


































Advances in Politics and Economics
ISSN 2576-1382 (Print) ISSN 2576-1390 (Online)

Vol. 8, No. 1, 2025
www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape

1

Original Paper

Upgrading for Sustainable Development Goal through 16th Plan

of Nepal: A Study of Its Challenges and Opportunities
Dr. Uttam Khanal1* & Ravi Raj Puri2*

1 Department of Economics and Social Sciences, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal
2 Department of Conflict Peace and development Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal

Email: khanaluttam24@yahoo.com, ORCID ID: 0000-0002-5355-9049, ravirajpuri47@gmail.com

Received: December 03, 2024 Accepted: December 26, 2024 Online Published: January 03, 2025

doi:10.22158/ape.v8n1p1 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/ape.v8n1p1

Abstract

Nepal has implemented the millennium development goals since 2000 to 2015. During the period,

poverty decreased from 42% to 23.8%, while the net enrollment rate at the primary level was 96.6%,

the literacy rate of the 24-year-old age group reached 88.5%, and the retention rate at the primary

level reached 85.6%. The infant mortality rate was 108 per thousand and the child mortality rate per

thousand live births was 162 in 1990. These numbers were decrease to 33 and 3 respectively in 2014.

Measles vaccination had reached 92 percent. The list of least developed countries of Nepal will

upgrade to developing countries before in 2030. The identification and use of potential resources have

together opportunities and challenges for Nepal. The goal of sustainable development can achieve by

making the best use opportunities facing the challenges that have come before it. An Implementation of

the Millennium Development Goals was 2016 to 2030, including Nepal and 193 countries in the world.

It was include ending all forms of poverty, education, health, housing, clean fuel, and the environment

for all. Equal participation at all levels in development is essential to achieving human rights, gender

equality, and empowerment for all women and children. The sustainable ecological system has adopted

policy to protect, enhance, and use natural resources. It is decide to build an egalitarian society in the

preamble of the Constitution of Nepal 2015. A policy was adapting to bases of national needs and

priorities on foreign aid for the implementation process and global partnerships for sustainable

development.

Keywords

sustainable development goal, economic growth, social justice, nutritious food, poverty, agriculture,

empowerment of women and girls



www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 8, No. 1, 2025

2
Published by SCHOLINK INC.

1. Introduction

Sustainable development goals (SDG) are to end poverty by 2030. World leaders have prepared an

action plan for people, the earth, and prosperity. Eliminating all forms and dimensions of poverty,

including extreme poverty, is the world's biggest challenge. Ending poverty has become an

indispensable requirement for sustainable development. There are seventeen development goals that

seek to build on the achievements of the Millennium Development Goals. It makes up for what it has

not achieved. The aim to achieve human rights is for all gender equality and empowerment for women

and girls. These goals integrate, are indivisible, and balance the three dimensions of economic, social,

and environmental development.

During the period from 1769 to 1990, the rulers of Nepal, which existed as a nation-state, were either

kings or prime ministers. It said that the people had no access to governance. Those same rulers and

their sons added to the despotism by staying in power. Wars were taking place between these states in

Nepal until 1815, which was divided into various small states at that time. After 1815, Nepal entered an

era of relative peace (Pandey, Bhimbahadur, 1885-1955).

There was not much development and prosperity in 1935. After that, the population increased, and

small-scale farming expanded. It was not possible to take a strong step towards modernity due to the

lack of economic development. Nepal formed a basic to a sustainable development structure from

earthquake in 1990. That was a very sad earthquake in history. This condition made the economic

status of Nepal very critical, but then it made a slight recovery.

From the list of very least developed countries defined by the United Nations, Nepal will also reach

developing countries before the year 2030. All of the Millennium Development Goals that Nepal was

expected to achieve between 2000 and 2015 have been met. Some of these achievements have not been

achieved equally from the point of view of social groups, gender, and geographical areas. Nepal will

achieve most of the sustainable development goals by the year 2030, even if not all of them (NPC,

2016).

China and India are the most populous countries in the world. The geographical location of Nepal was

in the in the middle of those countries. Nepal will change on a large scale from that country.

Historically, it took the United Kingdom (UK) 150 years to double its per capita income at the start of

the Industrial Revolution, while the United States had to wait 50 years. Both India and China managed

to double their per capita output in about 15 years. According to McKinsey and Company, China and

India each had a population of 1 billion in the early stages of their industrial development, while the

population of the United Kingdom and the United States was less than 10 million (Atsmon, R. Dobbs,

et al., 2012).

There are rocky terrains, grazing areas, forests, lakes, ponds, and borderlands in Nepal. Some areas are

difficult to reach because of the terrain. The beauty of the landscape of the place is attractive for

tourism and other natural scenes. Nepal is rich in biological diversity and ecological systems. The

landscape of Nepal is a source of prosperity for future generations. It is necessary to protect vulnerable



www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 8, No. 1, 2025

3
Published by SCHOLINK INC.

areas and operate a sustainable agricultural system. In order for Nepal to achieve prosperity by the year

2030, there should be an be an equitable distribution and distribution of wealth among the people. For

this, the outline of economic growth should be seen keeping in mind the conservation and utilization of

natural resources. Currently, more people are dying due to floods and landslides than violence in Nepal.

People are dying due to air pollution. Nepal is on the list of the most earthquake-prone countries in the

world. Nepal is always at risk from the seismic point of view and demands an uplifting method of

human development. In addition to this, strong, planned, and safely constructed infrastructure,

buildings, and settlements are also essential.

It was growing human complexity, environmental imbalance, and socio-financial side in meditation. In

25th September 2015, since 2030 until in complete to do for Various 17 different assimilation goals

have achieved durable development targets from 193 Nations. In 2030, self doing agenda was to

combine the nation of the union member of someone behind to leave no to say of the matter of

certainty with on receipt before growing up. The nation of the union was ordinary from the assembly

approval, 17 ambitious gave in the year complete to do worldwide as 169 quantitative targets since

2015. It has progress assessments to do 232 indicators that are ready-made in Nepal.

The government of Nepal will target 99%, of the population with access to clean drinking water. The

99% of populations will access to electricity and 24 GJ per capita energy consumptions.

Unemployment will reduce below 10%, and road density will increase to 5 km. Income inequality will

reduce by 0.46 from 0.23. Population living in safe houses will increase from 29.8% to 60% to reduce

forest destruction to zero. The quality of public administration will increase from 3.1 to 5. To

effectively implement the goals of sustainable development, a six-member high-level directorate

committee has been formed under the coordination of the Prime Minister.

