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A Case Study of Aboh Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria 

 

21 

FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION AS SPECIES OF GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE: A CASE 

STUDY OF ABOH MBAISE LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF IMO STATE, NIGERIA* 

 

Abstract 

There is no gain reemphasizing the fact that all human beings, both male and female are born equal. Yet, it 

seems this position is not well accepted in some geographical locations as there exist till date, some cultural 

practices that tend to undermine the protection and enforcement of women’s human rights copiously enshrined 

in numerous Human Rights Legislations. One of such practices is what is known as and called female genital 

mutilations.1FGM is a cultural practice firmly embraced by most African societies and some third world 

countries which has no known medical relevance. It is not only a clear manifestation of gender based violence, 

but an act calculated to demean the women folk. This view is further buttressed by the fact that under the native 

laws and customs of Nigerian societies, including Aboh Mbaise people of Imo State, women are mythological 

conceptualized as being inferior to men and as such, subjugated under the men’s folk. This paper carefully x-

rayed the practice of FGM among the female population of an Igbo clan of Aboh Mbaise. It also x-rayed the 

dangers associated with this practice. Adequate and appropriate recommendations were made on how to 

eliminate this gender based violence called Female Genital Mutilation (FGM).   

 

Keywords: Aboh Mbaise, Female Genital Mutilation, Gender Based Violence, Human Rights Legislations, 

Practices, Protection, Women 

 

 

1. Introduction 

It is a well known fact that it is globally accepted that human rights are rights accorded to all humans by virtue 

of their birth as human beings. This is so, not minding the sex, colour, origin, status, etce tera of these humans. 

On the other hand, it is a notorious fact that there exist in most societies, discriminations/discriminatory 

practices, social stratification, prejudices and injustices which are ordinarily baseless, unfounded and highly 

unjustifiable, yet are still observed and regarded as proper and ethical in these societies. It is not out of place to 

state that these unwholesome practices obviously evolved from the historical, political, economic or religious 

experiences of these societies.2 For instance, in the Africa’s most populated country known as and called 

Nigeria, there exists the practice of FGM which is a practice hinged on  the socio-cultural perception of women 

as being inferior to men.3 It is therefore common practice to retrieve from the women folk, all qualities, rights 

and privileges they are naturally endowed with just to ensure that they are properly subjugated to men’s rule and 

domination. Another reasoning behind this move is that if women are not divested of these rights culturally 

perceived as capable of placing them at par with men or even above men, they will definitely grow to wield 

more powers and influence capable of scuttling the authorities and headship inherent in the male dominated 

Nigerian societies. It is not in doubt that this misconceived perception gave birth to the idea of FGM. This 

surgical procedure is not only forcefully performed on women with or without their consent and authority; 

women are most often forced or coerced to comply with this age long cultural practices on the one hand, while 

young girls who lack the requisite capacity to volunteer consent for the performance of such procedure by virtue 

of their tender ages, are most commonly subjected to the procedure.4 This horrendous cultural practice has 

continued to exist in Nigeria notwithstanding the well recognized human rights legal instruments globally 

articulated to curb human rights abuses against women. It must not be forgotten in a haste that FGM not only 

contravenes all known regional human right instruments, it also contravenes the constitutionally guaranteed 

right to life, especially when it results to death.5 This work shall   deeply consider and critically examine the 

meaning and nature of FGM, types of FGM, prevalence of FGM in Nigeria as a whole, and the Igbo clan of Abo 

 
 By Ifeoma Lambert OPARA, Masters Degree Student of Institute of Women, Gender & Development Studies, Federal 

University of Technology, Owerri, Imo State. 
 Samson Obi UMEH, PhD, Lecturer, Department of Criminology and Security Studies, University of Agriculture and 

Environmental Sciences, Umuagwo, Imo State, Nigeria. E-mail address: elisarahumehsam@yahoo.co.uk. Tel: 08036778342. 
Sarah Igbokwubiri UMEH, PhD, Associate Professor of Environmental Microbiology, Department of Environmental 

Health Sciences, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Imo State. Tel: 08063365313; and  
Anno Domini Chukwumaeze SAMSON-UMEH, LLB, BL, Legal Practitioner at Osuohia Zion Legal 

