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1

Advances in Business Research

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Suggested Technique for Increasing Relevance

Aaron Buchko, Bradley University
Kathleen Buchko, Bradley University

We suggest that organizational and managerial research tends to suffer from incremental approaches that 

marginalize the results. We review the history and nature of organizational research as a means of pointing out 

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research and practice. We note that research that tends to affect practice comes from qualitative studies that lack 

rigor, but frequently provide meaningful insights. We then examine one technique, called Spectrum analysis, as a 

means of improving the assessment of organizational information and as a basis for improving the quality of future 

qualitative research efforts. This is demonstrated by applying the Spectrum analysis to the information from the 

book Built to Last as a way of providing an example of the utility of such approaches to furthering knowledge of 

organizational and managerial experience.

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severe economic recession of 2009, and the bankruptcy of General Motors, once the largest of U.S. corporations 

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Business schools have not been exempt from the criticism levied against the “greedy Wall Street types” and 

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suggested that business schools foster an amoral learning environment that does not provide managers with proper 

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suggests that the historical development of the business school is partly to blame. He notes that half a century ago, 

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a more traditional and more rigorous academic approach to the profession, focusing on disciplines that emphasized 

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schools. But at the same time, the study of business has become fragmented as academics working within functional 

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managers to properly combine the disciplines in decision making, leading in part to the types of disastrous decisions 

and public relations nightmares that we have observed over the past months.

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issue, implying that these approaches are somewhat in opposition to one another, may miss an essential point (the 

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In his presidential address to the member of the Academy of Management in 1994, Hambrick challenged 

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message was to note that much academic research has virtually little or no impact on the practice of organizational 

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managerial behaviors. This theme has been reiterated several times since, but apparently to no effect, because 

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organizational sciences, we must ask ourselves if the methods are more important than the information and knowledge 

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based information.

Buchko and Buchko

2010, Vol. 1, No. 1, 1-14



2

Advances in Business Research

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therefore we can expect “more of the same” in business school research. We believe it is important, though to 

continually challenge ourselves as academicians and as organizational scientists to continuously improve our tools 

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purpose of this paper is to present one approach that may facilitate this process by providing a new tool for systematic 

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imbalance between advances in mathematics and those in the behavioral sciences, both studies emphasized a change 

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training and promotion of faculty, with the primary mechanism being contributions to academic journals (Agarwal 

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legitimacy,  there is a concern that such considerations have overlooked the need for research to impact managerial 

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insights into the complex world of organizations. As the organization sciences developed, others working form a 

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from observation to content analyses to participant studies to the intervention work of organization development 

practitioners. While all such efforts provide insights on organizations, such methods do not provide the empirical 

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Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Methods

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to the study of organizations. While there are numerous distinctions between the two approaches, some of the more 

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1. Qualitative methods seek to provide a complete, detailed description of the phenomena under investigation; 

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what is observed.

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approach, all aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected.

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form of numbers and statistics.

6. Qualitative studies involve subjective analysis, as the individuals’ interpretation of events is important; 

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target concepts.

2010, Vol. 1, No. 1, 1-14

Buchko and Buchko



3

Advances in Business Research

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Unfortunately, focusing on this debate frames these two methods in opposition to one another. While each has 

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Action Science

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both have a place within the business school - another approach that has been developed is called Action Science.  

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environmental variables. How those governing variables are treated in designing actions are the key differences 

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governing variables, both single and double loop learning cycles are employed. (Argyris, 1995; Argyris, Putnam, & 

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that the circumstances are complex, dynamic, and uncertain, and that the goal is some action or behavioral outcome. 

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Clinical Research Models

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and are often based on interventions within organization settings. In the clinical approach to research, the investigator, 

working with managers, individuals, or the organization, seeks to take the results of organizational experience and 

combine these with other similar experiences to form an understanding of the phenomena under investigation. This 

approach offers a more complex or ‘richer” context for investigation; however, it does allow for the introduction 

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If properly employed, however, clinical models of research can provide insights into organizations and the practice 

of management that cannot be obtained in any other manner. The complexity of the situation is closer to the reality 

of day-to-day organization life, thus affording a more accurate and realistic view of the practice of management. In 

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of relevance or spanning the boundary between research and practice are largely moot, as the research is being 

conducted within the organizational setting and within the context of organizational activity.  

There has been a suggestion that the adoption of a clinical approach may lead to more effective forms of 

business education, as students are more exposed to the nature of managerial activity (Blaylock, McDaniel, Falk, 

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particularly for research that seeks to explore the types of behaviors managers are likely to exhibit in various real-

-+%5(#+%8*.4a*'4+.*5#&4'1*'4+.&#:G*1'."%#[#B"2"%E#>??NA6##

Case Study Research

Business schools have longed use the case study method as a means of educating students, and certainly some - 

such as the Harvard Business School - have built the business educational model around the case approach. What is 

2010, Vol. 1, No. 1, 1-14

Buchko and Buchko



4

Advances in Business Research

less known, perhaps, is that the case approach can also be a form of business research. It is suggested that the more 

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depth and extensive treatment of some social phenomenon, the more appropriate and valuable the case study approach 

'+#%"&"*%)!#:g4.E#>??NA6#7"/+.(#1&"#*#;"(*8+84)*5#'++5E#)*&"#%"&"*%)!#)*.#2"#1&"(#'+#("P"5+;#."-#3.+-5"(8"#*.(#

understandings of the manner in which complex organizations and managers operate.

K.#,*)'E#C!%4&'".&".#*.(#C*%545"#:>??NA#!*P"#%")".'5/#&188"&'"(#'!*'#&+1.(#)*&"#&'1(4"&#)*.#1.4'"#'!"#("P"5+;=".'#

of theory with teaching. They suggest that teachers and students can be viewed as part of a collective process 

of building, improving, and using management theory. Further, they believe that instead of compartmentalizing 

teaching and research into separate categories, the use of case methodology can aid in the theory-building process 

by providing a structure in which it is possible to display the phenomena under investigation in all its complexity 

:C!%4&'".&".##[#C*%545"E#>??NA6# !4&#&*="#)*;*2454'/#!*&#2"".#.+'"(#2/#+'!"%&#4.#'!"#=*.*8"=".'#$"5(#*&#!*P4.8#

*;;54)*'4+.#,+%#'!"+%/02145(4.8#4.#'!"#+%8*.4a*'4+.#&)4".)"&#:94&".!*%('E#@NHNA6# !"#*(P*.'*8"#+,#)*&"#&'1(/#4&#'!*'#

it does allow researchers to probe deeply into the circumstances surrounding a particular organizational issue or 

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,+%#)+=;5"V#+%8*.4a*'4+.&#0#)*.#=*3"#4'#(4,$)15'#'+#8"."%*54a"#,%+=#+."#)*&"#&'1(/#'+#+'!"%#+%8*.4a*'4+.&6##\+-"P"%E#

case studies have strong appeal due to the realism and the complexity of the case under consideration, and if done 

4.#&1,$)4".'#Y1*.'4'/E#)*.#2"#1&",15#,+%#'!"+%/#("P"5+;=".'6#B!"'!"%#4.0(";'!#*.*5/&4&#+,#&4.85"#)+=;*.4"&#:"686EE#

:L*%%E#@NNNZ#G5*'"%E#@NNNAA#+%#)*&"#&'1(4"&#+,#=15'4;5"#+%8*.4a*'4+.&#:"686E#:C!*.(5"%E#@Nb>Z#C+554.&E#>??@Z#Q"'"%&#[#

B*'"%=*.E#@NH>AAE##&1)!#",,+%'&#!*P"#;%+P".#+P"%#'4="#'+#4._1".)"#2+'!#*)*("=4)&#*.(#;%*)'4'4+."%&#*543"6

@%&>,'6,A3/4,>)8""#$/6+,4

One of the more recent responses to this ongoing debate about research methodology has been a suggestion 

