Advances in Politics and Economics ISSN 2576-1382 (Print) ISSN 2576-1390 (Online) Vol. 5, No. 3, 2022 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape 1 Original Paper Borderland, Migration and the Question of National Identity in Nigeria, 1914-1991 Bello Zakariya Abubakar (Ph.D),1* Tanko A. Adihikon (Ph.D),1* & HamisuSani Ali1* 1 Department of History and Diplomatic Studies, Federal University Wukari, Taraba State, Nigeria * Bello Zakariya Abubakar Ph.D, Tanko A. Adihikon (Ph.D), & HamisuSani Ali, Department of History and Diplomatic Studies, Federal University Wukari, Taraba State, Nigeria Received: April 14, 2022 Accepted: May 18, 2022 Online Published: June 8, 2022 doi:10.22158/ape.v5n3p1 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/ape.v5n3p1 Abstract Prior to the European conquest of Africa, the area of study was made up of various political entities with different ethnic and religious backgrounds. However, the British colonization and subsequent 1914 amalgamation brought all ethnic nationalities and regions together to form what is now Nigeria. Nevertheless, the nature of political boundaries in Africa separated people with common ethno- religious and political experiences. Thus, most of the people at the borderlands freely migrate to and from Nigeria to neighbouring countries without respect for immigration laws which made it difficult for national identity in the West African sub-region. Therefore, nationalism and independence in Nigeria/Africa have failed to correct such colonial mistakes which made it difficult to address the question of national identity. Above all, the National Identity Management Commission (NIMC) which was established by the NIMC Act No. 23 of 2007 to address the issue of immigrants is still battling the question of national identity. Keywords Borderland, Dual indigenization, Migration, Moribund 1. Introduction Before the advent of British colonization in Nigeria, the country was made up of various autonomous political entities and each was more or less ethnically and religiously homogenous with its kings or rulers at the apex of the administration. The borderlands of these kingdoms were ‘naturally’ demarcated with natural physical features (rivers and mountains) without many boundary disputes, dual indigenization, and also without the question of national identity as the case today (Opanike & Adulogu, 2015). Examples of some of these political states or kingdoms were Hausa city-states which later www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 5, No. 3, 2022 2 Published by SCHOLINK INC. metamorphosed into Sokoto Caliphate, Kanem-Borno Empire in the northeast, Jukun kingdom, Idoma, Tiv, and other minorities in the north-central region, Oyo Empire in the south-western region and the stateless Igbo society and other minorities in the south-eastern region (Ajayi & Crowder, 1977, p. 40). However, with the European scramble for and partition of West Africa between 1884 and 1885 and even beyond, French and British colonization of the West-African sub-region with their borderlands separated many families and ethnic groups which were homogenously together and this brought about the question of national identity, a serious and unresolved issue both within and outside Nigeria. British conquest and colonization of Nigeria as we shall see was done in a piecemeal process between 1861 and 1914 (Crowder, 1962). Its borderlands, from all directions, were shared with French-speaking countries with artificial boundary lines not natural as they were before. As we shall see in this study, Nigeria and Cameroon are recognized as being the most linguistically heterogeneous countries in Africa and ethnically homogenous at the borderland. They constitute one of the most linguistically diverse areas in the world, despite having well below 2% of the world’s population. The borderland shared by these countries is perhaps the most densely populated area linguistically and ethnically speaking (Connell, 1997). One of the sticking features with the Nigerian borderland is that the neighbouring countries share one or more homogenous ethnic groups. For example, the Hausa and Fulani are found in Nigeria, Niger, Chad, and Cameroon Republics, Yoruba in both Benin and Nigeria, the Ewe in Ghana, and Togo and the Brong in Cote d’Ivoire and Ghana. Along these borderlands, there are traditional and modern border markets such as the ones in Jibia (Magama-Jibia), Badagry, Idi-Iroko, Seme, Hainare, and Bang Down which always attracted merchants from diverse origins, who flock to these markets regardless of government restrictions and regulations (Usman, 2019). 2. An Overview of the Study Area (Nigeria’s Neighbouring Countries) Nigeria has four major borders and these borders lead to four West African countries. The country shares a border with Cameroon in its southern parts of the Cross River. It also borders Chad in North- East and Niger in the North. Additionally, Nigeria also borders Republic of Benin in the South-Western region (Opanike & Adulogu, 2015). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 5, No. 3, 2022 3 Published by SCHOLINK INC. Figure 1. Showing Nigeria and Her Neighbouring Countries Source: Internet Source. Let us take a look at a brief profile of these countries bordering Nigeria which were artificially created by France. Firstly, Benin is also known as the Republic of Benin and formerly called Dahomey. The country is bordered by Togo to the West, Nigeria to the East, and Burkina Faso and Niger to the North. A significant portion of the country’s population lives on the small southern coastline of the Bight of Benin which is a part of the Gulf of Guinea in the northern tropical part of the Atlantic Ocean. The capital of Benin is Porto-Novo, however, the economic capital and the seat of government is located in Cotonou which is also the largest city in the country. The official language of Benin is French but the native languages are Fon and Yoruba (Akinjogbin, 1966). The dominant religion in the country is Roman Catholicism. And there are also Muslims, Voodoo, and protestant Christians. The country was colonized by France but in 1960, the Republic of Benin, gained full independence. The Republic of Chad is a landlocked country located in Central Africa. The country is bordered by Libya to the north, the Central African Republic to the south, Sudan to the east, Cameroon and Nigeria to the southwest, and Niger to the west. In terms