Nepal is facing a lot of challenges to meet its target of sustainable development goals. It is challenging

due to a lack of sufficient budget to implement. How to achieve the target met by the government and

how these challenges are faced is the statement of problems of this study. So, the research questions

how Nepal will achieve the sustainable development goal in the given time. This research question is

focusing on the objectives of the study (a) to examine the function of sustainable development goals; (b)

to analyze the challenge and opportunity of sustainable development indicators; and (c) to sum up the

target and function of achieving the sustainable development goals.

2. Review of Literature

The government has been doing very interesting programs for the development of Nepal. It is the

responsibility of the state to establish access for everyone in the construction of equality and

participatory national development. The state has conducted targeted programs for the minority of the

poor, backward classes, and disadvantaged citizens. As a member of the United Nations, Nepal is

committed to carrying out the tasks set in the Sustainable Development Goals. Therefore, the previous

works done under this have been reviewed as follows:



www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 8, No. 1, 2025

4
Published by SCHOLINK INC.

2.1 Theoretical Review

The National Planning Commission has prepared the sustainable development goals. Nepal has

achieved sustainable development goals, in which the time-bound indicators of each goal are

determined. The target indicators are mapping to the current situation in the years of 2017, 2020, 2022,

2025, and 2030 during time frames (NPC report, 2015).

According to the National Planning Commission report, by 2030, the population below the poverty line

will reduce to 5%, the multidimensional poverty index will reduce from 44.2% to 11%, the poverty

concentration will reduce to 2.8%, and the total national income per capita will reach 2500 US dollars.

The economic risk index will reduce from 24.6% to 18.9%, the land productivity will increase to 6

metric tons per hectare, and the maternal mortality rate will be reduced from 258 to 69 per million.

Similarly, the infant mortality rate will decrease from 23 to 10 per thousand, and the child mortality

rate from 39 to 22 per thousand. The net enrollment target rate at the primary level will reach 99.5%

and the literacy rate in 15–24 age groups to 99%. Similarly, the goal of the gender empowerment index

increased from 0.568 to 0.7, the gender inequality index increased from 0.49 to 0.05, and the direct

gender responsive budget increased by 30 percent.

The state was at that time deprived non-nobles from getting education and engaging in private

enterprises. Citizens could not vote. Property rights were not protected. The rulers imposed few taxes.

In return, they provided inadequate public goods. The role of political and economic institutions was

focused on excessive exploitation of the state's resources, which has led to the impoverishment of the

state (Acemoglu & Robinson, 2012). Competitive services are our best hope for revitalizing the

industrial sector. The contribution of this sector, which accounted for 10% of the total national product

in 1996, has dropped to 6% today. According to recent international studies, the industrial sector is

getting worse from some points of view. This demonstrates unconditional symmetry in worker

productivity. Employers were a large part of the labor force. It was to meet the demand for goods that

was not limited by a small domestic market. It is necessary to strengthen the industrial sector to do

these works (Rodrik, 2013).

After the times of civil movement between 2006 and 2009, the newly formed government has decided

to a minimum common program. It can be considered a natural process to agree on a common program

for people. However, all parties, including the opposition, should not forget the goal of sustainable

development set by the United Nations. It should understand that those goals are minimal programs.

Nepal seems to have invested in areas such as job creation, social security, food security, health

services, quality education, and digital connectivity to reduce poverty. There was debate between the

government and the opposition parties on issues of how to achieve those goals. They were reforming

the food production, distribution system, education, health care, alternative energy development, and

the nationwide expansion of internet technology.



www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 8, No. 1, 2025

5
Published by SCHOLINK INC.

2.2 Constitutional Review of Commitment

In the preamble of the constitution of Nepal 2015, it is resolved to end all forms of discrimination and

oppression created by the feudal, despotic, centralized, and unitary state system. The goals has ensured

economic equality, prosperity, social justice, and building a proportional and inclusive participatory

society. The aim is to fulfill the aspirations of long-term peace, good governance, development, and

prosperity through a federal democratic republican governance system.

According to Article 18 of fundamental rights, the state may make special legal provisions for the

protection, empowerment, or development of citizens who are socially or culturally backward and

economically disadvantaged without discriminating against them on any basis, including religion, race,

caste, sex, economic status, etc. This arrangement has a significant meaning for the reduction and

elimination of chronic poverty. To achieve the goal of ending hunger, every citizen has the right to

food sovereignty.

Article 35 provides that every citizen will receive free of charge basic health services and no one will

deprived of emergency health services. The same article mentions that every citizen has right to access

clean drinking water and sanitation. Article 31 of the constitution Of Nepal 2015 says every citizen has

the right to free education up to the basic level from the state, the right to free education up to the

secondary level, and the right to free higher education for disabled and economically disadvantaged

citizens. The right to free Braille for the blind, free sign language for the deaf, and the free speech for

vocal or speech disabled citizens according to the law. Gender equality and the empowerment of girls:

every woman has equal racial rights without gender discrimination According to Article 38. The right

to participate in all state agencies based on the principle of proportional inclusion and special

opportunities on positive discrimination in education, health, employment, social security, etc.

The Constitution of Nepal 2015 ensures sustainable modern energy for all under the policies of the

state in Article 51 of the Constitution of Nepal in 2015. It is authorized to produce renewable energy to

supply reliable energy in an accessible manner appropriately. Article 33 stipulates that every citizen has

the right to employment and the right to choose employment. Likewise, Article 34 says that every

worker has guaranteed the right to social security-based due diligence, convenience, and contribution,

the right to open a trade union and participates in it, and the right to engage in collective bargaining.

Article 37 provides that every citizen has right to adequate housing for sustainable urbanization and the

development of human settlements.

It is ending inequality within the country and outside the country, in the preamble of the Constitution,

class, ethnic, regional, linguistic, religious, gender, and all kinds of racial discrimination are mentioned.

All kinds of racial discrimination are to establish international relations on the basis of universal

equality under the directive principle of the state in Article 50 and to enhance national honor. Article 44

provides that every consumer has the right to receive quality goods and services. It is inevitable that

periodic and sectoral plans, policies, and programs at the local level should reflect the achievement of



www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 8, No. 1, 2025

6
Published by SCHOLINK INC.

sustainable development goals by imbibing the practical practice of building an equitable society and

the concept of public-private partnership.

3. Methods and Materials

The study consider base on secondary data as information to achieve sustainable development goals.