'!*'#=*.*8"%&#*(+;'#*.#*;;%+*)!#'+#=*.*8"%4*5#;%*)'4)"#'!*'#2+%%+-&#,%+=#'!"#="(4)*5#;%+,"&&4+.]#"P4(".)"02*&"(#

management. That is, managers should adopt and embrace those practices which the overwhelming weight of the 

"=;4%4)*5#"P4(".)"#&188"&'&#-+%3#)+.&4&'".'5/E#-!"'!"%#'!4&#2"#4.#$.*.)4*5E#!1=*.#%"&+1%)"&E#"=;5+/""#("P"5+;=".'E#

etc. Much as physicians are encouraged to adopt those medical practices which clinical and empirical research 

demonstrate to be effective, so likewise should managers and organizational professionals adopt those practices that 

!*P"#2"".#S;%+P".T#'+#2"#",,")'4P"#:Q,",,"%E#[#G1''+.E#>??b*Z#Q,",,"%#[#G1''+.E#>??b2A6

This perspective focuses on managerial practice and not on research methods per se. However, the suggestion 

is that managerial practice be informed by the results of empirical and clinical research in order to produce better 

organizational outcomes. In this sense, evidence-based management spans the boundaries between academic 

research and managerial practice, and offers opportunity to develop research grounded in practice, informed by 

'!"+%/E#*.(#814("(#2/#'!"#%48+%&#+,#&+1.(#%"&"*%)!#="'!+(+5+8/#:h+1&&"*1E#>??bA6# !4&#;"%&;")'4P"#!*&#'!"#;+'".'4*5#

to re-frame the research process in the business school and to address the issue of research relevance in an effective 

=*.."%#:h+1&&"*1#[##I)C*%'!"/E#>?? Z̀#G6#F6#h/."&E#L1543E#[#7%+-.E#>??`A6#

B/70,)C<)D$!"/#&4$')$2)E#(/'&F/*&$'/0)5,4,/#6+)G,*+$>4
 

 Research  

Objective 

Results Design  

Process 

Data  

Gathering 

Data  

Format 

Form of  

Analysis 

Researcher  

Role 

Qualitative Complete,  
detailed  

description  
of phenomena 

Ultimate  
results  

may be  
unknown 

Research  
design  

emerges with  
the study 

Researcher is  
the data  

gathering  
instrument 

Data is in  
words,  

pictures,  
or objects 

Subjective  
analysis/  

Individual  
interpretation 

Researcher is  
immersed in  

subject matter 

Quantitative Classify features,  
count, construct  

statistical models 

Defined  
hypotheses  

and research  
issues 

Research is  
carefully  

designed  
in advance 

Researcher  
uses tools  

to gather data 

Data is in  
numerical  

form 

Objective  
analysis/        

Precise  
measurement 

Researcher is  
objectively  

removed from  
subject matter 

Action  

Science 

How human  

beings define  
actions 

Taking action  

to address  
issues 

Single- and  

Double- 
loop learning 

Interactive –  

researcher  
and subjects 

Data is  

narrative and  
numerical 

Subjective  

analysis/  
Practitioner  

defined 

Researcher is  

involved with  
subject matter 

Clinical Interactively  

develop 
understanding of  

the phenomena 
 

Intervention;  

address 
defined  

organizational  
issue 

Interactive;  

researcher  
working with  

subjects  

Interactive –  

researcher  
and subjects 

Data is 

complex;  
includes  

experience,  
words,  

and numbers 

Subjective;  

defined by  
researcher  

and subjects 

Researcher  

interacts with  
subject matter 

Case Study In-depth,  
extensive  

treatment of  
social  

phenomena 

Case 
Description  

and Evaluation 

Historical/ 
Interview  

narrative 
format 

Researcher as  
historian; may  

use tools and  
experience 

Data is 
narrative,  

descriptive,  
objects 

Subjective;  
based on  

selection by  
the researcher 

Researcher  
gathers, selects  

and interprets  
subject matter 

 

2010, Vol. 1, No. 1, 1-14

Buchko and Buchko



5

Advances in Business Research

To summarize this discussion we present the key elements of the various approaches to conducting organizational 

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)+=;*%"&#'!"&"#+P"%#&"P"%*5#(4=".&4+.&#+,#%"&"*%)!#*)'4P4'/]#:@A#'!"#%"&"*%)!#+2f")'4P"E#:>A#'!"#4.'".("(#%"&15'&#,%+=#

'!"#%"&"*%)!E#:iA#'!"#%"&"*%)!#("&48.#;%+)"&&E#:UA#'!"#(*'*#8*'!"%4.8#;%+)"&&#1&"(E#:RA#'!"#,+%=*'#+,#'!"#(*'*E#:bA#'!"#

'/;"#+,#*.*5/&4&#;"%,+%="(E#*.(#:`A#'!"#%+5"#+,#'!"#%"&"*%)!"%#4.#'!"#%"&"*%)!6##J&#.+'"(#4.#'!"#;%")"(4.8#(4&)1&&4+.E#

the various forms have different advantages and disadvantages. The nature of the organizational problem and the 

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%"&"*%)!6#X.,+%'1.*'"5/E#="'!+(+5+8/#(+"&#.+'#81*%*.'""#'!"#Y1*54'/#+,#'!"#%"&"*%)!6#K'#4&#;+&&425"#,+%#*#%"&"*%)!"%#'+#

"=;5+/#%48+%+1&#="'!+(+5+8/#*.(#4.'".&4P"#",,+%'#*.(#&'455#;%+(1)"#%"&"*%)!#'!*'#4&#+,#."8548425"#P*51"#'+#'!"#$"5(6#

W+55+-4.8#*#%"&"*%)!#;%+)"&&#(+"&#.+'#4.&1%"#'!"#Y1*54'/#+,#'!"#+1')+="6#K'#4&#*34.#'+#"=;5+/4.8#KGM#)"%'4$)*'4+.#

;%+)"&&"&Z#KGM#)"%'4$)*'4+.#;%+)"&&#)"%'4,/#'!*'#'!"#;%+)"&&#1&"(#'+#("P"5+;#*#;%+(1)'#+%#&"%P4)"#*%"#(+)1=".'"(E#

under control, and repeatable; but do not determine whether or not the product or service is of any value. It has 

2"".#+2&"%P"(#'!*'#4'#4&#'!"+%"'4)*55/#;+&&425"E#1&4.8#KGM#="'!+(+5+8/E#'+#!*P"#*.#KGM#)"%'4$"(#)+.)%"'"#54,"f*)3"'6#

Likewise, we would observe that much organizational research is methodologically sound but of limited utility and 

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Return on Research

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research in business. While there has been an increase in the number of outlets, and an increase in the volume of 

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\+-"P"%E#.+#%"&"*%)!#)+15(#2"#,+1.(#'!*'#*((%"&&"(#'!"#8*4.&#+,#2"."$'&#'+#'!"#$"5(#,%+=#*)*("=4)#%"&"*%)!#",,+%'&6#

B"#'!"%",+%"#S2+%%+-"(T#,%+=#'!"#21&4."&&#(4&)4;54."&#*.(#-+15(#543"#'+#&188"&'#*#)+.)";'#,+%#(4&)1&&4+.]##h"'1%.#+.#

h"&"*%)!E#+%#hMh6## !*'#4&E#-!*'#4&#'!"#."'#8*4.#+%#2"."$'#,%+=#%"&"*%)!#*)'4P4'/^##B!*'#4&#'!"#'+'*5#8%*4.#;%+(1)"(#

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Academic Return on Research. Academic ROR is the type of return most often discussed in the literature. 

