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Karim, Jiang, and Suh                                                                                                                                                   Advances in Business Research 

2013, Vol. 4, No. 1, 24-42 

 

Corporate Social Responsibility in the Oil Industry: A Comparison of the CSR Disclosure 

Behavior in BP and CNPC 
 

Khondkar Karim, University of Massachusetts - Lowell 

Yu Jiang, University of Glasgow 

SangHyun Suh, University of Massachusetts - Lowell 
 

 

In this paper, we discuss the corporate social responsibility (CSR) activities in UK and China by 

exploring the main differences of the CSR disclosure behavior between British Petroleum (BP) and China 

National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC). We find that the CSR disclosure reporting of CNPC needs to 

be improved in many aspects such as the disclosure form, the disclosure content quality, and the negative 

information disclosure, compared to that of BP. The lack of CNPC’s CSR disclosure could be attributed 

to poor CSR awareness of the public and companies in China, the inexperienced CSR development in 

China, and the defective legislation of Chinese laws and regulations on CSR reporting. 
 

 

Introduction and Background 
 

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is an idea that can be traced back to a long time ago, but is just 

beginning to gain the attention of the public. According to the World Business Council for Sustainable 

Development (2000), CSR is defined as “the continuing commitment by business to behave ethically and 

contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of the workforce.” European 

Commission (2001) regarded CSR as an option for a company to voluntarily contribute to a better society 

and cleaner environment. 

The main direct incentive for the development of CSR and environmental accounting was the global 

environmental degradation phenomena (Dierkes and Preston, 1977). It is issues such as global warming, 

climate change, and marine pollution that have contributed to social attention being paid on the quality of 

air and water. Jones (2010) states that it is the behavior of human beings, particularly in an industrial 

setting, that have had a significant impact on the environment. Although all employees should be aware of 

their corporate social responsibility, it is especially important that individuals in the oil industry are aware 

of their responsibility due to the fact that the oil industry is one of the most representative industries 

having close relations with these environmental issues (Korte and Boedefeld, 1978).  

As BP determined (BP plc., 2011b) oil and gas are the main sources of energy, and both play a 

significant role in meeting the global growing energy demand. Based on IMF forecast a 50% rise of oil 

prices would reduce global output by 1.25% (International Energy Agency, 2012). However, in spite of 

the importance of oil industry, the disastrous accidents that happened within this industry in recent years 

should also be emphasized. These incidents include the Deepwater Horizon accident in Gulf of Mexico in 

2010, and the recent Nigeria oil spill in 2011. Considering the baneful results of these environmental 

crises (Jones, 2010), leaders in the oil industry like British Petroleum (BP) and China National Petroleum 

Corporation (CNPC), have an obligation to address the environmental and social damage. Based on their 

highly representative roles in the oil industry, BP and CNPC’s CSR disclosure behavior could have a 

profound guiding influence on the whole industry. 

BP expresses its desire to diversify into sustainable, greener energy. But the scale of the spill and the 

seeming inability of the government to staunch the flow without BP's aid have provided a stark reminder 

of the power that big oil still holds over national politics and the fate of entire communities that live in its 

shadow. Cases on BP’s CSR are rare in academic literature. Gulbrandsen and Moe (2007) have studied 

the company’s CSR activities in Azerbaijan, noting that the state has taken steps to bring in oil revenue 

transparency. They conclude that BP’s laudable effort to bring in holistic development may be 

undermined by the host government’s policies and ‘lack of commitment to developing democratic and 

accountable political institutions. Thus there is a gap in the literature for research on CSR by oil and 

mining companies. CNPC is one of the world’s largest oil companies and currently has about 130 



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Burgess-Wilkerson, Lampe, and Frankforter                                                                                                                Advances in Business Research 
2013, Vol. 4, No. 1, 13-23 

Appendix A: University Dashboards: Rockport University & Whitmore University (Ay 2011-2012) 