Consult,127Wetheral Road,Owerri, Imo State. Tel: 08068643793. 
1 Hereinafter referred to as ‘FGM’. 
2 Lemechi, B. Osu Na Ume the Igbo Untouchable Caste Systems, (Owerri, Milestone Publishers Ltd.2011,) p.5. 
3G Azuonwu., et. al.‘Female Genital Mutilation: A Dehumanizing Practice Against Womanhood in Nigeria’, International 

Journal of Research and Reports in Gynecology 3(2) July, 2020,p.14. Available at http://www.sadiourticle4.com/review-

history/58. 8869 accessed 18th April, 2023. 
4Ibid. 
5Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (As Amended), hereinafter referred to as ‘CFRN’ section 40. 

mailto:elisarahumehsam@yahoo.co.uk


African Customary and Religious Law Review (ACARELAR) 4 (2023) 

 

22 

Mbaise. It will also examine FGM as a species of gender based violence, the health challenges associated with 

the practice of FGM and thereafter x-ray the current position of FGM practice in Abo Mbaise, Imo State, 

Nigeria. Appropriate recommendations shall be made on the ways to eliminate this pandemic. 

 

2. Meaning and Nature of FGM 

A lot ink has flown as numerous Authors have attempted to define FGM. FGM has simply been defined as: all 

procedures involving partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other injury to the female 

genital organs whether for cultural or other non-therapeutic reasons.6 Umeh et. al.  tried to proffer a better 

definition of the term when he stated that: 7  FGM is a surgical procedure performed on women to either remove 

the external female genital and more often, the labia minora and the clitoris, partially or totally, so as to ensure 

that women are partially or completely denied of the natural enjoyment of sexual activities. It has been 

emphatically stated that ‘FGM is a violent damage done to the outset organ of females by excising parts of their 

female organs, i.e., vagina, thereby causing substantial and permanent damage to these females’.8 It must be 

reiterated that the performance of FGM on women is not an easy venture but a herculean task which has various 

stages and dimensions. Arinze-Umeobi gave an account of how FGM is performed when she stated that:9 

FGM is usually commenced by ceasing the little girl entirely nude in a sitting position on a 

low stool, with her arms tightly around the her chest by at least three women; one or two of 

the women will hold the girl’s thighs apart by force in order to open wide the vulva; then the 

person that carries out the procedure takes razor and excises the clitoris, from top to bottom of 

the small lip and then repeatedly scraps the flesh from the inside of the large lip.  

 

She went ahead to state that ‘the little girl who is a victim of FGM will remain devastated, incapacitated, and 

immobile for approximately forty days to at least allow for the formation of scar tissue’. Most often, FGM is 

performed on females on the approval of highly respected women in the Nigerian societies, engaging the 

services of local Barbers, Medical Doctors, traditional Birth Attendants and Health Workers, who most often 

embark on the operation without the use of anesthesia.10 It must be pointed out that although the origin of FGM 

is uncertain and shrouded in secrecy,11 it is however speculated that FGM originated in Africa’s oldest civilized 

nation called Egypt.12 Despite this fact, there is abundant evidence that FGM has been practiced in Nigeria for 

more than thousands of years now.13 It must further be stressed that FGM is embraced by both highly educated 

and enlightened individuals, including mothers who indulge in the practice without being bothered about the 

damage it may inflict on their female children and wards.14 The practice of FGM is so rooted in Nigerian 

societies that it is unthinkable that there is no Nigerian woman that has not undergone this procedure.15 As a 

matter of fact, a 2006 research showed that about 60% of the female population of Nigerian had undergone 

FGM.16 On the other hand, a 2020 research estimated that about twenty million Nigerian women had undergone 

FGM.17 It has been stated that this figure represents ten percent of about two hundred million females that had 

 
6P Ibekwe et. al. ‘Female Genital Mutilation in South Eastern Nigeria: A Survey of Current Knowledge and   Practice’ 

Journal of Public Health and Epidemiology Vol. 4 (5) May, 2012, p.117, available at http://www.academicjournals.org/JPHE 

accessed 10th April, 2023. 
7S Umeh et. al.‘Female Genital Mutilation: A Socio-Religious Myths on the Rights of Nigeria Women’,ACARELAR VOL. 2, 

