Advances in Business Research 2010 Volume 1.pdf 73 Advances in Business Research !"#$%&'()&*+$!,%&-.&/012-3,4%&'()&5112!6'($% Joseph Gilbert, University of Nevada, Las Vegas G. Stoney Alder, University of Nevada, Las Vegas Daniel McAllister, University of Nevada, Las Vegas The task of hiring new employees presents multiple challenges. Underlying many of these challenges is the need to balance applicants’ legal and ethical rights and duties with those of the organization. An array of federal laws faces the U.S. employer, prohibiting discrimination on a variety of bases. Additionally, ethical issues, which extend beyond legal requirements, must be considered in the hiring process. Privacy, personal dignity, and integrity are critical concerns which hiring companies and applicants must balance. This article discusses the rights and duties of employers and applicants, and demonstrates how these rights and duties can lead to better hiring decisions. !" #$%&'(## )*+ &#,-. /'&0"-*12&( '1 2"/'&0"-*12&(3 ! "#4 %'+2-2'" )*+ 5##" *%%1'/#6 *"6 $0+- 5# 7&? Applicants, some of whom are presently employed, some of whom are recently or not so recently unemployed, and some of whom are just entering the workforce, are seeking jobs. Both the employer and the applicants have needs, but each also has rights and duties incumbent on them as the process of recruiting unfolds in seeking and screening applicants and selecting an employee. Large companies typically have detailed procedures for recruiting including advertising or posting open %'+2-2'"+. +81##"2"9 *%%&28*"-+. 9*-)#12"9 2",'1$*-2'". 2"-#1/2#42"9 7"*&2+-+. *"6 $*:2"9 #$%&'($#"- ',,#1+3 ;" * small company, all of these tasks may fall to a single manager who also has much else to do (perhaps including the 4'1: ', -)# %'+2-2'" -)*- 2+ '%#"< *"6 &2--&# -1*2"2"9 2" #2-)#1 #$%&'($#"- &*4 '1 )0$*" 1#+'018# %1*8-28#+3 =/#" 2" * large company, line managers or supervisors with limited knowledge or skills in the hiring process often play some part in this process. ;" -)2+ %*%#1 4# 71+- 26#"-2,( -)# $*>'1 '5>#8-2/#+ ', -)# )212"9 %1'8#++3 ;" -)# 1#$*2"6#1 ', -)# %*%#1. 4# '0-&2"# -)# $*>'1 *& 1#?021#$#"-+ 2" -)# @"2-#6 A-*-#+ 42-) 1#9*16 -' )212"9. *"6 62+80++ #-)28*& 8'"+26#1*-2'"+ -)*- 9' 5#('"6 -)# +-128-&( *& 1#?021#$#"-+3 B# *&+' 8'"+26#1 -)# *& *"6 #-)28*& 1#?021#$#"-+ %&*8#6 '" *%%&28*"-+3 B# accomplish this objective by applying the concept of rights and duties, which has both legal and ethical meanings. We do this, however, not from the perspective of attorneys or philosophers, but from that of the hiring manager, who $0+- '%#1*-# 2" -)# 1#*& 4'1&6. 2+ ,1#?0#"-&( )*112#6 *"6 +05>#8-#6 -' $0&-2%&# 6#$*"6+ 4)2&# '%#1*-2"9. *"6 $'+-&( just wants to get on with running the business and making money. 789,6$!:,%&-.&$#,&;!4!("&<4-6,%% It is important that each hiring choice both complies with the many laws that address this function and is fair to *&& *%%&28*"-+3 C'4#/#1. 2- 2+ 2"+0,782#"- -' 8'"+26#1 '"&( #*8) )212"9 6#82+2'" 2" 2+'&*-2'"3 ;" * &*19#1 8'"-#D-. 4)#" viewed as a pattern of such decisions the overall hiring process must show legal compliance and fairness. The basic objective of the hiring process, however, is to employ the applicant who will best perform the job. If every position 2" * 8'$%*"( 4#1# 7& 42-) -)# 5#+- %#1+'" */*2&*5&# -' 6' -)*- >'5. -)# 8'$%*"( 4'0&6 5# 2" * %'+2-2'" -' +088##6 and prosper greatly. The more this ideal can be approximated, the more successful the company will be. Legal compliance is an important, basic goal of the hiring process. This is not a simple thing to accomplish, and as we will show below, numerous laws and regulations apply. A company that hires the right people (and then treats -)#$ 4#&&< )*+ * +-1*-#928 *6/*"-*9# '/#1 8'$%#-2-'1+ 4)' 6' "'- EF,#,,#1 GHHI<3 ! 8'$%*"( -)*- ,'&&'4+ 2& *& )212"9 %1*8-28#+ *"6 2+ +05+#?0#"-&( +0#6 &'+#+ 2" +#/#1*& 4*(+. 1#9*16&#++ ', -)# '0-8'$# ', -)# &*4+02-3 J#9*-2/# publicity often accompanies lawsuits for illegal hiring practices, and the cost of defending such a suit, even if the outcome is successful, is often high. The hiring process provides an opportunity for the company to have important dealings not only with the individual it ultimately hires but also with others, sometimes many others, who are applicants. These individuals might apply again for another job, or become customers or suppliers of the company. If they feel they are treated fairly in the selection process they will likely think and speak well of the company, even though they do not get the job. On the other hand, if their experience as an applicant is bad, they will almost certainly not apply again, and may +%#*: %''1&( ', -)# 8'$%*"( -' $*"( '-)#1 2"62/260*&+ EK2&&2&*"6 GHHL<3 M)# )212"9 %1'8#++. -)#". 2+ 2$%'1-*"- ,'1 * company in other ways than just selecting the best applicant for the open position. 2010, Vol. 1, No. 1, 73-81 Gilbert, Alder and McAllister 74 Advances in Business Research We recognize that intelligent discrimination based on job related factors is essential in the hiring process. However, patterns of illegal or unethical discrimination in hiring are a concern of both law and ethics. Except for the 8*+# 4)#1# * 8'$%*"( 2+ +-*,7"9 * "#4 ,*82&2-( '1 '-)#142+# )212"9 $*"( #$%&'(##+ *- '"8#. %*--#1"+ *12+# 91*60*&&(. one hire at a time. If a given department has seven job vacancies over a one year period, and ends up hiring seven young males, there is at least the appearance of a pattern of discrimination against older applicants and female applicants. The apparent pattern did not arise from the seventh hire, but began with the second one and continued with each additional hire. Because of this, an individual hiring procedure for a single job opening must also be viewed in a larger perspective as part of a possible pattern. ;" -)2+ %*%#1. 