of landmass, Chad is the fifth largest country in Africa. The people of Chad sharing borders with Nigeria also share the same religion and the same ethnic groups e.g. Sara, Arab, and Kanembo. Also, these people share similar ethnic groups and cultural heritage. These religious and cultural similarities resulted in the question of national identity (Samuel, 1977). In terms of economic motives, the people of both countries are closely related by occupation, www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 5, No. 3, 2022 4 Published by SCHOLINK INC. cattle rearing, hides, skin production, and so many other socio-cultural similarities. The country is named after the popular Lake Chad. The capital of Chad is N’Djamena and it is the largest city in the country. The official languages in Chad are Arabic and French. It is important to recall that most of the Nigerian Arabic students in universities and colleges of education must go to Ngala village at the border of Borno and Chad for Arabic training for some months or a year. The country was colonized by France in 1920 but gained independence in 1960 under the leadership of Francois Tombalbaye. Cameroon is a Central African country that is bordered by Nigeria to the west, Chad to the north-east, the Central African Republic to the east, and Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and the Republic of the Congo to the south. Its coastline lies on the Bight of Biafra, part of the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean. The official languages of Cameroon are French and English (Kunings & Nyamnjoh, 2003). The country is extremely culturally diverse, and it is often referred to as Africa in Miniature. Some of the natural features include beaches, deserts, mountains, rainforests, and savannahs. The highest point of the country at almost 4, 100metres (13, 500ft) is Mount Cameroon in the southwest region of the country. And the largest city in terms of population is Duala on the Wouri River. Duala is also the economic capital and main seaport while Yaoundé is its political capital. Based on history, Cameroon was colonized in the past by Germany, France, and Britain. The country eventually gained independence in 1961 to become the Federal Republic of Cameroon. The Nigerian-Cameroon border region is on the coast from a 1963 map, with Bakassi Peninsula in the middle as shown on the Map II attached. Bakassi is a peninsula on the Gulf of Guinea. It lies between the Cross River estuaries, near the city of Calabar west of the Bight of Biafra, and the Rio del Ray estuary on the east. It is governed by Cameroon, following the transfer of sovereignty from neighbouring Nigeria as a result of a judgment by the International Court of Justice. On 22 November 2007, the Nigerian Senate rejected the transfer, since the Green tree Agreement ceding the area to Cameroon was contrary to Section 2 (1) of the 1991 Constitution. Regardless, the territory was transferred to Cameroon on 14 August 2008. During the scramble for Africa, Queen Victoria signed a Treaty of Protection with the king and chiefs of AkwaAkpa, known to Europeans as Old Calabar on 10 September 1884. This enabled the British Empire to exercise control over the entire territory and Calabar, including Bakassi. The territory subsequently became a de facto part of Nigeria, although the border was never permanently delineated. However, documents released by the Cameroonians, partly with that of the British and Germans, clearly placed Bakassi under Cameroonian territory as a consequence of colonial Anglo-German agreements. After southern Cameroons voted in 1961 to leave Nigeria and become a part of Cameroon, Bakassi remained under Calabar administration in Nigeria until ICJ judgment in 2002 (Lej.org). Niger officially known as the Republic of Niger is a landlocked country located in the West African sub-region and it is named after the Niger River. The country is bordered by Libya to the northeast, Chad to the east, Nigeria and Benin to the south, Burkina Faso, and Mali to the west, and Algeria to the northwest. The borders of Niger and Nigeria do not distinguish the people in any way because these www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 5, No. 3, 2022 5 Published by SCHOLINK INC. people have had similar ways of life for ages. They are of the same ethnic groups and have the same socio-economic and cultural similarities as noted by AbdullahiLabo above (Labo & Afolaya, 2000) They are mostly Muslims, and they are farmers or agriculturalists whose expertise is deeply rooted in cattle rearing. They have cross-border marriages, family ties, and similar ways of dressing and geographically they have the same territorial landscape. The population is predominantly Muslims with some Christians. The capital city is Niamey. Over the years, Niger has consistently ranked close to the bottom of the United Nations Human Development Index (HDI). As of 2015, the country was ranked 187th of 188 countries. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 5, No. 3, 2022 6 Published by SCHOLINK INC. Figure 2. Showing Bakassi Peninsula Source: Internet Source. 2.1 British Creation of Nigeria and Its Implications The British conquest of Nigeria was done in a peace-meal process or stages from 1861 to 1914. This political and economic subjugation was motivated by purely economic factors regardless of the peoples’ cultural affiliations. Thus, it resulted in the economic exploitation of its natural resources and cultural separation of families and homogenous ethnic groups along the borderland as noted above. To fully understand this, let’s examine critically the stages involved in the British conquest of Nigeria for its ulterior motives. However, it is important to note that, before the British conquest, all the kingdoms and empires mentioned above had natural boundaries and the peoples were ethnically homogenous without the question of national identity. It is an indispensable fact of history that, Nigeria is a British creation, and that the various peoples of Nigeria were brought together politically by the efforts of British officials and traders with the support of the British government. The first step in the British acquisition of Nigeria was the annexation of Lagos in 1861 as Lagos Colony. In this regard, J.F.A. Ajayi makes the following submission; “The 1861 annexation of Lagos marked the first major step taken by the British Government in the 19th Century to