


































Advances in Politics and Economics 
ISSN 2576-1382 (Print) ISSN 2576-1390 (Online) 

Vol. 5, No. 4, 2022 

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50 
 

Original Paper 

Industrialization of Socialist-Oriented Economy Development in 

Nepal: Contribution, Possibility and Challenges of Private 

Sectors 

Dr. Uttam Khanal, PhD
1*

 

1
 Department of Economics and Social Sciences, Kathmandu, Nepal 

 

Received: October 13, 2022    Accepted: November 14, 2022   Online Published: November 17, 

2022 doi:10.22158/ape.v5n4p50     URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/ape.v5n4p50 

 

Abstract 

The state produces goods and services to distribute to its citizens and its process somehow related to 

social welfare. The government that has created an industry-friendly environment for the establishment 

of industries to provide goods at a price that people can afford. Investors invested in the industry by 

making full use of resources and available materials to provide employment opportunities for 

industrialization in Nepalese economic development. Investors are not allowed to produce distribute 

voluntary goods. The role of facilitator in production and distribution by fulfilling of basic criteria was 

prescribes by the socialist state. Socialism believed in the advancement of the human race, the pursuit 

of equality among all human beings, the end of the system of exploitation of one human being by 

another, and the establishment of universal love between human beings. Although the government 

instructed by the constitution to develop a socialist-oriented economy, the government could not 

achieve complete success. The policy of the state has to encourage private sector investment, due to 

inability that makes programs. Nepal has not able to move towards industrialization. If immediate steps 

could taken to create an investment friendly environment in the industry to minimize the challenges of 

problems in the private sector, ample employment opportunities would created. The government of 

Nepal has given priority to Indian imports and the policy of imposing higher customs duty on imports 

of raw materials than manufactured.  

Keywords 

Industrialization, employee, socialist oriented economy, private sector, investment-friendly environment 

 

 

 



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1. Introduction 

The transitional period between capitalism and communism considered as socialism. After exploited by 

capitalism, the proletariat ends that system with a violent revolution. If a new system is born from the 

womb of capitalism, it called socialism. In this system, the work divided into merit and price. Therefore, 

the proletariat erases capitalism through revolution and sets up a new socialist system. During the 

revolution, the bourgeoisie established the state power of its own bourgeoisie by shattering the capitalist 

state power. 

No one can live without working in socialist thinking. Work arranged for each person. Work 

responsibilities divided according to the person’s ability and capacity. Wages of workers are determined 

based on work. Even though everyone has worked, not everyone has the same financial status. Some are 

lazy and alert. Similarly, some workers are married and some are unmarried. Even if the same work done, 

there are more expenses and fewer savings for the married, but in the case of unmarried people, the 

savings are more as the expenses are less. Everyone works in whatever field of product. Since there is no 

boss and no worker, there is a good relationship between everyone. Pressure from anyone, you do not 

have to live in fear. Giving everyone a wage according to his or her work makes everyone’s financial 

status equal. In this case, there is no need to be hesitant. Every person has the right to receive consumer 

goods according to the work he has done, with some deductions for the provision of means of production 

and social security. The deducted amount paid to the workers in the form of health, education and other 

benefits. 

The goods are produce based on the needs of society. There is no possibility of rotting, melting and 

stocking without production. There is no need to compete with anyone and no possibility of a black 

market in manufactured goods. Since there is no possibility of profit and loss in the socialist state system, 

the work of production is gradually and there is no need to fear and panic as there is no need for artificial 

works. When the price is managed according to the work, the production work is done at a very fast pace. 

Every worker makes full use of his abilities and abilities and the tendency to lay, deceit, fraud, theft etc. 

ends. The money deducted for social security redistributed to the public and a portion of the product is set 

aside for social security. In the case of capitalist regimes, the amount deducted in the name of capital 

gains, land investment, depreciation of machinery and social security reimbursed. In the socialist state 

system, the task of getting the owner’s share does not take place. Since the portion set aside for social 

security spent on social work, the workers still receive money in the form of education, health and other 

services. 

The socialist movement of the world started from 1425 to the beginning of the 19
th

 century. The 

movement against the capitalists of Britain and European countries can take as a movement. In the 

movement, the capitalist rulers, with the help of the military, established colonies and made the masses 

homeless without any guilt. Thousands of village farmers forced to flee their lands and start raising sheep 

in the orchards. Demand for this specialty has grown significantly a result of recent corporate scandals. 

To meet that demand, more and more sheep had to be raise. The new capitalists, who had become 



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property owners to raise sheep, forcibly chased away the farmers with the help of the government. In the 

end, those peasants emerged as wage laborers or proletarians. 

In the socialist system of China, the people’s commune was establishing in every part of China through 

various types of cooperative farming. As the people’s commune is the primary unit of society, it has 

played an important role in the development of every sector. Within its borders, it carries out activities 

such as industrial and agricultural production, trade, culture and education, as well as political affairs. 

The people’s commune is responsible for preparing the militia by providing military training. 

Established in China after 1958, the people’s commune has built canals for irrigation, built dams to 

protect the commune from famine and drought, and used scientific instruments to increase production on 

farms. Free schools, a babysitter, a community restaurant, a Kindergarten is operated. There is no 

obligation to do all that. Separate meals are also completely free and houses of respect for the elderly are 

built to take care of the elderly. Inequalities do not fall without gender, ethnic and racial discrimination. 

The United States and India, which consider themselves civilized capitalist countries, have many kinds 

of racial, ethnic, religious and gender differences. Even parks in the United States have a white-only 

policy. In the same way, millions of people are to force to sleep on the cold side of the road in paper 

sheets and blankets instead of their homes. Ethnic in India, Victims of regional and class discrimination 

have not eliminated, but such problems are rare in socialist countries. Ethnically, China has good 

relations between all races, but India and the United States did not after the great revolution of 1917. 

Ethnic policy had introduced in the socialist country of Russia contributed to the solution of the ethnic 

problem. 

Marxist socialism and democratic socialism are the most talked about. These systems of socialism are 

using in some countries and some have not been successful. There were socialist movements in Nepal 

and the constitution of Nepal 2015 was promulgating by the Constituent Assembly on the strength of 

those movements. In the preamble of the constitution, it has decided to build a prosperous nation by 

remaining committed to socialism based on democratic values and beliefs. It does not seem that the state 

has fully mobilized to fulfill that resolution. After the promulgation of the constitution, the government 

could not conduct policies and programs based on the values and beliefs of socialism in a just manner. 

