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ISSN 2576-1382 (Print) ISSN 2576-1390 (Online)

Vol. 7, No. 2, 2024
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194

Original Paper

Literature Review of Research on Biharis Issue
YingYing Du1*

1 School of History and Culture, China West Normal University, NanChong, China
*YingYing Du, School of History and Culture, China West Normal University, NanChong, China

Received: April 19, 2024 Accepted: May 15, 2024 Online Published: May 29, 2024

doi:10.22158/ape.v7n2p194 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/ape.v7n2p194

Abstract

During the partition, approximately 1.3 million Urdu-speaking Muslims, suffering communal riots,

migrated to the former East Pakistan. They were known as Biharis. The Pakistan ruling class prefered

Biharis due to their Muhajir status. Therefore, they supported Pakistani domination consciously. Some

Biharis joined the Pakistan army during the Bangladesh Liberation War. All Biharis were considered

traitors. A number of Biharis opted for Pakistan. Despite a repatriation process lasting over 20 years,

many Biharis still stranded. The Biharis were granted Bangladeshi citizenship in 2008. However, they

continue to face challenges integrating into mainstream in terms of education, employment, travel and

residence. Since the 1970s, extensive research has been conducted by the international academic

community on various aspects related to the origin of Biharis, repatriation efforts, identity issues and

human rights. With the influence of international academics, there has been an increasing focus within

Chinese academics on the plight of Biharis. The Biharis issue remains further study from various

perspectives and angles. We can understand nation-state construction processes as well as examining

geopolitical dynamics within South Asia from an ethnic perspective.

Keywords

Biharis, Repatriation, Diaspora, Identity

1. Introduction

Bihari is an common term for the Urdu-speaking non-Bengali Muslims who migrated from India to

Bangladesh (former East Pakistan) during the partition of India. Around the time of subcontinent

partition in 1947, approximately 1.3 million Urdu-speaking Muslims migrated from India to East

Pakistan because of communal riots by Hindus, of whom about a million came from Bihar of India and

its neighbouring regions.Therefore this ethic group were called collectively as Biharis. Under the rule

of Pakistan, the Biharis were valued and favored by Pakistan ruling class due to their linguistic and

cultural backgrounds. As Muhajirs, they enjoyed preferential treatment. Driven by Muhajir identity and



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practical interests, Biharis had always supported a united Pakistan encompassing East Pakistan. As

tensions between East and West Pakistan growing, the Biharis' political tendency to maintain Pakistan

national unity led them to be seen as symbol of Pakistan colonial ruling. In addition, the Biharis were

attacked by the Bengali extreme nationalists. During the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, some

Biharis joined the Pakistan Army (Razakars) in the massacres of Bengalis for their previous acts of

violence. After Liberation war, all of Biharis were regarded as collaborators of Pakistan and traitors,

subjected to discrimination and reprisals, and were deprived of their property by the Bangladesh new

goverment and stranded in refugee camps. As a result, a vast number of Biharis chosed to renounce

their Bangladesh citizenship, hoping return to Pakistan as Pakistan citizens. The repatriation of Biharis

became a remaining humanitarian issue of Bangladesh Liberation War. Over 20 years, the governments

of Bangladesh and Pakistan continuously negotiated on this issue. Besides, The United Nations and the

international community also concerned about the fate of the Biharis. However, with the changing

politic landscape in the subcontinent and the domestic political turmoil in Pakistan, Pakistan stopped

accepting Biharis since 1993. The Biharis have been labeled differently as stranded Pakistanis,

non-Bengalis and Urdu-speaking. Due to Pakistan's refusal, the Biharis moved from pursuing

repatriation to struggling to Bangladesh citizenship identity. With the help of United Nations human

rights organizations, the Biharis in Bangladesh were officially granted citizenship in 2008. But

citizenship is only the first step towards integration into mainstream Bangladeshi society, and they still

face systematic discrimination in education, housing, employment and other aspects. Biharis

communities have also become hotbeds of criminal activity in Bangladesh, including the drug trade,

posing challenges to regional security and governance in South Asia. There is every indication that the

issue of Biharis in Bangladesh has not yet been properly resolved.