4# 42&& 71+- 1#/2#4 -)# %*21#6 8'"8#%-+ ', 129)-+ *"6 60-2#+3 B# 42&& -)#" #D*$2"# -)# *& 129)-+ of applicants and the duties that those rights impose on employers. After this discussion, we will extend the realm of applicant rights and employer duties to include those that go beyond strict compliance with the law, but are based in ethical theories. After examining applicant rights and corresponding employer duties, we shift our focus and consider the legal and ethical rights of employers, and the duties that those rights impose on applicants. We conclude 5( #D*$2"2"9 )'4 -)# 129)-+ *"6 60-2#+ ', *%%&28*"-+ *"6 #$%&'(#1+ 5#*1 '" -)# -*+: ', 7"62"9 *"6 )212"9 -)# 5#+- candidate for the job. !"#$%&'()&*+$!,% In a discussion of rights and duties, it is valuable to recognize the difference between various types of rights. A0$"#1 ENOOO< 62+-2"902+)#+ 8&*2$P129)-+ E-)# 129)- -' )*/# +'$#-)2"9 6'"#. +08) *+ 5#2"9 %*26 ,'1 +#1/28#+ 1#"6#1#6< ,1'$ &25#1-(P129)-+ E-)# 129)- -' 6' +'$#-)2"9 0"2$%#6#6 2, ; 8)''+# -' 6' +'<3 Q'-) :2"6+ ', 129)-+ 2$%&( 60-2#+3 ! right to privacy is worthless if no one has a duty to leave me alone. Most discussions of rights focus on two sources, human rights and legal rights. The notion of human rights is that all individuals possess them, simply because they *1# )0$*" E;9"*-2#,, NOOG<3 A08) 129)-+ 6' "'- 6#%#"6 '" -)# &*4+ ', * 8'0"-1( '1 '-)#1 ,'1$*& $#8)*"2+$+3 R#9*& rights are those that are granted by a government to its citizens, whether at the national, state, or local level. Unless these rights are granted, and unless one is a citizen, they are not real rights and cannot properly be claimed. While this is the usual division of the sources of rights, it seems both useful and proper in our examination of the hiring process to recognize one additional source of rights, namely, position rights. Under appropriate circumstances, * %'&28#$*" )*+ -)# 129)- -' $*:# *11#+-+. * -#*8)#1 -' *++29" 91*6#+. *"6 * 8)2#, 7"*"82*& ',78#1 -' 62+501+# 8'$%*"( ,0"6+3 M)#+# 2"62/260*&+ )*/# -)#+# 129)-+ 5#8*0+# ', -)#21 %'+2-2'"+. *"6 1#&2"?02+) -)#$ 4)#" &#*/2"9 -)#21 organizational positions. Table 1 summarizes the sources of rights. ='82,&>?&@-+46,%&-.& !"#$%&!(&$#,&;!4!("&<4-6,%% Q'-) -)# 7#&6+ ', #-)28+ *"6 &*4 %1'/26# * -1#*-$#"- ', 129)-+. 50- #-)28+ *"6 &*4 *1# "'- 26#"-28*& E!&6#1 S K2&5#1-. NOOTU R('"+ GHIV<3 ;, '"# 8'"+26#1+ -)# %'++252&2-( ', #-)28*& 41'"9P6'2"9. 2- 2+ "'- * +0,782#"- *"+4#1 -' +*( E*+ * "0$5#1 ', #D#80-2/#+ )*/# 1#8#"-&( +*26< W; 626 "'-)2"9 41'"9. *+: $( &*4(#1XY R*4+ *1# $*6# 5( \+&*-'1+3 Z*"( people would be uneasy with the idea that their personal moral code was made by legislators. We do not suggest that, as a whole, legislators are corrupt. However, it may well be argued that there is less than complete overlap between our political leaders and those individuals we look to as our moral leaders. A further consideration that shows the differences between law and ethics is illustrated by the fact that some technical violations of law, such as driving one mile an hour over the speed limit, are not seen by most people as ethical violations. There are also issues when the law is less vocal and the ethical code speaks loudly. For example, many people consider adultery to be a serious ethical matter. However, although some federal and state laws cover the issue, these laws are rarely, if ever enforced. Finally, laws vary by government jurisdiction (gambling is legal in J#/*6* 50- "'- 2" -)# *6>'2"2"9 +-*-# ', @-*)< '1 5( \+&*-2/# 6#82+2'" E*&8')'& %1'608-2'" *"6 +*&# 2" -)# @"2-#6 A-*-#+ 4#1# *& 2" -)# GHOO[+. 2& *& 2" -)# GHNO[+. *"6 *& *9*2" 2" -)# GHVO[+<3 Z'+- %#'%&# %1#,#1 -)*- $'1*& codes have more stability in terms of both geography and time. Law and ethics deal with many of the same issues, so it should not be surprising that many rights and duties embedded in a moral or ethical code should also be addressed in legal codes. As we saw above, human rights and Source Description Applications in Hiring Human Rights possessed by all individuals because they are human truth-telling, dignity (privacy) Citizen Rights granted by a government unit to its citizens by law non-discrimination based on prohibited categories Position Rights possessed by an individual because of the position that he or she holds fair treatment, honesty 2010, Vol. 1, No. 1, 73-81 Gilbert, Alder and McAllister 75 Advances in Business Research the duties they imply do not depend on laws. They apply to all humans, regardless of the nation or legal jurisdiction 2" 4)28) -)#( &2/#3 \2-2]#" 129)-+ *%%&( -' -)# 82-2]#"+ ', * +%#8278 9'/#1"$#"-. 4)#-)#1 "*-2'"*& '1 &'8*&. 50- "'- -' 82-2]#"+ ', '-)#1 9'/#1"$#"-+ E42-) +'$# #D8#%-2'"+<3 There is an ethical or moral duty to obey the law, and thus to observe citizen rights and duties. Were this not so, *"6 '5#62#"8# '1 62+'5#62#"8# -' -)# &*4 )*6 #?0*& #-)28*& /*&0#. 