(+(#/$1&05*.&5*&'/*+&;.%"",&%$$()*1&0(""&8*&
patient until the American’s substituted activity can be broken off. This is because the foreigner has developed a 

6%#(*.2*&#/&;#&#5*&.*2*++%$,&"//+*.*++&/4&5(+&/0.&2!"#!$*S+&#(-*&+,+#*-R&=V**1&HIJJF&HHbB9
f.'*$&#5*&Q !"#!$%"&G,.*$3,R&-/'*"1&5/0&2%.&/.*&2$*%#*&%&2!"#!$%"",&+,.*$3(+#(2&+/"!#(/.&#/&#5*&4/""/0(.3&6$/8"*-&

8*#0**.&%&-%"*&f$!3!%,%.&'/2#/$&=#5*&'/2#/$B&%.'&%&4*-%"*&>("(6(.%&.!$+*&=#5*&.!$+*B&%#&%&-%X/$& %"(4/$.(%&5/+6(#%"h

1. Situation Description. The doctor became worried when he found out that the nurse was improperly using 

a particular machine for patient treatment. He explained the proper procedure to the nurse and asked if she 

understood. She said she did. Due to the nurse’s continued improper administration of the treatment, the patient 

was doing poorly within two hours; the doctor again asked the nurse about her understanding of the procedure, 

%.'&+5*&%3%(.&+%('&,*+9&O/&0*&5%)*&%&6$/8"*-h

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2.  !"#!$%"& W.#*$6$*#%#(/.9&M5*& '/2#/$1& (.& %.%",g(.3& #5*& +(#!%#(/.1& 8*2%-*& %0%$*& /4& #5*& 4%2#& #5%#&-%.,& >("(6(./+&

0(""&./#&2/.#$%'(2#&%!#5/$(#,&;3!$*+9&E%+*'&/.&#5*&.!$+*S+&2!"#!$%"&%++!-6#(/.+&=*939&#5*&'/2#/$&0%+&%.&%!#5/$(#,&

;3!$*1&%&-%.1&%.'&/"'*$1&05("*&+5*&0%+&(.&%.&(.4*$(/$&$/"*1&%&0/-%.1&%.'&,/!.3*$B1&+5*&2/!"'&./#&#*""&#5*&'/2#/$&

that she did not understand without implying that he had given poor instructions and thus causing him to lose 

face. On the other hand, based on his cultural assumptions (e.g. open, direct clear communication expectation 

/4& #5*& .!$+*& #/& %+P& N!*+#(/.+& (4& +5*& '('& ./#& !.'*$+#%.'& 5(+& (.+#$!2#(/.+B& #5*& '/2#/$& 2/.+('*$*'& (#& Q%& +(3.& /4&

incompetence to assume responsibility for a patient’s care without fully understanding the manner of treatment”  

=T'"*$1&HIIHF&HHbB9

3.  !"#!$%"& $*%#()(#,9&M5*&5/+6(#%"&%'-(.(+#$%#/$&+/")*'&#5*&6$/8"*-&0(#5/!#&)(/"%#(.3&*(#5*$&2!"#!$*S+&%++!-6#(/.+9&

The suggested synergistic solution was that the doctor, upon giving his initial instructions to the nurse, was to ask 

the nurse to describe the procedure that she would follow. The doctor, while listening carefully, could assess the 

accuracy of the nurse’s comprehension and identify areas needing further explanation. “The nurse, never having 

8**.&%+P*'&'($*2#",&(4&+5*&!.'*$+#//'1&0/!"'&./#&8*&4/$2*'&#/&+%,&Q./R&#/&%&+!6*$(/$R&=T'"*$1&HIIHF&HHaB9

Conclusion

M5*&N!*+#&4/$&(-6$/)*-*.#&)(%&2$*%#()(#,&(+&.*)*$&/)*$9&M5*&#%8"*&4/!.'&/.&#5*&.*U#&6%3*&('*.#(;*+&+*)*.&2!"#!$%"&
variables considered in intercultural business relations and their purpose and effect. “We don’t look so much at 

what and where people have studied, but rather at their drive, initiative, cultural sensitivity…” (Green, Stephen, 

 :<1&cGE 1&W.#*$)(*0&0(#5&c%$)%$'&E!+(.*++&]*)(*01&T!3&?@@bB9&W#&-(35#&*."(35#*.&#5*&$*%'*$+&%8/!#&%&5(35",&
+!$6$(+(.3&;.'(.3&/4&%&2$/++72!"#!$%"&+#!',&/4&bKK& 5(.*+*&%.'&]!++(%.&*.#$*6$*.*!$+&#5%#&0/-*.&*.#$*6$*.*!$+&5%)*&
larger social networks for advice and resources. But men, surprisingly have larger emotional networks, the complex 