                          
Entering Freshman Class Rockport University Whitmore University 

Sector Private not-for profit; coed Public; coed 

Carnegie Classification Master's Colleges and Universities 
(larger programs) 

Master's Colleges and Universities 
(larger programs) 

Campus setting Urban; Large city: Midwest East 

Religious Affiliation Roman Catholic NA 

UG & Graduate Degrees 50 67 

Class Size 24 24 

On Campus housing Yes Yes 

BUS School Accreditation AACSB AACSB 

FTEs 2291 6170 

UG FTE 1740 5029 

GR FTE 551 1141 

% Male 39% 33% 

% Female 61% 57% 

FTE Faculty 132 286 

Student-Faculty Ratio 12 :1 14:1 

UG Tuition $27,700 $13,026 In State 
$24,276 Out of State 

Room & Board $8060 $7258 

% 1st time students receiving grants 99% 
Average $21,000 

96% 
Average $9,018 

 Average age 18-24 18-24 

 



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Burgess-Wilkerson, Lampe, and Frankforter                                                                                                                Advances in Business Research 

2013, Vol. 4, No. 1, 13-23 

her Ph.D. in higher education administration from University of Pittsburgh in Pittsburgh. Her research 

interests include student professional development, business communications, and emotional intelligence.   
 

Anna Lampe is an executive professor of management at Rockhurst University in Kansas City, MO. She 

received her Ph.D. in urban leadership & policy studies and education. Her research interests include 

psychological type, corporate culture, and organizational behavior.  
 

Steven Frankforter is a professor of management and associate dean for Winthrop University’s College 

of Business Administration. He received his Ph.D. in management from University of Washington in 

Seattle. His research interests include corporate governance, agency theory, stewardship theory, and 

emotional intelligence.   
 



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Burgess-Wilkerson, Lampe, and Frankforter                                                                                                                Advances in Business Research 

2013, Vol. 4, No. 1, 13-23 

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Barbara Burgess-Wilkerson is an associate professor of management and director of student 

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Burgess-Wilkerson, Lampe, and Frankforter                                                                                                                Advances in Business Research 

2013, Vol. 4, No. 1, 13-23 

Antonakis, J. 2003. Why “emotional intelligence” does not predict leadership effectiveness: A comment 

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through graduate management education. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 1(2): 

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Educational Psychology, 54(1): 1-22. 
 

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Committee for Economic Development. 
 



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Burgess-Wilkerson, Lampe, and Frankforter                                                                                                                Advances in Business Research 

2013, Vol. 4, No. 1, 13-23 

 

Table 4: Comparison of Mean EI Scores for Undergraduate Students from Both Schools 
 

Variable Mean - Rockport Mean - Whitmore Difference t-Statistic P-Value 

Social Awareness 7.68 7.44 0.24 1.08 0.14 

Self-Regulation 6.14 6.01 0.13 0.49 0.31 

Motivation 7.59 7.44 0.15 0.73 0.23 

Empathy 7.34 7.21 0.13 0.57 0.29 

Social Skills 7.41 7.17 0.24 0.96 0.17 

Intrapersonal EQ 7.15 6.95 0.20 1.14 0.13 

Interpersonal EQ 7.38 7.20 0.18 0.91 0.18 

Total EQ 7.24 7.04 0.20 1.22 0.11 

N 64 61 

Df 123 

 

 Table 5 displays the comparison of mean EI scores for graduate students from both schools. H2 and 

H4 addressed the differences for total and interpersonal EI, predicting that graduate Rockport students 

would have higher scores for total and interpersonal EI than Whitmore students. Neither H2 nor H4 were 

statistically significant, with difference scores of just -0.02 (P < .45) and -0.08 (P < .39) and the direction 

for the differences was not correctly predicted.   
 