2021, p.90.  
8Country Policy and Information Note on Nigeria: Female Genital Mutilation (FGM), Version 2.0. August, 2019’, p.22,  

available at www.justice.gov./eoir/page/file/1194691/download accessed 6th March, 2021. 
9Arinze-Umobi, C. Domestic Violence Against Women in Nigeria: A Legal Anatomy, (Onitsha, Fo/Mech. Printing Publishing 

Co. Ltd, 2008) p. 72. 
10U Epudu et. al.‘The Epidemiology of Female Genital Mutilation in Nigeria-A Twelve Year Review’, AFRIMEDIC 

Journal, Volume 6, No.1, January, 2018, p.3. 
11 T Okeke et al., ‘An Overview of Female Genital Mutilation in Nigeria’, (2012) Annals of Medical Research Vol. 2. No.1. 

P.17.  
12. 28 Toomany, ‘Country profile:, FGM in Nigeria, Oct, 2016’, available at 

http://www.28toomany.org/staticmedia/uploads/country%20Images/pdf/Nigeria_country_profile_final.compressed.pdf 

accessed 30th January, 2023. 
13 P Ibekwe et. al.‘Female Genital Mutilation in South Eastern Nigeria: A Survey of Current Knowledge  and Practice’ 

(Supra), p117.      
14Arinze-Umobi,C.‘Domestic Violence Against Women in Nigeria: A Legal Anatomy’ (Supra),p. 72. 
15Ibid. 
16 Eya, Patrick, Education and Harmful Traditional Practices against Women in Nigeria, WOREC Journal of Gender 

Studies, Volume .1. No. 3, June, 2006, p.93. 
17G Azuonwu & R Ezekiel, ‘Female Genital Mutilation: A Dehumanizing Practice Against Womanhood in Nigeria’(supra), 

p.17.  

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OPARA, UMEH, UMEH & SAMSON-UMEH: Female Genital Mutilation as Species of Gender-Based Violence: 

A Case Study of Aboh Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria 

 

23 

undergone FGM procedure globally.18 It has been expressed that there is a strong indication that about three 

million women are liable to undergo the procedure annually.19 

 

3. Types of FGM 

It is necessary at this juncture to actually determine whether there is only one form or forms of FGM. This will 

help to throw more light on the types, way and manner the practice of FGM is embraced and carried out by 

Nigerian societies. It has been reiterated that Nigeria is about the most multi-ethnic and populous nation in 

Africa with over two hundred and fifty ethnic groups, and over two hundred million people.20  To start with, it 

must be pointed out at this juncture that FGM is classified into four major types as shall be comprehensively 

discussed hereunder.21 Umeh et. al. also classified FGM into four major types, viz, Types I-IV. 22 He went on to 

explain thus: 23 

Type I: The FGM of this nature is most often referred to as ‘clitoridectomy’ and commonly 

involves the total or partial removal of the clitoris, leaving a small sensitive and erectile part of the 

vagina; or leaving out the prepuce in rear cases. 

Type II: This form of FGM is also known as ‘excision’. It actually involves the partial or total 

excision of the clitoris and the labia minora; with or without the excision of the labia majora. 

Type III: This form FGM is usually referred to as ‘infibulations’ and actually involves the 

narrowing of the vagina by creating a covering seal, which seal is formed by cutting and 

repositioning the labia minora or, labia majora. To achieve this, the Operator actually stitches the 

above stated victim’s vaginal parts, with or without removing the clitoris. 

Type IV: The FGM of this nature is also known as ‘unclassified’, and actually involves use of 

other harmful procedures on the victim’s female genitalia; such as piercing, pricking scraping, 

incising and cauterizing the female genital areas. 

 

Apart from the above stated facts, it is a notorious practice that in order to ensure that the female sensitive  areas 

around the vaginal parts are either killed or waned through this type of FGM, for instance, through a systematic 

dropping of hot water on the clitoris and the general area of the female vulva.24 It is clear that this practice can 

conveniently be classified under Type IV. It has further been reported that there are two other forms of FGM 

that can also be grouped under Type IV, namely: the ‘Anguyra cut’ and the Gishiri cut’. While the former has 

been explained to mean a form of traditional surgery or scrapping to remove hymen and often, tissue 

surrounding the vaginal orifice; the latter simply refer to  a cut made in vaginal walls in cases of obstructed 

labour.25 It has been generally observed that there is no uniformity as to the age women undergo FGM.  26 It is 

however evident that in most Nigerian societies, FGM usually takes place at infancy, although there is proof that 

about eighty-two percent of Nigerian women between the ages of 15-49 had undergone FGM before the age of 

five.27  It must be expressly pointed out that FGM is the cultural requirement of some ethnic societies in Nigeria 

that females must undergo FGM during the birth of their first children, reason being that its performance is 

critical in order to ensure that such child does not touch its mother’s clitoris.28Similarly, it is culturally required 

in some Nigerian societies that FGM must be performed on a deceased woman who did not undergo the 

procedure before her death, on her before burial.29 

 

