439 Russell PUB READY.docx


VOLUME 42, 2023
ISSN 1093-7099

EDITORS: BEVERLY J. IRBY, NAHED ABDELRAHMAN, BRAD BIZZELL, AND JULIA BALLENGER
ASSISTANT EDITOR: JORDAN DONOP



Advancing Women in Leadership Vol. 42, 88-97, 2023
Available online at http://www.awlj.org/
ISSN 1093-7099

Full Length Research Paper

Advancing Gender Equity and Women’s Leadership Capacity: Mentoring,

Networking, Training

Mia Russell, Barbara Stewart, & Lisa Brooks
Mia Russell: Senior Lecturer, Center for Leadership Education, Johns Hopkins University, mrusse29@jh.edu

Barbara Stewart: Professor and Chair, Human Development & Consumer Sciences, University of Houston, bstewart@uh.edu
Lisa Brooks: Professor, Hospitality and Tourism Management, Eastern Illinois University, tlbrooks@eiu.edu

Accepted May 1, 2023

To overcome barriers to leadership opportunities that exist for women and promote gender equity in the workforce, it is
essential for organizations to provide leadership development programs specifically targeted towards women. The purpose of
this study was to understand professional and personal outcomes associated with participation in a leadership development
program. All participants in this study were female. Key findings from this study indicated that as a result of participating in the
Leadership Academy leadership training program, most participants expressed high levels of self-confidence regarding
leadership positions as well as knowing their individual strengths. Results of the qualitative findings suggested four emerging
and descriptive themes associated with program outcomes: confidence builder, network facilitator, opportunity booster, and
paying it forward. This study adds to existing literature suggesting that formal women-focused leadership training programs can
facilitate gender equity in the workforce.

Keywords: women, leadership training, development, benefits, confidence, networking

Gender equity in leadership is required for organizational
success in the increasingly complex and global world, yet
barriers to leadership opportunities exist for women.
Representation disparity among the female workforce is
prevalent: women represent approximately 54.3% of the
workforce (UN Women, 2022) yet only 35% of senior leadership
positions (Ariella, 2022). The recent COVID-19 global
pandemic has amplified this organizational leadership challenge
for women. In fact, during the pandemic, women experienced
unprecedented job losses and were 24% more likely to
permanently lose their jobs compared to men (Catalyst, 2021).
An effective solution for addressing inequity in the workforce is
for researchers, practitioners, human resource and leadership
professionals to promote leadership development programs for
women (Hitt & Tucker, 2016).

Literature Review

Leadership Development

Leadership has drawn increased attention as many believe it is a
way to improve one’s personal, social, and professional life; an
idea reinforced by corporations and organizations seeking those
with leadership ability to help achieve organizational objectives
(Northouse, 2016). While there is no common definition of

leadership, common understandings have emerged from
scholarship positioning leadership as a multidimensional and
reciprocal construct that can mobilize, influence, and persuade
others to a common goal or course of action (Barnard, 1938;
Burns, 1978; Northouse, 2016). Bush and Glover (2003) extend
the definition of leadership by explaining it in three ways: (a) a
process of influence to structure and organize processes, (b)
related to organizational values and committing people to these
values, and (c) vision-oriented. Primary indicators of leadership
interest are the resources and programs devoted to leadership
development evidenced by countless discussions in schools,
corporations, churches, and communities as well as the over two
billion Google search results using “leadership development”.

Leadership development is defined as the investment in
developing and mentoring leaders and expanding the collective
capacity of organizational members to engage effectively in
leadership roles and processes (Hitt & Tucker, 2016; McCauley
& Brutus, 1998). In this way, leadership development is seen as
a practice and discipline that builds capacity and helps leaders
navigate complexity, uncertainty, and emergent dynamics. Day
(2001) asserts that leadership development should emphasize
capacity building and use interpersonal competence.
Interpersonal competence includes social awareness (e.g.,

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empathy and emotional intelligence) and social skills (e.g.,
collaboration and relationship building). Taking these
perspectives, leadership development can be an integration
strategy that helps individuals enhance their self-understanding,
relate to others, and build the competence to determine and
execute strategic initiatives.