4# 8'0&6 "'- )*/# +'82#-( *+ 4# :"'4 2-3 ;, 2- 4#1# morally neutral whether we obeyed or disobeyed the law, then we could be ethical people and also be chronic law- breakers. A person could discriminate in hiring on the basis of characteristics that have nothing to do with the job, /2'&*-# 8'"-1*8-+ ,1##&(. &2# 91'++&( 2" )2+ '1 )#1 $*1:#-2"9 $*-#12*&+ *"6 7"*"82*& 1#%'1-2"9. *"6 +-2&& 5# *" #-)28*& person. This makes no sense. Human rights and duties, then, are more basic than those granted by governments. There is also an ethical obligation to observe duties legally imposed by government. B)28) 129)-+ ,*&& 0"6#1 -)# $'+- 5*+28 8*-#9'1(. )0$*" 129)-+^ M)# @"2-#6 J*-2'"+ _#8&*1*-2'" ', C0$*" `29)-+ E_'"*&6+'". B#1)*"# S \'162"9 NOON< &2+-+ * 8'"+26#1*5&# "0$5#1 ', +08) 129)-+. 2"8&062"9 -)# 129)- -' ,'1$ &*5'1 unions and the right to free choice of employment and protection from unemployment. Other authors provide much shorter lists. There seems to be general agreement that all humans, by the fact of being human, have rights to life, dignity, truth-telling and property. Some readers might debate whether the right to truth-telling is a basic human right. While it is clearly also an #-)28*& 129)-. -)# *0-)'1+ 8'"-#"6 -)*- 2- 2+ $'1# ,0"6*$#"-*& -)*" -)*-3 ! $'$#"-[+ 1#a#8-2'" 42&& +)'4 -)*- 2, &(2"9 *"6 -10-)P-#&&2"9 *1# #?0*&&( /*&26 4*(+ ', 6#*&2"9 42-) '-)#1+. 4# 8'0&6 "'- )*/# +'82#-( *+ 4# :"'4 2- EQ': GHIH<3 F1'$2+#+ *"6 8'"-1*8-+ 8'0&6 "#/#1 5# 1#&2#6 '". *"6 -10+- 4'0&6 )*/# "' 5*+2+3 C0$*" 129)-+ *1# #+%#82*&&( important in the consideration of ethical practices, because they are present, with concomitant duties, regardless of -)# &*4+ '1 1#90&*-2'"+ ', * 92/#" %'&2-28*& 0"2-. *"6 -)#( 6' "'- 1#?021# &*4+ '1 * 8#1-*2" %'+2-2'" ,'1 -)#21 #D2+-#"8#3 \2-2]#" 129)-+ *1# "0$#1'0+ *"6 /*12*5 !- -)# "*-2'"*& &#/#&. #/#" 4)#" * &*4 2+ %*++#6 91*"-2"9 '1 1#+-128-2"9 rights, there is often a great deal of ambiguity about how the law applies in various situations. For example, the law prohibiting employment discrimination based on gender provides virtually no guidance as to what kind of actions are or are not covered. It has taken decades of regulation, litigation and interpretation to explain this law, and many 4'0&6 +*( -)*- 2- 2+ +-2&& "'- 8&#*1 %1#82+#&( 4)#1# -)# 5'0"6*12#+ *1# EC*&5#1- S ;"90&&2 NOOT<3 Q#8*0+# -)#+# 129)-+ *"6 8'11#+%'"62"9 60-2#+ *1# 2$%'+#6 5( +%#8278 &*4+ *"6 b'1 1#90&*-2'"+. *--'1"#(+ *1# 0+0*&&( $'1# :"'4E#*5&# -)*" $*"*9#1+ 4)#" +%#8278 ?0#+-2'"+ *12+#3 Position rights and duties in business are typically granted by the organization in which the position exists, *&-)'09) +'$# *1# +%#& '0- 5( &*43 M2-&# c;; ', -)# \2/2& `29)-+ !8- ', GHTV +%#827#+ -)*- >'5 *%%&28*"-+ )*/# a right to be treated in a non-discriminatory manner as to age, religion, gender and other characteristics. Hiring $*"*9#1+. 5#8*0+# ', -)# %'+2-2'" -)#( )'&6. )*/# 60-2#+ -' -)'+# 2" -)# %'+2-2'" ', *%%&28*"-+3 \'$%*"2#+ -(%28*&&( 6#-#1$2"# 4)#-)#1 7"*& %'4#1 -' $*:# *" #$%&'($#"- ',,#1 1#+-+ 42-) -)# )212"9 $*"*9#1 '1 * )0$*" 1#+'018#+ representative. In some cases, the decision is made by the hiring manager, but to assure that all legal and regulatory concerns are met, the formal offer of employment is made by a human resources representative. ;+0'(& !"#$%&-.&5112!6'($% In this section we will consider the human rights of applicants, those that each applicant possesses as a human being, regardless of the laws of a particular jurisdiction. As we discussed previously, all humans have the right to 5# -'&6 -)# -10-). *"6 -)# 129)- -' )*/# -)#21 629"2-( 1#+%#8-#63 M)#+# *1# $'1*& 129)-+3 M)#( *1# ',-#" 1#a#8-#6 2" 82-2]#" 129)-+ E+'$#-2$#+ 8*& *& 129)-+<. 50- 82-2]#" 129)-+ 8*" /*1( ,1'$ 8'0"-1( -' 8'0"-1( '1 +-*-# -' +-*-#3 Moral human rights belong to everyone. As part of the right to be told the truth, applicants have a right to accurate information pertaining to aspects of the organization and the job that will personally affect them. Thus applicants have a right to know the duties, working conditions, and general pay range of the jobs they are *%%&(2"9 ,'13 !%%&28*"-+ ,01-)#1 )*/# * 129)- -' :"'4 4)*- ?0*&278*-2'"+ *1# 1#?021#6 ', +088#++,0& >'5P+##:#1+ 2" a given case. This knowledge can save them the time and effort involved in applying for jobs for which they are not ?0*&27#63 ! 8&#*1 +-*-#$#"- ', $2"2$0$ ?0*&278*-2'"+ 8*" *&+' +*/# #$%&'(#1+ ,1'$ -)# #,,'1- ', +81##"2"9 '0- *%%&28*"-+ 4)' $29)- '-)#142+# *%%&( #/#" -)'09) -)#( *1# "'- ?0*&27#63 d2"*&&(. *%%&28*"-+ *&+' )*/# -)# 129)- -' :"'4 4)#-)#1 -)# >'5 ,'1 4)28) -)#( *%%&2#6 )*+ 5##" 7&? It is important to note that not every applicant has a human right to be told all the truth about a company. Most *%%&28*"-+ )*/# "' "##6 -' :"'4. *"6 "' 129)- -' :"'4. -)# +%#8278*-2'"+ ', * "#4 %1'608- -' 5# 2"-1'608#6 "#D- month, or the names of all employees who have been terminated over the last three years. Applicants also have a human right to dignity, which includes privacy. Indeed, the right to privacy has been * 8)#12+)#6 26#*& ,'1 8#"-012#+ E!&6#1 #- *&3. NOOeU B*11#" *"6 Q1*"6#2+. GIHO<3 A*,#90*162"9 *%%&28*"-+[ %12/*8( 2+ 2$%'1-*"- ,'1 5'-) #-)28*& *"6 50+2"#++ #,,#8-2/#"#++ 1#*+'"+3 !&6#1 #- *&3 ENOOe< ,'0"6 -)*- %#18#%-2'"+ ', 2010, Vol. 1, No. 1, 73-81 Gilbert, Alder and McAllister 76 Advances in Business Research privacy invasion related negatively to employees’ perceptions of the appropriateness of human resource programs. Research indicates that privacy and fairness correlate strongly with each other (Bies and Moag, 1986; Eddy et al., GHHHU A-'"# *"6 f'-8) GHIH<3 F1'8#601#+ -)*- /2'&*-# #D%#8-*-2'"+ ', %12/*8( 0"6#1$2"# %#18#%-2'"+ ', ,*21"#++ E!