The study used published and unpublished data from related sources. Millennium development and

sustainable development goals are the United Nations has addressed in this study. The government of

Nepal, National Planning Commission, has targeted indicators that are also used in this study. The

available information has analyzed in a descriptive manner. It does not include primary data. Sample

surveys have not selected for data collection. This study is based on a descriptive framework. Due to a

lack of time management, the study does not fully represent all indicators of achieving sustainable

development goals.

4. The UNDPGlobal Campaign and Nepal's Achievement

End of poverty: End all forms of poverty everywhere to reduce at least half the proportion of people

living in any form of poverty. Implement social protection systems and measures for all significantly,

including the poor and vulnerable. It has built the resilience of poor, vulnerable people to reducing their

exposure to environmental disasters and other economic, social, and environmental impacts and

disasters. According to the survey report of 2022 of the Asian Development Bank (ADB), Nepal has

20.3% of the poverty rate below the national poverty line. The living standard survey of Nepal 2023

shows that 24.66% of rural poverty and 18.34% of urban poverty have been prescribed. The National

Statistics Office (NSO) 2024 shows that there is 20% of poverty in Nepal. The multidimensional

poverty value is 0.074, head count poverty is 17.5%, identity of deprivation is 42.5%, vulnerability to

multidimensional poverty is 17.8%, and severe multidimensional poverty is 4.9%, respectively.

Deprivation contribution in overall multidimensional poverty is in health 23.2%, education 33.9%, and

standard of living 43.0%, respectively, in Nepal (UNDP, 2019). Nepal has big problems ending poverty

by achieving the sustainable development goals.

Zero hunger: Hunger is an enemy for man. Hunger is ending by achieving food security, advanced

nutrition, and promoting sustainable agriculture. It will end all forms of malnutrition to address the

nutritional food for adolescents, pregnant women, and others. It will increase investment in rural

infrastructure, agricultural research, technology development, vegetation, and the establishment of gin

banks in developing countries by producing agricultural productivity. The proper function of the food

market has related transactions to help limit extreme volatility in food prices. People are hungry; they

do not get food for feeding properly. In 2000, the global hunger score of Nepal was 37.2; since 2008, it

has been down to 29.0; in 2015, it was 21.3; and in 2023, it was 15.0. Out of the 136 countries, Nepal

has 69th position (GHI, 2023). The data shows that Nepal has reduced hunger. It is an achievement of

zero hunger for the future.



www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 8, No. 1, 2025

7
Published by SCHOLINK INC.

Health and Welfare: Ensuring healthy lives is promoting the well-being of all people of all ages. The

preventable deaths of newborn children have ended less than five years old. Universal access to ensure

sexual reproductive health services, information to education, including family planning, and the

adjustment of reproductive health of the national strategies program. The quality healthcares are access

to safe effective, quality, and affordable essential medicines and vaccines for all. In the present

situation of health care, the maternal mortality rate per hundred thousand was 229 in 2011, but 151 in

2022. The global maternal mortality rate has 223 in 2020 but SDG 70 in 2030 (UNESCO, 2020).

Under-5 year's mortality rate in 2011 was 54 and in 2022 was 33. Infant mortality rates are 46 in 2011

and 28 in 2022. The world scenario data show that the infant mortality rate will be 28 according to

UNICEF in 2021 in the world. The total fertility rate of the 15-19-year-old agrees group of women was

2.6 in 2011 and 2.1 in 2022. The prevalence of stunting among 5-year-old children was 41 in 2011 and

25 in 2022. Similarly, institutional delivery had 35% in 2011 and 79% in 2022 (NMICS, 2022).

Quality education: The quality education for all and promote lifelong learning. That means all

ensuring adolescents receive free, equitable, and quality primary and secondary education. To eliminate

the gender disparities in education by ensuring equal access to all levels of education and vocational

training. People have disabilities; indigenous and tribal children are at risk. All learning is through

education for sustainable development, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace

and non-violence, global citizenship, and appreciation of cultural diversity.

Over 265 million children are currently out of school, and 22% of them are of primary school age.

Additionally, the children who are attending school are lacking basic skills in reading and math. The

overall survival rate up to class 12 has increased from 11.5% in 2016 to 33.1% in 2022. For girls, it has

increased to 33.9%, while for boys, the survival rate is higher. The number of out-of-school children

across the country fell by 30% during the period SSDP 2016-2022. The Net Enrollment Rate (NER) for

basic education in most 15 disadvantage districts has increased from 85.1% in 2016 to 92.2% in 2022.

Similarly, the rate of secondary education increased from 29.1% in 2016 to 44.1% in 2022. For girls, it

has increased from 27% to 43.4% at the same period. According to the auditor report, more than 99%

of funds disbursed to schools followed eligibility and utilization guidelines (WBG, 2023).

Gender equality: The gender equality and empowering all women by eliminating all forms of violence

against all women, girls, and children in the public and private sectors, including trafficking and sexual

exploitation. Ensuring an effective participation for equal opportunities was women's leadership at all

critical levels of political, economic, and public life. Strengthen policies and laws are promoting to

gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls at all levels.

According to the National Census 2011, 40% of women and girls in Nepal were illiterate, with the rate

for men and boys much lower at 22%. The literacy rate was on average 7% among Dalit women, and

life expectancy was 10–14 years lower than that for high-caste women. Reservation quotas in the Civil

Service Act amended in 2007, women are officers almost doubled to 22.85% in 2013 from 12.97% in



www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 8, No. 1, 2025

8
Published by SCHOLINK INC.

2010.21. Most dramatically, women’s representation in the Constituent Assembly increased to 29% in

the November 2013 elections from 2.9% in 1991 (ADB, 2015).

Clean water and sanitation:Water and sanitation is very important to our human life. Ensuring access

to clean water and sanitation has achieved universal and equitable access to safe and affordable

drinking water for all. Achieve adequate and equitable access to sanitation and hygiene for alls and end

open defecation. Strengthens of participation was the local community in the improvement of water

and sanitation management. Out of the total population, 10.8 million people in Nepal do not have

access to improved sanitation, and 3.5 million do not have access to basic water services. The target of

SDG is drinking water 95.4%, sanitation 79.2%, and basic hygiene 80.6%. It also estimated that was

only 45% of households have access to piped water, about 40% depend on protected wells and tube

wells for drinking water, and 10 percent lack access to basic water supply facilities (DWSS, 2015).