Leadership Programs for Women

Buck (2003) identified the need to build capacity for individuals,
groups, and projects as a way to increase internal and external
leadership skills. She proposed formal leadership development
programs to build capacity to provide leadership for
communities and for the roles in which individuals live, work,
and serve. Underrepresentation of women in leadership roles
(Levine, et al., 2015) and the need for leadership skills in women
have prompted developmental programs specifically targeted to
women. In general, reported outcomes have been positive.
Khalid et al. (2021) examined post-training scores that revealed
an increase in knowledge and leadership skills. Vinnicombe and
Singh (2002) stated that women-only training enables women to
clarify leadership ambitions and recognize their strengths.

Expounding on previous research, Chuang (2019) provided
evidence that women-only leadership programs are a suitable
approach to address gender inequality in the workplace (Clarke,
2011; Limerick et al., 1995; Willis & Daisley, 1997). In that
vein, Lewis and Fagenson (1995) examined women-only
training programs and noted that they provided a forum for
women to express themselves without being discriminated
against. Additionally, Lewis and Fagenson (1995) found the
programs provided support among women who felt the same
disadvantages in the workplace.

Harris and Leberman (2012), in a longitudinal study, found
increases in participant self-confidence, application of new
skills, including networking and promotions. Similarly, Levine et
al. (2015) discovered that after the program, participants were
more likely to ask for promotions and negotiate salaries. This
supports the findings of Longman and Lafeniere (2012), Maher
and Atack (2011), and O’Bannon et al. (2010) who assert that
participation in women-only leadership development programs
builds self-efficacy and creates opportunity for networking and
career advancement (Clarke, 2011). Brush and Crosina (2016)
also found that such programs significantly develop female
entrepreneurial talent.

Levine et al. (2015) and Longman and Lafreniere (2012)
indicated that the ability to network with other women was
valued and enhanced via leadership programs. Networking was
also the focus of the work of Tsen et al. (2012) who found that a
mentoring leadership program provided confidence in mentoring
skills, enthusiasm for mentoring, and diversification of
mentoring relationships.

More generally, in a statement focused on the benefits of
leadership training for women, Gautam (2005) asserted that
skill-building sessions can help women realize their abilities and
provide inspiration to act. She also expressed that it is not

necessary to hold an administrative title or position to be a
leader. Geary (2016) asserted that training can assist women to
balance work and family, support career development, build
self-awareness and self-confidence, and adopt a leadership
identity as well as deal with socio-cultural and structural
barriers. When summarizing the advantages of leadership
training programs focused on women Chuang (2019) included
(a) addressing feminine strengths, weaknesses, and
characteristics, (b) developing confidence and self-awareness,
(c) providing a supportive and non-threatening learning
environment, (d) increasing chances of participation in
discussion and learning activities, (e) discussing sensitive topics
more openly, (f) developing relationships, (g) building
supportive networks; (h) creating opportunities for continuous
professional development, (i) engaging in an environment free
from male-domination, and (j) promoting gender equity.

Leadership Development through Capacity Building:
Mentoring and Networking

Mentoring

Mentoring is described as an advising and development
relationship, usually with an experienced or senior individual.
Scott (2010) says that mentoring is a fruitful way to develop
leaders. Positive mentoring experiences significantly improve
productivity, retention, commitment, satisfaction, leadership
growth, and succession planning (Welchin, 2020). Key aspects
of mentoring programs include identifying high-potential future
leaders within the association, executing mentor programs, and
creating individual development programs (Al Suwaidi et al.,
2020). Mentors can help to build and refine critical soft skills
such as listening, collaboration, and professionalism.
Additionally, mentors can help mentees (or partners) assess their
strengths and weaknesses and clarify leadership roles and
opportunities. Whether mentoring is formal or informal and
planned or not, the relationship must be maintained and
monitored. Heavily skewed toward support, mentoring is seen as
an especially effective component of development.
Skill-building training is an important aspect of successful
mentoring within leadership programs. This training brings
many skills and talents to bear including effective listening and
communication skills, patience, industry and organizational
knowledge, the ability to read and understand others, as well as
honesty and trustworthiness (Scott, 2010). In these ways,
mentoring helps develop a more sophisticated and strategic
perspective on the organization.