The issue of Biharis, as a historical legacy between the two countries, not only impacts bilateral

exchanges and cooperation, but also serves as a destabilizing factor affecting regional security in South

Asia. Due to historical and practical considerations, more and more scholars have devoted themselves

to the study of Biharis issues in Bangladesh. This paper seeks to do a critical literature review on the

Biharis Issue in Bangladesh. The literature review analysis of the Biharis Issue in Bangladesh will be

based on four themes—the origin of the Biharis, repatriation of Biharis, identity disputes and human

rights. It is anticipated that this literature review will facilitate further research on the Biharis issue in

Bangladesh.

2. Existing English Literature Review

The Biharis issue in Bangladesh gained attention in 1972 report of the International Commission of

Jurists—East Pakistan Events of 1971: A Legal Study. This report, based on contemporary newspaper

accounts, refugee testimony, and oral accounts by jurists, details the events that occurred in East

Pakistan in 1971, including those involving the Biharis. Subsequently, there has been a gradual increase

in research on the Bihari problem in Bangladesh, encompassing survey reports, monographs, papers



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and coverage within works on Bangladesh history. Following collection and organization efforts,

research primarily focuses on the following four themes.

2.1 Origin of the Biharis in Bangladesh

Academics usually trace this issue back to around the partition of India in 1947. Some schoolers argued

that the hostility towards the Biharis in Bangladesh has social, political and linguistic roots (Ben & lain

Guest, 1972). Certain schooler provides an overview of the history of Bihar migration from the

partition of India to the Bangladesh Liberation War, and keep optimistic outlook for resolution of the

Bihar issue (Ennals, 1987). Someone explains the historical and political factors that have contributed

to the fate of the "Biharis" (Kuczkiewicz-Fraś, 2019). In addition, some historical works also touch on

this issue. Willem van Schendel documents the transformation of the Biharis from muhajirs to

Bangladesh traitors, living a long and turbulent life. (Van Schendel, 2020). Papiya Ghosh, in her works,

focuses on the ethnic violence that occurred in the northern part of the subcontinent before the partition

of India , providing readers with an insight into the migration paths of the Biharis Diaspora (Papiya,

2014). Overall, the partition of India and the Bangladesh Liberation War are closely intertwined with

the origin of the Biharis issue in Bangladesh.

2.2 Repatriation of Biharis in Bangladesh

The process of repatriation of Biharis has lasted for more than two decades, attracting continuous

attention. Scholars usually make different interpretations from their national standpoint. Pakistan

academics either think that the repatriation of Biharis had been resolved, or that any dissent in

Bangladesh comes from the their domestic political opposition rather than the mainstream (Farzana,

1989), or regard the repatriation of Biharis as "the most sensitive humanitarian issue" between the two

countries, emphasizing that Bangladesh should take responsibility for the repatriation failure

(Mahmood, Sadaf, & Nadia, 2015). Bangladesh scholars generally emphasize the necessity and

justification of Pakistan's acceptance of Biharis (Zaglul, 2003). Indian scholars generally dismiss the

implicit responsibility disputes between Pakistan and Bangladesh scholars, arguing that the complex

ethnic group relations in Pakistan and the dynamic diplomatic relations between the two countries lead

to the failure of repatriation (Mohammad, 1997). Outside the South Asian, some scholars believe that

the repatriation of Biharis had an impact on the diplomatic relations between India, Pakistan and

Bangladesh (Kathryn, 1999). There also have scholars from an international law perspective to explore

the role of international organizations in resolving the repatriation of Biharis in Bangladesh (Md.

Kamrul, 2018). However, most scholars focus on the reasons for the failure of repatriation, and few

discuss the factors that affect the long-term survival of repatriation.