&9#. NOOGU =66( #- *&3. GHHHU A-'"# *"6 f'-8). GHIH<3 ;" -01". %#18#%-2'"+ ', ,*21"#++ 2"a0#"8# *%%&28*"-+[ /2#4+ toward the hiring organization, their job choice decisions, and their attitudes and performance after being hired EK2&&2&*"6. GHHL<3 \'$$'" -' $'+- 6#7"2-2'"+ ', %12/*8( 2+ -)# 2$%'1-*"8# ', 8'"-1'& '/#1 %#1+'"*& 2",'1$*-2'" E!&6#1 #- *&3 NOOe<3 d'1 #D*$%&#. A0"6+-1'$ #- *&3 EGHIO< +099#+-#6 -)*- %12/*8( 2"8&06#+ 8'"-1'& '/#1 -1*"+$2++2'" ', 2",'1$*-2'" *5'0- '"#+#&, -' '-)#1+3 B#+-2" EGHTe. %3 e< *190#6 -)*- %12/*8( 2+. W-)# 8&*2$ ', 2"62/260*&+. 91'0%+. '1 2"+-2-0-2'"+ -' determine for themselves when, how, and to what extent information about them is communicated to others.” Thus, the applicant’s right to privacy precludes a hiring company from disseminating information gathered in the hiring process beyond those who have a need to know. A-'"#P`'$#1' #- *&3 ENOOL< 8'"8&06# -)*- -)#1# 2+ 1#*+'" -' 5#&2#/# -)*- /*12*"-+ 2" -)# *%%&28*-2'" ', -)# +*$# 9#"#1*& )212"9 -#8)"2?0# $*( 62,,#1 2" -#1$+ ', -)#21 2"/*+2/#"#++3 M)*- 2+. -)# +*$# +#-2'" %1*8-28# $*( 5# 8'"+26#1#6 $'1# '1 &#++ 2"/*+2/# 6#%#"62"9 '" -)# 8'"-#D- *"6 )'4 -)# -#8)"2?0# 2+ *%%&2#63 g"# 2$%'1-*"- ,*8-'1 here may be the trade-off between the degree of invasiveness and the organization’s need for the information 9*-)#1#63 ;" -)2+ 1#9*16. * 8'$%*"( -)*- 1#?021#6 6109 -#+-+ ', *&& *%%&28*"-+. *"6 "'- >0+- ', -)'+# 4)' *1# 7"*&2+-+ for a job, might well be violating the applicants’ moral right to privacy. The information gathered from a potentially invasive drug test is more critical at the decision stage than at the applicant screening stage. Similarly, a company that 1'0-2"#&( 9*-)#1+ 2",'1$*-2'" ,1'$ *%%&28*"-+ -)*- 2- $*( "'- 0+# 2" )212"9 6#82+2'"+ E1#&292'0+ '1 %'&2-28*& *,7&2*-2'"U +#D0*& '12#"-*-2'"< 4'0&6 5# /2'&*-2"9 2-+ 60-( -' 1#+%#8- -)# %12/*8( ', *%%&28*"-+3 Under the right to dignity one could argue that applicants also have a moral right to be treated with respect. An employment process that fails to keep applicants informed of the status of the job search for long periods of time, or fails to notify them promptly when they are no longer under consideration for a job does not show respect for *%%&28*"-+3 =?0*&&( 2$%'1-*"-. 2" *662-2'" -' /2'&*-2"9 *" *%%&28*"-[+ 129)-+. +08) * %1'8#++ 2+ 5*6 50+2"#++3 C29)&( ?0*&27#6 *%%&28*"-+ 4)' *1# &#,- 4*2-2"9 2"6#7"2-#&( 42&& &2:#&( *88#%- >'5+ #&+#4)#1# -)#1#5( 62&0-2"9 -)# ?0*&2-( ', )212"9 ,'1 -)# '1292"*& 8'$%*"( EC28:#"+ GHHI<3 !662-2'"*&&(. *+ "'-#6 #*1&2#1. *%%&28*"-+ 4)' *1# "'- 8)'+#" ,'1 * >'5 but who feel that they have been treated well in the process are more likely to think favorably of the company than those who are treated disrespectfully. Such applicants may be or become customers or suppliers of the company, or $*( *%%&( ,'1 +05+#?0#"- >'5 '%#"2"9+3 A!$!B,(& !"#$%&-.&5112!6'($% While laws vary from one jurisdiction to another, major employment law in the United States is Federal in nature. Because of this, we will discuss relevant United States laws and regulations governing employment. Legislators pass laws, and regulators working within the scope of these laws promulgate additional regulations. In the U.S. *& +(+-#$. $*"( &*4+ -)*- *1# %*++#6 5( \+&*-'1+ *1# 1#&*-2/#&( 512#,3 `#90&*-'1( *9#"82#+. +08) *+ -)# =?0*& =$%&'($#"- g%%'1-0"2-( \'$$2++2'". %1'$0&9*-# $08) $'1# 6#-*2 1#90&*-2'"+ -)*- 5*+28*&&( )*/# -)# +*$# ,'18# *+ -)# '1292"*& &*43 \'01- 6#82+2'"+ 2"-#1%1#-2"9 -)#+# &*4+ 2" +%#8278 8*+#+ *&+' *66 -' -)# $#*"2"9+ ', '1292"*& &*4+3 M)0+ -)# 82-2]#" 129)-+ ', *%%&28*"-+ E*"6 60-2#+ ', #$%&'(#1+< 1#9*162"9 -)# #$%&'($#"- *%%&28*-2'" %1'8#++ *1# spelled out in a number of key laws. !$'"9 -)# $'+- 2$%'1-*"- ', -)#+# &*4+ *1# -)# \2/2& `29)-+ !8- ', GHTV EM2-&# c;;<. *$#"6$#"-+ -' -)2+ !8- passed in 1991, the Age Discrimination in Employment Act, passed in 1967 and amended in 1987, the Pregnancy Discrimination Act, passed in 1978, and the Americans with Disabilities Act, passed in 1990. These laws prohibit discrimination in employment and in other job-related actions based on a variety of applicant characteristics. The =?0*& =$%&'($#"- g%%'1-0"2-( \'$$2++2'" E==g\< 4*+ 81#*-#6 5( \'"91#++ '1292"*&&( -' #",'18# %1'/2+2'"+ ', M2-&# c;; ', -)# \2/2& `29)-+ !8- ', GHTV E==g\ B#5+2-#<3 The laws referenced above are often recognized for their use in protecting minorities, and some of them obviously 6' +'3 d'1 #D*$%&#. '"&( * $2"'12-( ', 82-2]#"+ *- *"( %'2"- 2" -2$# *1# %1#9"*"-3 C'4#/#1. M2-&# c;; ', -)# \2/2& Rights Act of 1964 prohibits discrimination based on an individual’s race, color, religion, sex or national origin. \&#*1&( *&& *%%&28*"-+ 42&& 5# ', +'$# 1*8#. 8'&'1. +#D. *"6 "*-2'"*& '1292"3 M)0+ -)#+# &*4+ 92/# +'$# 6#91## ', *& '1 82-2]#" 129)-+ -' *&& >'5 *%%&28*"-+3 \'"8'$2-*"-&(. -)#+# &*4+ 2$%'+# 60-2#+ '" #$%&'(#1+ "'- -' 0+# %1')252-#6 characteristics as the basis for employment decisions. These laws also give rights to hired employees in such areas as compensation and promotion, but these issues are beyond the scope of the present article. These laws and the regulations interpreting them spell out legal or citizen rights of applicants and duties of employers in the United States. Some individual states provide, through their laws, additional rights to applicants and 2010, Vol. 1, No. 1, 73-81 Gilbert, Alder and McAllister 77 Advances in Business Research corresponding duties to employers. Other countries obviously provide such rights through their own legal systems. One way to consider non-discrimination is to think of it as providing fair treatment to applicants. Fairness is a term 42-) $*"( $#*"2"9+ E!