The people did not realize that inequality, oppression, exploitation and discrimination had decreased. 

The Nepalese political forces are struggling in a timely manner in accordance with the main objective 

and goal of the socialist movement and have not been able to make the people realize it. Political parties 

became distracted or tried to flee from the subject of socialism. Due to their misguided ideology, it was 

not easy for the Nepali economy to reach the ultimate goal of socialism. Due to the inability of the 

industry to be established at a fast pace, the practice of levying higher customs duty on raw materials than 

on some manufactured goods entering Nepal from India has created more problems. If the government of 

Nepal does not address such policy issues immediately, the situation of Nepali industry will become 

more problematic in the future. It seen that the political parties have to move ahead from the traditional 



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thinking of socialism and engage in sustainable development, including social and economic 

transformation.  

 

2. Statement of the Problems 

The traditionalist view of Nepalese Marxist socialism was unlikely to find a place. In fact, democratic 

socialism is the product of Favian society. The concept of democratic socialism was putting forward at 

that time to confront the Marxists. BP Koirala had introduced democratic socialism in Nepal as the 

movement of communists was increasing. The aim of democratic socialism was motivating by the 

intention to democratize the communists in Nepali society rather than to establish socialism. In time, 

communism became more than just democratization. He appeared in parliamentary politics as a much 

bigger player than the Congress. In the beginning, the communists were socialists, but in the end, it 

alleged that they were moving towards the ground where they enjoyed playing under capitalism. 

German philosopher Karl Marx introduced the concept of communist socialism, while the theory of 

democratic socialism was introducing by British philosophers in the name of Fabian society, with the aim 

of democratizing Marxist socialism. The origin of communist socialism was inspired by the end of 

capitalist oppression, exploitation and inequality in 18th century society. The beginning of democratic 

and democratic socialism was also to stop the movement of communist socialism. The direction of 

failure was motivated by direction. The world community divided due to capitalist and communist power 

and power interests. It repeatedly sacrificed millions of people in the name of revolution and movement. 

Twice there were massacres, such as the 2nd World War and in 1917 on the strength of the Russian 

revolution. The Communists set fire to the graves of capitalist czars. Then the dream palace of socialism 

arose. That dream palace collapsed within a few decades and again the bourgeoisie rose from its grave 

and began to dust off the dust of socialism.  

In China, Mao proclaimed socialism in 1949 on the strength of the great proletarian Cultural Revolution. 

Millions of people lost their lives in the name of that revolution, but now even China has developed a 

capitalist economy. Even today, Countries like China, Vietnam and North Korea are ruling by 

communists. 

It considered to the product of the concept of advanced socialism put forward by Baburam Bhattarai in 

his campaign to enrich the socialist movement of Nepal. He studied the nature of Nepali society and the 

rules of development here in depth and considered it as an integrated form of diversity, multilingualism, 

multiculturalism, multi-ethnic national unity and harmony. Only by scientific research, research and 

analysis of social anomalies can a conclusion reached on what kind of socialism needed to Nepal. With 

his realistic conclusions, the root of the problems and contradictions inherent in Nepali society can traced. 

He said that we could destroy the existing exploitation, oppression and inequalities of Nepali society by 

following the broad roadmap of advanced socialism for social justice, equality and human liberation in 

problem solving. 



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Looking at the manifestos of almost all the political parties of Nepal, was seems that they have moved 

forward with the intention of economic development focusing on the public interest. Failure to 

implement these declarations or falling behind in building a socialist-oriented economy with a confused 

mindset are further challenges in industrialization and job creation. By overcoming these challenges, 

economic prosperity has become the basic element of the establishment of prosperous socialism. Every 

worker acquires rights over the value of the goods produced from the time he joins the labor based on the 

principle of equality. It is necessary to move forward through private partnership and cooperation by 

creating employment as well as product production, marketing and distribution cooperation in a 

participatory manner.  

 

3. Purpose of Study 

The workers who had been languishing in oppression for many years had agitated for the establishment 

of a socialist state system without exploitation by destroying the capitalist state system. Focusing on the 

state system in the hands of the limited bourgeoisie would have uplifted the few and the socialist state 

system could have established the rights of the majority proletariat. The remnants of capitalism cannot 

eradicate from the economic, moral and intellectual spheres. After the victory of socialism, it was 

difficult to achieve a socialist-oriented economy when imperialism and capitalism were not completing 

eradicated. The same socialist movement also inspired the events of political change in Nepal. Absolute 

Rana rule, the Panchayat system and reaching the republic through the democratic system, the question 

arose as to why Nepal could not move forward arise with economic development as expected. Apart from 

this, what were taking in building a socialist economy? Which political changes strengthened the role of 

the private sector in industrialization? How much has economic development changed people’s lives and 

daily life? How much has foreign aid improved development? How is the production, distribution and 

use of consumables analyzed? What is the status of implementation of the policy adopted by the state to 

ensure access to everything? Why private sector development needed in partnership today is? This work 

is caring out to find answers to such questions. The importance and role of the private sector in 

industrialization by reforming the economic system focusing on the possibility of building a socialist 

economy has the following objectives: How was the distribution and use of consumables analyzed? What 

is the status of implementation of the policy adopted by the state to ensure access to everything? Why 

private sector development needed in partnership today is? This work is caring out to find answers to 

such questions. The importance and role of the private sector in industrialization by reforming the 

economic system focusing on the possibility of building a socialist economy has the following 

objectives: 

(a) To analyze the socialist-oriented economy. 

(b) To assess the impact of political change on economic development. 

(c) To analyze the possibilities and challenges of the private sector in industrialization. 

 



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4. Socialism Development 

4.1 The Early Evolution of Socialist Ideology 

Thomas Moore described the fictional island of Atopia in his book in 1516. There was no private 

property. There was an arrangement for everyone to get an education. Everyone had equal rights to 

religion. People used to share the food they worked together. They had great love and there was no 

fighting anywhere. Thomas Moore wrote these words in the novel, but his views were not tolerating by 

the then autocratic monarchy of England and he was executing by order of King Henry 8th of England. 

According to his book, the unit of production was family. Elected people’s representatives run the state 

system. People worked 6 hours a day and spent the rest of their time doing science and research. The 

all-round development of the individual was highly valued on this island. The integration of education 

and labor was seeing as a fictional socialist thinker. Tammaso Campanella (1568-1639) was a monk. 