acquire economic and political domination over the people of Nigeria (Ajayi & Crowder, 1977, p. 55).” Then, Britain proceeded to the minority ethnic groups and established Oil Rivers Protectorate in 1885 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 5, No. 3, 2022 7 Published by SCHOLINK INC. as a result of increasing rivalry with other European powers in the area. The British Government was still very unwilling to undertake the heavy financial burden of administering the area despite of the stipulations of the Berlin West African Conference on effective occupation. But in 1891, it created a skeletal administration by the appointment of a commissioner and Consul-General who resided at Old Calabar. Consuls and vice-consuls were also appointed. In 1893, the area of the protectorate was extended inland to Lokoja and Benue and renamed the Niger Coast Protectorate. Then in1897, following the British occupation of Benin, that area west of the Niger became part of the Niger Coast Protectorate (Berlin Conference Act, 1884-1885). Meanwhile, certain events had made the British occupation of Yoruba land necessary. These were the adverse effects of the Yoruba wars on trade with Lagos which led to increasing interference in the affairs of Yoruba states by the Lagos administration, and the threat of French encroachment on Yorubaland. As a result of the French threat, the Lagos government signed a treaty with the Alaafin of Oyo in 1888 by which he placed about two-thirds of Yoruba land under British protection while the remaining one-third was left to the French government. That was why as noted above, some Yoruba are found in Togo today. These European artificial boundaries made the question of national identity too difficult to be resolved (Abubakar, 2019). By 1896, about two-thirds of Yoruba land south of Ilorin was under the control of the Lagos government. Thus, Lagos and Yorubaland were administered as the colony and protectorate of Lagos. On 1st January 1900, an important administrative advancement was made when the Niger Coast Protectorate was renamed the Protectorate of Southern Nigeria and the Consul-General turned into the High Commissioner. Moreover, in May 1906, this protectorate was merged with the colony and protectorate of Lagos as the ‘Colony and Protectorate of Southern Nigeria’ with Lagos as headquarters (Crowder, 1962). Unlike the southern region where Britain was faced with little or no resistance, the colonization of northern Nigeria was by real military conquest also in a peace-meal process. Britain succeeded in the imposition of an indirect rule system of administration in the northern region because the emirs were not united due to rivalries and internal wars. Consequently, the hinterland of Nigeria north of Lokoja became administered, on behalf of the British Government, by a chartered company - The Royal Niger Company (Crowder, 1962). The British Government had declared a protectorate over areas claimed by the company in 1887. Then on January 1, 1900, it took over direct administration of the area from the Royal Niger Company and named it the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria with Lugard as its first High Commissioner. Finally, the two separate governments; The Colony and Protectorate of Southern Nigeria and the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria were amalgamated as the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria on January 1, 1914, and Lugard became the first Governor-General. Above all, what is important to note is that, since the British imposition of its rule in 1861 up to 1991, the last creation of states that was made by General Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida, the implications of these, both internally and externally, were the separation of some homogenous ethnic groups and www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 5, No. 3, 2022 8 Published by SCHOLINK INC. families. Consequently, this phenomenon resulted in the problem of dual indigenization within the country and the question of national identity between Nigeria and its neighbouring countries. 2.2 The Migration Trends in the Sub-Region Migration, which is the movement of people from one geographical location to another, has remained at the centre of West African history for several centuries. It is important to note that migration is a global phenomenon. It has been attributed to influencing the characteristics, distribution, and size of the population of the sub-region (Mahdi, 1987). A migrant can be a person who uproots himself from his original home and moves to a new place where he settles and establishes new links. Geographical movements of the population along the Nigerian border are generally divided into two categories. One, the movement is impelled by religious or political considerations. On the other, population movement is caused by economic factors such as the need for specific types of labour in a neighbouring country (Borjas, 1989). Once migrants have moved into a new area they are confronted by a new environment with its people, culture, economic, and social organizations, and their chances of achieving success and settling down are largely dependent on the degree of the individual and collective interactions with the host communities. Although there are no exact figures for the number of migrants who arrive at wide-ranging destinations throughout West Africa at different times, it is obvious that migration is on the increase, particularly as the absence of effective regulation by the Nigerian Immigration Service has made it possible for migrants to criss-cross international Nigerian borders in search for greener pastures. This fact is substantiated by Lee (1966) who in his nine laws on migration noted the escalation in the volume and accumulation rates of migrants in the absence of effective regulation of either NIMC or the Immigration service of its neighbouring countries. Thus, in the West African sub-region, a large number of migrants move daily, largely for economic reasons. Although, individuals’ move may not necessarily be economic, others move to visit their biological relations or friends, for marriage and naming ceremonies. Similarly, Rica (2019) has observed; that most of the migration movements commonly attributed to economic causes are a host of individual motivations and many of which remain to be discovered. This study looked at the individual motivation of resident