Affordable clean energy: The government has ensured access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and

modern energy. A universal, affordable, reliable, and modern energy service distributed is increasing

access for all. Significantly the share of renewable energy increase in global energy availability by

2030. Facilitate to access clean energy research and technologies, including renewable energy, energy

conservation and management, and cutting-edge and clean fossil fuel technologies. It has enhanced

international cooperation to promote investment in energy infrastructure and clean energy technologies.

Economic growth and decent work: Promote inclusive and sustainable economic growth,

employment, and decent work for all. In least-developed countries, per capita economic growth and at

least 7% annual gross domestic product (GDP) growth should maintain according to national

conditions. To achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all women and men, equal

pay for equal work. Formulate and implement policies to promote sustainable tourism that will promote

local culture and the production of goods to create employment. Inflation is developing Asia and is

forecast to decline from 4.4% to 3.6% in 2023 and 3.5% in 2024. There is growth of regional forecast

for 4.7% this year on slower expansions in South Asia and Southeast Asia. The growth forecast for

2024 is unchanged at 4.8%. Nepal's economy is anticipated to grow by 4.3% in 2024, but it has a

forecast of 3.3%. The stable remittances and higher imports and account deficit are expected to account

for 1.8% of GDP as growth in FY2024 (ADB, 2024).

Industry and infrastructure: The state is building strong infrastructure and sustaining

industrialization. By sustainable developing strong infrastructure, we are supporting people to

economic development and human welfare. Sustainable industrialization increases the share of industry

in employment and gross domestic product (GDP) according to national circumstances and doubles its

share in the least developed countries. It is increasing the access of microenterprises and other

enterprises to financial services, including affordable credit, and their adjustment to the value chain and

market.



www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 8, No. 1, 2025

9
Published by SCHOLINK INC.

According to the Department of Industry Nepal, the numbers of industries are coming down from 8.9%

to 4.4%, with investment of 7.3% and employment of 4.8%. The industry was invested in 17.8% of and

provided 13% employment in 2022 (Khanal, 2022).

Low inequality: It has needed to reduce inequality within or between countries. Promote and empower

social and political inclusion for all. It was regardless of the age, gender, disability, ethnicity, origin,

religion, economic status, or other status. It has ended discriminatory laws, policies, and practices. It

had promoted appropriate laws, practices, and policies to ensure equal opportunities for all outcomes.

Adopt a fiscal wage of social protection policies to progressively achieve greater equality. So, the

Gini-coefficient value of Nepal is 58.5, but its value lies between 0 and 100. The Gini index 0.30 of the

standard survey indicates the high inequality per capita consumption.

Sustainable cities and communities: The government has made cities inclusive, safe, resilient, and

sustainable. Ensure access for all too adequate, safe, and affordable housing, basic services, and

upgrade slums. Improve road safety and provide access to safe, affordable, and convenient transport

systems. Significantly reduce the number of deaths, number of people affected, and economic losses

due to disasters.

The level of urbanization in the Kathmandu valley and Kaski district comes to 96.97% and 79.52%,

respectively, while it is only 18.28% for the rest of the hills. Similarly, inner Tarai valleys have a level

of urbanization of 41.97% compared to 38.94% for the rest of the Tara. Only 17.1% of the total

population lives in 58 urban areas in Nepal (CBS, 2011). The decadal population growth rate of

Kathmandu is 60.93% compared to the growth of Nepal as a whole of 14.98%. Kathmandu alone

accounts for approximately one-third of total Nepal’s urban population, which has been growing at a

rate of 4.76% p.a. (World Bank, 2012).

Responsible consumption and production: The state has ensured consumption and production

patterns. The government has achieved sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources.

Significantly, waste has been reduced through minimization, recycling, and reuse of waste. Every

person has ensured the necessary information and awareness about sustainable development and

lifestyles.

The gross domestic product (GDP) has estimated growth of 1.9% in Nepal after rising 5.6% in the

previous year, owing to tight monetary policy. The growth of agriculture has increased from 2.7% to

2.2% in 2023. Earlier, cereal output, namely paddy, wheat, and maize, increased by 3.9% on a

favorable monsoon and the use of an improved variety of seeds. Industry has grown 0.6% after

expanding to 10.8% in 2022 as manufacturing and construction. The demand side has a 4.1% rise in

private consumption expenditure, albeit down from 6.8% a year earlier, which helped underpin growth.

Fixed investment slumped to 10.9% after expanding 3.8% in 2022. Private investment shrank by 7.6%

and public investment slumped by 20.2%, resulting in a 3.9 percentage point decline in GDP (ADB,

2023). The data has clarified responsible consumption and production scenarios in Nepal.



www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 8, No. 1, 2025

10
Published by SCHOLINK INC.

Action of Climate: The climate is changing and changeable. It can take immediate action to combat

climate change and its impacts. We should deal with the risks related to natural disasters and climate

change and increase the adaptive capacity in all countries. Integrate climate change measures into

national policies, strategies, and plans. It is improving through education, public awareness, and

institutional capacity on climate change mitigation, adaptation, and early warning. It is directly affected

by food production and the food supply chain.

Nepal received 91.2% of the normal precipitation, which was about 1570.4 mm. The maximum average

temperature was 27.9°C, and the minimum temperature of Nepal was 15.6°C in 2023. The precipitation

remained below normal, ranging from 12% to 22%. November and December were dry with 83% and

77% deficits, respectively (Nepal Climate Summary, 2023). So, Nepal has not faced climate change

adaptation problems. It remains to be careful for cultivation and vegetation where the agro-product

should be produced properly.

Life above ground: Sustainable management of forests has combated desertification, halting soil

erosion, reversing such processes, and preventing biodiversity loss. By 2020, combat desertification

and restore other land and soil degradation, including drought- and flood-prone land. Enhance the

capacity of the Himalayan ecosystem to provide essential benefits for sustainable development and

conservation of biological diversity. It should make an immediate action plan to stop poaching and

illegal transportation of protected animals and plants.

The estimated world mean soil erosion rate is between 12 and 15 tons per hectare per year. Nepal is a

sloping and mountainous region. Land sliding rate is also high. The annual soil erosion rate is estimated

at 25 tons per hectare per year in Nepal. By the same cause and times, Nepal has lost a total of 369

metric tons of soil per year (Koirala et al., 2019).

Soil erosion and land sliding are problems of farming and food production. Beside this, deforestation,

grazing, expansion of physical infrastructure and urbanization are helping factors of it. It plays a direct

or indirect role for decreased crop production and soil fertility. The variability of rainfalls has frequent

and intense droughts, floods, and landslides (ADB, 2014). As a result, about 62% of Nepal's agriculture

is dependent on farmers affected by soil erosion (National Statistics Office, 2023).