Before becoming a monk, his name was Giovanni Domeni. He was a visitor to Italy. He led a revolt in 

1599 to liberate Italy from Spanish colonial rule. The Spanish authorities arrested him and sentenced him 

to 27 years in prison. While he was in jail, he wrote a book called Suryanagar. The book was writing in 

1602 and published underground in 1623. Even though it was a novel, its meaning was similar to that of 

Thomas Moore’s book.  

4.2 The Fight against Feudalism 

Charles I was executed on 30th January 1649, after the British organized efforts against feudalism 

began in 1640. After the enthronement of William of Orange as the constitutional monarch in 1688, 

feudalism took over the economic sphere, institutionalizing capitalist democracy politically. The 

economy was governing by trade policy. The laws were in the hands of the feudal lords. Only five large 

trading houses had the right to foreign trade. At the time, economist Adam Smith, in his book Wealth of 

Nations, discussed governmental stance on economic issues, free trade, Slogans of individualism and 

personal freedom were putting forward. His ideas gave birth to the French revolution of 1789. The free 

market economy was considering the power of magic. The aggrieved masses thought that the capitalist 

revolution would end their misery, but in practice, nothing like that happened. The gap between rich 

and poor is widening. The liberation of small capitalists and small traders from feudal bondage meant 

the freedom to sell their property into the hands of big capitalists. The feudal lords oppressed the poor 

on the basic of power. The capitalists uplifted the poor on the basic of capital. The bourgeoisie tasted 

economic prosperity. Poverty, unemployment and illiteracy were on the rise for the poor. In the midst of 

such a situation, an imaginary socialism was developing. 

In 1871, the workers of Paris raised their voices. It also called Paris Commune, but due to lack of 

experience, the arrangement did not last more than 72 days. In October 1717, the Bolshevik Communist 

Party led the October revolution against tsarism in Russia. That revolution overthrew the tsarist regime 

and established the rule of the proletariat. Stalin also continued the revolution led by Lenin. During that 

period, in 40 years, the socialists did what Russia could not do in 200 years. 

 



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4.3 Impact and Consequences of the Chinese Revolution 

After the end of the Chinese Revolution in 1949, private sector business was gradually established and 

brought under the control of the government. By 1952, about 17% of industrial production units were 

out of government control. Under the nationwide land reform program, 45% of the cultivable land was 

taken away from the landlords and distributed to the farmers. In 1953 to 1957, the program of 

socialization carried forward to the government-owned modern area. Large cooperative units and a 

centralized economic plan implemented in agriculture. The policy of peaceful transfer of private 

industry put forward and nationalized at cheap rates. By 1956, 90% of the agricultural sector had made 

cooperative. In 1958, Mao launched a policy of killing the potential for high economic growth. In 1960, 

98% of the country’s rural agriculture brought under the control of the commune, but the hasty 

introduction of the program proved impractical and unsuccessful. As a result, the program led to a 

sharp decline in agricultural production and discontinued in 1961. China placed agriculture first, light 

industry second and large industry third. 

When Tengxiao Ping came to power in 1977, he made sweeping changes to Maoist policy. Compared 

to western countries, China lags far behind in technology and education. In 1978, he sent a delegation 

to study 15 cities in five European countries, led by Gumu Ning, a member of the Standing Committee. 

Tengxiao Ping himself also visited many countries, including Europe, America, Japan and Singapore in 

Asia. Four special economic zones were used based on that study were Shenzhen, Zhuhai, Santao and 

Xiamen. China’s current situation is due to Teng’s policy. Seeing the incompetence of the old 

revolutionary leaders in the new environment, he put forward a formula of respecting beggars to 

dismiss such leaders, including himself, from the regular work of the party. The salary of a mature 

leader, he decided to give a security guard, accommodation, a vehicle for life and leave the post to 

become a consultant. A new party formed at the central and lower levels to determine educational 

qualifications, age and duration. If the country does not develop rapidly, the communist regime will be 

in danger and China will beat by foreigners because it is poor. "We don’t want to be poor again," he 

said. He emphasized the need to focus on science, technology and education to make China rich and to 

develop science and technology as the primary productive forces. As a result, China has emerged as the 

world’s second-largest economy, with GDP of 10.36 trillion, per capita income and 7600 thousand in 

2014.  

4.4 American Independence and the Japanese Mizi King 

Alexander Hamilton, the first post-independence finance minister, presented a report on industrial 

policy to the US Congress in 1791. He emphasized in the report that the United States must protect its 

infant industry. This policy followed by later American nations. 

In 1868, the Mizi emperor came to power in Japan. His government set up 50 industries for 

industrialization. A mission led by Iwakara Tomomi was sent abroad to make Japan an industrialized 

and developed nation. The mission included high-ranking officials from industry, agriculture, mining, 

the financial sector, culture, education, the army and the police. From December 1871 to September 



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1873, the mission traveled to 15 different countries, studying the state of development and using it in 

the development of Japan. As a result, in a span of 30 years, Japan became the first industrial, militarily 

strong and rich nation in Asia. After the 2
nd

 World War, Japan faced a major economic crisis and 

adopted a strict foreign exchange policy to curb imports. The policy of giving foreign currency to bring 

high technology home was following and a guided loan program with grants was starting to protect 

one’s industry. 

4.5 Changes in the Industrial Area after 2
nd

 World War 

After the 2nd World War, France adopted a policy of symbolic planning. He took over some of the 

major industries from the government after an announcement of nationalization. Investment flowed 

into industries through state-owned banks. Until 1960, he imposed high taxes on the import of 

industrial goods to boost his industry. By 1980, France had established itself as a leader in the field of 

technology. 

South American countries dominated by left-wing governments have had success in development 

through education programs in the 1990s. Although the government received partial support from the 

private sector when implementing socialist programs in those countries, the government needed to have 

its own means of production, including quality services and facilities. It means being able to provide 

government-owned educational institutions, hospitals, public institutions, public services and goods. 

All government-owned entities providing essential goods and services have to improve the quality of 

life, to the detriment of the private sector. 

After 1986, the term "socialist-oriented" was using in reference to Doimoi in Vietnam. The Vietnamese 

communist party pursued a policy of allowing the private sector into its program. China calls this 

program socialism with Chinese characteristics. The system called the Chinese socialist market 

economy. It said that Marxism is not radicalism and it is an active practical movement. Its main 

objective was to effectively developing the productive forces to make everyone in society happy. 