J)*("=4)#hMh#*%"#'!"#%"'1%.&#'+#'!"#*)*("=4)#$"5(#,%+=#'!"#%"&"*%)!#*)'4P4'/6#G1)!#%"'1%.&#'*3"#'!"#,+%=#%"&"*%)!#

*)'4P4'/#'!*'#*(P*.)"&#'!"#2+(/#+,#3.+-5"(8"#+,#'!"#'+;4)E#(4&)4;54."E#+%#$"5(6#J)*("=4)#hMh#+))1%&#-!".#%"&"*%)!#

informs further theoretical development or research activity. “Seminal” books and articles that advance theory, 

develop new constructs, create new measures of existing constructs, or suggest new avenues for future exploration 

are examples of academic research with a high ROR. Some potential measures of Academic ROR might include 

)4'*'4+.&#4.#+'!"%#&)!+5*%5/#-+%3&#*.(#%*'4.8&#+,#'!"#Y1*54'/#+,#%"&"*%)!#f+1%.*5&6

Pedagogical Return on Research. Pedagogical ROR is research that informs the teaching practice of the academy. 

Such research is useful for instruction, training, and development. The returns primarily generated from this type 

of research are the educated students that proceed from academic programs of business study. Examples of such 

Pedagogical ROR methods would take the form of case studies, textbooks, teaching guides, and curricular materials. 

Such research furthers the educational mission of the academy and provides returns in the knowledge imparted 

to students. Potential measures of Pedagogical ROR would include assurance of learning programs that measure 

students’ gains in knowledge throughout a program of study as well as testing and other academic performance 

measures.

Professional Returns on Research. Professional ROR occurs through the dissemination of academic research 

that informs business practice. As a profession, business relies upon practice to differentiate from general arts 

and sciences. Research that contributes to practice by enabling professional managers to do a better job managing 

organizations represents the primary outcome of Professional ROR. Such contributions as articles in professional 

journals and professional or “trade” publications, along with trade books and case studies or histories of managerial 

behaviors and organization activities would be examples of Professional ROR. Measures of such returns might include 

managers’ self-reports of the publications read, sales records for business trade books, and similar information about 

managers’ familiarity with and use of such information.

5,*.#') $') 5,4,/#6+)E74,#%/*&$'4. What we see from this admittedly brief description of the concept of 

ROR is that much of the academic research may have a high Academic ROR and have very little pedagogically or 

2010, Vol. 1, No. 1, 1-14

Buchko and Buchko



6

Advances in Business Research

;%+,"&&4+.*55/6#\"%"4.#54"&#'!"#4&&1"#+,#%"&"*%)!#%"5"P*.)"Z#,+%#-!45"#*)*("=4)&#=48!'#Y1"&'4+.#'!"#P*51"#+,#'"V'2++3&E#

trade books, and articles in professional publications, such outlets often have a high Pedagogical or Professional 

ROR. For example, there are certain textbooks that are widely adopted and are leaders in the teaching discipline, and 

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have little value academically for tenure and promotion decisions. Likewise, many trade books and publications are 

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managerial behaviors and decision making. However, such books are often lightly regarded by academics as having 

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;%*)'4'4+."%&A#*%"#+,#%"*5#P*51"#'+#'!"#=*.*8"%4*5#(4&)4;54."6#\+-"P"%E#'!4&#&'455#2"8&#'!"#Y1"&'4+.E#-!/#(+"&#&+#=1)!#

21&4."&&#%"&"*%)!#!*P"#5+-#+P"%*55#%"'1%.&^

Improving the Quality of Business Research

This review of the approaches to conducting organization and managerial research does point out the richness 

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knowledge that has provided a rich tapestry of information. While criticisms that much of the work is done in the 

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their investigations. At the same time, as members of a profession, there is a realization that the research must inform 

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less important today than in 1994 when Hambrick challenged the profession to increase the relevance of research 

and increase the impact of research on the managerial profession. Yet despite the overwhelming volume of research 

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research on organizations and managers. There is no shortage of good, reasonable recommendations for doing so, 

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the problem. It seems to us that one reason that so much organization research suffers from limited value is that the 

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;%+=+'4+.#;%+)"&&#0#-!4)!#'".(&#'+#"=;!*&4a"#)+1.'4.8#;1254)*'4+.&#%*'!"%#'!*.#'!"#Y1*54'/#+,#'!+&"#;1254)*'4+.&#

0#(%4P"&#=*./#4.#*)*("=4*#'+#;1%&14.8#=4.+%#4'"%*'4+.&#+,#"V'*.'#%"&"*%)!#Y1"&'4+.&#-4'!#P"%/#54''5"#'!+18!'#'+#'!"#

overall value of the research on the discipline. And there is very little in the PhD education process that enables 

&'1(".'&# '+# 5"*%.#!+-# '+#*&3# 4.'"%"&'4.8# %"&"*%)!#Y1"&'4+.&Z#=+&'#*%"# &4=;5/#)+.&1="(#-4'!#*#Y1"&'4+.# '!*'#-455#

enable them to complete their dissertation and earn their degrees.

 !"#".(#%"&15'#4&#*#;5"'!+%*#+,#'%4'"E#4.&48.4$)*.'E#*.(#.*%%+-5/#,+)1&"(#%"&"*%)!#'!*'E#-!45"#+,#4.'"%"&'#'+#*#&=*55#

body of scholars and perhaps a few practitioners in the discipline, has very little impact on the overall advancement 

of the body of knowledge regarding organizations and the practice of management. When faced with such outcomes, 

one response is to look for structural explanations - hence the call for increased relevance and for processes that 

merge academics and practitioners. However, structural changes will not lead to meaningful research if there is 

.+# )+.&4("%*'4+.# +,# '!"# %"&"*%)!# Y1"&'4+.6#M1%# "V;"%4".)"# 4.# %"P4"-4.8# '!"#-+%3&# +,# )+55"*81"&# 4.# '!"# $"5(# ,+%#

2010, Vol. 1, No. 1, 1-14

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7

Advances in Business Research

professional meetings or various journals has led to the inescapable conclusion that much of what is submitted lacks 

*#)5"*%#%"&"*%)!#Y1"&'4+.#+%#4&#2*&"(#+.#*#%"&"*%)!#Y1"&'4+.#'!*'#4&E#,%*.35/E#1.4.'"%"&'4.86

71'# -!*'# =*3"&# ,+%# 4.'"%"&'4.8# %"&"*%)!# Y1"&'4+.&^# 7*%'1."3E# h/."&E# *.(# K%"5*.(# :>??bA# ;"%,+%="(# &1%P"/#

%"&"*%)!#+,#*)*("=4)&#*.(#;%*)'4'4+."%&#,+1.(#'!*'#*)*("=4)&#,+1.(#%"&"*%)!#'+#2"#4.'"%"&'4.8#4,#:4.#("&)".(4.8#+%("%A#

4'#:@A#)!*55".8"(#"V4&'4.8#'!"+%/#4.#*#)+1.'"%4.'14'4P"#=*.."%Z#:>A#-*&#+,#!48!#Y1*54'/#4.#'!"+%/#("P"5+;=".'#+%#4.#

'")!.4)*5#;%"&".'*'4+.Z#:iA#-*&#-"55#-%4''".Z#:UA#;%+P4("(#."-#'!"+%/#+,#$.(4.8&Z#:RA#!*(#;%*)'4)*5#4=;54)*'4+.&Z#*.(#

:bA#!*(#*#="*&1%*25"#4=;*)'#+.#'!"#$"5(E#"4'!"%#4.#'"%=&#+,#)4'*'4+.&#+%#*2454'/#'+#&'4=15*'"#."-#%"&"*%)!#:7*%'1."3E#

h/."&E#[#K%"5*.(E#>??bA6# !4&#;%+P4("&#&+="#4.&48!'#+.#*)*("=4)&O#;"%)"4P"(#)!*%*)'"%4&'4)&#+,#4.'"%"&'4.8#%"&"*%)!E#