&6#1 *"6 K2&5#1- NOOT<3 g"# +08) 6#7"2-2'". *%%&28*5&# -' -)# )212"9 %1'8#++. 2+ -)*- ,*21"#++ means treating similarly situated people in similar ways regarding both process and outcome and with a sense of proportionality. It is useful here to differentiate between discrimination and legality. Although the term discrimination holds a negative connotation for most management scholars and practitioners, it is important to remember that discrimination per se is not illegal, immoral, or unethical. To discriminate is to distinguish or differentiate among like objects 5( 62+8#1"2"9 '1 #D%'+2"9 62,,#1#"8#+ EZ#112*$PB#5+-#1. GHHT<3 =$%&'(#1+ $*( E*"6 2"6##6 $0+-< 62+812$2"*-# whenever there is more than one applicant for a position. Unless a manager opts to make hiring decisions with a dartboard or a roll of the dice, he or she must do so by exposing differences among candidates. Thus, managers must discriminate every time they make a hiring decision. Indeed, discrimination in this sense is the heart and essence of selection procedures. M)# :#( *& *"6 #-)28*& ?0#+-2'". -)#". 8#"-#1+ "'- '" 4)#-)#1 * $*"*9#1 62+812$2"*-#+ 2" -)# )212"9 %1'8#++ but rather on the basis for discrimination. Laws and regulations as well as ethical mores specify several bases that may not be used to discriminate between or among applicants. Often a key distinction is whether the basis for 62+812$2"*-2'" 2+ * "#8#++*1( ?0*&2-( ,'1 #,,#8-2/# >'5 %#1,'1$*"8#3 d'1 #D*$%&#. 2- 2+ *&&( ,*21 *"6 "#8#++*1( to discriminate against the sightless if one is hiring airline pilots, or against those who are unable to lift and carry packages of a certain weight if one is hiring delivery truck drivers. In these instances, the hiring organization is distinguishing and discriminating among applicants. However, the discrimination is morally and legally acceptable 5#8*0+# -)# 62+812$2"*-2'" 2+ 5*+#6 '" #&#$#"-+ *"6 1#?021#$#"-+ -)*- *1# #++#"-2*& -' -)# >'53 g" -)# '-)#1 )*"6. 2- 2+ "'- *&&( ,*21 -' 1#?021# -)*- -108: 612/#1+ 5# 4)2-# '1 $*&# '1 \*-)'&28 '1 0"6#1 ,'1-( (#*1+ '&6 5#8*0+# -)#+# 1#?021#$#"-+ *1# "'- "#8#++*1( -' %#1,'1$ -)# >'53 !"( 62+812$2"*-2'" 2" -)# +#-2'" ', #$%&'(##+ $0+- 1#+%#8- -)# rights granted by these laws and regulations, and must be based on job-related characteristics. The various anti-discrimination laws cited above do not provide applicants with a right to a given job. Obviously if there are thirty applicants and one job, the employer does not have a duty to hire more than one applicant for that job. The laws, and the regulations interpreting them, do grant to job applicants in the United States the right to be treated fairly. They specify various forms of unfair treatment (discrimination based on non-job-related factors such *+ *9#. 9#"6#1. #-)"28 5*8:91'0"6 '1 62+*52&2-(< *"6 2$%'+# 60-2#+ '" #$%&'(#1+ -' '5+#1/# -)# 129)-+ ', *%%&28*"-+ not to be excluded from a job based on any of these factors. Position Rights of Applicants When a person applies for a job, he or she obtains certain rights as an applicant. Many of these rights are reinforced by the legal system, because they are also citizen rights as discussed above. However, they only become relevant when an individual applies for a job. All citizens have a right to keep their life or their property, with some limitations. These rights, granted by the government, are universally applicable. Only those citizens who apply for a job have the right, in any practical sense, to be considered for the job without regard to their race or gender or age. When an applicant is hired for a position, and thus no longer has the status of applicant, some of their rights as applicant no longer apply. Regulations prohibit employers from asking applicants their age. New employees who are #&2925&# ,'1 5#"#7-+ $0+- %1'/26# -)2+ 2",'1$*-2'" ,'1 2"+01*"8# *"6 '-)#1 5#"#7- %01%'+#+3 !%%&28*"-+ )*/# * 129)- not to be subjected to random drug testing; employees, at least under certain circumstances such as safety-related positions, no longer have this right. Once an individual’s position changes from applicant to employee, both that individual’s rights and the employer’s duties change in some respects. As we will see below in our discussion of the 129)-+ ', 8'$%*"2#+. 7"*&2+-+ ,'1 %'+2-2'"+. 4)2&# -)#( *1# +-2&& *%%&28*"-+. *1# 2" * 62,,#1#"- +2-0*-2'" -)*" -)# 9#"#1*& *%%&28*"- %''&3 d2"*&2+-+ $*( 5# 1#?021#6 -' +088#++,0&&( 8'$%&#-# 6109 -#+-+. %)(+28*& #D*$+. *"6 +'$#-2$#+ '-)#1 forms of background checks. A!$!B,(& !"#$%&-.&/012-3,4% We have been discussing the employment process in companies that already have a number of employees. We have considered the company to be the employer, and not the individual or individuals within the company who actually engage in the process. However, individuals representing the company post jobs, screen applications, 8'"608- 2"-#1/2#4+ *"6b'1 $*:# ',,#1+3 ! )212"9 $*"*9#1. 2" -)*- 8*%*82-(. 