There were movements for political change in Nepal. The unitary system was abolishing by the 

movement to establish a model of socialist development while protecting the rights and interests of the 

people and the preamble of the Constitution of Nepal 2015 issued a general political commitment 

towards socialism based on democratic values and beliefs. Article (4) of the constitution defines Nepal 

as a socialist-oriented democratic republic. As a guiding principle of the state, Article 50, sub-article (3), 

included the issue of developing a socialist-oriented economy in the country by emphasizing 

participation of public, private and cooperatives in production and distribution. While ensuring 

democratic rights, the rights of all, including education, health, employment, labor, food and housing 

guaranteed. The constitution defines the role of various parties in the economic development and 

prosperity of the country and emphasizes social justice as an important aspect of socialism. 

 

 

 



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5. Study Method 

This study has based on information, sources, and reference material obtained from the description. 

There is a low presence of primary data. The study data is publishing by various bodies of the 

Government of Nepal from 2013 to 2021 with industrial data to show the employment situation. The 

study explores the impact of various aspects of the socialist economy on the economic development of 

the country. The theoretical and policy arrangements for its mitigation use limited time. The problems 

and issues in this study are describing on a factual basis gradually. The available information has 

further clarified investment and employment situations from the past to the present. Since this study 

only addresses the possibilities and challenges of the industrial sector in building a socialist-oriented 

economy. Apart from this, policy provisions related to the customs of Nepal have not been fully 

explaining but general information has presented. 

 

6. Discussion and Analysis 

6.1 Development of Industrialization and Creation an Employment 

The process of moving the society or state from an agricultural economy to an industrial economy 

through the process of mass production of goods is calling industrialization. It generated in a specific 

area where it based on economic growth by developing machinery, technology and work processes in 

order to produce more in less time. The industrial revolution was the first step towards industrialization, 

a process that began in the mid 18th and early 19th centuries. When the mechanization of the work 

process first took place, it added energy in the form of machinery, serial production and use. 

Industrialization is necessary to reduce production time and cost. Increasing the volume of production, 

making better use of human capital, expanding the market and increasing the sales percentage of the 

state requires some reforms in politics, law and adequate raw materials and cheap labor resources. The 

aim of the industry is to increase the maximum possible number of producers for production, which is 

gradually developing in the world market. 

The rapid development of scientific disciplines and technologies in the industrialized society 

contributes to the growth of population income and population growth. The process of industrialization 

began in Western Europe in the 18th century, mainly in Great Britain, which increased agricultural 

efficiency. Led to population growth and shifting the unemployed to cities where labor resources 

needed in the production process. Technology has developed remarkably in the process of 

industrialization in the 19th century. After the invention of the combustion engine, electrical and 

electronic equipment became widely used. Manufacturers began to focus on more mechanized and 

knowledge-intensive production allowed them to produce standardized products in the shortest possible 

time with minimal use of human labor. As a result, the dimensions of industrialization became wider. 

The negative balance of payments in Nepal means the country buys more goods from abroad than 

exports. That is, when imports outnumber exports, one has to borrow from other countries or financial 

institutions to cover the cost of exports. In this case, the country’s economy is under pressure. Not only 



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will the consumer incur losses but also the country may have to sell its assets (natural resources, land or 

commodities) to pay off debts. When the balance of payments is positive, the capital paid for domestic 

production increases and it can even lend to other countries. Remittances appear to have been a major 

source of foreign exchange reserves in recent years, but have declined due to the global labor market 

and the economy that have been affected by the Covid-19 pandemic. In the first six months of the 

current fiscal year, remittances amounting to Rs. 468 billion were received. It was 5.5% less than the 

same period last year. Although tourism is another major source of foreign exchange, the contribution 

of the tourism sector to foreign exchange reserves in 2021 was limited to 7.26 billion, which is 90% 

less than the previous fiscal year (Kathmandu Post, 27
th

 October 2021). If tourism, exports and foreign 

investment have increased, the state could have kept the balance of payments in remittances by 

reducing the inflow of remittances, but little attention has paid to these areas. 

 

Table 1. Details of Approved Industry and Employment (Table No. 1) Investment in Crores 

S.N Fiscal Year Number Percent Investment Percent Number of jobs Percent 

1 2013/14 370 11.9 28780.8 17.8 21448  13 

2 2014/15 466 15 13875.1 8.6 22785  13.8 

3 2015/16 409 13.2 12,100.7 7.5 18730  11.3 

4 2016/17 510 16.4 16137.4 10 26530  16.1 

5 2017/18 496 16 35058.9 21.7 27339  16.5 

6 2018/19 439 14.1 28335.3 17.6 23043  13.9 

7 2020/21 277 8.9 15272.5 9.5 17388  10.5 

8 2021/22 136 4.4 11819.9 7.3 7954  4.8 

9 Total 3103 100 161380.6 100 165217    100 

Department of industry 2021.  

 

The Table gives information about the approved industries of Nepal in the last eight years and the 

employment conditions created by them. Unlike in the early years, there has been no positive 

improvement in the industry lately. Looking at 2020/21 and 2021/22, the number of industries have 

come down from 8.9% to 4.4% with investment of 7.3% and employment of 4.8%. In fiscal year 

2021/22, 11.9% of the industry invested 17.8% and provided 13% employment.  

6.2 Contribution of Manufacturing Industry 

Although, the industrial development process in Nepal has not been rapid but its importance and 

relevance is increasing today as it was past. Due to the inability to develop the industry in the same way 

for economic development in the country, it has not been able to contribute as much as it should in the 

national income. The contribution of manufacturing industry in the last eight years is presenting below. 

 



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Table 2. Manufacturing Industries in Nepal 

 S.N Fiscal year                 Contribution (%) 

 1 2013/14                  6.20 

 2 2014/15                 5.94 

 3 2015/16                 5.45 

 4 2016/17                 5.49 

 5 2017/18                 5.63 

 6 2018/19                  5.75 

 7 2019/20                 5.03 

 8 2020/21                 5.08 

 

The contribution of manufacturing industry has decreased from 6.2% in 2013/14 to 5.63% in fiscal year 

2017/18. Similarly, this trend has been steadily declining to 5.08% in fiscal year 2020/21. The 

condition of industry in the country is deteriorating day by day due to declining contribution of 

manufacturing industry. 