immigrants in Nigeria with its neighbouring countries and observed the degree to which they had become integrated into the host community because of their biological and ethnic relations. It was considered important to look critically into the validity of the international notion that the immigrants were propelled to migrate by hunger, misery, and/or war as in the case of the Calabar-Cameroon border at Ogoja, and Bekwara (Mahdi, 1987, pp. 2- 10). Related to this was the importance of knowing how well immigrants became acculturated in their host community, whether they simply imparted their own culture and belief systems from their places of origin if not biologically or ethnically related; and whether they participated fully in local, formal and informal organizations. For several hundred decades or so, the region called West Africa today has witnessed intense climatic www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 5, No. 3, 2022 9 Published by SCHOLINK INC. changes which have had a negative impact on water availability and the overall stability of the region’s environment (Mahdi, 1987). An important corollary of this has been the continuous southward advancement of the Sahara Desert, which is sucking dry the region’s flora and fauna and making life increasingly difficult and miserable for a large number of people both within Nigeria, Niger, and Chad Republics. Throughout the sub-region, mass population movements have been triggered by this natural phenomenon as noted here. This type of population movement, prompted by the need for water and land for grazing as in the case of Fulani herders in Nigeria, Niger, Cameroon, and Chad Republics respectively was not the only type of movement in the West African area. Communal clashes or wars, trade, conquest, natural disasters, kidnapping, and the domestic slave trade were also very important factors that motivated migration in West Africa both during the pre-colonial, colonial, and present times. One common feature of these migrations, however, was that they were group phenomena with individual motivation playing little or no part (Zacharia & Conde, 1981). Therefore, the arrival of the colonial powers particularly Britain and France as noted above in the late 19th and 20th centuries, generated upheavals in the organization of the economy and society that changed the hither to nature of migration in West Africa. As such Britain and the French colonial government built development centres around mineral deposits and shifted the centre of gravity of economic activities from the hinterlands to the coastal regions, where new capitals were created to serve the economic interests of colonialism. The Europeans also introduced new crops such as cocoa and soya beans which were grown for export to their own countries. Mines were exploited maximally by the metropolises. Ports were constructed, as well as roads and railways to link the ports to the plantations and mining centres. All these contributed to migration both within and outside the sub- region. Along with this wholesale restructuring of economic activity came a large-scale redistribution of the population both within and outside Nigeria, as people moved all over the sub-region in search of economic prosperity. There was, for example, a massive movement of Nigerians to Lagos, Port Harcourt, and to Gold Coast (Ghana) to participate as either skilled or unskilled labourers or traders in the then-booming “adoji” and gold ceremony. Migration in the West African sub-region during the pre-colonial, colonial, and present times cannot, however, be attributed to economic factors alone. There were and are also climatic, political, religious, biological, and administrative factors. For example, the seasonal nature of agricultural production enabled Nigerians both Fulanis and non-Fulanis to move to the coastal areas and neighbouring countries and or states during the dry season to earn enoughto sustain their lives (Rica, 2019). The colonial boundaries imposed by Britain and France restricted some people to travel on one hand, while on the other hand enabled people of biological ethnic ties to travel the length and breadth of vast colonial empires without completing immigration services formalities. However, movements across borders were possible, and sometimes facilitated by agreements between Nigeria and her neighbouring countries, such as the ones signed under ECOWAS Agreements. Thus, with these agreements, there are www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 5, No. 3, 2022 10 Published by SCHOLINK INC. free movements regardless of whether there is an international border between the point of departure and destination. Consequently, migrants are mainly attracted to areas with significant development indications of economic prosperity. The dominance of the economic factor over the cultural element in influencing migration is very evident at the present. For example, since the beginning of large oil exports in the early 1970s, Nigeria has experienced a mass influx of immigrants from all over West Africa and beyond. Similarly, Cote d’Ivoire, with its economic boom, has attracted workers from Burkina Faso, Niger for more than 30 years. Thus, modernization and economic achievement, as in most parts of the world, have also motivated migration in the sub-region. 2.3 Theoretical Explanation of Migration Several scholars have gone beyond mere pragmatic observation and have formulated theoretical models to explain the phenomenon of migration. The objective of these scholars was to understand the dynamics of migration and assist authorities to introduce better-focussed policies to address the issues at stake. These theories have made a distinction between internal and international migration, as the existence of borders does nothing to explain the underlying causes. Furthermore, related to border migration and the ECOWAS Protocol, the frequency with which people move across the international borders in the West African sub-region without official sanction has been a source of concern to the authorities. This is more so since several hundred unofficial routes exist. In most cases, however, these large cross-border movements are simply natural movements of persons belonging to the same ethnic group, separated by political and or colonial borders which cut across the territories of homogenous populations. Neighbouring countries share one or more ethnic groups. For example, the Hausa are