Peace, justice, and strong institutions: The government has been promoting just, peaceful, and

inclusive societies. The rule of law at national and international levels has promoted ensuring equal

access to justice for all. It will provide legal identification including birth registration, to all citizens

and reduce all forms of corruption.

The ratio of rule of law in Nepal has getting a rank of 71 out of 142 countries. Overall score of the

South Asian regional secures has first rank out of 6 countries in Nepal. Nepal gets 5th position in rule of

law in low- to middle-income 37 countries. The rule has declined in 59% of countries including Nepal,

in 2023. The ratio was high, which saw 78% of countries decline the rule of law in 2016. The

constitution of power of government has fallen in 56% countries compared to 58% in 2022 and 70% in

2021. A smaller majority of countries (56%) also experienced a decline in fundamental rights of rule of



www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 8, No. 1, 2025

11
Published by SCHOLINK INC.

law (WJP, 2023). Nepal has performance in rule of law and no mere difficulty in achieving sustainable

development goals.

5. Activities and Achievement for Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) in Nepal

The poor employment: Nepal is rich country in natural resources. It is rich in water resources. There

is no adequate provision of drinking water for the people of Kathmandu. How and with what morality

can we rule in a country that cannot provide feeding and water for some people? The Nepali population

is living in poverty for less than US$ 3.20 per day. The poor should be given employment opportunities

in the national development policy. This can help economic and institutional reforms to encourage

economic growth and increase efficiency and utilization of resources. Investment should be made in

areas such as job creation, social and food security, healthcare, quality education, and digital

connectivity to reduce poverty.

Improvement Food production and distribution system: The people are hungry with a lack of food.

Children are malnourished due to nutrient food supply. The government should end hunger by making

food security plans. It can help with nutrition improvement and the promotion of sustainable

agriculture practices for farmers. The requirement is achieving sustainable food production for public

involvement. Investment should be made in local agriculture businesses, through which people can

further improve their situation. The national food and aid distribution system should improve. The main

strategy is to invest in agriculture and provide cash to farmers so that they can revive the traditional

method of making agricultural fertilizers. It can help to manage agro-productivity and sustainability

with its priority to selection.

Education and Health Service Promotion: Privatization of the education and health sectors damages

social sustainability. Why can't the state take on the responsibility of providing free education and

health care to all the citizens of Nepal? This cannot be done due to the lack of resources. The political

leadership of class or the businessmen is connected to the political parties of Nepal. These are issues

that Nepali politicians should discuss.

It is said that the more children go to school, the healthier the nation's economy will be able to do.

There is an absence of quality education; no country can develop, prosper, or establish democracy and

social justice. Quality education is the first condition for countries aiming for prosperity and

development. Because, without quality education, the manpower required by the country cannot

prepare. Equal access to quality education should accept challenge as a primary condition for the

country's overall development and civil equality. This is also the measurement base for the country's

development. It is also the foundation of competent leadership. It seems necessary to debate to make

policies on how citizens can have equal access to quality education. Central, provincial, and local-level

policymakers and educational providers need to have a new perspective on ways of thinking. The

Constitution of Nepal mentions that basic health services should be provided free of charge.

Socialism and social democracy are debated in Nepal from time to time. But there is hardly any



www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 8, No. 1, 2025

12
Published by SCHOLINK INC.

discussion about what a socialist health service would look like. The principle is that those who need

urgent medical services should be given free, affordable treatment. If we can help each other by paying

high taxes, the education-health system will be successful. Doctors and medical nurses are the

backbone of a quality medical education system. The government should increase or invest in it.

Woman empowerment: Gender equality is not only about the percentage of women represented in

good governance. It is also important to change perceptions. Gender equality and quality education are

among the goals. Formally, women's rights are included as fundamental rights in Nepal. Maternity

rights, property rights, reproductive health, education, equal wages, and social security are also covered.

In reality, gender discrimination, sexual harassment, and female illiteracy are the major weaknesses of

Nepali society. That resists the empowerment of women in Nepal. Men are privileged by patriarchy, but

they are also associated with political and social power. Changing the perception of gender equality in a

society distorted by the caste system is a difficult task. Now, caste societies are not sustainable. No

society can survive without a scientific approach. The development of Nepal is not possible until

gender equality is maintained without women.

Technology Energy Development: Hydropower development is the most debated topic in Nepal.

However, it has not found a practical solution. Everyone knows the potential of Nepal's hydropower.

The government of Nepal has not been able to take advantage of it. Internet technology provides

students with access to education and easy and fast learning. The opportunity has given them practice

what they have to learn. Despite bringing about changes in the living standards of rural people, the

government has not been effective in providing services to them. The technology has provided service

very fast for people. The government has invested to change poverty and underdevelopment through

energy development. The government can create a suitable environment for investments in hydropower

development.

The urban dirty management: The dirty management is important problems of clean health and

environment. Recycling plants is necessary at the government level for managing waste. Waste

reduction or waste management recycling systems should be imported. It takes a huge amount of

money. Similarly, use of household items such as books, magazines, clothes, kitchen utensils, etc. can

be recycled easily. Recycling creates job opportunities by turning waste into valuable raw materials. It

has contributed to the national economy. Waste management in Kathmandu Metropolitan City has been

controversial for a long time. The major cities in Nepal should develop a plan for how to solve urban

dirty management. Europeans call it a circular economy and a new economy, a new way of consuming

and producing. A circular economy aims to create a zero-waste system where all resources flow

continuously between producers and users.

Green Industrial and Circular Economy Development: The traditional systems of capitalism and

centrally planned socialist economies are based on the use of natural resources, not sustainable

development. Public policy for green industries that encourages environmentally responsible

investment is essential. If a policy is implemented, a sustainable economy can build. This is a way to



www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 8, No. 1, 2025

13
Published by SCHOLINK INC.

achieve economic growth through the use of natural resources and a sustainable economy. It is

including that industrial production processes and resource-efficient productivity are sustained. It

creates public awareness, knowledge, and capacity. Similarly, the government should support industrial

organizations, enterprises, and entrepreneurs in all aspects related to greening industry. Environmental

economics is the cost-effective use of conservation of the world's natural resources. Especially, how do

people produce for consuming goods and services? The government of Nepal can consult with

environmental economists.