 

Table 3. Annual Growth Rate of Manufacturing Industry 

S.N Fiscal year Growth rate (%) Remarks 

1 2013/14 6.05  

2 2014/15 0.06  Earthquake 

3 2015/16 -9.51  Earthquake 

4 2016/17 16.83  

5 2017/18 9.21  

6 2018/19 6.52  

7 2019/20 8.57  Covid-19 

8 2020/21 3.85  

Central Statisticals Department 2021. 

 

The contribution of manufacturing industry has decreased from 6.05% in fiscal year 2013/14 to 0.06% 

in 2014/15. Similarly, in 2015/16, this trend continued to decline and dropped to a negative face value 

of 9.51%. The growth rate of manufacturing industry, which increased by 9.21% in fiscal year 2017/18, 

has declined to 8.57% in fiscal year 2019/20 and 3.85% growth in fiscal year 2020/21. The fluctuations 

in the annual growth rate of the manufacturing industry do not seem to be satisfactory in Nepal’s 

industry and business. 

 

 



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6.3 Contribution of Private Sector in Industrialization 

Nepal is necessary to pay special attention to two aspects of industrial development. Firstly, establish 

operate large-scale industries under the activism and leadership of the private sector. The government 

will facilitate executives in policy, legal, institutional and procedural ways. Secondly, promote small 

home-based and micro-enterprises by investing in active initiatives of the government, expanding the 

target groups (poor, helpless, destitute, neglected, backward and marginalized, especially women, dalit, 

ethnicity and Madhesi community). Nepal’s industrial sector can move forward on the basic grounds 

that it will be possible to reach the destination of egalitarian economic prosperity. Otherwise, Nepalese 

economic development will be unequal and discriminatory, unilaterally for rich and poor, urban and 

rural, big and small, rich and poor. The gap between educated and uneducated will continue to widen. 

Based on the classification, the industry presented as follows:  

 

Table 4. Industries Based on Agriculture and Forest Products 

S.N Fiscal year Number Percent Capital Percent Jobs Percent 

1 2013/14 46 20.2 1566.68 7.7 1627 18.1 

2 2014/15 50 21.9 1513.9  7.4 1596 17.8 

3 2015/16 28 12.3 987.9 4.8 1038 11.6 

4 2016/17 25 11 3261.6 16 831 9.3 

5 2017/18 22 9.6 2517.7 12.3 653 7.3 

6 2018/19   27 11.8 4100.6 20.1 992 11 

7 2019/20 9 3.9 1126.43  5.5 318 3.5 

8 2020/21 21 9.2 5348.56  26.2 1923 21.4 

9 Total 228 100 20423.4  100 8978 100 

Department of Industry 2021 

  

The above table shows that the industries are based on agriculture, forest products and the employment 

opportunities created by them. In fiscal year 2013/14, it was seen that 20.2% of industry had created 

18.1% employment with an investment of 7.7%. By the end of the review period, the industry had 

shrunk to 11% and provided 9.6% employment. By comparing, 3.9% of the industry was 5.5% 

investment of only 3.5% employment in fiscal year 2019/20. Similarly, in the last year of the reviewer 

period, the industry rose 9.2% in fiscal year 2020/21, lost 26.2% and provided employment of 21.4%. 

The condition of industries based on agriculture and forest products does not seem to have moved 

forward at the same as federalism.  

 

 

 



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Table 5. Energy Based Industries in Different Fiscal Years 

S.N Fiscal year Number Percent Capital Percent Jobs Percent 

1 2013/14  43 16.2 231231.05 21.3 4709 26.2 

2 2014/15  29 10.9 83081.73 7.6 2392 13.3 

3 2015/16  15 5.6 38344.89 3.5 678 3.8 

4 2016/17  19 7.1 82203.05 7.6 1679 9.3 

5 2017/18  39 14.7 232913.04 21.4 2571 14.3 

6 2018/19  47 17.7 210004.87 19.3 2489 13.8 

7 2019/20  44 16.5 100201.75 9.2 2060 11.5 

8 2020/21  30 11.3 109974.44 10.1 1407 7.8 

9 Total  266 100 1087954.8 100 17985 100 

Department of Industry 2021 

 

The energy-based industries and the employment opportunities they have created employment. It is 

seen that in fiscal year 2013/14 that has 16.2% of the industry to created 26.2% employment with an 

investment of 21.3%. Review period in 2015/16, energy-based industries were reduced to 5.6% and 

3.8% employment was provided. In fiscal year 2020/21, there was 11.3% of the industry with an 

investment of 10.1% employed total of 7.8%. At the state of the energy-based industry, it does not 

appear that it has grown as fast as it should with the development of federalism. 

 

Table 6. Mineral Based Industry, Investment Capital in Crorer 

S.N Year Number Percent Capital Percent Jobs Percent 

1 2013/14  2  11.1  105  3.5  262  14.2 

2 2014/15   7 38.9   251 8.4   680  37 

3 2015/16    0  0   0  0   0  0 

4 2016/17   3 16.7 81.7  2.7  130 7.1 

5 2017/18  4 22.2 2422.2  80.8  590 32.1 

6 2018/19  1 5.6 12.8  0.4  85 4.6 

7 2019/20  0 0  0  0  0  0 

8 2020/21  1 5.6  123.45  4.1  92  5 

9 Total  18 100 2996 100 1839 100 

Department of Industry 2021. 

 

 

 

 



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The investment in the mineral base industry and its employment opportunities has created in different 

fiscal years. At the statistics of above Table, it is seen that 11.1% industry has created 14.4% 

employment in the fiscal year 2013/14. Come from three years after that in 2015/16, the condition of 

the industry decreased to zero. In 2017/18, the growth of mineral base industries reached 22.2% while 

investment was 80.8% and it created 32.1% employment. Similarly, in fiscal year 2019/20, the 

condition of the industry had dropped to zero. In 2020/21, 5.6% of industries were established and 5% 

of the people were employee through investment of 4.1%. The condition of mineral base industries is 

very poor. 

 

Table 7. Service Based Industries in Different Years 

S.N Year Number Percent Capital Percent Jobs Percent 

1 2013/14  99 12.2 5061.96  7.8 3584 10.7 

2 2014/15  137 16.8 8073.16  12.5 4992 14.8 

3 2015/16  117 14.4 11220.07  17.3 4374 13 

4 2016/17  165 20.3 15853.56  24.5 7012 20.8 

5 2017/18  115  14.1 5154.5  18 4532 13.5 

6 2018/19  102  12.5 5456.55  8.4 3629 10.8 

7 2019/20  46  5.7 8301.5  12.8  3735 11.5 

Department of Industry 2021. 