Networking Opportunities

Networking is described as connecting to others in divergent
functions and areas (Welchin, 2020). Networking is about
expanding understanding through exposure, which can challenge
basic assumptions about what we think we know. It is also a
means of encouraging organizational members to form
commitments with others outside of their immediate sphere of
influence, work group, or social network. In this way,
networking is about investing in and developing social capital

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with a primary development emphasis on building support.
Networking benefits are optimized when individuals have the
requisite self-awareness, motivation, and self-regulation (i.e.,
intrapersonal competence) (Welchin, 2020). Networking is a
prime means of enhancing social capital and fostering peer
relationships in an organization. The best leadership
development programs provide opportunities for participants to
network with key leaders within the organization (Mercer, 2005).

Leadership Training

Strategically relevant leadership training programs can be
enormously valuable (Welchin, 2020). Training can play a
significant part of learning when (a) it is used as an opportunity
to reflect on and make better sense of actual experience; (b) it
substitutes for experiences that are either unavailable to enough
people or are too risky or expensive to use for development; and
(c) it provides experiences that are not available online such as
scenarios for future states of the organization (McCall, 2004).
Aas (2016) suggested that experiential learning and hands-on
training helps to effectively implement changes in daily practice.
Zhang and Brundrett (2010) also suggested mentoring and
coaching as invaluable aspects of leadership development
training. Wright and da Costa (2016) emphasized effective
professional development that helps to extend and redefine
experiences such as challenging assignments and exposure to
other leaders over time.

Research Purpose & Questions

To support leadership opportunities for women, within and
external to the organization, the American Association of Family
and Consumer Sciences (AAFCS) developed the AAFCS
Leadership Academy (Leadership Academy). Developed to
create a pool of competent future leaders to drive and support the
organization, the Leadership Academy includes leadership
training, mentoring programs, and networking opportunities.
Grounded in both transformational leadership (Bass, 1985;
Burns, 1978) and servant leadership (Greenleaf, 1977), the
Leadership Academy model also follows the work of Kouzes
and Posner (2017), integrates emotional intelligence (Bradberry
& Greaves, 2009), and encourages the discovery and use of
participants’ strengths (Rath, 2007). While the organization
wanted to ensure a future pipeline of qualified leaders,
participant benefits extended beyond the organization (Conger &
Fulmer, 2003). Drawing from a previous study (Brooks et al.,
2022) assessing the impacts of the Leadership Academy on
participant leadership preparation and experiences to assume
leadership roles in AAFCS, the purpose of this study was to
understand professional and personal outcomes associated with
participation in a leadership development program.

The study was guided by the following research questions:

1. In what ways can participants apply knowledge and skills
after participating in the AAFCS Leadership Academy
program?

2. What are the non-organizational experiences and benefits
participants realize after participating in the AAFCS
Leadership Academy program?

Methods

This mixed methods research design combined both quantitative
and qualitative data to adequately answer both research
questions (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011). Conducted between
October 2021 and January 2022, this study was open to all
participants of the bi-annual AAFCS Leadership Academy since
inception: (2013; n = 15), (2015; n = 14), (2017; n = 12), (2019;
n = 13), (2021; n = 12). Before data collection, Institutional
Review Board approval was obtained from The University of
Houston.

We employed an explanatory sequential design using survey
methodology (Qualtrics, Provo, UT) and focus groups. Emails
were sent to all Leadership Academy participants with an
invitation to respond to a web-based questionnaire. To increase
participation, cohort-specific email invitations were sent to
participants. Non-responders were prompted to reply with
follow-up invitations. Upon completion of the survey, all
respondents were invited to join an online focus group to further
discuss the ways in which the Leadership Academy.