Changing environmental management for food: Variously over time, food and security take in times

of crisis in 1974. When food and agriculture of the organization was took the initiative to address

starvation worldwide. Food security is a sensitive subject, assuming in particular financial by

calculation rich nations. Own of the people have necessary production, storage, distribution, and

market management. The farmers of the agriculture area are protected for international business in

contracts. Starvation and globalization are happening. In context, developing countries are even more

sensitive because they are even more alert to stay. The family of the Nepali farmer is having a

multitude in agriculture based on meaning arrangement in the country food security. On the subject that

have political commitment of the state policy and structure. The role of the private sector of the people

from the side combined initiative to necessary seems.

Agriculture and food security: A geographical, ecological, and organic aspect of Nepal has variety.

The sources of natural aspects of abundance are multiracial culture, original knowledge, and skillfully

of the nation. Prosperity for inclusive and sustainable agriculture is important in the food and security

column. It is saying no emergency. Agriculture and food security are related to the constitution

provisions and federalism implementation in the context of Nepal. It is a special opportunity.

Agricultural production for food and food security for hunger control is mandatory. In order to avoid

the crisis that may occur in the future, we must save food. The habit of saving and preserving food

should be developed. It teaches us to deal with future food crises. The government plays an important

role in increasing the storage capacity of food grains.

Human dimension security: In totality, food security is the human dimension aspect within the

concept; we must see what happens. Food production and the consumption process are mutually

interdependent. It is having separated to see if they don't match. The human element of security is

within the blueprint by keeping at least more food, health, financial, political, community, etc. rights to

take. In the sense of agriculture and food security, the question means Nepal ecological, caste, and

social accession to do monotonous medium.

Sustainable agriculture: Sustainable agriculture is to preserve the long-term health of people and the

land. Farmers who use sustainable agriculture meet the needs of families and communities for

nutritious food. It also conserves water, soil, and seeds for the future. Most food comes from the ground.

But many people have little or no land to meet their healthy needs. It cooperates with food markets for

equitable distribution of food grains and helps to get rid of these problems. Farmers are taking care of



www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 8, No. 1, 2025

14
Published by SCHOLINK INC.

the land. They are good at what they do. They develop sustainable agricultural practices and adopt

these practices to meet the needs of communities and improve the conditions of the land where they

work. It can reduce hunger, migration, and the degradation of good soil. Since ancient times in cities,

markets, or places where people have been farming. It solves problems like water pollution. They are

not only for farmers. This is important for home gardeners in terms of health and to starting to develop

community gardens. Anyone is doing urban agriculture to improve nutrition, food security, and

community health.

Farming on health and happiness: Sustainable farming methods not only provide food. They also

fertilize the soil, conserve water, save valuable seeds, preserve biodiversity, and ensure that the land is

suitable for future generations. By using sustainable methods to grow food, farmers and gardeners can

grow more on less land without the use of chemical pesticides or fertilizers. The theme is good food to

sell and eat less paper to produce food, less pollution of air, water, and land. It improves human health

because conserving water reduces the fear of drought. It reduces dependence on chemicals, makes

money, and makes you independent.

Farming without chemicals saves farmers lives, farm workers lives, and everyone who eats locally

produced food and drinks water from health problems. Sustainable practices like using green manure

reduce the amount of work required to produce food. This is especially important because migration,

HIV/AIDS, and other issues force people to work in the fields. It makes the land productive.

Adapting Vermicompost technology: Earthworm stool (vermicompost) is a species of organically

made compost from waste to make up quality and nutritious compost. It uses their stools to make a

technology called vermiculture. Artificial methods of earthworm production do on your own green

vegetables, grass cutting, fruits, etc. What a waste of parts or garbage used for environmental, financial,

and social reasons. By the way, an important aspect of compost stool production is the method of

vermicompost. Adoption to do urban area can processing center, and village came out work. It doesn't

take but to rot to the garbage of vermi-culture technology by adapting to management. There are

various species of earthworms found on earth. It can be fed by organic foods that are brought from the

came out grainy using full rotten food materials to the stool. This stool easily dissolves in water. These

types of stools improve soil properties and have been found to be abundant in food and nutrients. It is

possible to develop earthworm feces by using long-lasting organic farming methods. Earthworm stools

to make various species of earthworms of the night in white and blue colors are used. Earthworm is in

the mall crop or on the plant.

6. Role of the National Planning Commission

Nepal presented the progress made in the sustainable development goals at the United Nations

high-level political forum in 2017. In addition, the planning commission has prepared a baseline report

after taking stock of the current situation regarding sustainable development goals. In the context of

Nepal, the government has determined 414 sustainable development indicators and targets indicators.



www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 8, No. 1, 2025

15
Published by SCHOLINK INC.

The roles of the national planning committee are defined as below:

Institutional structure: For the implementation of sustainable development goals, the federal

government has arranged for the formation of three high-level committees at the national level. It has

forcefully changed to an institutional structure by providing public services.

National Instruction Committee: This committee is chaired by the Prime Minister. It has arranged

that committee will consist of the vice chairman of the national planning commission, the minister of

finance, the minister of foreign affairs, the chief secretary, and the secretary of the national planning

commission. This committee issues the necessary policy instructions for the development of the

country. It also works to gather resources for the immediate and long term. It helps in budget

management by estimating how much time it takes to develop a place. It works in accordance with the

conduct of regional development in the common interest.

Implementation, Coordination of Monitoring Committee: This committee is chaired by the vice

chairman of the national planning commission. The members of the national planning commission that

oversees the economy, the secretary of the ministry of finance, the secretary of the ministry of foreign

affairs, the chamber of commerce, the federation of industries, and the federation of Nepalese industries

are present in the said committee. The joint secretary of the finance department of the planning

commission remains the member secretary of this committee. There is a provision that civil society and

other stakeholders can be kept as invited members of such committees.

Functional Subjective Committees: The government has arranged to have ten thematic working

committees. It has been arranged that the relevant member of the national planning commission will be

the coordinator of each working committee. In these thematic committees, it is arranged that there will

be senior employees of relevant ministries, the private sector, civil society, and the planning

commission. The committees are economic development, industrial development, urban development,

social development, agriculture, climate, and environment, employment management, infrastructure

development, energy development, peace, justice, and inclusive institutions, respectively.

7. Indicators of Sustainable Development Goals

Nepal has been doing very important things to achieve sustainable development goals. There is an

obligation to increase investment in poverty alleviation, education, health, drinking water, and

communication sectors. The government has been doing the following to bring about positive changes

in the livelihood of the common people.