4. Prevalence of FGM in Nigeria  

It must be pointed out that Nigeria is a multi- ethnic, multi -religious and multi- state entity. Thus, FGM 

prevalence in Nigeria differs from one ethnicity to another, one religion to another, as well as from one state to 

another. According to Umeh et. al.: 30 ‘the prevalence of FGM among some ethnic groups in Nigeria in 

 
18Ibid. 
19Ibid. 
20 28 Toomany, ‘Country profile: FGM in Nigeria’ Oct, 2016’, (supra). 
21Country Policy and Information Note on Nigeria: Female Genital Mutilation (FGM), Version 2.0. August, 2019’, p.17,  

available at www.justice.gov./eoir/page/file/1194691/download accessed 6th January, 2023. 
22 S Umeh et. al.‘Female Genital Mutilation: A Socio-Religious Myths on the Rights of Nigeria Women’ Op. Cit. P. 92. 
23Ibid. 
24Country Policy and Information Note on Nigeria: Female Genital Mutilation (FGM), Version 2.0. August, 2019’(Supra), 

p.17 
25Ibid.  
26 S Umeh et. al.‘Female Genital Mutilation: A Socio-Religious Myths on the Rights of Nigeria Women’ Op. Cit. P. 92. 
27 Ibid.  
28Ibid. 
29Country Policy and Information Note on Nigeria: Female Genital Mutilation (FGM), Version 2.0. August, 2019’(Supra), 

p.19. 
30 S Umeh et. al.‘Female Genital Mutilation: A Socio-Religious Myths on the Rights of Nigeria Women’ Op. Cit. P. 93. 

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African Customary and Religious Law Review (ACARELAR) 4 (2023) 

 

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accordance with their respective populations is as follows: Hausa-19.4%%, Fulaani-13.2%, Yoruba-54.5%, 

Igbo-25.2%, Ijaw-11%, Ekoi-56.9%, Igala-0.5%, Kanuri-2.6%, Tivs-0.3%’. Research has shown that the highest 

prevalence of FGM among the thirty-six states of Nigeria is found in Osun state in the South-West Geo-Political 

Zone of Nigeria, which is put at seventy-seven percent.31 This is closely followed by Ebonyi state in the South-

East which has seventy-four percent.32 It must be stated on the other hand that Kano state has prevalence of 

thirteen percent; Kaduna state in the same geo-political zone has prevalence of thirty-four percent, while Katsina 

state in the North-West has the lowest prevalence of FGM in Nigeria with 0.1%.33This analysis simply attests to 

the fact that FGM is widespread and most prevalent in the Southern Nigeria.34 It is well noted that the most 

commonly practiced type of FGM in Nigeria is Type II which has prevalence of 62.6%.35 This is closely 

followed by Types I and II which have prevalence of 5.3% and 5.1% respectively.36 It must be pointed out on 

the other hand that while Types I and II are most commonly practiced in Northern part of Nigeria, while Types 

III and IV are commonly practiced in Southern part of Nigeria.37  

 

5.  Physical and Health Challenges Associated with FGM 

It is a notorious fact that considering the way and manner FGM is performed, women who underwent FGM are 

often exposed to, and actually encounter a good number of short- and long-term health challenges. As earlier 

stated, FGM is an act of cutting some parts of female genitalia, definitely with some objects.  It must be 

emphasized that FGM performance with the use of knife or other cutting equipment, the mere sight of which, or at 

least the slightest idea of the victim that there will be an imminent surgical interference in highly sensitive areas 

such as the female genitalia, is sufficient to trigger off physical and psychological trauma. This most often throws 

victims of FGM into panic, anxiety, nightmare, and at the same time, instill a sense of humiliation on the victim.38 

