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African Journal of Agricultural Marketing ISSN: 2375-1061 Vol. 12 (4), pp. 001-006, April, 2024. Available 
online at www.internationalscholarsjournals.org © International Scholars Journals 

 

Author(s) retain the copyright of this article. 
 

 

Full Length Research Paper 

 

Exploring carotenoid levels and characteristics in 
fish fillets from West African coastal fisheries 

 
Bazyli Czeczuga1*, Janusz Semeniuk2, Ewa Czeczuga-Semeniuk1, Adrianna Semeniuk1 and 

Bernard Klyszejko3
 

 
1
Department of General Biology, Medical University, Mickiewicza 2C, 15-222 Bialystok, Poland. 

2
Department of Pediatrics, Pediatric Gastroenterology and Allergology, Medical University, Waszyngtona 17, 15-274 

Białystok, Poland. 
3
Department of Fish Phisiology, Agricultural University, K. Krolewicza 4, 71-550 Szczecin, Poland. 

 
Accepted 8 October, 2023 

 
Using column (CC), thin- layer (TLC) and high- performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), carotenoid 
content was examined in the fillets (muscles with skin) of 16 fish species from the fisheries of West 
African Coast. 15 carotenoids, including 6 ketocarotenoids (4’- hydroxyechinenone, canthaxanthin, 
phoenicopterone, phoenicoxanthin, astaxanthin, 7,8- didehydroastaxanthin) were found, with a 
predominance of 3,4- dihydro- α- carotene, zeaxanthin, phoenicopterone, canthaxanthin, 
phoenicoxanthin and astaxanthin. Total carotenoid content in the examined material ranged from 0.086 

(Merluccius merluccius) to 0.352 µg g
-1

 wet mass (Macrurus aequalis). Also, the increase of different 

environmental factors- especially food, parasites and organochlorine pollution on carotenoid content in 
fishes and their role in human’s life was discussed. 

 
Key words: Carotenoids, fish, fillets, fisheries, West Africa. 

 
 
INTRODUCTION 

 
Carotenoids are wide spread and important pigments in 
nature. They occur in all families of flora and fauna. Only 
bacteria, fungi and plants are able to synthesize them de 
novo; animals have to obtain them from food. Fish meat 
owes its nutrient value not only to protein and fats, but 
also to other biologically active substances- including 
carotenoids, which plays an important role in humans’ 
life. Carotenoids serve as a source of vitamin A, 
antioxidant and pro- oxidant (Yeum et al., 2009), play a 
cancer- protective role (Rock, 2009) and increase the 
immune response in mammals (Chew and Park, 2009). 
Carotenoids may also be significant in the coronary heart 
disease (Johnson and Krynski, 2009). Therefore, many 
authors have been carrying out extensive studies on the  
 
 
 
*Corresponding author. E-mail: bazzylio@poczta.onet.pl. 

 
 
 
 

 
presence and biological function of carotenoids in plants, 
animals and in humans. Thus, the knowledge about the 
carotenoid content in meat or respective fish species in 
fisheries seems to be of a great importance.  

We have already investigated some of the species from 
the Baltic Sea (Czeczuga and Klyszejko, 1996), Black 
Sea (Czeczuga, 1973), fishing areas of the Antarctic 
(Czeczuga, 1978 a,b; 1982; Czeczuga and Klyszejko, 
1978, 1986) and from the fisheries of New Zealand 
(Czeczuga et al.,2000). Tsukuda and Amono (1966), 
Matsuno et al. (1974, 1979), Matsuno and Katsuzama 
(1976) and Miki et al. (1982) have investigated the caro-
tenoids in species from the waters washing the Japanese 
islands. Later, the analyses of carotenoids found in some 
species from the ocean near the coasts of California have 
been made (Crozier, 1967). Tanaka et al. (1978) have 
investigated the carotenoids in marine yellow fish from 
tropical regions. Carotenoids content in particular species 



2 

 

 
 
 

 

of Pacific salmons have also been investigated 
(Jarzombek, 1970; Czeczuga, 1979; Kitahara, 1984) and 
some species from an ocean ranching farm near Islands 
they were analysed by Czeczuga et al. (2005).  

Reviewed papers about carotenoids in fishes are 
generally dated prior to 2000 (Fox, 1957; Simpson et al., 
1981); more recent works cover the carotenoids in gene-
ral (Bjerkeng, 2008).  

The present paper discusses the results of the analysis 
of carotenoid content in fishes from some fisheries of 
West African Coast. 

 

MATERIAL AND METHODS 
 
The study population included 16 fish species (Table 2) from the 

fisheries of the West African Coast (17°05’- 22
0
35’S; 0.11°20’-

0.13°30’E southern Africa and 22°0’- 17°10’E northern Africa), 
caught in July and August.  