Table 5: Comparison of Mean EI Scores for Graduate Students from Both Schools 
 

Variable Mean - Rockport Mean - Whitmore Difference t-Statistic P-Value 

Social Awareness 7.80 7.55 0.25 0.93 0.18 

Self-Regulation 6.39 6.69 -0.30 -0.87 0.19 

Motivation 7.99 8.09 -0.10 -0.46 0.32 

Empathy 7.52 7.63 -0.11 -0.42 0.34 

Social Skills 7.39 7.41 -0.02 -0.06 0.48 

Intrapersonal EQ 7.46 7.44 0.02 0.07 0.47 

Interpersonal EQ 7.45 7.53 -0.08 -0.28 0.39 

Total EQ 7.45 7.47 -0.02 -0.12 0.45 

n 36 39 

df 73 

 

 Our overall results suggest that, in spite of the differences between the universities, the EI abilities of 

the student populations were remarkably similar. 
 

Conclusions 
 

 Despite the many differences between Rockport and Whitmore universities (see Appendix A), those 

differences had no apparent effect on the EI abilities of the undergraduate and graduate students of those 

schools. This provides evidence that the EI abilities of students may be very similar despite apparent 

differences in their universities. While we found a surprising homogenous population of students, our 

findings support earlier work of Bar-on, Salovey, Mayer and others who have found that age cohorts 

typically have similar EI scores. The fact that students at both universities are for the most part traditional 

(ages 18-24) seems to have more of a bearing on the results than does the divergent vision, mission, 

location or culture of the population at both universities. While some EI studies have shown that culture 

does impact EI test results, our findings indicate that the culture although quite different, was less 

impactful than age when taking EI tests. Further research interests are the extent to which universities can 

impact overall EI through on-going classroom interventions and the extent to which EI continues to 

improve long-term as a result of the classroom interventions.   
 

REFERENCES 
 

Akers, M., & Porter, G. 2003. Your EQ skills: Got what it takes? Journal of Accountancy, 195(3): 65-

70. 
 



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Burgess-Wilkerson, Lampe, and Frankforter                                                                                                                Advances in Business Research 

2013, Vol. 4, No. 1, 13-23 

Table 2: Reliability of the Instrum

 
Data Collection 
 

 A total of 100 Rockport CBA students were invited to complete the TTI inventory. The invitation was 

distributed to students in any major within the CBA program. Out of the 127 who were invited to 

participate, 100 did so. This gives a response rate of 78%. The response rate for this study is favorable, 

and 100 inventories were used for the analysis. Likewise, a total of 100 Whitmore students were also 

invited to participate in the study as part of a course activity. Of the 100 invited to participate 100 agreed. 

IRB protocol was followed for students at both institutions, and each student signed informed consent 

documents.   
 

Method 
 

 We calculated means for each EI score for the students from each university. Data analysis was 

conducted using a two-sample t-test assuming equal variances. We used one-tailed tests because our 

hypotheses predicted direction. 
 

Results 
 

 Table 3 displays the comparison of mean EI scores for all students from both schools. While our 

hypotheses did not address such a comparison, we believed that this disclosure was important. While 

Rockport students scored higher than Whitmore students, no statistically significant differences were 

present. The greatest difference we found was that Rockport students scored higher than Whitmore 

students on the Social Awareness component (P < .08) which is still not very significant. 
 

Table 3: Comparison of Mean EI Scores for All Students from Both Schools 
 

Variable Mean - Rockport Mean - Whitmore Difference t-Statistic P-Value 

Social Awareness 7.72 7.48 0.24 1.41 0.08 

Self-Regulation 6.23 6.27 -0.04 -0.22 0.41 

Motivation 7.74 7.69 0.05 0.26 0.40 

Empathy 7.40 7.38 0.02 0.15 0.44 

Social Skills 7.40 7.27 0.13 0.71 0.24 

Intrapersonal EQ 7.26 7.14 0.12 0.89 0.19 

Interpersonal EQ 7.41 7.33 0.08 0.51 0.31 

Total EQ 7.32 7.21 0.11 0.86 0.20 

n 100 100 

df 198 

  

 Table 4 displays the comparison of mean EI scores for undergraduate students from both schools. H1 

and H3 addressed the differences for total and interpersonal EI, predicting that undergraduate Rockport 

students would have higher scores for total and interpersonal EI than Whitmore students. Neither H1 nor 

H3 were statistically significant, with difference scores of just 0.20 (P < .11) and 0.18 (P < .18).   