21'#(+"&#.+'#*,,+%(#=1)!#4.&48!'#4.'+#!+-#+."#=48!'#8+#*2+1'#("P"5+;4.8#%"&"*%)!#Y1"&'4+.&#'!*'#-+15(#2"#+,#4.'"%"&'6

Interesting theories are those which deny certain assumptions about their audience, while non-interesting theories 

*%"#'!+&"#-!4)!#*,$%=#)"%'*4.#*&&1=;'4+.&#+,#'!"4%#*1(4".)"#:<*P4&E#@N`@A6# +#("P"5+;#&1)!#'!"+%4"&E#*#8++(#%"&"*%)!#

Y1"&'4+.#)!*55".8"&#%"&"*%)!"%&# '+#&""#=*''"%&#,%+=#*#."-#;"%&;")'4P"#*.(#&""#&+="'!4.8#."-#:F4;+-&34E#>??HA6##

Proposed research must meet important professional and societal goals, yet be answerable within existing resources 

*.(#*#%"*&+.*25"#'4="#,%*="6# !%""#&'";&#!*P"#2"".#;+&4'"(#,+%#,+%=15*'4.8#*#8%"*'#%"&"*%)!#Y1"&'4+.#:F4;+-&34E#

>??HA]#:@A#*&3#4.'"%"&'4.8#Y1"&'4+.&E#:>A#&"5")'#'!"#2"&'#Y1"&'4+.#,+%#%"&"*%)!E#*.(#:iA#'%*.&,+%=#'!"#%"&"*%)!#Y1"&'4+.#

into a testable hypothesis. These are certainly valid guidelines. But how researchers might systematically explore an 

*%"*#+,#%"&"*%)!#*.(#("P"5+;#4.'"%"&'4.8#%"&"*%)!#Y1"&'4+.&#4&#.+'#*((%"&&"(6

 !4&# !*&# 5"(# 1&# '+# 4.Y14%"# 4.'+#="'!+(&# ,+%# 4=;%+P4.8# '!"# Y1*54'/# +,# %"&"*%)!# Y1"&'4+.&Z# '!*'# 4&# !+-E#=48!'#

%"&"*%)!"%&#8+#*2+1'#'!"#;%+)"&&#+,#4(".'4,/4.8#4&&1"&#,+%#4.P"&'48*'4+.#'!*'#*%"#&48.4$)*.'E#="*.4.8,15E#*.(#-+15(#

!*P"#*#%"*5#",,")'#1;+.#2+'!#'!"#2+(/#+,#*)*("=4)#3.+-5"(8"#*&#-"55#*&#'!"#;%*)'4)"#+,#=*.*8"=".'^#j+&&#:>??iA#

offered some ideas for how this might be done. He suggested that incremental innovations in research (which reinforce 

"V4&'4.8#)+%"#)+.)";'&#*.(#'!"#54.3*8"&#2"'-"".#'!+&"#)+.)";'&A#*%"#5"&&#4.'"%"&'4.8#:*.(#5"&&#543"5/#'+#8"'#;1254&!"(AZ#

likewise, radical innovations in research (which introduce new conceptualizations and changes in constructs and 

%"5*'4+.&!4;&# *=+.8# )+.&'%1)'&A# *%"# %*%"# *.(# (4,$)15'# '+# 4=;5"=".'E# *.(# %*%"5/# 8"'# ;1254&!"(6#  !"# '-+# '/;"&# +,#

%"&"*%)!#=+&'# 543"5/#'+#2"#P4"-"(#*&#4.'"%"&'4.8#:*.(#=+&'# 543"5/#'+#2"#;1254&!"(A#*%"#"4'!"%#=+(15*%# 4..+P*'4+.&#

:-!4)!#("$."E#="*&1%"E#+%#*.*5/a"#)+%"#)+.&'%1)'&#4.#."-#-*/&A#+%#*%)!4'")'1%*5#4..+P*'4+.&#:-!4)!#"V*=4."#."-#

&4'1*'4+.&#,+%#,+)*5#%"5*'4+.&!4;&E#+%#."-#)+.&'%1)'&#'!*'#=*/#*,,")'#,+)*5#%"5*'4+.&!4;&A#:j+&&E#>??iA6##

It is in these latter categories of modular or architectural innovations that we wish to focus our attention, since 

%"&"*%)!#'!*'#(+"&#.+'#8"'#;1254&!"(#0#.+#=*''"%#!+-#4.'"%"&'4.8#'!"#Y1"&'4+.#0#)*..+'#4._1".)"#*)*("=4)#%"&"*%)!#*.(#

theory development, organizational knowledge, or managerial practice. We were curious as to whether or not there 

-"%"#*./#"V4&'4.8#*;;%+*)!"&#'!*'#=48!'#*&&4&'#%"&"*%)!"%&#4.#("P"5+;4.8#8%"*'#%"&"*%)!#Y1"&'4+.&#'!*'#-+15(#5"*(#'+#

great research. However, there is a remarkable paucity of writing and thought, and very few practical suggestions, 

*&#'+#!+-#%"&"*%)!"%&#=48!'#8+#*2+1'#("P"5+;4.8#!48!#Y1*54'/#%"&"*%)!#Y1"&'4+.&6#B"#-"%"#;*%'4)15*%5/#4.'"%"&'"(#4.#

a process or systematic approach. Finding very little in the available resources, we turned to another approach that 

!*&#2"".#,+1.(#'+#2"#",,")'4P"#4.#8"."%*'4.8#1&",15#%"&"*%)!#Y1"&'4+.&#,%+=#"V4&'4.8#%"&"*%)!E#*# '")!.4Y1"#)*55"(#

Spectrum Analysis.

The Spectrum Analysis

K.#+%("%# '+#2")+="#"=;+-"%"(# '+#$.(#*.&-"%&# '+#=*.*8"=".'#*.(#+%8*.4a*'4+.*5#;%+25"=&E# %"&"*%)!"%&#*.(#

;%*)'4'4+."%&#=1&'#2"84.#-4'!#'!"#%48!'#Y1"&'4+.&6#G)4".)"#;%+=4&"&#'!"#%"P"5*'4+.#+,#*#P*&'#*=+1.'#+,#4.,+%=*'4+.E#

*.(#("P"5+;4.8#4.'"%"&'4.8#Y1"&'4+.&#4&#"&&".'4*5#'+#&)4".'4$)#(4&)+P"%/#:j+&&E#>??iA6# !"#2"&'#%"&"*%)!#Y1"&'4+.&#*%"#

4.'"%"&'4.8E#$'#'!"#%"&"*%)!#-"55E#)*.#2"#'%*.&,+%="(#4.#'"&'*25"#!/;+'!"&"&E#*.(#4.P+5P"#&+="#)+.)";'#%"5*'"(#'+#'!"+%/#

+%#*.#*;;54"(#)+.'"V'#:7%*(5"/E#>??@Z#F4;+-&34E#>??HA6#J&#-"#!*P"#.+'"(E#4'#4&#'!"#Y1"&'4+.&#'!*'#("'"%=4."#%"&"*%)!#

design, conceptual framework, and the methods utilized (Blaikie, 2000; Bryman, 2004; Flick, 1998; Lipowski, 2008; 