 

Establishment of service-based industries makes it easier for the people in the country to get the goods 

they want. Access to services makes life easier for the common person, and as a result, there is 

diversity in production. One can look at the investment in the service-oriented industry and the 

employment situation it has created. In the first year, 12.2% industry created 10.7% employment. Come 

on. In 2018/19, when the condition of industry increased to 20.3%, 20.8% employment was providing. 

Review period In 2020/21, the industry was limited to 4.1% and by investing 8.7% in, the industry has 

provided employment to 5.3% people. 

 

Table 8. Tourism Based on Business, Capital Investment in Crorer  

S.N Year Number Percent Capital Percent Jobs Percent 

1  2013/14  84  9.3 5832.77 2.2 3252 9.5 

2 2014/15  147 16.3 27215.37 10.3 6742 19.6 

3 2015/16  112 12.4 11124.95 4.2 3785 11 

4 2016/17  154 17 149999.72 57 5215 15.2 

5 2017/18  159 17.6 23855.5  9.1 5373 15.6 

6 2018/19  117 12.9 11040.44 4.2 3706 10.8 



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7 2019/20   91 10.1 20527.21 7.8 4436 12.9 

8 2020/21  40 4.4 13485.49 5.1 1894 5.5 

9 Total  904 100 263081.5 100 34403 100 

Department of Industry 2021. 

 

The establishment of industry based on tourism business contributes to the development of various 

destinations in the country. Access to the service facilitates the livelihood of the common person. Table 

9 above depicts the investment in the tourism business based industry and the employment situation 

created by it. In the 2013/14 base year, 9.3% industry has created 9.5% employment with 2.2% 

investment. Come on. In 2017/18, the capacity of the industry increased 17% of industry to 57% of 

invested and 15.2% employment was provided. The end of the review period is approaching. By fiscal 

year 2020/21, the industry was limited to 4.4% and it employed 5.5% people with 5.1% investment. 

 

Table 9. List of Registered Industries up to F Y 2020/21 and Capital Investment per Thousand  

S.N Industry  Numbers Percent Investment Percent Jobs Percent 

1  Agriculture and forest  291 5.4 9409.82  1.7 10524 3.8 

2  Energy based   90 1.7 222832.30 39.1 11837 4.3 

3  Information & technology 112 2.1 14595.84 2.6 5745 2.1 

4  Infrastructure based  46 0.8 3842.34  0.7 3226 1.2 

5  Construction based  1212 22.3 122548.10 21.5 103091 37.5 

6  Minerals based  72 1.3 10336.92 1.8 8786 3.2 

7  Service based  1722 31.7 96570.98 17 73162 26.6 

8  Tourism, business based 1889 34.8 89,328.45 15.7 58649 21.3 

9  Grand Total  5434 100 659464.75 100 275020 100 

Department of Industry 2021. 

 

The establishment of various business based industries and its development has shown its contribution. 

Come on. It depicts the investment made in various business base industries in 2020/21 and the 

employment situation created by it. During that period, 34.8% of the industries in the tourism business 

have provided employment with 21.3% employment with 15.7% investment. Construction-based 

industries accounted for 37.5%, service-based industries 26.6% and infrastructure-based industries the 

lowest at 1.2%. The highest investment was in energy 39.1% and the lowest in infrastructure 0.7% 

respectively. 

 

 

 



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Table 10. Provincial Industries in Fiscal Year 2020/21, Capital Investment in Thousand 

S.N Province Number Percent Investment Percent Jobs Percent 

1  Province one 808 9.6 524208.14 23 82192  13.1 

2  Madhesh Pradesh 572 6.8 121399.47 5.3 58451  9.3 

3  Bagmati region 5628 66.6 841618.03 36.9 376907  59.9 

4  Gandaki Pradesh 705 8.3 449242.03 19.7 39955  6.4 

5  Lumbini Province 579 6.8 194515.7 8.5 58216  9.3 

6  Karnali Pradesh 40 0.5 113217.6 5 2575  0.4 

7  Far western region 122 1.4 39333.41 1.7 10,500  1.7 

8  Total  8454 100 2283533.88 100 628795  100 

Department of Industry 2021. 

 

In fiscal year 2020/21 has shown that the establishment of various business based industries with 

different province and the investment made to established industry for job creation to people. During 

this period, 66.6% of the industries have established in Bagmati Pradesh and 0.5% of the industries 

have registered in Karnali. Looking at the same times the investment in industry of highest investment 

is 36.9% in Bagmati and the lowest investment is 1.7% in Far Western Province. While Bagmati has 

59.9% employment, Karnali has 0.4% employment. Overall, Bagmati is in the first place and Far West 

is in the last place. Province one was second and Madhesh Province was third overall evaluation during 

the obsurvation period. 

  

Table 11. Classified of Industries Up to 2020/21 

S.N Category Number Percent Capital Percent Jobs  Percent 

1  Big industry  1214  14.4 1965118.73  86.1 166302  26.4 

2  Medium industry 1909 22.6  211673.24  9.3 171162  27.2 

3   Small industry 5331 63.1 106741.91  4.7 291331  46.3 

4   Total 8454 100 2283533.88  100 628795  100 

Department of Industry 2021. 

 

The last period, the smallest industry among the registered industries in Nepal has 63.1% to generate of 

46.3% employment. Similarly, 22.6% of medium industries provided 27.2% employment and 14.4% of 

large-scale industries provided 26.4% employment. Capital investment is 86.1% in large-scale 

industries, 9.3% in medium scale industries and 4.7% in small-scale industries respectively. Comparing 

the number of industries established in Nepal, small industries accounted for 63.1%, medium industries 

for 22.6% and large industries for only 14.4%. Therefore, industrialization does not seem to have 

developed in Nepal. 