17

Burgess-Wilkerson, Lampe, and Frankforter                                                                                                                Advances in Business Research 

2013, Vol. 4, No. 1, 13-23 

Whitmore’s successes and supported its development. Like Rockport, its baccalaureate in business 

administration and master of business administration degree programs are accredited by the Association 

to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB-International). Less than one-third of U.S. business 

school programs and less than 5% of programs worldwide hold this accreditation. A total of 42 

undergraduate and 26 graduate degree programs are available to over 6,000 students in the College of 

Arts and Sciences, the College of Business Administration, the College of Education, and the College of 

Visual and Performing Arts. A liberal arts core provides the foundation for all degree programs. 

Whitmore has a 14:1 student to faculty ratio, has an average size of 24 for undergraduate lecture classes, 

and all classes are taught by faculty.   
 

TTI Emotional Quotient (TTI) 
 

 The assessment used for this research was the TTI Emotional Quotient report, a self-report personality 

based approach that allows students to understand their own EQ in order to avoid making high-risk 

decisions without understanding how their emotions are influencing their choice. The TTI Emotional 

Quotient is a multidimensional perspective of emotional intelligence. The emotional intelligence item 

bank builds upon the Goleman (1995) model of emotional intelligence. Since its inception the test has 

been administered to individuals in several countries globally. Several analyses were conducted using a 

sample of working professionals ages 20-75:  the mean age was 48; 44% were male and 52% female, and 

the professionals lived in the U.S. England, Greece, Canada, New Zealand, and Australia. The 

demographic composition includes 77% Caucasian, 16.9% Black/African American, 1% Hispanic/Latino, 

and 2.8% from two or more races (EQ Mentor, 2008, pg. 4).  

 The TTI assessment provides an overall Emotional Intelligence Quotient (EQ) score, an Intrapersonal 

Intelligence score, an Interpersonal Intelligence score, scores on five components of EQ, and five 

personality factors as described below in Table 2. The TTI has 57 questions and requires approximately 

10 minutes for completion of the online self-assessment. It has two components and five subcomponents. 

The questions use a five-point Likert scale. The first component, interpersonal, includes self-awareness, 

self-regulation, and motivation. The second component, intrapersonal, includes social skills and empathy. 

The five subcomponents combine to form a total score. Table 2 displays the components, subcomponents, 

and definitions for the TTI. 

 Respondents rate each item using a Likert scale with the options: “very inaccurate, somewhat accurate, 

neither accurate nor inaccurate, somewhat accurate, and very accurate.” There are 31 reverse scored items 

on the instrument. The TTI Emotional Quotient is normed based upon the standard bell curve resulting in 

16% low scores, 68% average scores, and 16% high scores (EQ Mentor, 2008, pg. 2). 
 

Table 1: Components, Subcomponents & Definitions – TTI Emotional Quotient 
  

Components Subcomponents Definition 

Total Score  A general indication of a respondent’s level of emotional intelligence. Includes all five subcomponents. 

Intrapersonal  The ability to understand yourself, form an accurate concept of yourself, and apply that concept to operate 

effectively. 

 Self-Awareness The ability to recognize and understand your moods, emotions, and drives, as well as their effect on others. 

 Self-Regulation The ability to control or re-direct disruptive impulses and moods and the propensity to suspend judgment 

and think before acting. 

 Motivation A passion to work for reasons that go beyond money and status and a propensity to pursue goals with 

energy and persistence. 