I*&+.E#>??>Z#G*)3"''#[#B"..2"%8E#@NN`A6

M."#+,# '!"#2"."$'&#+,#.+.0Y1*.'4'*'4P"#%"&"*%)!#:Y1*54'*'4P"#="'!+(&E#)*&"#&'1(/#%"&"*%)!E#*.(#*)'4+.#&)4".)"#

%"&"*%)!A# 4&# '!"# *2454'/# +,# &1)!# %"&"*%)!# '+# (4&)+P"%# Y1"&'4+.&# *.(# 8"."%*'"# !/;+'!"&"&# '!*'# )*.# 2"# '"&'"(# 1&4.8#

Y1*.'4'*'4P"#="*&1%"&#:7"%.*%(E#>???Z#7%/=*.E#>??UZ#C*&&"55E#>??UA6#X.543"#Y1*.'4'*'4P"#="'!+(&E#'")!.4Y1"&E#*.(#

tools, which emphasize numerical data, statistical analyses, and tools such as scatterplots, graphs, and histograms, 

Y1*54'*'4P"# &'1(4"&# 8"."%*55/# 1&"# ("&)%4;'4P"# (*'*# '!*'#=*/#.+'# 2"# 4=="(4*'"5/# %"P"*54.86# !4&E# !+-"P"%E# )%"*'"&#

(4,$)15'4"&#4.#8"."%*'4.8#%"&"*%)!#Y1"&'4+.&E#*&#;+'".'4*55/#4.'"%"&'4.8#;*''"%.&#+%#+2&"%P*'4+.&#=*/#.+'#2"#4=="(4*'"5/#

observable to the researcher or manager. As a result, many research issues may go unexplored.

B!45"#Y1*54'*'4P"#="'!+(&#(+#;+&&"&&#*;;%+;%4*'"#%48+%E#'!"#.*'1%"#+,#'!"#*&&"&&=".'#*.(#"P*51*'4+.#0#%"5/4.8#+.#

'!"#4.&48!'&#*.(#3.+-5"(8"#+,#'!"#4.P"&'48*'+%#0#)*.#=*3"#4'#(4,$)15'#'+#4(".'4,/#*((4'4+.*5#%"&"*%)!#+;;+%'1.4'4"&E#

2010, Vol. 1, No. 1, 1-14

Buchko and Buchko



8

Advances in Business Research

*.(# '+#$.(# 4.'"%"&'4.8#Y1"&'4+.&# ,+%# ,1'1%"# %"&"*%)!6#\".)"#-!45"#=*./#Y1*54'*'4P"# &'1(4"&# *%"# ".548!'".4.8# *.(#

pathbreaking, and may become popular best-selling managerial books such as In Search of Excellence (Peters & 

B*'"%=*.E# @NH>A# +%#L++(# '+#L%"*'# :C+554.&E# >??@AE# &1)!#-+%3&# %*%"5/# 5"*(# '+#="*.4.8,15# ,+55+-0+.# %"&"*%)!# +%#

("P"5+;#*#&/&'"=*'4)E#"=;4%4)*5#2+(/#+,#3.+-5"(8"#'!*'#4&#+,#=1)!#1&"#'+#'!"#$"5(#+,#=*.*8"=".'#%"&"*%)!6

B!45"# Y1*.'4'*'4P"# (*'*# 8*'!"%"(# ,%+=# +%8*.4a*'4+.&# 4&# *.*5/a"(# *.(# &!*%"(# 1&4.8# &'*'4&'4)*5# *.(# %"5*'"(#

Y1*.'4'*'4P"#'")!.4Y1"&E#Y1*54'*'4P"#(*'*#4&#+,'".#."85")'"(#,+%#-*.'#+,#*.#",,")'4P"#="*.&#'+#*.*5/a"#&1)!#(*'*#*.(#

to share such data. Researchers and mangers know that this data is valuable, but lack the ability to organize the data 

*.(#85"*.#,%+=#'!"#(*'*#4=;+%'*.'E#1&",15E#*.(#4.'"%"&'4.8#%"&"*%)!#Y1"&'4+.&6# ++5&#)1%%".'5/#*P*45*25"#'+#*.*5/a"#

*.(#;%"&".'#Y1*54'*'4P"#4.,+%=*'4+.E#"686E#(*'*2*&"#&"'&E#.*%%*'4P"&E#)*'"8+%4)*5#'*25"&E#"')6#,*55#,*%#&!+%'#+,#=*')!4.8#

'!"#*.*5/'4)*5#;+-"%E#,*=454*%4'/E#*.(#"*&"#+,#&!*%4.8#+,#'%*(4'4+.*5#Y1*.'4'*'4P"#'++5&#&1)!#*&#&'*'4&'4)*5#*.*5/&"&#*.(#

numerical graphs.

 !1&#-"#;"%)"4P"#*#8*;#4.#"V4&'4.8#%"&"*%)!#'")!.4Y1"&E#;%4=*%45/#2"'-"".#Y1*.'4'*'4P"#"=;4%4)*5#&'1(4"&#*.(#

Y1*54'*'4P"6#9*)!#!*&#4'&#(",".("%&#*.(#("'%*)'+%&6#B"#-+15(#543"#'+#&188"&'#'!*'#'!"%"#=*/#2"#*#;%+(1)'4P"#=4((5"#

8%+1.(#'!*'#=48!'#".*25"#'!"#$"5(#'+#8%+-#*.(#("P"5+;#2/#5"*(4.8#'+#."-#*P".1"&#+,#4.Y14%/#*.(#'!"#("P"5+;=".'#+,#

4.'"%"&'4.8#%"&"*%)!#Y1"&'4+.&6# !4&#=4((5"#8%+1.(#54"&#4.#'!"#1&"#+,#&/&'"=*'4)#*.*5/'4)#'")!.4Y1"&#*.(#="'!+(+5+84"&#

+.#%"&"*%)!#'!*'#4&#Y1*54'*'4P"#4.#.*'1%"6#7/#,%*=4.8#Y1*54'*'4P"#%"&"*%)!#4.#.+P"5#-*/&E#*.(#2/#(+4.8#&+#4.#*#&/&'"=*'4)#

*.(# %";"*'*25"#=*.."%E# 4'#=*/#2"#;+&&425"# '+#("P"5+;#."-# %"&"*%)!#Y1"&'4+.&# '!*'# 5"*(# '+#;%+(1)'4P"# &'%"*=&#+,#

*)'4P4'/#*.(#'!*'#;%+P4("#&48.4$)*.'#%"'1%.&#'+#'!"#$"5(6

M."# '")!.4Y1"# '!*'#=48!'#2"#1&",15# ,+%#*.*5/a4.8#&1)!#Y1*54'*'4P"#(*'*#*.(#8"."%*'4.8#Y1"&'4+.&# '!*'#=*/#2"#

+,#1&"#,+%#,1'1%"#%"&"*%)!#4&# '!"#G;")'%1=#*.*5/&4&#:G5+."E#>??RA6# !"#8+*5#+,#G;")'%1=#*.*5/&4&# 4&# '+#=*3"#(*'*#

*P*45*25"#'+#*#-4("#*1(4".)"#+,#Y1*54'*'4P"#*.*5/&'&#f1&'#*&#!4&'+8%*=&E#8%*;!&E#*.(#&)*''"%;5+'&#*%"#*P*45*25"#,+%#1&"#

2/#Y1*.'4'*'4P"#%"&"*%)!"%&6# !%+18!#;*''"%.#%")+8.4'4+.E#*#G;")'%1=#)*.#,*)454'*'"#*.*5/&4&#2/#!"5;4.8#%"&"*%)!"%&#

&!*%"#%"&15'&#=+%"#",$)4".'5/#*.(#2/#&1;;+%'4.8#4.,"%".'4*5#4.'"%;%"'*'4+.&6

 !"#G;")'%1=#;%"&".'&#*#P4&1*5#*.*5/&4&#+,#Y1*54'*'4P"#(*'*6#c"/#Y1*54'4"&#+%#)!*%*)'"%4&'4)&#+,#'!"#)+=;*./#+%#

(*'*#1.("%#4.P"&'48*'4+.#*%"#4(".'4$"(#*.(#)*'"8+%4a"(6#B4'!4.#"*)!#)*'"8+%/E#(*'*#1.4'&#*%"#+%8*.4a"(#+.#'!"#2*&4&#