Poverty reduction: In Nepal, 23.7 percent of the population has an income of less than 1.25 US dollars

per day, and by the year 2030, the goal is to reduce to less than 5% and reach 2500 US dollars per

capita. Nepal has made great progress in reducing poverty by considering the international standard of

1.25 US dollars per day to account for the situation of extreme poverty. Nationally defined poverty has

fallen from 31% in 2004 to 21.6% in 2015. Similarly, on the basis of 1.9 US dollars per day, it is

estimated that poverty in Nepal is 36%. The multidimensional poverty index shows that 28.6% of



www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 8, No. 1, 2025

16
Published by SCHOLINK INC.

Nepalis are multi-dimensionally poor. It shows that Nepal has reduced the Multidimensional Poverty

Index by half from 0.313 to 0.127 between 2006 and 2014.

Nepal has proposed to reduce extreme poverty to less than 5% to increase per capita income from

US$766 in 2015 to US$2,500 in 2030. Nationally defined poverty will be less than 5% in 2030. The

goal is to reduce the multidimensional poverty index to less than 7% by 2030. In order to reduce

poverty faster than current income growth, the consumption share of 20% of low-income families is set

to increase from 7.6% in 2015 to 12% in 2030. Likewise, social protection spending is estimated to

reach 15% of the total federal budget in 2030.

Food security, nutrition, and sustainable agriculture: In Nepal, 30.1% of children aged 6 to 59

months are still underweight, while low height for age and underweight for height are 36% and 11.3%,

respectively. For 53% of all children, anemia remains a major challenge. Anemia is also 46% high

among women of reproductive age. One-third (36.1%) of children from birth to 59 months are suffering

from malnutrition.

Commodities and crops are the main aspects of the integrated agricultural system. They contribute

significantly to ending hunger, achieving food security, and improving nutrition. However, the

productivity of the land is still low. Such productivity is USD 3,278 per hectare. At present, only 25.2%

of the total arable land has irrigation facilities throughout the year. Most financial institutions are

reluctant to invest in agriculture. This is evident from Nepal's world food security score of 42.8 out of

100. Sustainable Development Goal by 2030 to reduce malnutrition by 3% and underweight among

children by fewer than 5% to 9%. Anemia is among women and children of reproductive age to 10%

and increase per capita food production by 66% targets have set.

Sustainable development for peaceful society: Nepal has made significant progress in the direction of

inclusion. It has a long way to go in the fields of transparency, accountability, law, and good

governance. Press freedom, freedom of expression, and citizen activism are warnings of the

shortcomings of the state. It has also paved the way for good governance in the coming days.

According to the report, 64 children out of every 100,000 were trafficked in foreign countries in 2015.

Similarly, the proportion of children aged 1 to 14 who have experienced psychological trauma, assault,

or physical punishment is very high, at 81.7%. In 2015, 1,628 people died around the world due to

armed and violent violence. Under the sustainable development goal, specific quantitative targets have

been set, such as ending deaths from violence. Conflict and ending violence against women and

children are improving indicators of transparency and accountability that are considered globally

relevant.

Overall indicators and Goals of Achieving: Under the Sustainable Development Goals, the

Government of Nepal has set various indicators. The target is to reduce the maternal mortality rate to

69 per 1 million. The student enrollment rate in primary schools is 96.6%, and the target is to increase it

to 99.5% while at the secondary level. The target is to increase 99% from the current 56.7% value.

The gender disparity index is 0.49. The goal is to increase it to 0.05. There are 29.5% women members



www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 8, No. 1, 2025

17
Published by SCHOLINK INC.

of parliament (MP) in the National Parliament, and the goal is to increase it to 40 percent. While the

presence of women at the critical level of public service is 2%, it should increase to 7.5%; the supply of

basic drinking water should increase from 87% to 99%. Those have to access drinking water through

piped water systems. It should increase from 49.5% to 90% and 67.6%. The goal is to increase it to

98% of people using the toilet. While 74% of people have access to electricity, the goal is to increase it

to 99 percent. The number of cooking gas users is 18 percent. It will increase to 39 percent. The per

capita gross domestic product will be maintained at 2.3% to 7%. The growth of the agriculture sector

will increase from 0.8% to 5%, and the number of youth unemployed will decrease from 35.8% to 10%

target.

The road density is 0.44 km per square from 1.50. The share of the industrial sector in the gross

domestic product is 15% and will increase to 25%. The consumption inequality of 0.33 will reduce to

0.16. The income inequality of 0.46 will be reduced to 0.23. The number of families living at home is

29.8 and will increase to 60 percent. Safe roads are 0.1 percent; it will increase to 50 percent. Bio-fuel

energy consumption is 12.5% and will reduce to 15 percent. The food degradation index of 10 percent

will reduce to 2 percent, setting the target.

The government has set a target to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide produced annually from 0.10

metric tons per person to 0.05. Similarly, 175 create climate-smart villages, providing education on

climate change in all increasing schools. The area covered by community forests increased from 39%

to 42%, increasing the area covered by reservation areas to 23.3% of the total land. The rate of forest

destruction is 1.90 percent; the goal is to reduce it to zero. The rate of wall marriage is 48.8%; it should

be reduced to zero. The index of transparency, accountability, and corruption at the public level is 3%;

then it should increase to 5%. The quality index of public administration is 3.10, then it should reduce

to zero. The birth registration rate should increase from 58.1% to 100 percent.

19.1% of the share is government revenue in the gross domestic product. It will increase to 30%, and

the share of foreign aid in the total national budget of 15% will increase to 18%. The share of foreign

investment is 2.7% of the gross domestic product. It will increase to 20% of the prediction.

8. Conclusion

Nepal has been working hard to achieve sustainable development goals. It is working to expand

investment in areas such as education, health, drinking water, communication, transportation, food

security, and poverty alleviation. In addition, it has encouraged sustainable agriculture for food security.

The government is working with the aim of achieving the sustainable development goal by the year

2030. Nepal has 20.3% of the poverty rate below the national poverty line. The government will aim to

reduce the poverty line below 5% in 2020. The multidimensional poverty index will be reduced from

44.2% to 11%, the poverty concentration will be reduced to 2.8%, and the total national income per

capita will reach 2500 US dollars. The economic risk index will be reduced from 24.6% to 18.9%, and

the land productivity will increase to 6 metric tons per hectare. The maternal mortality rate will be



www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 8, No. 1, 2025

18
Published by SCHOLINK INC.

reduced from 258 to 69 per million. The infant mortality rate will decrease from 23 to 10 per thousand,

and the child mortality rate will decrease from 39 to 22 per thousand. Net enrollment rate target at the

primary level will reach 99.5%, and the literacy rate in 15–24 age groups is 99%.