This experience will definitely trigger off psychological trauma that may lead to low self esteem, demoralization, 

and most times victims may be forced to consider suicide. 39 Apart from this, there is abundant evidence that in 

some severe cases of FGM, the excision of the clitoris or other parts of female genitalia may result to the 

reduction of sexual response that may lead to anogasmia and frigity.40 Stretching this further, Abdel –Azim stated 

that: 41 

Patients with vaginal obstetric fistula may also develop urinary or faecal incontinence that 

may result into physical, socio-cultural and psychological problems. Victims may or may 

not consummate their marriages several weeks after marriage purely as a result of tight 

infibulations. In some instances, consummation may take up to two years to complete just 

to enable the victim seek medical help for infertility. In other severe cases where husbands 

are unable to penetrate into the vaginae of their wives which became too tight as a result of 

FGM performed on these wives, resort is had to anal sexual intercourse as the only source 

of consummation of marriage.  

 

It must be noted that in all cases of FGM, the realization that the hardship faced by victims of FGM and the 

betrayal perceived by victims against their parents and family members who forcefully pushed them to undergo 

FGM, obviously leaves an indelible psychological trauma on these victims. 

On the other hand, it must be noted that apart from the aforestated psychological challenges faced by victims of 

FGM, victims are also proned to other dangerous health challenges associated with the practice of FGM. Obi and 

Igbinadolor summarized these challenges thus: 42 

severe pain, bleeding, post traumatic stress disorders, anxiety, depression, memory loss, 

eating and sleeping disorders, low libido, apareunia or dyspareunia, chronic pains, 

dysmenorrhoea, vaginal fistula, labial agglutination, hypertrophic scar/keloids, clitoridal 

retention cysts, dermnoid cysts, virginal lacerations during coitus, straining at micturitation, 

 
31Country Policy and Information Note on Nigeria: Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)’, Op.Cit. P.17. 
32Ibid.  
33Ibid.  
34S Umeh et. al.‘Female Genital Mutilation: A Socio-Religious Myths on the Rights of Nigeria Women’ Op. Cit. P. 94. 
35 National Bureau of Statistics/BS//UNICEF, ‘Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS), 2016 – 17’ February, 2018, 

available at http://www,unicef.org/nigeria/media/1406/file/Nigeria-MICS-2016-17.pdf.pdf accessed 30th January, 2023. 
36 bid.  
37 bid.  
38G Azuonwu &R Ezekiel, ‘Female Genital Mutilation: A Dehumanizing Practice Against Womanhood in Nigeria’, (supra), 

p.17. 
39S Umeh et. al.‘Female Genital Mutilation: A Socio-Religious Myths on the Rights of Nigeria Women’ Op. Cit. P. 93. 
40 S Abdel –Azim, ‘Psychosocial and Sexual Aspects of Female Circumcision’,African Journal of Urology, 2013, p.141-142, 

available at http://www.ajo/info/index.php/aju/article/view/95973/85321-141-142 accessed 15th February, 2023. 
41Ibid. 
42A Obi & O Igbinadolor, ‘Prevalence of Female Genital Mutilation and its Determinants Among Pregnant Women in Benin 

City, Nigeria’, Journal Of Community Medicine And Primary Health Care, Vol. 30, No. 2, September 2018, p.13. 

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OPARA, UMEH, UMEH & SAMSON-UMEH: Female Genital Mutilation as Species of Gender-Based Violence: 

A Case Study of Aboh Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria 

 

25 

genital tract lacerations, especially during vaginal delivery, obstructed labour,  increased 

cases of caesarean deliveries, postpartum haemorrhage, and prenatal deaths. 