found in Nigeria and Niger, the Yoruba in Benin and Nigeria, the Ewa in Ghana and Togo, and the Brong in Cote d’Ivoire and Ghana. International borders in West Africa are reputed to cut across the territories of 100 ethnic groups that are homogenous and biologically related (Murdock, 1959). These movements have continued with little or no hindrance despite differences in ideology, membership in financial communities, and even conflict between states. The cohesion and solidarity among the people across these borders and the movements are still going on despite the arbitrary international borders drawn by the European powers in 1885 in Berlin. Hundreds of peasants move across international borders several times a day to and from their farms and to visit relations. The Emir of Maradi in the Niger Republic is addressed as “SarkinKatsina” (i.e., Emir of Katsina) due to the historical link between Maradi and Katsina in Nigeria. Traditional and modern border markets such as the ones at Jibia, Badagry, Idi-Iroko and Seme, Bang Down, and Hainare have attracted merchants from diverse origins, who flock to these markets regardless of government restrictions and regulations. Consequently, this makes the question of national identity to be very difficult. Borders have, therefore, largely remained imaginary, with too few immigration officials to control the movement of people. Immigration officials, particularly if they are unfamiliar with the border area, www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 5, No. 3, 2022 11 Published by SCHOLINK INC. have a lot of difficulty in differentiating between “travelers” from neighbouring states or countries and their countrymen and women, since most of the migrants are of the same ethnic origin. This situation has continued to be of concern to national authorities, especially concerning its implication for taxation, health, education, military service, household statistics (census), and other aspects of public administration. It was fundamentally for this reason that regional economic/political groupings and communities were established to unite the sub-region and regulate issues common to the status with the cross-border movement of people at the centre of such initiations. The several regional groups in West Africa such as the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the West African Economic Community (CEAO) have attempted to regulate the movement of people across the international borders in the sub-region as stipulated in the International Labour Organisation Constitution (Barbour, 1961). The 1979 ECOWAS Protocol is a case in point. The 1st article of the protocol illustrates this. The protocol entitles all citizens of the community to enter, reside and settle “permanently” in the territory of member states. A target of 15 years was set for this objective to be achieved and no distinction was made regarding the occupational status of potential migrants. Three distinct phases were established for the attainment of total freedom of movement without a visa and for the right to reside and settle as a community citizen in any country of choice. Briefly put, these phases are as follows; Phase I: Citizens of member states were given the right to travel within the sub-region without a visa for a period not exceeding 90 days. This was meant to facilitate the movement of business people, seasonal workers, and tourists except where the host country approved. It excluded movement for regular and full-time employment. (This phase ended in 1984). Phase II: This phase began in 1985. Under this phase, community citizens were entitled to the right to reside and engage in full remunerated employment. The tension created by the expulsion from Nigeria of about two million migrants from ECOWAS states almost halted the implementation of this phase. This tension, however, was resolved by 16 heads of the community, and a supplementary protocol to Phase II was enacted. Phase III: Initiated in July 1986, this protocol established the right of all citizens in the community to reside in any country to seekand carry out income-earning employment (article 2), and to be given a permit (card) acknowledging their right of residence (ILO Conference, 1986). Apart from these provisions, the protocols also contained four articles that dealt with the expulsion of the immigrants. From the contents of the articles, it is clear that expulsions could still take place under very strict conditions. Meanwhile, mass expulsions were prohibited, and a number of guarantees were prescribed for immigrants under an expulsion order such as the right of appeal, the reimbursement of travel costs, and the right to retain acquired entitlements. From the foregoing, it can be seen that authorities in West Africa were quite aware of the intensity of the current cross-border migrations and the important part played by the historical origins of the movements. The cultural and religious similarities of the West African people have made it easier for www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 5, No. 3, 2022 12 Published by SCHOLINK INC. migrants to integrate into host communities without necessarily going through formalities of either ECOWAS or immigration laws. The ECOWAS protocols are designed to facilitate the movement of migrants and prevent abuse. The implementation of this agreement, however, has been hampered by the lack of respect for its articles by both the migrants and state authorities within the community. More so, there are several reasons for migration between Nigeria and its neighbouring countries. In a more elaborate form, several factors or motives were behind the movement of the migrants out of their countries of origin (see table below). This table indicates that the economic factor was behind most of the migrants’ decision to leave their home country. Nevertheless, there was some secondary reason behind migration as indicated in the table below. For example, some migrants visit their relations or families in the neighbouring countries (Opanike & Aduloju, 2015) whereby a completely jobless person could migrate in the hope of finding employment. Alternatively, a person with a good job in one place might move to another place in search of a better job with higher pay. Table 1. Motives for Migration Motives for migration Frequency Percentage Search for a better job Search for knowledge Search of Islamic knowledge Political Reasons Environmental Crisis (e.g. wars, drought, etc) To visit relatives 30 20 10 10 15 15 50% 30% 13% 10% 25% 25% Total 74 104% The majority (50%) of the respondents left home to work outside their home countries, i.e., for economic reasons. While others left in search of knowledge. This has traditionally been a motive for migration in Nigeria and West Africa in general. Seekers of Islamic knowledge are well known for migrating to different places to consult learned Sheikhs and many of them have ended up settling there permanently and have become part of the learned host community. Those who gave political reasons for leaving home do not discuss the nature of the political situation that had made it necessary for them to migrate. While others left because of environmental factors and crises/wars. And others visit their relations. But women generally visit their relations and or follow their husbands (Labo & Afolayan, 2000). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 5, No. 3, 2022 13 Published by SCHOLINK INC. Table 2. Reasons behind the Decisions to Migrate Reasons behind the Decisions Frequency Percentage (%) Friends self Relations Parents Individuals 13 15 06 03 08 28.9 33.3 13.3 6.7 17.8 Total 45 100% The majority of the migrants (67.7%) were encouraged to migrate by friends, relations, parents, or husbands. Only fifteen respondents indicated that they took the decision to leave their countries by themselves and were uninfluenced by others. This is not surprising as life in a traditional setting is so structured that people do not live independently of each other but are bonded by relationships that could be familial, social, or economic. They often feel bound to consider the opinions of others when taking important decisions. 2.4 The Question of National Identity Apart from the external factors that have been discussed above, that is between Nigeria and its neighbouring countries; internal factors compounded the issue of national identity. The thirty-six states of the federation plus FCT were created for political reasons, not for economic and or ethnic considerations. This also compounded the problem and issue of ethnic identification and dual indigenisation in the country by some individuals. Moreso, the six geopolitical zones of Nigeria are major division in modern Nigeria, created during the regime of President General SaniAbacha. Nigerian economic, political, and educational resources are often shared across the zones. Although, some scholars argued that, the thirty-six states and geographical zones were entirely created or carved out based on geographical location, but rather with similar ethnic groups, and/or common political history were classified in the same zone or states. Nigeria is made up of approximately 400 ethnic groups and 450 languages. There was a need for the government to merge similar ethnic groups for effective identification and curb dual indigenisation. Based on the above analysis, it is imperative to note that the British creation of Nigeria and the proliferation of states up to thirty-six plus Federal Capital Territory, Abuja was done without ethnic and or geographical consideration but for purely political considerations, and that is why it became a serious threat to population explosion, in spite of the efforts of the National Identity Management Commission (NIMC) and the Nigerian Immigration Service. To overcome the problems and tackle the issue of dual indigenization, the Nigerian government introduced national identity management system under NIMC. Therefore, National Identity Management Commission (NIMC) is a statutory Nigerian organization www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 5, No. 3, 2022 14 Published by SCHOLINK INC. that operates the country’s national identity management system. It was established by the NIMC Act No. 23 of 2007 and established to create, operate and manage Nigeria’s national identity card database, integrate the existing identity database in government institutions, register individuals and legal residents, not immigrants, assign a unique national identification number and introduce general multi- purpose cards (Yakubu, 2020). Due to illegal immigrants and the homogenous nature of the ethnic groups at the borderlands as well as to curb the issue of dual indigenization, a national identity card system was initially conceived in 1977 but the project did not see the light of the day. In 2003, a new scheme managed by the Directorate of National Civic Registration (DNCR) was initiated and about 54 million Nigerians were registered. However, the scheme failed to meet official expectations and was also hampered by allegations of corruption and embezzlement of funds. The National Identity Management Commission came into effect in 2010 and an initial budget of about 30 billion naira was appropriated in the 2011 federal budget (Nwazeh, 2010). The commission subsequently entered into an agreement with the National Database and Registration Authority of Pakistan to develop computerized national identity cards for Nigerians (Ezigbo, 2010). Additionally, the commission also partnered with two consortiums, the first led by Chams Nigeria and the second, One Secure card consortium composed of Interswitch, SecureID, and Iris Technologies to provide data capture services (Ahmad, 2020). While the National Identification Number is a part of Nigeria’s National Identity Management System (NIMS), the other part is the General Multipurpose Card (GMPC). The number stores an individual’s unique data in the database. It is part of a measure to create a national identity database and to prevent both double identity and identity fraud. However, the organization began the enrolment exercise in September 2010 and started the issuance of a multipurpose card in 2013. The identity card issued in 2013 can be obtained by Nigerians aged sixteen, or who have lived in the country legally for two or more years at the point of the enrolment by providing an identification document with a photograph such as a driver’s license or an international passport. The ID card contains a National Identification Number, a photograph, and a chip containing the biometric information of the holder. The commission also collaborated with MasterCard to add a prepaid element to the card which can be used as an ATM card in MasterCard certified ATMs. Thus, National Identity Management Commission ensures the registration of all Nigerians not less than sixteen years of