Building on a prior study of Leadership Academy participants
(Stewart et al., 2023), this questionnaire was designed, by the
researchers, to assess individual-level effects associated with
leadership development program outcomes. The researchers
developed the questionnaire based on the program objectives and
a thorough review of professional leadership scholarship.
Grounding this research in leadership development program
outcomes, specifically the Theoretical Model of Leadership
(Black & Earnest, 2009) and the EvaluLEAD framework
(Grove, Kibel, & Haas, 2005) helped to address concerns of
validity. The 24-item survey (including 6 demographic
questions), shown in Table 1, took less than 5 minutes to
complete, and remained open for four weeks.

Table 1

Survey Instrument

1. I accepted a non-AAFCS leadership role (e.g.,
managerial, non-managerial, executive level).

2. I received a promotion within my organization.
3. I accepted a new professional role/position – external to

the organization.
4. I can develop and pursue a personal leadership

development plan.
5. My total compensation has increased.
6. I consider myself a leader.
7. I know my strengths as defined by the Strengths Finder

tool.
8. I use my strengths.
9. I am confident in my networking skills.
10. I continue to seek development opportunities.

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11. I am satisfied with my career.
12. I have a high-level of self-efficacy regarding leadership

positions.
13. I have a high-level of self-confidence in my skills as a

leader.
14. My quality of life has been improved.
15. In one word, how would you describe the impact of the

AAFCS Leadership Academy on your personal life?a

16. In one word, how would you describe the impact of the
AAFCS Leadership Academy on your professional
life?a

17. What non-AAFCS benefit(s) and/or opportunities have
you received as a result of your participation in the
AAFCS Leadership Academy?a

18. Please use the space below to share any other
comments about the impact of the AAFCS Leadership
Academy. a

a Survey question listed verbatim. All other items begin with the stem: “As a
result of participating in the AAFCS Leadership Academy”.

Of the total population (N = 49), the response rate was 51
percent (n = 25). Of the 25 participants that completed the
survey, a majority were white, female, and under the age of forty.
Other collected demographics are listed in Table 2.

Table 2

Demographic Data

Focus group methodology was used to help clarify the survey
and provided an opportunity for open interaction and sharing
between participants (Tveito et al., 2010). The focus group
protocol is listed in Table 3. Of those that expressed interest (n =
9), six participated in a 65-minute focus group. The focus group
was facilitated online via Zoom, using semi-structured,
open-ended questions. To ensure accuracy, focus group interview
transcript review was employed by which each participant
received an opportunity to review and correct the cleaned,
de-identified transcript. To ensure reliability, dependability, and
validity of the results, two researchers separately reviewed the
data. Using the cleaned transcript and researcher journal notes,
key words and phrases were organized and analyzed using hand
coding ultimately yielding 36 codes and four themes that helped
to explain Leadership Academy experiences: confidence builder,
network facilitator, opportunity booster, and paying it forward.

Table 3

Focus Group Protocol

1. How do you define or describe leadership?
2. How would you describe the AAFCS Leadership Academy
(referred to as Leadership Academy for our remaining time
together)?
3. In what ways has your leadership improved as a result of
participating in the Leadership Academy?
4. How did your participation in the Leadership Academy
influence your non-AAFCS aspirations and
(personal/professional) trajectory?
5. Please share a significant accomplishment that you can
attribute to what you learned during the Leadership Academy?
6. There were many concepts covered during the Leadership
Academy, including Emotional Intelligence, Strengths Finders,
and time management. Thinking of a specific concept that was
meaningful, what comes to mind? How have you embraced and
implemented what you've learned?
7. Thinking back to the Emotional Intelligence session and
content, specifically, what did you learn about yourself? Might
there be things you've started, continued, or stopped based on
what you learned? 
8. Can you describe specific aspects of your mentor/mentee
relationship that helped you?
9. What is your most memorable Leadership Academy
experience? Why?
10. If you could wave a magic wand and improve one aspect of
the Leadership Academy, what would you select and why?
11. Is there anything else that you wished I would have asked?