1#%1#+#"-+ -)# '19*"2]*-2'"3 ;" * 1#*& sense, the hiring manager’s actions are the actions of the organization. A hiring manager who behaves unethically undermines the organization and its pursuit of moral responsibility. In contrast, a hiring manager that acts ethically 2010, Vol. 1, No. 1, 73-81 Gilbert, Alder and McAllister 78 Advances in Business Research promotes the ethical values of the organization. Thus, it is essential that organizations develop clear guidelines and hiring procedures that adhere to legal and ethical principles and ensure that each hiring manager is carefully trained in these procedures. At the same time, it is imperative each hiring manager seriously consider his or her role as an ambassador for the organization with both those individuals who may ultimately join the organization as well as -)'+# 4)' $*( #2-)#1 5# 6#"2#6 -)*- '%%'1-0"2-( '1 -01" 2- 6'4" 2" -)# *%%&28*-2'" %1'8#++3 M)2+ 1#?021#+ -)*- )212"9 managers take into account the organization’s various rights and duties. \'1%'1*-2'"+ *1# *& %#1+'"+h -)#( )*/# *& 129)-+ *"6 *& 60-2#+3 !+ 6#+8125#6 *5'/#. -)#+# $*( 5# 1#,#11#6 to as the corporation’s citizen rights and duties. They are also sometimes described as having moral or ethical duties, *&-)'09) -)#21 $'1*& 129)-+ *1# &#++ ',-#" 62+80++#63 ! 8'1%'1*-2'"[+ 82-2]#"b *& 129)-+ *"6 60-2#+ *1# 1#&*-#6 -' 2-+ moral and ethical duties. It is useful to think of moral and ethical duties as a pyramid with legal considerations at the base. There is an ethical or moral duty to obey the law, and thus to observe citizen rights and duties. The law is the starting point. However, to complete the pyramid of ethics and morals, it is essential to go beyond the legal code. In terms of duties, corporate social responsibility is a concept that has been widely discussed in recent years. Its %1#82+# $#*"2"9 /*12#+ ,1'$ *0-)'1 -' *0-)'1. *"6 "' 9#"#1*&&( *91##6 0%'" 6#7"2-2'" )*+ #$#19#63 M)# 51'*6 "'-2'" is that corporations owe duties not just to their owners, the stockholders, but also to a variety of additional people and entities including the environment. There is broad overlap between corporate social responsibility and stakeholder theory. The antithesis of corporate +'82*& 1#+%'"+252&2-( 4*+ +%#& '0- 2" * ,*$'0+ *1-28&# 5( Z2&-'" d12#6$*" Ed12#6$*" GHeO<3 ;" 2-. )# $*2"-*2"+ -)*- the only duty of corporate managers is to the company’s stockholders, and that any other use of corporate resources is wrong. The only limiting factors mentioned by Friedman are that corporations should act within the bounds of the law and of ethical standards. He does not elaborate on what he means by ethical standards. Beginning in the 1980’s an alternate theory was proposed. According to stakeholder theory, an organization’s stakeholders include those 2"62/260*&+ *"6 #"-2-2#+ -)*- 8*" *,,#8- '1 *1# *,,#8-#6 5( -)# 8'$%*"([+ *8-2'"+ Ed1##$*" GHIV<3 A-*:#)'&6#1 -)#'1( maintains that in modern times corporations have obligations to their multiple and varied stake holders. Whether one accepts Friedman’s limited view of corporate duties or the broader views of stakeholder theory and corporate social responsibility, corporations do have some moral duties. As we explained earlier in this paper, duties and rights go together. We have already discussed the rights of applicants and the duties that those rights impose on employers. We now turn to the rights of corporations and the duties imposed by those rights on applicants. As stated above, the most inclusive category of rights is human rights. While corporations are considered under the law as legal persons, they clearly are not human. Hence it does not make sense to speak of the human rights or duties of corporations. A corporation receives its status as a legal person when its charter is approved by a State. This means that a corporation can sue and be sued within the framework of the law. It has both citizen rights and duties under the law. For example, not every corporation has the legal right to conduct a criminal background check on an individual, but a corporation considering the individual as an applicant for a sensitive position does have this right. As legal persons, corporations have citizen rights, or rights granted by law, with respect to applicants for employment. Among these rights are those pertaining to information-gathering. When a corporation is trying to )21# +'$#'"# -' 7&& * %'+2-2'". 2- )*+ -)# *& 129)- -' 9*-)#1 1#&#/*"- 2",'1$*-2'" *5'0- -)'+# 4)' *%%&( ,'1 -)# >'53 ! 8'1%'1*-2'" 8'0&6 "'- *&&( %28: +'$#'"# ,1'$ * 91'0% ', %#'%&# %*++2"9 5( 2-+ ',78#+ *"6 6#$*"6 -)*- -)#( +05$2- -' * 6109 -#+-3 C'4#/#1. 2- 8*" *&&( 1#?021# '"# '1 +#/#1*& 7"*&2+-+ ,1'$ * %''& ', *%%&28*"-+ -' 0"6#19' drug testing. The individual involved does not have to take a drug test, but if they refuse to do so, the company can 1#,0+# -' )21# -)#$ ,'1 -)# '%#" %'+2-2'" *"6 2- 42&& 5# *&&( >0+-27#6 2" 6'2"9 +'3 A2$2&*1&(. 8'$%*"2#+ )*/# -)# right to ask applicants to provide information relevant to the selection process. An applicant can refuse to provide the information and withdraw from the pool of applicants, but cannot gain a legal judgment against the company for seeking the information. B)#-)#1 -)# 2",'1$*-2'" 1#?0#+-#6 ', *%%&28*"-+ %#1-*2"+ -' 4'1: '1 #608*-2'"*& )2+-'1(. -' %*+- 812$2"*& 8'"/28-2'"+. '1 -' -)# *52&2-( -' %#1,'1$ %)(+28*& -*+:+ 1#?021#6 5( -)# >'5. -)# 8'$%*"( )*+ -)# *& 129)- -' -)# 2",'1$*-2'" 2" -)# +#"+# -)*- 2- 51#*:+ "' &*4+ 5( *+:2"93 M)# 8'$%*"( *&+' )*+ -)# *& E82-2]#"< 129)- -' /#12,( 2",'1$*-2'" %1'/26#6 5( /#12,(2"9 %*+- #$%&'($#"-. 