age and all legal residents. Again, Nigerian Immigration Service is another agency or body established to ensure the migration of Nigerians and none Nigerians both within and outside the country in order to curb illegal migrants off the border. The Nigerian Immigration Service (NIS) was extracted from the Nigerian Police Force (NPF) in August 1958. It was at that time referred to as the Immigration Department and headed by the Chief Federal Immigration Officer (CFIO).The Immigration Department was established by an Act of Parliament (Cup 171, Laws of the Federation of Nigeria) on August 1, 1963, when AlhajiShehuShagari was the Minister of Internal Affairs (a position now referred to as Minister of Interior). The initial law www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 5, No. 3, 2022 15 Published by SCHOLINK INC. regulating Immigration duties was the Immigration Act of 1963 which was amended in 2014 and again in 2015 (Immigration Act, 2015). The service has, since 1963, been restructured to manage modern migration in line with global, regional, and sub-regional political alignments. The Nigerian Immigration Service (NIS) however, has leveraged the use of information and communication technologies in its operations including;  The introduction of the machine-readable electronic passport in 2007.  The creation of a service website and portal.  Global passport intervention in line with the Federal Government Policy on Citizenship Diplomacy.  Forensic laboratory services for the examination of travel documents and monetary instruments.  The introduction of the Combined Expatriate Residence Permit and Aliens Card (CERPAC). As empowered by Section 2 of the Immigration Act, 2015, the service is responsible for;  The control of persons entering or leaving Nigeria.  The issuance of travel documents, including Nigerian passports to bonafide Nigerians within and outside Nigeria.  The issuance of residence permits to foreigners in Nigeria.  Border surveillance and patrol.  Enforcement of laws and regulations with which they are directly charged; and the performance of such Para-military duties within or outside Nigeria as may be required of them under the authority of this Act or any other enactment. 3. Conclusion The study examined the historical creation of Nigeria by Great Britain in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and its implications prior to the British creation of Nigeria, the sub-region was made up of Hausa city-states and later Sokoto Caliphate, Oyo Empire, Benin Kingdom, Kanem-Borno Empire, and Igbo and their minorities with their natural borderland without the issue of national identity and dual indigenisation. But the partitioning of the sub-region by Britain and France in the era of the scramble for and partition of West Africa with the imposition of artificial boundary lines separated some families and homogenous ethnic groups mentioned in the main work. And this consequently, led to the question of national identity and dual indigenisation. In order to address this global phenomenon in the sub-region, the Federal Government of Nigeria passed an Act of Parliament on August 1 1963 known as Immigration Act to manage modern migration in line with global, regional, and sub-regional political alignments. The National Identity Management Commission Act No. 23 of 2007 also created, operated and managed Nigeria’s national identity card. All these efforts are geared towards addressing the issue of national identity and dual indigenisation. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 5, No. 3, 2022 16 Published by SCHOLINK INC. References Ajayi, J. F., & Micheal, C. (Eds.), History of West Africa (Vol. II). London: Longman Ltd., 1977. Amin, S. (1976). Unequal development: An essay on social formations of peripheral capitalism. Brian Pearce, trans-monthly review press. New York, 1976. Anene, J. C., & Brown, G. (Eds.). (1976). Africa in the nineteenth and twentieth century’s. Ibadan: Ibadan University Press, 1976. Barbour, K. M. A. (1961). Geographical analysis of boundaries in inter-tropical Africa. In K. M. Barbour, & R. M. Prothero (Eds.), Essays on Africa population. London: Rout ledge and Kegan Paul, 1961. Byertlee, D., Tommy, J., & Fatoo, H. (Eds). (1976). Rural-urban migration in Sierra Leone: determinants and policy implications. African Rural Employment paper No 9 U.S.A: Michigan State University, 1976. Cleave, J. (1970). Labour in the development of African Agriculture. Stanford California: Stanford University press, 1970. Crowder, M. (1962). The story of Nigeria. London: Faber and Faber, 1962. Gaude, J. (1976). Causes and Repercussions of Migration: A critical analysis. Geneva: International Labour Organization 1976. George, P. (n.d.). Types of migration of the population according to the professional and social composition of migrants. In C. J. Jansen (Ed.), Readings in the sociology of migration. Pergamon press. Harris, J., & Todaro, M. (1970). Migration, unemployment and development: A tub-sector analysis. American Economic Review, 1970. Labo, A., & Afolayam, A. A. (2000). Trans-border studies: The Motivation and integration of immigrations in the Nigeria- Nigeria border area: A study of Magama- jibial/transborder movement and trading: A case Study of borderland in south western. Ibadan: IFRA- Nigeria, 2000. https://doi.org/10.4000/books.ifra.964 Lee, E. S., & Jacksen, J. A. (Eds.). (1969). A Theory of migration in migration. Cambridge, Cambridge university press. Mahdi, A. (1987). Migration, sedentarisation and urbanization process in the central Sudan before C. 1800AD. Paper delivered at the 2nd international workshop of the societededemographiehistorique, Paris, France. 1987 Nyamnjoh, F. B., & Konings, P. (2003). Negotiating an angle phone identity: A study of the politics of recognition and representation in Cameroon. Leden. Netherlands: Brill publishers, 2003. Zachariah, K. C., & Conde, J. (1981). Migration in West Africa: Demographic aspects. London: Oxford University press, 1981. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 5, No. 3, 2022 17 Published by SCHOLINK INC. Notes Note 1. See: Abimbola Opanike and Aduloju A. A “ ECOWAS protocol on free movement and Trans- border security in West Africa” in Journal of Civil and Legal Sciences 2015, 4: 154 Dei: 10.4172/2169- 0170.100154. Note 2. Jacob Festus AdeniyiAjayi and Micheal Crowder (eds) History of West Africa. Vol.II, (London: Longman ltd 1977), 40-50. Note 3. Michael Crowder, the story of Nigeria, (London: Faiber and Faiber, 1962), 90-95. Note 4. Bruce A. Connell, Moribund Languages of the Nigeria - Cameroon borderland, (London: Oxford University press 1997) A paper presented at the symposium on language Endangerment in Africa at the institute of social and cultural and social Anthropology Oxford University, July 29-31, 1997, 1-12. Note 5. Interview: Malam Hamisu Usman, 45 years, immigration officer, (NIS) MutumBiu Station, Gassol Local Government Area Taraba State, 20th November 2019. Note 6. For further details see: Abimbola Opanike and Aduloju A. A. “ECOWAS protocol on free movement and Trans-border security in West Africa”, in Journal of civil and Legal sciences, 4:154. Doi:10.4172/2169-0170.1000154. Note 7. For further details on Dahomey and now Benin Republic, see: I. A. Akinjogbin “Dahomey and Yoruba in the Nineteenth Century” in Joseph C. Anene and Godfrey N. Bown (eds) Africa in the Nineteenth and Twenty centuries, (Ibadan: Ibadan University press and Nelson, 1966), 255-269. Note 8. Samuel Decalo, Historical Dictionary of Chad, (Lanthan, Maryland, U.S.A: Scare crow press Inc., 1977). Note 9. Piet Kunings and Francis Being Nyamnjoh, Negotiating on Anglophones identity: A study of the politics of Recognition and Representation in Cameroon (Leden, the Netherland: Brill publishers, 2003), 22-76. Note 10. On the Cameroon- Nigeria borderland, there are Fulani, Mambilla, Kaka, Panso and Kambu found on both sides of the countries. In fact, this is a source of problem to the issue and question of national identity and consequently, bring about dual indigenisation. For further explanation on this, see: Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon Versus Nigeria: Equatorial Guinea intervening) international court of justice see: www. Icj.org (An over view of the case. This overview is provided for information only and in no way involves the responsibilities of the court. Note 11. AbdullahiLabo and A. A. Afolaya,” Trans-border studies: the motivation and integration of immigrations in the Nigeria-border area: A study of Magama-Jibia/Trans-border movement and trading: A case study of borderland in south western Nigeria (Ibadan: IFRA-Nigeria, 2000), Doi: 10.4000/books. IFRA.964. 111-96 Note 12. Jacob Festus AdeniyiAjayi and Michealcrowder (eds) History of west Africa…… 55-60. Note 13. The Berlin conference of 1884 – 85 was also known as the congo conference of west Africa. It legitimizes and regulated European Colonization and trade in Africa during the “New imperialism” www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 5, No. 3, 2022 18 Published by SCHOLINK INC. periods and concluded with Germany’s sudden emergence as imperial power. The conference was organized by Otto Von Bismark, first chancellor of Germany. Its outcome, the general Act of the Berlin conference, can be seen as the formalisation and legitimisation of the partition of Africa by European powers. And this resulted to the creation of artificial boundaries with its negative consequences like the questions of national identity, dual indigenisation, and boundary disputes etcetera. Note 14. Interview: Malam Junaidu Abubakar, 55 years. Immigration officer (NIS), Jalingo 13th December, 2019. Note 15. Michael Crowder: The story of Nigeria, (London: Faiber and Faiber, 1962), 163. Note 16. Ibid. 64 Note 17.Abdullahi Mahdi, Migration, sedentarisation and urbanization process in the central Sudan before C. 1800 AD. A paper delivered at the second international workshop of the societie de DemographieHistorique Paris, France, 1987, 1 – 8. Note 18. George J. Borjas, “Economic theory and international Migration” in the international Migration review Vol. 23, No. 3, special silver anniversary issue: International Migration: An Assessment for the 90’s (Autum, 1989) sage publication. Inc. Note 19. Everett S. Lee A theory of migration: Demography Vol. 3, No. 1 Durham, North Carolina, United State: Duke University press https://doi.org.102307/2546424. Duke University press, 1966, 47 – 57 (11 pages) https//doi.org/10.2307/2060063 Note 20. See: Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations international Migration 2019 Report. Published by United Nations. https://creativecommions,org/license/b//3.0/igo/ Note 22. Abdullahi Mahdi, Migration, sedentarisation and Urbanization process in the central Sudan, 2- 10. Note 22. Ibid. Note 23. Zachariah, K. C and J. Conde, Migration in West Africa: Demographic Aspects (New York: Oxford University, press, 1981) 20-35. Note 24. See: Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nation International Migration 2019 Report. Note 25. George Peter Murdock, Africa: Its people and their Culture History, (New York: MC Graw hill, 1959), 40-45. Note 26. K.M Barbour, A geographical Analysis of Boundaries inter-tropical Africa in K.M. Barbour and R, Manshell Prothero (Eds.) Essays on Africa population, (London: Rutledge and Paul, 1961), 1-9. Note 27. International Labour Organisation and standing Orders of the International Labour conference (OLO Geneva, 1986). Note 28. The ECOWAS Protocol on the free movement of people and goods ensure free mobility of the community citizens, i.e. citizens of member states. However, it also allowed members state the right to refuse admission to any community citizens who were inadmissible under the member state’s own domicide law. For further details see: Abimbola Opanike and Aduloju A. A. “ECOWAS protocol on www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ape Advances in Politics and Economics Vol. 5, No. 3, 2022 19 Published by SCHOLINK INC. free movement and trans-border security in West Africa “in Journal of civil and legal sciences 2015, 1- 5. Note 29. AbdullahiLabo and A. A. Afolayan, trans-border studies: The motivation and integration of immigrations, 6. Note 30. Interview Mr. Caleb Yakubu 57 years, immigration officer (NIS), Jaling, Taraba State. 5th January, 2020. Note 31. Kingsley Nwezeh, ID card Federal Government targets 100 million citizens, This day (Lagos), March 28, 2010. Note 32. Onyebuchi Ezigbo, Governments signs contract for new ID card projects. This day (Lagos), July 26, 2010. Note 33. Immigration Act: An Act to consolidate and amend the law as to immigration; to control in Nigeria certain persons, and for matters connected there with (1963 No. 6 L. N. 91 of 1963). Interview: Bappa Ahamad, 54 years, immigration officer, Jalingo, Taraba State, 15th January, 2020.