Results

Survey Results: Quantitative Findings

Analysis of forced-choice survey items used descriptive statistics
to identify respondents’ experiences and perceptions as a result
of Leadership Academy participation. Open-ended survey items
were analyzed by thematic recognition of words. All responses
were anonymous.

Descriptives, including frequency distributions, are shown in
Table 4. Most notable are the findings that as a result of
Leadership Academy participation, 92% of participants
expressed (a) a high level of self-confidence regarding
leadership positions, and (b) knowing their individual strengths
as defined by the Strengths Finder tool. Additionally, as a result
of their Leadership Academy participation, 88% of participants
(a) considered themselves a leader, (b) were able to develop and
pursue a personal leadership development plan, and (c) used
their strengths (also defined by the Strength Finder tool).

To further understand the influence of demographic variables on
experiences and perceptions as a result of Leadership Academy
participation, cross-tabulation analyses were conducted for age
and race. While neither indicated significance, it was noted that
age did provide some variation on (a) self-confidence in skills as

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a leader, (b) seeking development opportunities, and (c)
confidence in networking skills (see Tables 5-7).

Table 4

Experience and Perception as a Result of Leadership Academy
Participation

Item n Percent
High-level of self-confidence regarding
leadership positionsa

23 92%

Know individual strengths as defined by the
Strengths Finder toola

23 92%

Consider myself a leadera 22 88%
Able to develop and pursue a personal
leadership development planb

22 88%

Use strengthsa 22 88%
Seek development opportunitiesa 21 82%
Confident in networking skillsa 20 80%
High-level of self-efficacy regarding leadership
positionsa

20 80%

Satisfied with careera 16 64%
Quality of life has improveda 14 56%
Accepted a new professional role/position
external to current organization b

9 36%

Accepted a non-AAFCS leadership role b 8 32%
Total compensation increased b 4 16%

Received a promotion b 2 8%

Note. N=25
a Reflects the number and percentages of respondents’ level of agreement (agree
or strongly agree) to this question. b Reflects the number and percentage of
participants answering “yes” to this question.

Table 5

Variation in Self-Confidence in Skills as a Leader by Agea

Age N Perce
nt

20-29 2 8%
30-39 8 32%
40-49 7 28%
50-59 3 12%
60+ 3 12%

Note: N=25
a Reflects the number and percentages of respondents’ level of agreement (agree
or strongly agree) to the question, “As a result of participating in the AAFCS
Leadership Academy, I have a high level of self-confidence in my skills as a
leader.”

Table 6

Variation in Seeking Development Opportunities by Agea

Age N Percent
20-29 2 8%
30-39 7 28%
40-49 7 28%
50-59 3 12%
60+ 2 8%

Note: N=25
a Reflects the number and percentages of respondents’ level of agreement (agree
or strongly agree) to the question, “As a result of participating in the AAFCS
Leadership Academy, I continue to seek development opportunities.”

Survey: Open-Ended Responses

In the open-ended portion of the survey, respondents were
asked to describe, in one word, the impact of the Leadership
Academy on their personal and professional lives. The word
cloud in Figure 1 offers a visual representation of the frequency
of the open-ended responses whereby the larger the word, the
greater the frequency. There were 32 words provided. Of these,
the following were reported most frequently: networking (n = 5),
good (n = 3), time (n = 2), impactful (n = 2), and enhanced (n =
2). Other words closely related to networking, such as network
and connections, were consolidated into the count for
networking. All other words were reported once.

Figure 1

Impacts of Leadership Academy on Personal and Professional
Life

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Respondents also shared non-association benefits and
opportunities they received from Leadership Academy
participation. Networking and mentorship were often mentioned.
Additionally, six respondents indicated that their participation
had led to increased leadership roles and opportunities, and two
shared that they gained skills and tools helpful in new or
expanded job roles.