+,#&4=45*%4'/#'+#+'!"%&#4.#'!"#&*="#)*'"8+%/6# !1&#'!"#G;")'%1=#;%+P4("&#*#&/&'"=*'4)#-*/#+,#)+=;*%4.8#Y1*54'*'4P"#

data. Spectrum has been used to examine the relationship between mental models, motivation, and search habits 

+,#K.'"%."'#1&"%&#:G5+."E#>??>AE#'!"#*&&+)4*'4+.#2"'-"".#*8"#8%+1;#*.(#K.'"%."'#&"*%)!#8+*5&#*.(#"V;"%4".)"#:G5+."E#

>??`AE#*.(#)*'"8+%4)*5#(4,,"%".)"&#4.#'!"#-*/&#".(01&"%&#&"*%)!"(#'!"#K.'"%."'#*.(#*.#+.54."#542%*%/#)*'*5+8#:G5+."E#

>??RA6##

K.#;"%,+%=4.8#*#G;")'%1=#*.*5/&4&E#(*'*#+%#4.,+%=*'4+.#,%+=#Y1*54'*'4P"#&'1(4"&#*%"#'*3".#*&#;%"&".'"(#2/#'!"#

original researcher and organized according to the researcher’s framework. Thus characteristics of organizations, 

individuals, or categories of information are used as initially conceptualized by the investigator. Within these 

categories of data, the information can be organized according to the original researchers’ intentions and then 

;%"&".'"(#4.#*#P4&1*5#=*.."%#'!*'#*55+-&#,+%#)+=;*%4&+.&E#*.*5/&4&E#*.(#("P"5+;=".'#+,#;+'".'4*5#%"&"*%)!#Y1"&'4+.&6##

8')@H/!"0,<)8):",6*#.!)8'/014&4)$2)3.&0*)*$)I/4*)D$!"/'&,4)

To highlight and demonstrate the potential utility of the Spectrum analysis as a tool for organization researchers, 

*#G;")'%1=#*.*5/&4&#-*&#;"%,+%="(#+.#'!"#Y1*54'*'4P"#(*'*#,%+=#'!"#2"&'0&"554.8#21&4."&&#2++3#7145'#'+#F*&'#:C+554.&#

[#Q+%%*&E#@NNUA6# !"%"#4&#"P4(".)"#'!*'#'!4&#-+%3#!*&#!*(#*#&48.4$)*.'#4._1".)"#+.#+%8*.4a*'4+.&#*.(#'!"#;%*)'4)"#

of management. For example, authors have pointed to this work to clarify the notion of extended high performance 

,+%#4.(1&'%4"&#:W+&'"%#[#c*;5*.E#>??@AZ#'+#(4&)+1%*8"#"=15*'4.8#P4&4+.*%/#)+=;*.4"&#-4'!+1'#1.("%&'*.(4.8#'!"&"#

+%8*.4a*'4+.&#:h"4.8+5(#[#X.("%-++(E#>??UAZ#'+#&1;;+%'#(4&)4;54."(#8%+-'!#%*'!"%#'!*.#%"P+51'4+.*%/#2%"*3'!%+18!&#

:h++."/E#>??bAZ#*.(#'+#;%+=+'"#'!"#("P"5+;=".'#+,#)+%"#P*51"&#:L%1/&E#G'"-*%'E#L++(&'"4.E#74.8E#[#B4)3&E#>??HA6#

X&4.8# &1%P"/&# *.(# !4&'+%4)*5# (*'*E# C+554.&# *.(# Q+%%*&# :@NNUA# 4(".'4$"(# @H# SP4&4+.*%/T# )+=;*.4"&# 2*&"(# +.#

characteristics that helped these companies succeed over decades and compared each of these to a durable but less 

&1))"&&,15#)+=;"'4'+%#$%=#4.#'!"#&*="#4.(1&'%/6#j4&4+.*%/#)+=;*.4"&#-"%"#("$."(#*&#S;%"=4"%#4.&'4'1'4+.&#k#'!"#

)%+-.#f"-"5&#0#4.#'!"4%#4.(1&'%4"&E#-4("#*(=4%"(#2/#'!"4%#;""%&#*.(#!*P"#*#5+.8#'%*)3#%")+%(#+,#=*34.8#*#&48.4$)*.'#

4=;*)'#+.#'!"#-+%5(#*%+1.(#'!"=T#:C+554.&E#[#Q+%%*&E#@NNUE#;6#@A6#B!45"#'!"&"#$%=&#-"%"#.+'#,%""#+,#;%+25"=&E#'!"#

visionary companies were resilient in the face of problems and had managed to survive and prosper over an extended 

;"%4+(#+,# '4="6# !"#8+*5&# +,# '!"4%# Y1*54'*'4P"# &'1(/#-"%"# '+# 4(".'4,/# )!*%*)'"%4&'4)&# )+==+.# '+#!48!5/#P4&4+.*%/#

)+=;*.4"&#*.(#1&"#'!"&"#Y1*54'4"&#*.(#)!*%*)'"%4&'4)&#'+#4._1".)"#=*.*8"%4*5#;%*)'4)"

W%+=#&1%P"/&#+,#)!4",#"V")1'4P"#+,$)"%&#:C9M&A#,%+=#5"*(4.8#)+=;*.4"&#4.#(4,,"%".'#4.(1&'%4"&#*.(#5+)*'4+.&E#'!"#

C+554.&#*.(#Q+%%*&#:@NNUA#("P"5+;"(#*#54&'#+,#P4&4+.*%/#)+=;*.4"&E#4(".'4$"(#'!"#>?#=+&'#)+==+.5/#=".'4+."(#2/#

2010, Vol. 1, No. 1, 1-14

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9

Advances in Business Research

'!"#C9M&E#*.(#"54=4.*'"(#)+=;*.4"(#,+1.("(#*,'"%#@NR?6# !"/#'!".#("P"5+;"(#*#)+.'%+5#&"'#+,#=*')!4.8#)+=;*.4"&#

,%+=# '!"# &*="# ,+1.(4.8# "%*# *.(# 4.(1&'%/# '!*'# -"%"# 8++(# )+=;*.4"&# 21'# 8*%."%"(# ,"-"%# ;+4.'&# ,%+=# '!"# C9M#

assessment than the visionary company. After identifying the 2 groups, the authors conducted an in-depth historical 

*.*5/&4&#+,#'!"#$%=&6# !"#$.*5#*.*5/&4&#,+)1&"(#+.#(*'*#%"5*'"(#'+#+%8*.4a*'4+.*5#&'%1)'1%"E#&+)4*5d)15'1%*5#;%*)'4)"&#

*.(# .+%=&E# ;!/&4)*5# &"''4.8E# '")!.+5+8/E# 5"*("%&!4;E# ;%+(1)'&# *.(# &"%P4)"&E# P4&4+.d)+%"# P*51"&E# $.*.)"&E# *.(# '!"#

external environment. The authors then narrowed the information down to a set of narratives and tables to describe 

distinguishing characteristics of visionary companies. The results were then presented in tabular form, each table 

corresponding to one of the six characteristics of success. The data from those tables has been distilled using the 

Spectrum analysis into one display, shown in Figure 1 below.