Interpersonal  The ability to identify and understand how to effectively relate to, work with, and motivate others. This is 

made up to two key competencies: 

 Social Skills A proficiency in managing relationships and building networks. 

 Empathy The ability to understand the emotional makeup of other people. 



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Burgess-Wilkerson, Lampe, and Frankforter                                                                                                                Advances in Business Research 

2013, Vol. 4, No. 1, 13-23 

‘Competence, Conscience and Compassion,’ are infused in multiple touch points of Rockport’s 

curriculum. With Rockport’s emphasis on compassion and community service, both of which foster 

emotional intelligence, we predict that CBA undergraduate students at Rockport will score higher than 

CBA undergraduate students at Whitmore overall in EI. We predict that CBA graduate students at 

Rockport will score higher overall than CBA graduate students at Whitmore. We predict that CBA 

graduate students at Rockport and Whitmore will score higher than undergraduate students at Rockport 

and Whitmore. We predict that CBA undergraduate students at Rockport will score higher in empathy and 

social skills than CBA undergraduates at Whitmore; we predict that graduate CBA students at Rockport 

will score higher in empathy and social skills than graduates at Whitmore. Accordingly, we offer the 

following hypotheses: 
 

H1: EI test scores among undergraduate students at Rockport will be higher than EI test scores 

among undergraduate students at Whitmore. 
 

H2: EI test scores among graduate students at Rockport will be higher than EI test scores among 

graduate students at Whitmore. 
 

H3: EI scores among undergraduate students at Rockport will be higher in interpersonal skills 

(empathy and social skills) than undergraduate students at Whitmore. 
 

H4: EI scores among graduate level students at Rockport will be higher in interpersonal skills 

(empathy and social skills) than graduate students at Whitmore. 
 

DESIGN OF THE STUDY 
 

Participants  
 

 The population consists of students at two divergent universities in both undergraduate and graduate 

level CBA - AACSB accredited programs in the U.S. 

 Rockport University - Founded by a Jesuit priest, Rockport University is one of 196 Jesuit colleges 

and universities that exist throughout the world - 28 of those in the United States. The university serves 

approximately 3,000 students at its campus offering 50 undergraduate and graduate programs. Rockport 

has a 12:1 student to faculty ratio, has an average size of 24 for undergraduate lecture classes, and all 

classes are taught by faculty; 92% of the full-time faculty hold the highest degree in their field. 

 The Jesuits’ shared goal is to provide an excellent education that develops competent, compassionate, 

and committed leaders through a value-centered education. Together, Jesuits and professors embrace the 

contributions of other religious and ethical traditions because they complement the Catholic intellectual 

tradition of social thought and service. The Jesuit tradition building individual dignity is infused 

throughout the curriculum, which is based on the seven classical modes of inquiry: artistic, historical, 

literary, philosophical, theological, scientific relational and scientific causal. Graduates from Rockport 

University receive two transcripts: one for academics and another for community service.  

 Rockport’s College of Business School is comprised of approximately 300 undergraduate students and 

350 graduate students. Rockport is accredited by The Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of 

Business (AACSB), the gold standard in business education. Fewer than 5% of the world’s business 

schools have achieved this distinction. 

 Whitmore University, a public, coeducational, liberal arts university located in the Southeastern part of 

the United States, has been an educational leader for more than a century. The school was founded by a 

superintendent of schools initially as a teacher’s training school for women. Over time, Whitmore became 

one of the premier women’s colleges in the region and expanded its mission to become a comprehensive 

institution offering degrees in a growing variety of disciplines. The institution diversified its class ranks 

by extending its educational offerings to minorities in 1964 and becoming fully coeducational 1974.  