2.3 Identity Disputes of Biharis in Bangladesh

Because the repatriation process goes on for years, the identity of Biharis in Bangladesh has long been

debated among scholars. The cut-off point is Bangladesh granted citizenship to Biharis in 2008. Before

this, someone considered the Biharis are stateless and pointed out the Biharis in Bangladesh were in an

awkward position because Bangladesh could neither impose citizenship on traitors nor increase



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expenditure on non-Bengalis. However, Pakistan goverments argued that the 200,000 stranded

Urdu-speaking non-Bengalis were not Pakistanis. (A.F.M Kamaluddin, 1985). Someone pointed out

that the statelessness of the Biharis stems from the partition of Pakistan in 1971. Behind the identity

dispute lies the issue of responsibility for repatriation. Pakistani officials have been cautious in using

“stranded Pakistani” (Eric, 2006). After the Biharis were granted Bangladesh citizenship, scholars

began to focus on the practical implementation of citizenship rights for the Biharis, conclusing that the

citizenship of the Biharis is not worthy. Someone argued the current differential treatment of the

Biharis in terms of their identity is the result of the procrastination of Bangladesh and Pakistan (Kazi,

2009). Someone noted that the Biharis in Bangladesh still suffered discriminatory policies and

treatment with regard to public services, employment, education and so on, they remained stateless in

fact (Zaglul, 2018). Besides, Some scholars have noted intergenerational differences in self-identity

within Biharis community. Arifur Rahaman through a survey, point out the younger generation of

Biharis generally consider themselves Bangladeshis. The main factor of this phenomenon is the

economic status (Arifur, 2020). Some schoolers examined both legal and non-legal factors behind the

deplorable condition of the Biharis in Bangladesh. (Zaglul, 2024)

2.4 Human rights of the Biharis in Bangladesh

the international community has long been concerned about the human rights of the Biharis in

Bangladesh. This includes not only the violence suffered by the Biharis during Bangladesh's liberation

War, but also the deplorable camp conditions in which they live today.

Earlier studies focused on the violence and physical security suffered by the Biharis. Some schoolers

relied on the provisions of international law to make allegations of atrocities against minorities such as

the Biharis in Bangladesh during 1971 liberation War, and argued that specialized tribunals should be

set up to ensure that human rights of Biharis (Niall, 1973). In recent years, scholars have focused on the

Biharis’camp and studied the real challeges faced by the Biharis through field surveys, data analysis

and interviews. For example, Some schoolers pointed that the Biharis' food consumption, healthcare

expenditures, education, income, and employment patterns are extremely substandard and the

prevalence of infectious diseases in the camps can also expose the country to serious social problems

(Ahsan & Hussain, 1990). Some schoolers argueed that the Biharis, in most of the cases, are not able to

meet the basic needs such as food, clothing, shelter, education and basic needs such as health facilities

and are considered one of the poorest and most vulnerable groups in Bangladesh (S.M. Ashikur Elahee,

2013). Some schoolers argued that the camps have both protected the specificities of the Biharis and

negatively affected their integration into Bangladesh society (Abdullah, 2022).

3. Existing Chines Literature Review

In 1882, Sun Shihai translated the Minority Rights Group's report on the Bihar issue, Chinese

academics began to pay attention to the Biharis in Bangladesh. Some Chinese schoolers published

articles to describing the origin of the Bihar issue and the dilemma it faces in Bangladesh (Ling, 1992).