The goal of the gender empowerment index is to increase from 0.568 to 0.7, the gender inequality

index from 0.49 to 0.05, and the direct gender responsive budget to 30 percent. The 24.66% of rural

poverty and 18.34% of urban poverty have been prescribed. The 23.7% of the Nepali population has an

income of less than 1.25 US dollars per day, and it is to reduce to less than 5% and reach 2500 US

dollars per capita. There is a 20% share of consumption by low-income families, increasing from 7.6%

to 12%, and social protection spending is estimated to reach 15% of the total federal budget in 2030.

The ratio of rule of law in Nepal has 71 ranks out of 142 countries. Similarly, drinking water increased

from 87% to 99%, electricity access increased to 99%, per capita gross domestic product increased

from 2.3% to 7%, agriculture sector growth increased from 0.8% to 5%, youth unemployed decreased

from 35.8% to 10%, consumption inequality decreased from 0.33 to 0.16, income inequality decreased

from 0.46 to 0.23, and bio-fuel energy consumption decreased from 12.5% to 15%, respectively. The

community forest area increased from 39% to 42%, and the index of transparency, accountability, and

corruption at the public level increased from 3% to 5%. The quality index of public administration has

reduced from 3.10 to zero. The birth registration rate increases from 58.1% to 100 percent are the

achieving indicators.

Conflict of Interest: There is no any conflict of interest

Funding: No funding have received

Acknowledgement: Thanks for researcher and information provider to complete the report.

References

Acemoglu, D., & Robinson, J. (2012). Why Nations Fail? The Origins of Power, Prosperity and

Poverty. Crown Publishers, New York. https://doi.org/10.1355/ae29-2j

ADB. (2004). Report and Recommendation of the President to the Board of Directors: Proposed Loan

to the Kingdom of Nepal for the Gender Equality and Empowerment of Women Project. Manila.

ADB. (2014). Nepal country environment note. Asian Development Bank. Mandaluyong City,

Philipines.

ADB. (2015). Nepal: Country Performance Assessment 2015. Manila.

AEPC. (2021). Progress at Glance: Year in Review FY 2019/20 and FY 2020/21, s.l.: Alternative

Energy Promotion Centre.

Atsmon, R. Dobbs, et al. (2012). Wining the $30 Trillion Decathlon: Going for Gold in Engineering

Markets. McKinsey Quarterly, August.

DWSS. (2015). Progress review 2015. Kathmandu: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Water Supply

and Sanitation, Department of Water Supply and Sewerage.



www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 8, No. 1, 2025

19
Published by SCHOLINK INC.

Ghale, & Bishwokarma, N. K. (2013). In Upreti, B. R., Bhattarai, R., & Wagle, G. S. (Eds.), Human

Security in Nepal: Concepts, Issues, and Challenges (pp. 89-118). Kathmandu: Nepal Institute for

Policy Studies (NIPS) and South Asia Regional Coordination Office of NCCR (North-South).

Ghale, & Pyakuryal, K. N. (2016). Conceptualizing the Right to Food and Food Security: Some

Theoretical Reflections (pp. 21-33). Nepalese Journal of Agricultural Sciences, HICAST,

Kathmandu.

Ghale. (2011). Right to Food and Food Security in a Changing Context, In Pyakuryal, K. N., Upreti, B.

R. (editors), Land, agriculture, and Agrarian transformation Kathmandu: Consortium for Land

Research and Policy Dialogue (COLARP) (pp. 27-56).

GHI. (2023). Global hunger index scores by 2023 GHI rank.

GoN. (2011). Sanitation and hygiene master plan 2011. Kathmandu, Nepal.

Kanal, U. (2022). Industrialization of Socialist-Oriented Economy Development in Nepal: Contribution,

Possibility and Challenges of Private Sector. Published by SCHOLINK INC.USA.

Koirala, P., Thakuri, S., Joshi, S., & Chauhan, R. (2019). Estimation of soil erosion in Nepal using a

RUSLE modeling and geospatial tool. Geosciences, 9(4), 1-19.

https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9040147

LGA. (2017). Local Governance Act. Law Commission, Government of Nepal

National Statistics Office. (2023). National Agricultural Census 2021, Summary. Kathmandu, Nepal.

Nepal Constitutions. (2015). Nepal Law Commission 2015 of the Nepal Constitution, Kathmandu.

Nepal Government. (2016). Nepal Business Integrated Strategy, Kathmandu.

NLC. (2018). Food Right and Food Sovereignty Act, 2018. Nepal Law Commission, Kathmandu.

NPC. (2016). Nepal and the Millennium Development Goals: Final Status Report, 2000-2015

Kathmandu.

NPC. (2020). National Review of sustainable development goals, report 2020, government of Nepal,

Kathmandu.

NPC. (2024). 16th Plan, National Planning commission, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu.

Oscar, A. G., & Gasper, D. (2013). Human Security, combined with the Nation Union Program,

Geneva.

Pandey, B. B. (1885-1955). Nepal at that time”, Part 2, p.171; and Shah, Rishikesh, “Modern Nepal: A

Political History”.

Rodrik, D. (2013). Unconditional Convergence in Manufacturing. The Quarterly Journal of Economics,

128(1), 165-204. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjs047

UNDP. (2019). Briefing note for countries on the 2023 Multidimensional Poverty Index, Unstacking

global poverty: Data for high impact action.

United Nations. (1948). worldwide, and the Human Rights Proclamation, Geneva combined the

nation-state Union, the human rights of the High Commissioner's office, 1989, Child rights related

to contracts, Geneva.



www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 8, No. 1, 2025

20
Published by SCHOLINK INC.

Upreti, B. R., & Ghale, Y. (2014). Conflict over Seed and Plant Genetic Resources: Implications for

Food Security. In Upreti, B. R., Sharma, S. R., & Paudel, S. B. (Ed.), Food Security in

Post-Conflict Nepal: Challenges and Opportunities Kathmandu: Department of Development

Studies, School of Arts, Kathmandu University, and Nepal Center for Contemporary Research

(NCCR).

WJP. (2023). Rule of Law index globally, World Justice Project (WJP) 2023. Retrieved from

https://worldjusticeproject.org/rule-of-law-index/

Yamuna mixed up. (2019). In agriculture Research wanted, Nepal Weekly, March 5, 2019,

Kathmandu.


	1 Department of Economics and Social Sciences, Tri