10""2"9 * 812$2"*& 5*8:91'0"6 8)#8:. '1 1#?0212"9 -)# 8*"626*-# to undergo drug testing. ! 8'1%'1*-2'" *&+' )*+ -)# *& '1 82-2]#" 129)- -' 6#-#1$2"# -)# $2"2$0$ ?0*&278*-2'"+ ,'1 * %'+2-2'". *+ 4#&& *+ -)# +*&*1(3 !" *%%&28*"- 4)' 2+ ',,#1#6 * %'+2-2'" 8*" 1#?0#+- * )29)#1 +*&*1( -)*" -)*- ',,#1#6. 50- 2- 2+ -)# 8'$%*"( *"6 "'- -)# *%%&28*"- 4)' )*+ -)# *& 129)- -' 6#826#3 M)# +*$# 2+ -10# ', 5#"#7-+ ',,#1#6 ,'1 -)# %'+2-2'"3 ! company’s rights in this area are limited by various laws such as minimum wage provisions, but within the limits of the law the company has the right to determine compensation provisions. 2010, Vol. 1, No. 1, 73-81 Gilbert, Alder and McAllister 79 Advances in Business Research <-%!$!-(& !"#$%&-.&/012-3,4% \'1%'1*-2'"+ *&+' )*/# %'+2-2'" 129)-+3 J'- #/#1( 8'1%'1*-2'" )*+ -)# 129)- -' 6' * 812$2"*& 5*8:91'0"6 8)#8: '" an individual, but a corporation considering the individual as an applicant for a sensitive position does have this right. In this section, we consider the position rights of corporations with regard to applicants. While a corporation does not have a human right to be told the truth, and may not have a citizen right to truth-telling (for the most part, lying '" *" #$%&'($#"- *%%&28*-2'" 2+ "'- 2& *&<. 5( 2-+ %'+2-2'" *+ %1'+%#8-2/# #$%&'(#1 2- 6'#+ )*/# +'$# 129)-+ 4)28) impose duties on applicants to tell the truth that would not otherwise be present. Since there is usually no contractual relationship between an applicant and a corporation, contract rights are not relevant here. Q( 2-+ %'+2-2'" ', %1'+%#8-2/# #$%&'(#1. * 8'$%*"( )*+ -)# 129)- -' -10-),0& *"+4#1+ -' -)# ?0#+-2'"+ 2- *+:+ ', *%%&28*"-+3 ;- 2+ "'- 2& *& ,'1 *" *%%&28*"- -' &2# '" *" *%%&28*-2'"3 \'$%*"2#+ 6' "'- +0# *%%&28*"-+ 4)' *1# ,'0"6 -' have lied. However, a company can refuse to hire an applicant who lies on an application, or terminate an applicant 4)' )*+ 5##" )21#6 *"6 +05+#?0#"-&( )*+ 5##" ,'0"6 -' )*/# &2#6 '" -)# *%%&28*-2'"3 ! 8'$%*"( 6'#+ "'- )*/# -)2+ same right to truthfulness from the public at large, so the position of prospective employer does give the company moral rights it would not otherwise have. These rights impose duties of truthfulness on applicants that would not otherwise exist. The applicant has no duty to truthfully disclose his educational background or criminal record to any company that asks, but does have such a duty to the company which is his prospective employer. The rights of corporations in the hiring process are less extensive than those of applicants, but they do exist and their existence explains some procedural aspects of the ways in which applicants provide information and companies verify it. The rights of corporations are limited by various &*4+ *"6 1#90&*-2'"+3 !+ * 9#"#1*& 10&#. 8'$%*"2#+ $*( "'- 1#?0#+- 2",'1$*-2'" 2" -)# *%%&28*-2'" %1'8#++ 4)28) -)#( 8*""'- *&&( 0+# 2" $*:2"9 -)# #$%&'($#"- 6#82+2'"3 M)0+ 2- 2+ *88#%-*5&# ,'1 *" *%%&28*-2'" ,'1$ -' 1#?021# -)*- an applicant provide information about previous employers, but not about churches attended, unless the applicant is *%%&(2"9 -' 5# * $2"2+-#1 ', -)# 8)018)3 g"8# *9*2". -)# ?0#+-2'"+ +2$%&( "##6 -' 5# 621#8-&( >'5P1#&*-#63 @CDD5 E&5F*&A7FAGC@H7F We have seen that both the law and ethics each provide rights and corresponding duties. These are sometimes but not always the same rights and duties. Ethical rights can arise from law; this is the class of rights that we have called 82-2]#" 129)-+3 M)#( 8*" *&+' *12+# ,1'$ -)# ,*8- -)*- '"# 2+ * )0$*" E)0$*" 129)-+< '1 ,1'$ -)# ,*8- -)*- '"# )'&6+ * 8#1-*2" %'+2-2'". +08) *+ *%%&28*"- E%'+2-2'" 129)-+<3 M)# 1*"9# ', #-)28*& '1 $'1*& 129)-+ *"6 60-2#+ 2+ 426#1 -)*" -)*- of legal rights and duties. In the United States, there is an extensive body of laws, regulations, and court decisions that govern the hiring process. Other countries have such laws, regulations and court decisions also, but their content varies from one country to another. Human rights, such as truth-telling and dignity should apply to job applicants and to employers no matter what country they are in. We stated earlier that the primary purpose of the hiring process is to select the best available applicant for the job that is open. Different companies take different approaches to accomplishing this goal. Stability in the hiring process 8*" )#&% -' %1'/26# ,*21"#++ 2" -)# 4*( -)*- *%%&28*"-+ *1# -1#*-#6 E!&6#1 S K2&5#1- NOOT<3 A08) ,*21"#++ 2+ 2$%'1-*"- in respecting the rights of both applicants and the company. Put another way, all applicants have certain rights, as well as duties, in the hiring process. Some of these rights and duties are spelled out by law. We have developed the argument that there are additional 129)-+ *"6 60-2#+ %1#+#"- 2" -)# )212"9 %1'8#++. *"6 -)*- -)#+# 8*" 5# 26#"-27#6 *+ #-)28*& '1 $'1*& 129)-+ *"6 60-2#+3 ;, *" #$%&'(#1 42+)#+ -' #+-*5&2+). '1 -' 1#/2#4. 