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Enter the 21st century, with the deepening of China's engagement with Bangladesh, Chinese schoolers

have paid more attention to the Bihar issue, studying Biharis issue in the framework of

Bangladesh-Pakistan relations and the politic situation of the two countries. For example, Some

schoolers argued that the Biharis issue has hindered the relations and friendly exchange between

Pakistan and Bangladesh, as well as negatively affected the regional security of South Asia (Chen,

2011). Some schoolers pointed out that the Biharis issue has become a historical problem affecting the

normalization of relations between Bangladesh and Pakistan (Luo, 2015). Some schoolers pointed out

that the repatriation of the Biharis in Bangladesh had affected the Muhajir movement in Pakistan (Yang

& Li, 2016）

In addition to these papers, some monographs in China have also introduced the basic information of

the ethnic minority Biharis in Bangladesh. such as Politics and Economy of Bangladesh (Xie & Lin,

1994), Contemporary Bangladesh (Zhang, 1999), Bangladesh (Liu, 2010), and Studies on Political

Development and Ethnic Issues in Bangladesh (Zhang, 2015). In general, the attention paid by Chinese

academics to the issue of the Biharis in Bangladesh is still extremely limited, and no systematic

research has yet emerged.

4. Strengths andWeaknesses of Existing Literature

In general, the English academics have studied the Biharis issue in Bangladesh trough a wide

perspective, with a variety of innovative research methods, achieving rich and varied results. Their

works provide a basis for Chinese scholars to continue further research on the issue of the Biharis in

Bangladesh. However, Based on the current academic research results, there are still some areas that

can be further explored. Firstly, in the scope of the study, most schoolers focuses on the Biharis living

in Dhaka, Khulna and other big cities, and pays insufficient attention to the Biharis in the rest of the

cities, or other smaller camp. Secondly, in the subject, most scholars regarded the historical Biharis as a

whole without class, gender or age, and although recent studies have focused on the differences within

the Biharis, but the relative neglect of history is not conducive to further research. Thirdly, in the

research perspectives, there is a lack of clarity in Bangladesh about the changing attitudes and policies

of Biharis, both official and civilian. most studies look at the plight faced by the Biharis in Bangladesh

from the historical, political, ethnic, and legal perspectives, but lack economic and psychological

perspectives.

6. Conclusion

Biharis issue in Bangladesh is the products of political turmoil in South Asia. Their identity is complex

and changeable. Throughout history, they were political immigrants from northern India subcontinent

who have been devastated by the communal riots in South Asia. They were victims of Pakistan's failure

to build a unified state. They served as a tool for Pakistan, Bangladesh and India to pursue their

respective political objectives and interests. They were stateless and their status had long been a point



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of contention between the Bangladesh and Pakistan. Presently, they are a marginal linguistic minority

in Bangladesh and face challenges in integrating into mainstream society.

Therefore, the study of Biharis in Bangladesh holds significant academic value and practical

importance. From a theoretical perspective, focusing on ethnic minorities allows for a re-examination

of the extensive impact of political turmoil in South Asia, as well as an analysis of both success and

failure of nation-building in Bangladesh and Pakistan similar to other post-colonial countries. From a

practical perspective, the study of Biharis in Bangladesh help us to understand the evolving relationship

between Bangladesh and Pakistan at different history periods, as well as comprehend how domestic

ethnic issues affect the society and politics of Bangladesh and Pakistan. Futhermore, research on

Biharis issues also deepens our understanding of current domestic affairs in Bangladesh while offering

practical references for addressing other similar problems like Rohingya refugees, even Chittagong Hill

Tracs conflict, contributing to useful insights for constructing the BCIM Economic Corridor.

It is encouraging that the Government of Bangladesh is also working to address this real problem faced

by minorities in Bangladesh. On June 20, 2023, National Housing and Public Works Minister Sharif

Ahmed said the government plans to build 5,600 homes in Keraniganj township on the outskirts of

Dhaka, to accommodate non-Bangladeshis living in the Bihar Refugee Camp in Mohammadpur,

Dhaka.The long-term marginalized Biharis are expected to gradually integrate into mainstream

Bangladeshi society (Dhaka, 20 Jun 2023).

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Publishing House.


	Literature Review of Research on Biharis Issue
	YingYing Du1*
	1 School of History and Culture, China West Normal
	Abstract
	During the partition, approximately 1.3 million Ur
	Keywords
	References