Focus Group: Qualitative Findings

Data were organized inductively. Initial and axial coding was
used to identify themes and trends in the data. The researcher
remained as objective as possible and refrained from making
interpretations until all data was coded. The coding process
allowed the researcher to attach keywords to text segments and
reduce data through the categorization of similar data chunks
(Miles et al., 2018). The analysis process included a comparison
of codes to develop themes related to leadership experiences and
influencers. In total, 36 codes were identified through the data
analysis. From these codes, four themes emerged: confidence
builder, network facilitator, opportunity booster, and paying it
forward. After the investigator classified the responses, a second
independent researcher confirmed the codes, subcodes, and
major themes (Miles et al., 2018). All identifying information
was removed to protect the confidentiality of participants.

Focus group participants agreed that the Leadership Academy
offered a comprehensive and robust program that improved
self-awareness and helped participants learn more about
themselves, develop higher-quality relationships and gain new
skills and experiences. Participants talked about the community,
affiliation, and sense of belonging that was built through the
experience. Illustrations of the four emerging themes -
confidence builder, network facilitator, opportunity booster, and
paying it forward – follow.

Confidence Builder

All participants discussed how their confidence increased. One
participant shared that

“… some leaders reached out and asked me if I would
be interested in [serving as a mentor]. I thought that
was neat and kind of a vote of confidence that they
knew me and thought I might be a good match so…
that was good and so I’m serving as a mentor to [a
current participant] which has been good.”

Another participant offered that the program “… gave me the
confidence to do those things and serve in different leadership
roles outside of [our field].” Another participant expressed that
the program “… gave [her] the confidence to go before [her]
legislators… and before that [she] wouldn’t have considered.”

Network Facilitator

All participants expressed the benefits of meeting new people
and making valuable connections. As expected, one participant
shared that “… it was a really good way to network, meet
people, and learn more about the organization” while another
expressed how she was able to “engage with… professional
leaders, you know people [that she] looked up to in that capacity.
[Being in the Academy] really made me feel welcomed and
included in the organization”. Tied to the role of mentoring, one
participant shared “meeting people that… encourage you to lead
was helpful.” While growing your network within the
organization was expected, one participant mentioned the
opportunity to “expand [their] horizon with the people that
[they] work with.” A final example was “It helped [me] develop
a better network of like-[minded] people… definitely opened
doors.”

Opportunity Booster

One participant explained that “[Leadership Academy] just
exposed me to opportunities to lead and made me feel more
confident.” Another participant expounded on this idea and
shared that being a part of the Leadership Academy “better
equipped me with the skills necessary to I don’t want to say just
lead but be involved with various opportunities that allowed me
to lead, maybe not alone, but as a group or team and it definitely
made me see that, I am a good leader and that I can do these
things.” Another participant explained that she “became the
President of a [state] affiliate” while another discussed “serving
on church boards and within the youth ministry.”

Paying it Forward

Most of the participants have found ways to contribute to
colleagues and society, more broadly. They valued the care,
concern, and consideration shown towards them and because
that care made such a personal impact, they desire to help others
in similar ways. The idea of paying it forward was expressed as
realizing “how you can play a role in [contributing to others].”
Two participants shared specific projects that they have worked
on:

“I’ve started a mentorship group just to help others that
were stuck in their dissertation phases and so far, at
least one is almost done… I’m glad that the leadership
skills I got have enabled me to say, yes, I can help
others to achieve an objective…”

and …

“I’ve been able to make [a local community] group
more of a leadership type academy on a very small
scale. And not only that program but other programs

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that I work with, [such as] volunteer groups. [Using the
Leadership Academy principles and activities help to]
take the program to the next level. I’m actually working
with a state leadership group [using some of the tools]
that can take the program up a notch [in terms of]
leadership.”