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)+=;*.4"&#:.#l#ibA6# !"#5*%8"%#&"=40)4%)5"#*2+P"#'!"#.1)5"1&#%";%"&".'&#)+=;*./#'/;"#:j4&4+.*%/#+%#C+=;*%4&+.#

)+=;*./A6#C+.)".'%4)#+1'"%#&"=40)4%)5"&#4.)51("#&/=2+5&E#4.#'!"#,+%=#+,#S2155"'#;+4.'&ET#'!*'#%";%"&".'#%*'4.8&#+,#'!"#

)+=;*.4"&#+.#'!"#P*%4+1&#)!*%*)'"%4&'4)&6#F*2"5&#4(".'4,/#'!"&"#)!*%*)'"%4&'4)&E#-!4)!#4.)51("#C+%"#K("+5+8/#0#'!"#

;%4.)4;5"&# '!*'#(%4P"# *# )+=;*./#2"/+.(#;%+$'&Z#74,#\*4%/#J1(*)4+1&#L+*5&# :7\JL&A# 0# (*%"("P450543"#8+*5&# '!*'#

*%"#4.#54."#-4'!#*#)+=;*./O&#)+%"#4("+5+8/#*.(#-4'!4.#'!"#%"*5=#+,#;+&&42454'/Z#C15'4&=#0#*#)15'0543"#)+==4'=".'#

to the company and the core ideology; Purposeful Evolution - the process of evolving and trying new things as the 

)+=;*./#"V;*.(&Z#I*.*8"=".'#C+.'4.14'/#0#$554.8#'+;#=*.*8"=".'#;+&4'4+.&#,%+=#4.&4("#'!"#)+=;*./Z#*.(#G"5,0

K=;%+P"=".'#0#'!"#Y1"&'#'+#(+#2"''"%#'+(*/#'!*.#/"&'"%(*/6

The names of the companies are listed for each row of visual data, and the numbers in parentheses represent the 

=*')!#2"'-"".#'!"#P4&4+.*%/#)+=;*./#*.(#'!"#)+=;*%4&+.#)+=;*./6#C+=;*.4"&#%*'"(#'!"#!48!"&'#4.#"*)!#)*'"8+%/#

are shown with the dark black bullets; dark gray bullets mark the mid-range companies; and the light gray bullets the 

5+-"&'#%*.3"(#)+=;*.4"&6#j4&4+.*%/#)+=;*.4"&#*%"#%*.3"(#!48!#:B*50I*%'A#'+#5+-#:J="%4)*.#9V;%"&&E#+%#JI9mA#

2*&"(#+.#'!"#.1=2"%#*.(#5+)*'4+.#+,#2155"'&#,+%=#'!"#C9M#*.(#*1'!+%&O#%*'4.8&6#C+=;*%4&+.#)+=;*.4"&#*%"#&4=45*%5/#

Purposeful Evolution

Management Continuity

Self-Improvement

Core Ideology

N=36

Comparison 

Companies

18 (50%)

Visionary 

Companies

18 (50%)

Cultism

Big Hairy Audacious Goals (BHAGs)

High: Medium: Low:

 !"#$%"&''(

Texas Instruments (7)

Bristol-Myers Squibb (9)

General Motors (5)

Melville (13)

Kenwood (16)

Colgate (15)

Norton (1)

Chase (4)

RJR Nabisco (14)

Howard Johnson (10)

Zenith (12)

Westinghouse (6)

McDonnell Douglas (3)

Wells Fargo (2)

Columbia (18)

Burroughs (8)

Ames (17)

AMEX (2)

Philip Morris (14)

Ford (5)

IBM (8)

Citicorp (4)

Disney (18)

Boeing (3)

GE (6)

Nordstrom (13)

Marriott (10)

Johnson & Johnson (9)

3M (1)

Proctor & Gamble (15)

Hewlett-Packard (7)

Motorola (12)

Merck (11)

Sony (16)

Walmart (17)

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)+.'*4.#2+'!#'!"#!48!"&'0%*'"(#)+=;*./#+P"%#'4="#:B*50I*%'A#*.(#'!"#5+-"&'#:J="&A^#<+"&#'!"#5+)*'4+.#+,#W+%(#*.(#

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'!*'#)+=;*.4"&#4.#'!"#;!*%=*)"1'4)*5#4.(1&'%/#;"%,+%=#2"''"%#+P"%*55#'!*.#'!+&"#4.#+'!"%#4.(1&'%4"&^#B!/#(+#=+%"#

)+=;*.4"&# %*.3#!48!5/#+.#I*.*8"=".'#C+.'4.14'/# '!*.#+.#*./#+'!"%#)!*%*)'"%4&'4)^#B!*'# 4&# '!"# &48.4$)*.)"#+,#

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Y1*54'/#%"&"*%)!#",,+%'&6

In addition, the use of the Spectrum analysis can lead to new avenues for thought and theory development that can 

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B!45"#8"."%*'4.8#%"&"*%)!#Y1"&'4+.&#4&#4=;+%'*.'#4.#4=;%+P4.8#'!"#Y1*54'/#+,#%"&"*%)!E#*.(#("&)%424.8#+%8*.4a*'4+.*5#

;!".+=".*#1&4.8#"V4&'4.8#'!"+%"'4)*5#=+("5&#4&#1&",15E#'+#)%"*'"#*#'%15/#&48.4$)*.'#4=;*)'#+.#21&4."&&#+%8*.4a*'4+.&#

%"Y14%"&#'!*'#'!"#'!"+%4"&#*.(#=+("5&#2"#*;;54)*25"6# !*'#4&E#'!"+%4"&#*.(#=+("5&#)*..+'#2"#="%"5/#("&)%4;'4P"E#21'#

to have maximum utility should be predictive as well. Relevance to practicing managers comes when the theories 

of organization researchers can provide insights and answers to the problems and challenges that affect people in 

organizations. However, for such theories to be valid, they ought to be based on meaningful research.

B"#$.(#'!*'#'!"#G;")'%1=#*.*5/&4&#)*.#;%+P4("#4.&48!'&#'+#.+'#+.5/#("&)%4;'4P"#*.(#*.*5/'4)#%"&"*%)!E#21'#=*/#

be able to offer avenues for theoretical exploration of information that increases the predictive value as well. For 

example, it has been noted that seven of the eighteen companies cited as examples of outstanding and enduring 

companies would not have met the authors’ criteria for inclusion in the book a few years later (Reingold & Underwood, 

>??UA6# !"#&;")4$)#$%=&#-"%"#G+./E#I"%)3E#I+'+%+5*E#n+%(&'%+=E#7+"4.8E#<4&."/E#*.(#W+%(6#K.'"%"&'4.85/E#1&4.8#

'!"#4.,+%=*'4+.#,%+=#'!"#G;")'%1=#*.*5/&4&E#4'#4&#;+&&425"#'+#$.(#;*''"%.&#4.#'!4&#54&'#+,#)+=;*.4"&#'!*'#=48!'#&188"&'#

*P".1"&#,+%#,1%'!"%#'!"+%"'4)*5#("P"5+;=".'#*.(#"V;5+%*'4+.6#J55#+,#'!"#$%=&#'!*'#-+15(#!*P"#,*55".#,%+=#'!"#54&'#+,#

S7145'#'+#F*&'T#)+=;*.4"&#-"%"#%*'"(#!48!#2/#'!"#*1'!+%&#-4'!#%"&;")'#'+#C+%"#K("+5+8/#*.(E#-4'!#'!"#&4.85"#"V)";'4+.#

+,#n+%(&'%+=O&E#*55#-"%"#%*'"(#!48!5/#,+%#!*P4.8#*#748E#\*4%/E#J1(*)4+1&#L+*5&#:7\JLA6#B!/#=48!'#'!"&"#;*''"%.&#

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5"&&#&1))"&&,15#)+=;*.4"&#-*&#=*("AE#-"#)*.#*&3#4,#'!"#;%"&".)"#+%#*#&'%+.8#)+%"#4("+5+8/#*.(#7\JL#=48!'#;%"P".'#

companies from being able to change with shifting business conditions. Perhaps a strong core ideology and lofty 

*&;4%*'4+.*5#8+*5&#=48!'#54=4'#'!"#*2454'/#'+#*(f1&'#'!"#$%=O&#21&4."&&#=+("5#'+#%"&;+.(#'+#)+.(4'4+.&6#W155/#!*5,#:`#+,#

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met the criteria for being a “Built to Last” company.  