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6.4 Policy Provisions Related to Foreign Investment Promotion 

According to the constitutional provision, Article 51 (d) of the State Policies of the Constitution of 

Nepal, policy on finance, industry and commerce should attract foreign investment by promoting 

import substitution and export in line with the national interest. The Comprehensive foreign investment 

and technology transfer act, 2018 has promulgated with the aim of creating a good environment by 

adopting an investment-friendly industrialization policy to attract foreign capital and technology 

transfer. This Act regulates foreign investment. The Foreign Investment and Technology Transfer Act is 

believed to make 1992 more attractive. The Technology Transfer Act 2015 has issued to manage 

foreign investment. This act has paved the way for the easy transfer of technology abroad. It believes 

that it will be easier to attract foreign investment in Nepal after the issuance of Foreign Investment 

Policy 2013. It is believed that these and similar foreign investments will come to Nepal in a simple 

way after the policy arrangement in this regard. It believed that after the issuance of Public Private 

Partnership Policy 2015 by Nepal, the amount of industry to establish through public and private 

investment and the amount of private investment in it will increase. Similarly, Industrial Policy 2067 

has created an environment to encourage investment in industry and business. The Industrial Business 

Act 2019 and the Industrial Rules 2019 also set the thematic bases on how to increase investment in 

industry and business and create an industrial environment. The Foreign Exchange Regulation Act 

2019 And the Rules 2019 have laid the groundwork for regulating foreign exchange in addition to 

foreign investment. After the promulgation of the Non-Resident Nepali Act 2007, it has shown that 

non-resident Nepalis are increasingly investing in Nepal, including increasing investment in industry, 

communication, transportation and service sectors. Therefore, after the implementation of these foreign 

investment laws and regulations, foreign investment has been encouraged in Nepal. 

 

Table 12. Licensed Industries for Foreign Investment up to Fiscal Year 2020/21 

S.N Category Number Percent Capital Percent Jobs  Percent 

1  2010/11 210 6.3  11252.69 2.6 10053  3.3 

2  2011/12 226 6.8  11909.82 2.8 7138  2.3 

3  2012/13 317 9.5  51990.78 12.1 19819  6.5 

4  2013/14 307 9.2  40737.27 9.5 20132  6.6 

5  2014/15 370 11.1  81370.60 19 67455 22 

6  2015/16 348 10.5  20543.89 4.8 15254 5 

7  2016/17 400 12  17123.51 4 15207  5 

8  2017/18 400 12  61349.11 14.3 55760 18.2 

9  2018/19 344 10.3  31863.05 7.4 25,480  8.3 

10  2019/20 223 6.7  50749.34 11.9 37806 12.3 

11  2020/21 184 5.5 49,251.58 11.5 32073  10.5 



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12  Total 3329 100 428181.64 100 306177  100 

Department of Industry 2021. 

 

The commodity status of the foreign-based industries with permission in Nepal for the last eleven years 

is shown in as table thirteen. In the base year, 6.3% of the industry lost 2.6% and provided 3.3% 

employment. It has mentioned that in 2014/15, it has 11.1% of industry will guarantee 19% investment 

and provide 22% employment. In the review period of 2020/21, it has 5.5% of the industries got 

permission for establishment and 11.5% of the investment will provide to 10.5% of employment. 

Analyzing the situation of industries established foreign investment in this way, it has been declining in 

the last period of the review that needs to be improved. 

 

7. Possibility 

For the development of industrial sector in Nepal, it is not appropriate to move forward by formulating 

thinking and strategy in the framework of other developed countries. In order to industrialize Nepal on 

the basis of its geographical, natural, social, economic and political uniqueness, agriculture, forest and 

vegetation, mining and minerals and other natural resources should be made into raw materials and 

capital and technology should be brought in from outside or by establishing industries. Importing raw 

materials from abroad will increase the cost of the product and will not be competitive. It is appropriate 

for Nepal to move towards industrialization by mobilizing the abundant natural resources available in 

Nepal. This makes it possible for local people to get employment, low cost and efficiency in production, 

quality including product specificity, sustainability of production system and process. As the policy to 

accelerate the pace of industrialization, 

Various measures can be takes to increase energy efficiency in the industrial sector. Policies should 

enact in the law to encourage co-energy production in productive industries, to promote the use of 

renewable clean energy, and to produce energy from industrial waste. It believed that some 

achievements will achieved through the new proposed Industrial Business Act. It is reasonable to 

encourage foreign investment to flow more into the priority sector, but the negative list should not 

make too large. Investors should not give a negative message at the outset by setting investment limits 

and sectoral calculations. It is not right for Nepalis to be very intolerant towards investing abroad and it 

should be done according to the law according to the purpose, area, priority, limit of investment, level, 

It would be in line with the norms of liberal economic policy to regulate and leave open. While 

managing industrial property under intellectual property, provision should make in law for protection, 

promotion and protection of trademarks, patents and designs. Similarly, setting up up-to-date legal, 

institutional and procedural arrangements for quality assessment, testing, certification and 

authentication is another important priority of the government. It plays a very valuable role for the 

smooth international entry of manufactured goods and creates an industrial environment in the country. 

Institutional and procedural arrangements are also among the priorities of another important 



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government. It plays a very valuable role for the smooth international entry of manufactured goods and 

creates an industrial environment in the country. Institutional and procedural arrangements are also 

among the priorities of another important government. It plays a very valuable role for the smooth 

international entry of manufactured goods and creates an industrial environment in the country. 

To reduce foreign exchange reserves and balance of payments deficits, the government often looks to 

foreign workers and borrows at concessional rates or relies on supportive donor agencies.. As foreign 

exchange declines, imports begin to tighten seeks to increase internal productivity. Due to the inflow of 

internal capital and the government’s decision to impose higher tariffs on raw materials than on 

ready-made goods coming to Nepal from India, Nepal’s industries are hitting harder. Recently, a policy 

has been formulated to have 100% cash margin when opening LC (Letter of Trade) for import of sugar, 

cigarettes, liquor, chocolate, cosmetics and other commodities.. Earlier, when ordering goods worth 

over Rs 10 million, the importer used to work with only Rs 1 lakh in cash and the rest could be 

borrowed from banks.. An example of this is the rule that Nepali citizens traveling abroad cannot carry 

more than $500 with them, but earlier the limit was set at $1,000. Moreover, Nepali tourists and 

workers going to Gulf, Malaysia and other countries are not allowing to taking more than 250 dollars 

with them. This will increase the foreign exchange reserves in Nepal and create an environment where 

the money can invested in the industrial sector. 