 The university was also recognized by a national foundation as a university that "encourages character 

development." The values of service, excellence, diversity, community, and leadership have shaped 



15

Burgess-Wilkerson, Lampe, and Frankforter                                                                                                                Advances in Business Research 

2013, Vol. 4, No. 1, 13-23 

 EI is known to impact career outcomes. A survey of employers conducted by the National Association 

of Colleges and Employers found that employers rated interpersonal skills as the most desired skill of 

recent graduates (Shivpuri & Kim, 2004). In a study of accounting students, Bay and McKeage (2006) 

found that average accounting students did not have high levels of emotional intelligence, and given the 

critical role of emotional intelligence in career success, those students were ill-prepared for their futures. 

They argue that emotional intelligence has relevance for accountants in the areas of decision-making and 

also suggests that emotional intelligence is a variable that may explain the gap between ethical 

understanding and ethical behavior in the workplace. While graduates of business programs may be 

technically prepared for their disciplines, they are not necessarily prepared for the emotional aspects of 

their work. 
 

Measures of Emotional Intelligence 
 

 Many theorists have operationalized their theories of emotional intelligence with evaluative measures 

for use with populations (Mayer & Salovey, 1997; Bar-On, 2002; Goleman, 1995). Each construct of EI 

can be distinguished according to the definition of emotional intelligence and the measurement approach 

employed (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 2000a). Mayer, et al. explained that “there are two general models 

of emotional intelligence: a mental ability model and a mixed model that includes various personality 

dispositions” (p. 416). Two of the three models of emotional intelligence (Bar-On, 2002; Goleman 1995) 

are categorized by Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso (2000b) as mixed models or trait models, while the other 

(Mayer & Salovey, 1997) is considered a mental ability model. The assessment of emotional intelligence 

is continuing to expand in both definition and research. Currently, more self-assessment, trait emotional 

intelligence instruments exist than ability measures of EI, and considerable controversy exists regarding 

which measure is most reliable and valid (Antonakis, 2003; Judge, Colbert, & Ilies, 2004; and Salovey, 

Mayer, Caruso, & Sitarenios, 2003).  

 Various business schools are embracing emotional intelligence as part of a program requirement either 

as part of an integrated curriculum or as a program activity. In one instance, emotional intelligence theory 

was infused into a school’s business communication curriculum as a strategy for developing interpersonal 

and intrapersonal communications more effectively (Myers & Tucker, 2005). Vandervoort (2006) 

advocated improving student emotional intelligence because those with higher self-knowledge tend to 

make better career choices, have less behavioral/emotional problems, and have higher scores on 

standardized achievement tests. Some colleges view EI as a vital part of academic life, particularly in the 

Colleges of Business Administration (CBA).   

 A small 2004 study by Ellen Paek empirically examined the extent to which religiosity, 

operationalized as religious orientation and religious behavior is related to emotional intelligence. The 

study examined the extent to which religious orientation and behavior were related to self-reported (EI) in 

148 church attending adult Christians. The study found that the individuals' self-reported religious 

orientation was positively correlated with their perceiving themselves to have greater EI. Significant 

positive correlations were also found between level of religious commitment and perceived EI.  

 In their 2002 article entitled “Linking emotional intelligence, spirituality and workplace performance: 

Definitions, models and ideas for research,” Tischler, Biberman and McKeage reviewed literature on both 

EI and various aspect of spirituality. They found that both EI and spirituality appear to lead to similar 

attitudes, behaviors and skills. 
 

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY 
 

 Comparative studies of two universities are of interest when exploring emotional intelligence 

particularly as it relates to divergent CBA programs with contrasting missions and visions as well as the 

population of attendees. The purpose of this study is to investigate the extent to which emotional 

intelligence test scores will vary among undergraduate and graduate CBA students from two divergent 

universities and to determine the extent to which scores on certain EI sub-scales will vary among 

undergraduate and graduate CBA students of the two universities. The three ‘C’s’ of Jesuit education. i.e., 



14

Burgess-Wilkerson, Lampe, and Frankforter                                                                                                                Advances in Business Research 

2013, Vol. 4, No. 1, 13-23 

LITERATURE REVIEW 

 

 Emotional intelligence is a construct that has to do with the awareness and expression of emotions 

experienced by oneself and others, as well as the ability to understand and regulate such emotions. 