By detecting the patterns in the Spectrum analysis and combining this with other data, researchers can develop 

'!"+%"'4)*5#)+.)";'&#'!*'#*,,+%(#."-#+;;+%'1.4'4"&#,+%#4.P"&'48*'4+.E#*.(#'!*'#%"$."#'!"#8"."%*54a*'4+.&#'!*'#'".(#'+#

)!*%*)'"%4a"#=*./#Y1*54'*'4P"#&'1(4"&6#K.#'!"#)*&"#+,#S7145'#'+#F*&'ET#1&4.8#'!"#G;")'%1=#*.*5/&4&#=48!'#&188"&'#'!*'#4'#

is not enough for a company to have a “core ideology” and to focus on “BHAGs,” as strong internal emphases might 

prevent a company from being able to adapt and modify as needed to meet business conditions. Perhaps a strong core 

4("+5+8/#*.(#7\JL#4&#1&",15#+.5/#4,#'!"#$%=#4&#4.#*#&'*25"#4.(1&'%/#+%#=*%3"'6#K.#'4="&#+,#'1%215".)"E#&1)!#,+%)"&#

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,+%#"V;5+%*'4+.E#;%+P4("#;%"&)%4;'4P"#2"."$'&#'+#=*.*8"%&E#*.(#4.)%"*&"#'!"#%"5"P*.)"#+,#%"&"*%)!#0#'!"%"2/#4=;%+P4.8#

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information, and the like provides an independent, relatively objective set of numerical data that is well suited to the 

'/;"&#+,#Y1*.'4'*'4P"#="'!+(&#*.(#*.*5/&"&#'!*'#*%"#'!"#2*&4&#,+%#=1)!#+%8*.4a*'4+.#%"&"*%)!6#J((4'4+.*5#(*'*E#4.#'!"#

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methods are useful for understanding organization issues, problems, and managerial behaviors, and will certainly 

continue to form the base for much future knowledge generation.

However, there are much more data available regarding organizations and the practice of management that do 

.+'#$'#-"55#4.'+#'%*(4'4+.*5#Y1*.'4'*'4P"#*;;%+*)!"&#'+#%"&"*%)!E#.+%#4.'+#Y1*54'*'4P"#+%#=4V"(0="'!+(&#&'1(4"&6# !4&#

information is useful, meaningful, and potentially valuable to managers and organization researchers. However, 

without some means to organize and assess such data, we are often left with broad prescriptive themes or platitudes 

regarding the practice of management. For the discipline to continue to grow and develop, new ways must be 

,+1.(#'+#'*3"#&1)!#4.,+%=*'4+.#*.(#("P"5+;#="*.4.8,15E#4.'"%"&'4.8E#*.(#1&",15#Y1"&'4+.&#'!*'#)*.#,+%=#'!"#2*&4&#

,+%#)+.'4.1+1&#%"&"*%)!#0#2+'!#Y1*.'4'*'4P"#*.(#Y1*54'*'4P"6#K.#'!4&#;*;"%E#-"#!*P"#("=+.&'%*'"(#+."#&1)!#'++5E#'!"#

G;")'%1=#*.*5/&4&6#B"#2"54"P"#'!*'#2/#;1%&14.8#&1)!#'")!.4Y1"&#+%8*.4a*'4+.#&)4".'4&'&#*.(#=*.*8"=".'#%"&"*%)!"%#

-455#2"#2"''"%#*25"#'+#4(".'4,/#'!+&"#)%4'4)*5#%"&"*%)!#Y1"&'4+.&#'!*'#,+%=#'!"#2*&4&#,+%#8%"*'#%"&"*%)!#0#%"&"*%)!#'!*'#

4=;*)'&#'!"+%/#*&#-"55#*&#;%*)'4)"E#'!*'#4&#1&",15#,+%#,1'1%"#%"&"*%)!#*&#-"55#*&#,+%#4.)%"*&4.8#4.(4P4(1*5&O#*.(#$%=&O#

;"%,+%=*.)"6#B"#*%"#".)+1%*8"(#2/#'!"&"#;%"54=4.*%/#%"&15'&#+,#4.Y14%/#*.(#1%8"#+'!"%&#'+#"=;5+/#&1)!#'")!.4Y1"&#

to improve our understanding of organizations and management.

5@J@5@LD@:

J8*%-*5E#h6E#[#\+"'3"%E#L6#>?? 6̀#J#W*1&'4*.#2*%8*4.^# !"#8%+-'!#+,#=*.*8"=".'#*.(#4'&#%"5*'4+.&!4;#-4'!#%"5*'"(#

disciplines. Academy of Management JournalE#R?]#@i?U0@i>>6

J%8/%4&E#C6#@NNR6#J)'4+.#&)4".)"#*.(#+%8*.4a*'4+.*5#5"*%.4.86#Journal of Managerial PsychologyE#@?]#>?0> 6̀

J%8/%4&E#C6E#Q1'.*=E#h6E#[#G=4'!E#<6#>???6#Action science6#G*.#W%*.)4&)+E#CJ]#D+&&"/07*&&6

7*%'1."3#D6E#h/."&6E#G6E#[#K%"5*.(E#h6#>??b6#B!*'#=*3"&#=*.*8"=".'#%"&"*%)!#4.'"%"&'4.8E#*.(#-!/#(+"&#4'#=*''"%^#

Academy of Management JournalE#UN]#N0@R6

7*a"%=*.E# I6# >??R6# C+.(1)'4.8# 4._1".'4*5# %"&"*%)!]#  !"# .""(# ,+%# ;%"&)%4;'4P"# 4=;54)*'4+.&6# Academy of 

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86/>,!1)$2)G/'/(,!,'*)I,/#'&'()Q)@>.6/*&$'E#H]#>U?0>R@6

C+554.&E#D6#>??@6#P$$>)*$)(#,/*6#n"-#g+%3]#\*%;"%C+554.&6

C+554.&E#D6E#[#Q+%%*&E#D6#@NNU6#3.&0*)*$)0/4*<):.66,442.0)+/7&*4)$2)%&4&$'/#1)6$!"/'&,46#n"-#g+%3]#\*%;"%C+554.&6

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Advances in Business Research

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Aaron Buchko is a professor of management at Bradley University. He received his Ph.D. in management from 

Michigan State University. His research interests include knowledge management, institutional theory, and business 

ethics. He has published in Advances in Strategic Management, the Academy of Management Journal, the Journal of 

Business Research, the Journal of Business Ethics Education, Management, and several others.

Kathleen Buchko is an associate professor of counseling at Bradley University. She received her Ph.D. from 

Michigan State University. Her current research interests include spirituality and counseling, and exercise and sport 

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Student, and others.

2010, Vol. 1, No. 1, 1-14

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