Discussion

The purpose of this research was to understand professional and
personal outcomes associated with participation in a leadership
development program. Blending the quantitative and qualitative
data helps to validate the data and illuminate findings. Our
findings were consistent with existing literature on leadership
training programs for women; however, our research offers an
interesting perspective on the broader implications associated
with leadership development. Specifically, leading quantitative
findings for this study indicated that as a result of participating
in the Leadership Academy program, 92% (n = 23) of
participants expressed high levels of self-confidence regarding
leadership positions, as well as knowing their individual
strengths as defined by the Strengths Finder tool. Additionally,
88% (n = 22) of participants (a) considered themselves a leader,
(b) were able to develop and pursue a personal leadership
development plan, and (c) used their strengths. In addition, the
majority of participants were able to seek development
opportunities (82%; n = 21), were confident in their networking
skills (80%; n = 20) and had a high-level of self-efficacy
regarding leadership positions (80%; n = 20). Not only are these
findings consistent with previous literature, but they were also
expected since the Leadership Academy training program
included a mentor program and provided a variety of effective
resources for developing self-efficacy. Moreover, the Leadership
Academy provided multiple opportunities for networking with
leaders in the field, such as board members and mentors.
Quantitative items that were inconsistent with previous literature
included those that were related to receiving increased
compensation. Only 16% (n = 4) of participants reported
increased compensation and only 8% (n = 2) reported receiving a
promotion.

Qualitative findings indicate four emerging themes - confidence
builder, network facilitator, opportunity booster, and paying it
forward. Participants discussed how their confidence increased
and expressed the benefits of meeting new people and making
meaningful connections. Participants expressed increased
positive attitudes and an openness to explore leadership
opportunities. Finally, most of the participants discussed both the
impact and modeling of the Leadership Academy planning team
and other organizational leaders. The experiences with these
leaders and the care, concern, and consideration shown during
the Leadership Academy made such a profound impact on
participants that they desired to help others in similar ways. The
four emerging themes from this study are consistent with
previous literature regarding leadership development training
programs for women.

Future research should examine professional outcomes such as
increased compensation and promotions. Researchers should
also consider assessing leadership styles and traits and including
assessments for emotional intelligence and personal strengths.
Finally, more research is needed to understand other factors that
build leadership capacity and help reduce gender disparity and
inequity within organizational leadership ranks.

Limitations

There are important limitations to note for this study. First, the
program participants volunteered to participate in the Leadership
Academy. This self-selection bias threatens external validity.
This study was also focused on outcomes as derived from
program objectives not leadership theories. A focus on
leadership theories would create an opportunity to use validated,
reliable leadership scales. Finally, this study explored mentoring,
networking, and training although there are many worthy factors
that contribute to leadership capacity.

Implications

Women leaders remain largely underrepresented in
organizational leadership. This study supports prior research
showing that formal leadership development programs for
women help improve self-confidence and self-efficacy; a
solution to facilitate gender equity (Maher & Atack, 2011;
Clarke, 2011; O’Bannon et al., 2010). Additionally, findings
from this study suggests that these same programs can contribute
to personal development as well. In fact, our study shows that
leadership development programs can help women grow in
personal, social, civic, and organizational leadership roles. Taken
together, leadership development programs may have the power
to support women in a holistic way –personally and
professionally.

This study also suggests that mentoring relationships are integral
to the success of leadership development. Specifically, we find
that women engaged in a mentoring relationship – as mentee or
partner - have a desire to help others. Organizational leaders
might consider leadership development programs as a tool to
improve work commitment and job satisfaction.

Both organizational leaders and leadership development
practitioners can use findings from this study to inform
interventions and programs with the goal of (1) providing
support mechanisms and exposure that can help women leaders
build and sustain their networks and (2) helping to build
confidence and to encourage women to push past perceived
boundaries. Both of these goals may help advance gender equity
and women’s leadership capacity.

References

Aas, M. (2016). Leaders as learners: Developing new leadership
practices. Professional Development in Education, 43(3),
439-453.

Al Suwaidi, M., Jabeen, F., Stachowicz-Stanusch, A., & Webb,
M. (2020). Determinants linked to executive succession

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planning in public sector organizations. Vision
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