Thorndike (1937) first reported the concept of “social intelligence.” Wechsler (1940) fought for the 

addition of “non-intellective aspects” as a measure of general intelligence. Likewise, Leeper (1948) 

purported that “emotional thought” should be considered when reviewing the concept of “logical 

thought.” However, it was not until the 1980s that the current concepts related to emotional intelligence 

started to emerge.  

 Gardner (1983) shared a theory of multiple intelligences that encouraged researchers to step outside 

the notion that human beings are confined to a singular or plural view of intelligence. Gardner also 

explained that there were other areas of human intelligence that were traditionally ignored or overlooked 

by academic institutions. Gardner (1983) explained that there are two types of intelligence that have held 

the focus and emphasis of traditional academic thought in institutions of higher education: language 

intelligence and logical-mathematical intelligence. Nevertheless, Gardner purported that there were five 

more intelligences that were equally important to collective human intelligence: musical intelligence, 

spatial intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, and intrapersonal 

intelligence. Out of the research on social intelligence emerged the concept of personal intelligence 

(Gardner,1983), which consists of two constructs: interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence. 

Interpersonal intelligence is purported to focus on external events and involves the recognition and 

evaluation of feelings in others. Intrapersonal intelligence, on the other hand, focuses on the self and 

one’s ability to recognize and evaluate his or her own feelings. 

 Within these multiple levels of intelligences, a movement evolved that expanded two particular areas 

of Gardner’s approach (i.e., interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences). Salovey and Mayer (1990) 

coined the term “emotional quotient” and later defined it as “a type of social intelligence that involves the 

ability to monitor one’s own and others’ emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use that 

information to guide one’s thinking and actions (1993).” Both intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligence 

are theorized to be a large portion of what Mayer et al. (2000a) define as emotional intelligence. 

 According to Bar-On (2002), several researchers expanded Gardner’s interpersonal and intrapersonal 

intelligences into six primary components of emotional intelligence: emotional self-awareness, 

assertiveness, empathy, interpersonal relationship, stress tolerance, and impulse control. Several 

definitions of EI emerged through the advanced study of the six components. Bar-On (2005) explained 

that the multiplicity of definitions that came out of Gardner’s approach has added layers of confusion and 

complexity as to the best approach, definition, and measure of emotional and social intelligence. Since 

that point of advancement and divergence, from Gardner’s view of the construct, some researchers, 

(Goleman, 1998; Mayer & Salovey, 1997), named this construct "Emotional Intelligence" while in 1997 

Bar-On chose the term “emotional and social intelligence” and formalized the concept of Emotional-

Social Intelligence (ESI) in 2005. For the purpose of this study, the authors ask you to accept all of these 

labels and definitions under the term emotional quotient (EI). 

 The American College Personnel Association asked institutions of higher learning to position 

themselves to advocate and promote the development of EI in all aspects of academic life (Low, Lomax, 

Jackson & Nelson, 2004). Much interest in EI exists and its impact in both academic and professional 

settings. Research indicates a positive correlation between emotional intelligence and cognitive-based 

performance among college students. Lam and Kirby (2002) ascertained the level to which emotional 

intelligence accounts for increases in individual cognitive-based performance in an academic setting. 

They found a positive correlation existed in three of the four emotional intelligence subscales: overall EI, 

perceiving emotions, and regulating emotions. 

 In a study of MBA students, Boyatzis, Stubbs, and Taylor (2002) concluded that MBA programs 

should put forth a concerted effort to integrate emotional intelligence training into the curriculum using 

approaches that include self-assessment and self-development. These programs in return would result in 

positive employment outcomes.  