 

8. Challenges 

Nepal is on the path of a socialist economy. It seems necessary to accelerate the pace of industrial 

development. Unless an industrial environment created in the country. Self-employment opportunities 

will not create and the available resources will not fully utilize. In order to take the country towards 

modernity, it is necessary to accelerate the pace of development of the industry. Unless an 

investment-friendly environment created in the industry, the investor’s attention cannot be directed 

towards industry development. There is a spontaneous environment for general investment in the 

development of the industry and it cannot grow in a negligible way. Therefore, it has become necessary 

to remove the challenges in industry development.  

The industry hit by Corona after the earthquake, which weakened by 2015, has been unable to recover 

due to the global spread of the corona virus. Sometimes, due to earthquakes and due to the economic 

blockade of India, the Corona virus, the industries that are operating have to pay regular bank interest, 

to pay salaries to the employees, pay the rent of the buildings and pay taxes to the state. The state has 

not been able to provide any such facilities for the industrialists, as they need to given more 

concessions. 

The industrial act controversy about entrepreneurs’ policy: the state brought the industrial Act in 

Nepal due to conflict of policy between industrialists and executives. Differences between the 

entrepreneurs could not be resolved. In such a situation, the private industries in Nepal now have to 

fight unannounced even with the state. The situation became more difficult for the goods produced by 



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the multinational companies to compete when they could not provide good facilities for the workers.  

Open Border: With the open border between India and Nepal, it has alleged that businesses under the 

government are involved in smuggling goods from India to Nepal. Due to this problem, it has become 

difficult to compete with the goods entering Nepal without customs clearance and the industries have 

collapsed even more. Goods from India are more prepared and raw materials are scarce. Due to the 

open borders with the goods produced in such large investments, the small-scale industries of Nepal 

have to face more problems competing. 

Electricity: Nepal does not fully operate industries due to electricity. Its tariff rate has not become 

industry friendly. The state has not been able to provide electricity despite assuring industrialists that it 

will provide electricity if required at a minimum demand fee. It remains that treatment of the industry 

by the state does seem to be conducive to development. Even if the industrialists plan to expand their 

capacity, the state should be able to provide electricity to industry if it can expand the capacity of 

machines in a timely manner. 

Problems in management: The conditions that lay down at the time of applying to the management 

office are not fulfilled later. Due to weak policy of the state and not only the management, there is very 

little practice of taking responsibility. 

Long-term sustainability of the workers: The workers have a big hand in making any industry run 

smoothly for a long time. Even if the workers want to work well, due to the relatively low amount of 

money available for them in Nepal. It is not possible for the skilled workers to last long. For the 

continuous supply of skilled workers, the state needs to address the issue through the budget. 

Emphasis on import substitution: The state should identify imports and encourage domestic 

production for long-term solutions, despite tightening imports. In order to do so, it is necessary to bring 

concessional programs to reduce production costs, including taxes. In the case of importing raw 

materials from most industries, it would not be appropriate to impose higher customs duty on raw 

materials than on ready-made goods coming to Nepal from India. Higher customs duties on raw 

materials increase cost and weaken competitiveness. Apart from this, attention should be pay to the 

quality of Nepali products. Consumers with money buy foreign goods because such quality goods 

should produced in Nepal. Although the government has tried to reduce the consumption of smoking 

and alcoholic beverages by imposing higher taxes on the import of foreign wines has not decreased, it 

has not replaced by Nepali products. At present, customs duty of Rs 370 per liter has to pay on wine 

containing 12% alcohol. There are examples of foreign wines preferred by more consumers than Nepali 

ones. 

New technology: Industrialists also need to introduce new technologies in a timely manner. However, 

the industries in Nepal are still operating in the traditional way. It is important to link the industry with 

current advanced technology. 

Peacekeeping: At times, a peaceful environment needed in the industrial sector, but there is no fencing 

in those areas. Even if the state provides workers in the name of security forces, that worker seems to 



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be unused. The state has not spent even 10% of the tax paid in the industrial sector for development and 

security to pay on the industrial sector, which is 10 billion of taxes. It seems that we need to ensure a 

peaceful environment and a secure environment in the industrial sector. 

 

9. Conclusion 

Nepal has ensured a “socialism-oriented economy’ in the constitution for six years. In the last year, the 

strong government with a single majority failed to bring a “socialist-oriented economy” outside of the 

pages of the constitution. Experts have been saying that the country has a constitution but the 

government has not found any strong basis to build a socialist-oriented economy. Economist 

Vishwambhar Pyakurel says that the leader’s speech was nothing more than a break from the table. 

Although the constitution guarantees food, shelter and cotton, the discriminatory policy of the 

government has reached a stage where the people are not getting the minimum required. Economist 

Govinda Nepal says that even though it has taken a long time to establish a republic, the basis for the 

socialism-oriented economy envisaged in the constitution has not laid down. Economist Keshav 

Acharya argues that three pillars of the economy provided in the constitution have not implemented 

effectively. He says the new rules for cooperatives are trying to weaken cooperatives. There is no 

government policy to increase employment and self-employment in the private sector. There are no 

means of tax exemption, no provision of grants and incentives. According to experts, the government 

has failed in its campaign to build a socialist economy to establish social justice. The government 

should take private investors into confidence and move towards setting up industries. This opens the 

door to ample possibilities for development in the country and contributes to economic empowerment 

of people through self-employment.  

The state has to achieve sustainable economic development and equitable distribution of economic 

inequality and build a society free from exploitation. It said that the economic objective of the state will 

be to develop the economy. From this point of view, industrialization is indispensable for the economic 

development of the country through public and private investment. With the proper use of all kinds of 

raw materials, including agricultural products available in a particular place through industry, 

employment opportunities will be available in the country. It will become economically self-reliant and 

move towards economic empowerment. In particular, countries that have adopted a socialist system of 

government are giving equality of opportunity to include public or collective ownership of resources.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



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References 

Department of Industriy. (2021). Industrial Statistics of Nepal 2021, Kathmandu, Nepal. 

GoV Nepal. (2018). Foreign Investment and Technology Transfer Act of Nepal 2018. Kathmandu, 

Nepal. 

Government of Nepal. (2014). Foreign Investment Policy of Nepal 2014. Kathmandu, Nepal. 

MoF. (1981). Foreign Investment Act, 1981. Kathmandu, Nepal 

MoF. (1992). Foreign Investment and Technology Transfer Act, 1992. Kathmandu, Nepal. 

MoF. (2021). Nepal’s budget for FY 2021/22. Ministry of finance, Kathmandu, Nepal. 

Nepal’s Constitution. (2015). Constitution of Nepal 2015, Nepal law commission, Kathmandu. 

 