 

Stretching this further, Ivazzo et. al. stated that: 43 

FGM victims also encounter ‘maternal and foetal deaths, obstructed and prolonged 

labour(which may eventually lead to obstetric fistula (s) and Vesico Vaginal 

Fistula),genitourinary tract infections, damage to the genitalia, genital tissue scars, 

anemia.44Most often; FGM is carried out using unsterile equipment, without antiseptics, or 

antibiotics and in the absence of aseptic conditions.45  

 

Apart from the fact that this situation obviously increases the risk of primary infections, it has been scientifically 

confirmed that FGM performed in such manner above discussed most often expose victims to Chlamydia 

trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhea, Trichomonas vaginalis, Pseudomonas pyocyanea, Staphylococcus aureus, 

Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Clostridium tetani.46 It has also been reported that urological 

complications may occur following FGM operation.47Undoubtedly, medical developments resulting from FGM 

operation such as tetanus and haemorrhage may lead to shock  and eventual death of victims.48 

 

6. FGM as Gender Based Violence 

As earlier stated in this work, FGM can simply be described as a violent damage done to the outset of females’ 

genital organs thereby causing substantial and permanent damage to these females.49 Arinze-Umeobi took time 

to analyze the procedure involved in the performance of FGM and the traumatic experience faced by victims, as 

earlier discussed in this work.50 Thus, FGM has far reaching harmful physical, psychological and human rights 

consequences.  Annoyingly, FGM has no proven or known medical benefit, but rather, a practiced that is aimed 

at satisfying cultural requirement and fulfilling ethnic identity.51  It is a notorious fact that the cultural beliefs 

behind FGM include: initiation into womanhood; controlling  women’s’ sexuality, ie, as a means of preventing 

promiscuity/prostitution, curtailing the excesses of women, ensuring  purported physical cleanliness, increasing 

sexual pleasure for men, eliminating women equality with men, etc.52 While confirming this assertion, 

Saracoglu and Ozutur submitted that: 53 

           Customarily, women most often have great community pressure exerted on them to have FGM 

performed on them simply because their clitoris or genitals are dirty, extremely dangerous and 

or, constitutes irresistible temptation. They thus succumb to FGM just to be relieved of socio-

cultural and psychological pressure, especially where a good number of their fellow females 

have undergone the procedure.54Otherwise these uncircumcised females will remain objects of 

ridicule and hence, unfit to enter into marriage contract.  

 

It is therefore submitted that FGM is a mere intimidation against women, a harmful traditional practices, as well 

as a gender violence of the highest order. Violence Against Persons Prohibition Act, 2015 defines ‘intimidation’ 

to mean ‘the altering or conveying of a threat or causing any person to receive a threat, which includes fear, 

anxiety, or discomfort’.55 It also defines ‘violence’ to mean: 56 any act or attempted act, which causes or may 

cause any person physical, sexual, psychological, verbal, emotional or economic harm whether this occurs in 

private or public life in peace time and in conflict situations. In the same vein, ‘harmful traditional practices’ 

have been defined to mean: 57‘ all traditional behaviour, attitude or practices, which negatively affect the 

 
43C Ivazzo et. al. ‘Female Genital Mutilation Review of Clinical Evidence’, 2013 Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics, 

Vol. 287, No. 6. p. 1137 available at htpp://mentshec.fun/85civOor.2 accessed 17th December, 2022. 
44S Abdel –Azim, ‘Psychosocial and Sexual Aspects of Female Circumcision’,Op. Cit. 
45C Ivazzo et. al. ‘Female Genital Mutilation Review of Clinical Evidence’, Op. Cit. p. 1137. 
46Ibid. 
47Ibid. 
48S Umeh et. al.‘Female Genital Mutilation: A Socio-Religious Myths on the Rights of Nigeria Women’ Op. Cit. P. 95. 
49Country Policy and Information Note on Nigeria: Female Genital Mutilation (FGM), Version 2.0. August, 2019’(Supra), 

p.17. 
50Arinze-Umobi,C.‘Domestic Violence Against Women in Nigeria: A Legal Anatomy’(Supra), p. 72. 
51H Bodurin, ‘Female Genital Mutilation: Perceptions and Beliefs in a Nigerian Rural Community, quoted by G Azuonwu . 

et. al‘Female Genital Mutilation: A Dehumanizing Practice Against Womanhood in Nigeria’,  Op. Cit.P.16 
52M Saracoglu & H Ozutur, Female Circumcision Andrology and Gynecology: Current Research, quoted by G Azuonwu . et. 

al‘Female Genital Mutilation: A Dehumanizing Practice Against Womanhood in Nigeria’,  Op. Cit.P.15 
53Ibid. 
54Ibid. 
55 Hereinafter referred to as ‘VAPP Act’, section 46. 
56Ibid. 
57Ibid. 