13

Burgess-Wilkerson, Lampe, and Frankforter                                                                                                                Advances in Business Research 

2013, Vol. 4, No. 1, 13-23 

Emotional Intelligence: A Comparative Analysis of Two College Business Administration 

Programs 
 

Barbara Burgess-Wilkerson, Winthrop University 

Anna Lampe, Rockhurst University 

Steve Frankforter, Winthrop University 
 

 

A comparative study of two universities explores the emotional intelligence (EI) of students in two 

College of Business Administration (CBA) programs with contrasting missions, visions, and populations. 

This study investigates the extent to which EI test scores and sub-scales varied among two CBA student 

populations. Despite the differences between the two universities, no differences were evident in the EI 

abilities among the two CBA student populations. Further research will explore the extent to which 

universities can impact EI short and long-term through classroom interventions.   
 

 

 The American College Personnel Association called for a response to the compelling evidence 

regarding the relevance of emotional intelligence (EI) in academic and workforce settings advocating the 

creation of a learning models incorporating emotional intelligence competencies, through engagement in 

practical research efforts to promote active learning through integrated learning communities (Low, 

Lomax, Jackson & Nelson, 2004). 

 The transition to college is characterized by a period of social, emotional, and academic adjustment 

(Chickering, 1969), important indicators of academic and career success (Gerdes & Mallinckrodt, 1994; 

Robbins, Oh, Le, & Button, 2009). Empirical evidence indicates that emotional control impacts academic 

outcomes early in the learning process diverting critical attention away from task learning leading to 

worry, rumination, and upset (Kanfer, Ackerman & Heggestad, 1996). 

 Salovey and Mayer’s (1990) study of social (non-cognitive) intelligence presented a framework for 

emotional intelligence (EI), which was based on the ability to regulate one’s emotion and accurately 

monitoring others’ emotions. According to Salovey and Mayer (1990) emotional intelligence is “a form 

of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one’s own and other’s feelings and emotions, to 

discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and action” (1990:185).  

 Goleman (1995) examined the relationship between traditional cognitive IQ tests and success in the 

workplace, finding that IQ by itself was not a good predictor of job performance. Goleman found that 

emotional intelligence is a more important determinant of management success than technical expertise or 

cognitive ability. Cherniss and Adler (2000) found that EI was critical for effective work performance. A 

national survey found four in ten workers were not able to work cooperatively with fellow-employees and 

only 19% of entry-level applicants have sufficient self-discipline in work habits (Harris Education 

Research Council, 1991). Recognition exists among researchers and practitioners that emotions play a 

large role in organizational life. For example, emotional intelligence is a key area to help accountants 

perform better (Akers & Porter, 2003). Additionally, Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee (2002) found that 

partners in a large public accounting firm with strong self-management and social skills achieved a 390% 

percent incremental annual profit. 

 Several studies indicate a positive correlation between EI and academic success among college 

students. Lam and Kirby (2002) found that EI accounts for increases in individual cognitive-based 

performance above the level attributed to general intelligence in three of the four emotional intelligence 

subscales; overall EI, perceiving emotions, and regulating emotions. Burgess-Wilkerson, Benson, and 

Frankforter (2012) conducted an analysis of EI in an academic setting and found that EI scores can 

improve as a result of classroom interventions.  
 

 

 

 



12

Kaupins and Coco                                                                                                                                                         Advances in Business Research 

2013, Vol. 4, No. 1, 1-12 

 

 

Gundars (Gundy) Kaupins is a department chair and professor at Boise State University. He is certified 

as a senior professional in human resources (SPHR).  He teaches human resource management. His 

publications include over 200 articles in training and development, Baltic Studies, and human resource 

ethics. 
 

Malcolm Coco is a professor of human resource management at Abilene Christian University and directs 

the College of Business Administration’s internship program. He is certified as a professional in human 

resource management (PHR). Dr. Coco is the author of over 50 survey-based articles on management, 

human resources, and international human resource management. 