2-+ )212"9 %1'8#++. -)# "'-2'" ', %'+2-2'" 129)-+ 2+ ?02-# 0+#,0& 2" thinking about standard practices such as information-gathering and communication with applicants. Permissible and impermissible actions within the hiring process are determined by law and ethics, with ethics providing a broader framework than law. This framework forces attention to work-related characteristics of the applicants, and to prudent checking of information provided by applicants and used in the decision process. Such a process makes it more likely that the best available candidate will be hired, and whenever this is accomplished the 50+2"#++ *+ 4#&& *+ -)# 8*"626*-# 5#"#7-+3 Whether an individual is hired for the position or not, if they complete the process feeling that their rights have been respected and having acted honorably in their duties toward the hiring company, the individual, the company, and observers of the process will all recognize that business has been conducted well. 2010, Vol. 1, No. 1, 73-81 Gilbert, Alder and McAllister 80 Advances in Business Research /I/ /FA/@ !&6#1. K3. S K2&5#1-. i3 NOOT3 !8)2#/2"9 #-)28+ *"6 ,*21"#++ 2" )212"9h K'2"9 5#('"6 -)# &*43 Journal of Business /$#!6%. TIh VVHPVTV3 Alder, G., Schminke, M., & Noel, T. 2007. The impact of individual ethics on reactions to potentially invasive HR practices. J-+4('2&-.&K+%!(,%%&/$#!6%. ejh NOGPNGV3 Alge, B. 2001. Effects of computer surveillance on perceptions of privacy and procedural justice. Journal of Applied Psychology. ITh eHekIOV3 Q2#+. ̀ 3. S Z'*9. i3 GHIT3 ;"-#1*8-2'"*& >0+-28#h \'$$0"28*-2'" 812-#12* ', ,*21"#++. ;" ̀ 3 R#428:2. Q3 A)#%%*16. S Z3 Q*]#1$*" E=6+3<. ,%,'46#&-(&(,"-$!'$!-(&!(&-4"'(!B'$!-(% Ei!; F1#++. K1##"428). \M<. %%3 VLkjj3 Bok, S. 1989. G3!("?&D-4'2&6#-!6,&!(&1+82!6&'()&14!:'$,&2!.,3 J#4 l'1:h c2"-*9# Q'':+3 _'"*&6+'". M3. B#1)*"#. F3. S \'162"9. Z3 NOON3 /$#!6'2& !%%+,%& !(&8+%!(,%%L& '&1#!2-%-1#!6'2& '114-'6#. Upper A*66&# `2/#1. J3i3h F1#"-28# C*&&3 Eddy, E., Stone, D., & Stone-Romero, E. 1999. The effects of information management policies on reactions to human 1#+'018# 2",'1$*-2'" +(+-#$+h !" 2"-#91*-2'" ', %12/*8( *"6 %1'8#601*& >0+-28# %#1+%#8-2/#+3 Personnel Psychology, jNh LLjkLjI3 //7A 4#5+2-#h )--%hbb4443##'839'/3 Freeman, R. 1984. @$4'$,"!6&0'('",0,($?&5&%$'M,#-2),4&'114-'6#3 Z*1+)7#&6. Z!h F2-$*" F05&2+)2"93 d12#6$*". Z3 GHeO3 M)# +'82*& 1#+%'"+252&2-( ', 50+2"#++ 2+ -' 2"81#*+# 2-+ %1'7-+3 J#4 l'1: M2$#+ Z*9*]2"#. A#%-#$5#1 GL. GHeO3 ;" M3 _'"*&6+'". F3 B#1)*"#. S Z3 \'162"9 E=6+3<. /$#!6'2&!%%+,%&!(&8+%!(,%%?&5&1#!2-%-1#!6'2& approach3 @%%#1 A*66&# `2/#1. J3i3h F1#"-28# C*&&. NOON3 %%3 LLPLI3 K2&&2&*"6. A3 GHHL3 M)# %#18#2/#6 ,*21"#++ ', +#-2'" +(+-#$+h !" '19*"2]*-2'"*& >0+-28# %#1+%#8-2/#3 Academy of Management Review. GIh THVPeLV3 Halbert, T., & Ingulli, E. 2006. G'N&'()&,$#!6%&!(&$#,&8+%!(,%%&,(:!4-(0,($3 Z*+'". gCh B#+- R#9*& A-062#+ 2" Business. Hickens, M. 1998. The tables have turned. Management Review. Ieh TPI3 Ignatieff, M. 2001. ;+0'(&4!"#$%&'%&1-2!$!6%&'()&!)-2'$433 F12"8#-'". Jih F12"8#-'" @"2/#1+2-( F1#++3 Lyons, D. 1984. /$#!6%&'()&$#,&4+2,&-.&2'N3 \*$51269#. @3f3 \*$51269# @"2/#1+2-( F1#++3 Merriam-Webster. 1996. O,8%$,4P%&6-22,",&)!6$!-('433 J#4 l'1:h `*"6'$ C'0+#3 Pfeffer, J. 1998. =#,&#+0'(&,Q+'$!-(?&K+!2)!("&14-R$%&83&1+$$!("&1,-12,&R4%$3 Q'+-'". Z!h C*1/*16 Q0+2"#++ School Press. Stone, D., & Kotch, D. 1989. Individuals’ attitudes toward organizational drug testing policies and practices. Journal of Applied Psychology. eVh jGIkjNG3 Stone-Romero, E., Stone, D., & Hyatt, D. 2003. Personnel selection procedures and invasion of privacy. Journal of Social Issues. jHh LVLkLTI3 A0$"#1. R3 NOOO3 `29)-+3 ;" C3 R*d'&&#--# E=63<. The Blackwell guide to ethical theory3 Z*&6#". Z!h Q&*8:4#&& Publishers. 2010, Vol. 1, No. 1, 73-81 Gilbert, Alder and McAllister 81 Advances in Business Research A0"6+-1'$. =3. Q01-. `3. S f*$%. _3 GHIO3 F12/*8( *- 4'1:h !18)2-#8-01*& 8'11#&*-#+ ', >'5 +*-2+,*8-2'"3 Academy of Management Journal. NLh GOGkGGe3 Warren, S., & Brandeis, L. 1890. The right to privacy. ;'4:'4)&G'N& ,:!,N. Vh GHLkNNO3 Westin, A. 1967. Privacy and freedom3 J#4 l'1:h !-)#"#0$3 J-%,1#&S!28,4$ is an associate professor of management at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas. He received his Ph.D. 2" 50+2"#++ *6$2"2+-1*-2'" 42-) *" #$%)*+2+ 2" +-1*-#9( ,1'$ -)# @"2/#1+2-( ', A'0-)#1" \*&2,'1"2*3 C2+ %12$*1( 1#+#*18) 2+ 2" -)# 7#&6 ', 50+2"#++ #-)28+. 42-) %*1-280&*1 #$%)*+2+ '" $*"*9#1P1#&*-#6 2++0#+3 C# )*+ %05&2+)#6 2" -)# Journal of Business Ethics, Ethics and Behavior, Business Horizons, and others. ST&@$-(,3&52),4 is an assistant professor of management at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas. He received his Ph.D. in organization management with emphases in organizational behavior and human resource management ,1'$ -)# @"2/#1+2-( ', \'&'1*6' *- Q'0&6#13 C2+ 8011#"- 1#+#*18) 2"-#1#+-+ 2"8&06# '19*"2]*-2'"*& >0+-28#. 50+2"#++ ethics, and performance monitoring. He has published in Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, C0$*" `#+'018# Z*"*9#$#"- `#/2#4. i'01"*& ', Q0+2"#++ =-)28+. Z*"*9#$#"- \'$$0"28*-2'" m0*1-#1&(. i'01"*& ', !%%&2#6 \'$$0"28*-2'" 1#+#*18). *"6 '-)#1+3 *'(!,2&D6522!%$,4 is an associate professor of management at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas. He earned his Ph.D. in organization theory and management with emphases in organizational behavior and decision theory from the University of Washington in Seattle. His current research interests include performance evaluation strategies, #D*$2"*-2'" ?0#+-2'" %)2&'+'%)(. *"6 -)# 2$%*8- ', $#*+01#$#"- '" 9'*& *--*2"$#"-3 C# )*+ %05&2+)#6 2" M)# Academy of Management Journal, Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, and others 2010, Vol. 1, No. 1, 73-81 Gilbert, Alder and McAllister