%++/2(%#(/.+&#5%#&6$/)('*&0%$-#51&6$%(+*1&%.'&*.2/!$%3*-*.#&7&%.'&-*.&%66%$*.#",&6$/;#&-/$*&4$/-&#5*+*&*-/#(/.%"&
%##%25-*.#+&#5%.&0/-*.&'/9&=c%$)%$'&f.()*$+(#,&Z%g*##*&T$25()*+1&>*8$!%$,&L1&?@@KB9

Table 1 below shows these cultural variables considered in intercultural business relations have positive or 

.*3%#()*&$*+!"#+&'*6*.'(.3&/.&05*#5*$&/$&./#&2/.d(2#(.3&+,+#*-+&(.#*$%2#&#5$/!35&(.'()('!%"+9&W.&$*"%#(/.+&8*#0**.&
individuals from different cultural areas they are crucial since each variable is contradictory as a result of different 

environmental circumstances.

N9^9N9H39M

>$(*'-%.1&M9&?@@A9&W#S+&%&d%#&0/$"'&%4#*$&%""9&X0%&H%_&[*/Y&X#+%"&5,7,Q#$%"`&T6$("F&bb9

Z$%5%-1&[91&j&c*$8*$3*$1&]9&HILb9&D*3/#(%#(.3&T8$/%'F&O/.S#&+5//#&4$/-&#5*&5(69&C,/B,/6& !"#$%""&N%B#%_, July-

T!3!+#F&HJ@7HJL9

Hall, E., & Hall, M. 1987. C#66%$&6#..%/%$;%"a&'*#$7&<!"#$%""&_#-0&b,(,$%"%. D*0&p/$PF&T.25/$&\$*++&O/!8"*'%,9&

Hofstede, G. 1991. 3!)-!/%"&,$6&*/7,$#Q,-#*$"a&M*.-_,/%&*.&-0%&+#$69&D*0&p/$PF&e2Z$%07c(""9

Lewis, R. 2003. The cultural imperative. p%$-/!#51&e:F&Intercultural Press.

Cultural Variable Purpose Effect 

Colors Superstition associates magical powers or 

qualities to color, good or bad. 

Determines outcome of program. Implicit cognitive 

associations for luck, good or bad signs, etc. 

Bribes & Gifts Increase income, prestige, or status through 

language of objects, social position, etc. 

Ensure administrative process. 

Business Manners Ways of doing business customary to a 

society. 

Indicated degree of flexibility inherent in a business 

system. Sets the tone of the inter-cultural interaction. 

Physical Objects Communicates semantic meaning non-

verbally - language of objects. 

Relationships and status of the individual defined. 

Pride & Status Methods of self-identification and 

confirmation. Social in origin. 

Established position of individual in society and 

interpersonal relations. 

Proxemics Methods of structuring interpersonal 

relations; public, private, personal, social. 

Indicates degree of involvement in interpersonal 

relations. 

Temporal Reference unit of time; day, year, fortnight, 

etc. 

Different time priorities may disrupt communication 

channels. 

2010, Vol. 1, No. 1, 240-247

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Advances in Business Research

Lindstrom, G. 2002. '#()*+,-"&,$6&6#()*+,;:&.*/&-0%&12st century. Doctoral Dissertation. RAND Graduate School.

Lusting, M., & Koester, J. 2005. E$-%/;!)-!/,)& ;*+(%-%$;%a& E$-%/(%/"*$,)& ;*++!$#;,-#*$& ,;/*""& ;!)-!/%". 

D**'5%-&c*(35#+1&e%F Allyn and Bacon.

Martin, J. 2004. Intercultural communications in contexts9&D*0&p/$PF&e2Z$%07c(""9

Moran, R., Harris, P., & Moran, S. 2007. 5,$,7#$7&;!)-!/,)&6#..%/%$;%"a&>)*<,)&)%,6%/"0#(&"-/,-%7#%"&.*/&-0%&12st 

century9&e%$,"%.'&c*(35#+1&e<F&:"+*)(*$&W.29

*̂(++1&G9&HIIa9&D*3/#(%#(.3&0(#5&Q]/-%.+RF&\%$#&?9&Sloan Management Review, bAFLA7II

b,+%%)&C,",$&is a professor of management at Eastern Washington University. He has taught international business, 

multinational people management, organizational behavior, and business and society for the past 41 years. Prior to 

his academic career, he was an industrial analyst for the U.S. Department of State.

2010, Vol. 1, No. 1, 240-247

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