African Customary and Religious Law Review (ACARELAR) 4 (2023) 

 

26 

fundamental right of women, girls, or any person and include harmful widowhood practices, denial of 

inheritance or succession rights, female genital mutilation, false marriage and forced isolation from family and 

friends’.   It must further be stressed that FGM is a calculated attempt/ploy to deny or rob women of their human 

rights. It is an obvious disrespect to the concept of universality of human rights as well as a contravention of the 

express provisions of the Constitution of Nigeria which clearly provides that:58 ‘Every individual is entitled to 

respect to the dignity of his person and accordingly, no person shall be subjected to torture or to inhuman or 

degrading treatment’. Worst still, FGM constitutes an act prejudicial and inimical to woman’s right to life, 

bodily integrity, health and sexuality which the 1999 Constitution of Nigeria conferred on every Nigerian 59  

FGM also contravenes the internationally guaranteed right to health of the child.60 It is very unfortunate and 

most disappointing to state further that FGM is usually carried out either without the consent of the victim, or 

with her consent tainted with coercion or undue influence.61 This assertion is confirmed by the fact that most 

often, the consent of FGM victims are sidetracked on the pretext that once victims’ parents or their grandparents 

have consented to the performance of FGM, the consents of the victims become inconsequential.62 Obviously, 

this unhealthy development pushed the Court to hold in the case of Prince v Massachussett that:63 ‘Parents may 

be free to make martyrs themselves, but it does not follow that they are free to make martyrs of their children 

before they have reached the age of full and legal discretion, when they can make the choice for themselves’. 

 

7. Current State of FGM in Aboh Mbaise  

Before delving into this sub-topic, it is necessary to consider the locality, subject of this research with a view to 

comply with accuracy standards. By way of commencement, it must be stated that Aboh Mbaise is one of the 

twenty seven Local Government Area Councils   in Imo State, with its Headquarters at Abo.64 Apart from the 

fact that Aboh Mbaise is made up of many Towns some of which are: Nguru, Uvuru, Mbutu, Okwuatu, Lorji, 

Amuzu and Enyiogugu, etc; it has an area of one hundred and twenty-four kilometers, and a population of 

approximately one hundred and ninety-five thousand, six hundred and fifty-two people as at the time 2006 

Census was conducted. 65  The population for this study is comprised of women aged 15-49 years living mainly 

in Nguru, Uvuru, Mbutu, Okwuatu, Lorji, Amuzu, and Enyiogugu for at least in the last five years. This group 

of women was used because they are deemed to be well abreast with the current trends FGM.  Oral interviews 

amongst women between the age bracket of 15-49 years were conducted. Responses to the oral interviews and 

questionnaires issued to them show that there is a dart in the practice of FGM in the area in relation to Types I-

III. It was however discovered that the only form of FGM practiced in the locality is Type IV FGM, that is to 

say, the systematic dropping of hot water on the clitoris and the general area of the female vulva, and or the 

pressing in of the clitoris and the general area of the female vulva with or without the use of petroleum jelly 

such as Vaseline or other substances just to ensure that the females’ sensitive areas around the vaginal parts are 

either killed or waned. These women admitted having this procedure performed on their female children and 

wards. They also admitted to have had same procedures performed on them after birth by their parents in 

accordance with cultural requirements. They did not seem to see anything wrong with this form of procedure 

either legally of health wise. They only see it as a means to curb the sexual excesses of girls/women. Although 

they admitted being aware of Laws prohibiting Types II-III of FGM, they seem not to be aware of any Law  

prohibiting this form of Type IV FGM. The truth is that even if such Laws exist, they will not be obeyed by 

them. 

 

It is submitted that the increased practice of FGM in Abo Mbaise is a negation of the attempts made so far at the 

international, regional and national levels to eliminate this scourge called FGM. It must be pointed out that since 

the Convention for the Elimination of All forms of Discrimination Against Women, 1979 was articulated and 

ratified by most nations of the world, including Nigeria, there have been other efforts made globally to ensure 

that gender violence, such as FGM are eradicated. It must also be pointed out that apart from ratifying the 

Maputo Protocol, Nigeria was among the countries that sponsored the resolution at the 46th World Health 

Assembly in 1993 calling for the total and complete eradication of FGM globally.66 Pursuant to this goal, 

 
58 CFRN, section 42 (1). 
59Ibid. Sections 34 and 42 (1),  
60Article 24 (3) of United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989; Article 5 African Charter on Human and 

Peoples’Rights, 1986. 
61T Okeke et al., ‘An Overview of Female Genital Mutilation in Nigeria’, Op.Cit. 
62Toomany, ‘Country profile: FGM in Nigeria Oct, 2016’, (supra). 
63 (1944) 321 U.S. 158. 
64About Aboh Mbaise Local Government Area (L.G.A.) available at http://www. Manpower.com.ng/places/lga/330/abo-

mbaise accessed 30th March, 2023. 
65Ibid. 
6628 Toomany, Nigeria: ‘The Law and FGM June, 2018’, p.1 available at http://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk>accessed 

30th May, 2021. 



OPARA, UMEH, UMEH & SAMSON-UMEH: Female Genital Mutilation as Species of Gender-Based Violence: 

A Case Study of Aboh Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria 

 

27 

Federal and State governments of Nigeria initiated high level of education, sensitization, enlightenment as well 

as various awareness programmes to stamp out FGM in Nigeria.67 There has since then been a proliferation of 

anti gender violence Legislations both at the Federal and State levels. For instance, VAPP Act was passed into 

law in 2015 which outrightly outlawed FGM and other harmful traditional practices against women.68 It not only 

prescribes adequate punishment against  those that  perform or engage others to perform FGM, but also against  

those who cut, incite, abate or counsel others to attempt or perform FGM.69 It is commendable that most States 

in Southern Nigeria, including Imo State have either domesticated the VAPP Act, or passed other anti FGM 

Laws, apart from the domestication of the Child Rights Act.  

 

It must not be forgotten in a hurry that the fight against FGM did not stop by the passage of the above 

mentioned Acts. Evidently, there are also other enactments such as the Medical Act which punishes Medical 

Practitioners engaged in FGM activities through suspension of Medical Practitioners from medical practice for 

six months, or by striking out their names from the Register of Medical Practitioners.70In the same vein, the 

National Health Act provides that ‘any person who removes tissue stands the risk of a fine of One Million Naira 

or to an imprisonment for two years, or both imprisonment and fine’.71 

 

8. Conclusions and Recommendations 

It can be safely concluded that although FGM is a discriminatory act and a cruel procedure geared toward the 

dehumanization of the women-folk, its practice is still on the increase in Abo Mbaise where the Type IV FGM 

is still embraced by natives and residents. This is so irrespective of the fact that FGM has been exposed among 

the populace through different awareness programs, as deep-rooted gender violence and an outright violation of 

both the reproductive and human rights of women. As a matter of fact, FGM has from time immemorial, 

permeated into both public and private life of natives and residents of Abo Mbaise people despite the fact that 

FGM has been outrightly banned nationally via legislation. If this development is not urgently curded, women in 

Abo Mbaise will continue to experience violence, deaths, diseases/infections, coupled with the physical and 

psychological trauma associated with FGM. It is suggested that the fight to eliminate FGM in Abo Mbaise will 

remain an uphill task unless more efforts are made by the Imo State and Abo Mbaise Local Government to co-

operate with law enforcement agents, other Human Right Commission, other Associations, Non-Governmental 

Organizations, etc, to change the cultural and religious misconceived belief behind the continued practice of 

FGM, through strict enforcement of FGM Laws. There is also need for Abo Mbaise Local Government Council 

to collaborate with neigbouring communities and Security Agencies in Nigeria with a view to ending FGM. It is 

also suggested that the fight against FGM should also be taken to the School, Skill Acquisition Centers, village 

Meetings, etc. This is achievable through sensitization programs to be championed or organized by religious and 

traditional leaders, Town Unions, Youth Groups, and Faith based Organizations, informing the populace of the 

dangers inherent in the practice of FGM.  Above all, women should be educationally and financially 

empowered. This is because only highly educated and financially stable women can rise up and resist FGM and 

its enforcers. 

 

 
67bid.   
68Violence Against Persons Prohibition Act, hereinafter referred to as ‘VAPP Act’. 
69Ibid.  Section 1 (2), (3) & (4). 
70Medical and Dental Practitioners Act, Laws of the Federation of Nigeria 2004, section 16(2). 
71National Health Act, Laws of the Federation of Nigeria 2014, section 48(3) (a). 