50 g fillets (muscles with skin) have been used in the 
investigations. We analysed the material from three specimens. 
After three weeks of storage, the refrigerated material (-4°C) which 
has been used for the analysis, was sent by air mail to the 
department laboratory where they were analysed a week later. The 
carotenoid pigments were isolated using column (CC), thin- layer 
(TLC) and high- performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).  

Prior to chromatography, the material was homogenized and 
hydrolyzed for 24 h in a 10% solution of nitrogen, at room 

temperature. The extract was subsequently placed onto an Al2O3-
filled Quickfit Co. column. The individual fractions were eluted using 
various solvent systems (Czeczuga, 1988). The eluent was evapo-
rated and the residue was dissolved in appropriate solvent to draw 
the maximum of absorption. This was necessary, among other 
reasons, to identify particular carotenoids. In addition to column 
chromatography, the acetone extract has been divided into fractions 
with thin- layer chromatography. Silicon- gel- covered glass plates 

(Merck Co.) and various solvent systems were used. The Rf values 
were established according to commonly accepted criteria (Schiedt 
and Liaaen- Jensen, 1995).  

Pigments were also determined by ion- pairing in reverse- phase 
HPLC. The HPLC equipment consisted of  
a Shimadzu SCL- 6B gradient programmer and a Reodyne 7125 
injector equipped with a 20 µl loop. Detection was achieved in a 
Shimadzu SPD-6AV UV- VIS spectrophotometric detector set at 
440 nm and a Shimadzu RF- 535 fluorescence detector.  

Carotenoids were identified through comparison with the 
standards from: a) the behaviour in CC; b) their UV- UIS spectra; c) 

their partition between n- hexane and 95% ethanol; d) their Rf-
values in TLC; e) the presence of the allylic OH group determined 

by the acid CHCl3 test; f) the epoxide test; g) the mass spectrum 
(Vetter et al., 1971).  
Carotenoid pigment standards were purchased from the Hoffman-
La Roche Company, Switzerland, the International Agency for the 
14

C Determinations, Denmark, and Sigma Chemical Company, 
USA.  
Carotenoids recorded in investigated fishes belong to three groups 
(hydrocarbon, hydroxcarotenoids and ketocarotenoids) which 
chemical, structural and semisystematical characteristics have been 
placed in monographs of Foppen (1971), Isler (1971) and Straub 
(1987). We have also used those monographs in our investigations. 
Quatitative analyses were performed with UV- UIS spectroscopy 
according to Davies methods (Czeczuga, 1988). The structure of 
carotenoids was described by Straub (1987). Chromatography 
methods (CC, TLC, HPLC) were described in detail by Bernhard 
(1995), Schiedt (1995) and Pfander and Riesen (1995) respectively. 
The results were evaluated with Scheffe Test (Winer, 1997). 

 
 
 
 

 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 
 
Fifteen (15) carotenoids were found in the examined 
material (Table 1, Figure 1). Most of them were common 
in fish, but some, such as 3,4- didehydro- α- carotene, 4-
hydroxy- α- carotene, phoenicopterone and 7,8- didehy-
droastaxanthin were rather rare. In most of the species, 
lutein, zeaxanthin, phoenicopterone and astaxanthin were 
found (Table 2). In the investigated material, 3,4-
didehydro- α- carotene, zeaxanthin, phoenicopterone, 
phoenicoxanthin, canthaxanthin and astaxanthin were the 
predominant group. The total carotenoid content in the 
investigated fish species ranged from 0.086 (Merluccius 

merluccius) to 0.424 µg g
-1

 wet mass (Pterothrissus 
belloci). Mean value for all investigated species averaged 

0.200 µg g
-1

 wet mass.  
The total carotenoid content in the fillets of the species 

from African fishing areas in comparison with species 

from other fisheries were considered (mean 0.200 µg g
-1

 
wet mass). The mean value for nine species from the 
region of the Falkland Islands was 0.08 (Czeczuga and 
Klyszejko, 1978) and for 10 species from the Szczecin 

Lagoon of Baltic Sea- was 0.230 µg g
-1

 wet mass of fillets 
(Czeczuga and Klyszejko, 1996). Similar values were 
observed in fillets of fishes from Black Sea fisheries 
(Czeczuga, 1973), New Zealand fishing areas (Czeczuga 
et al., 2000) and from the waters washing the Japanese 
Islands (Tsukuda and Amono, 1966; Matsuno et al., 
1974; Matsuno and Katsuyama, 1976; Miki et al., 1982).  

In fillets from Antarctic fish species, especially in 
representatives of Nototheniidae and Chaenichthyidae 
(white blooded fish) families, total carotenoid content was 
low (Czeczuga, 1978a, b; 1982). In Atlantic (Torrissen et 
al., 1989; Czeczuga et al., 2005) and Pacific salmonids 
(Jarzombek, 1970; Crozier, 1970; Kitahara, 1984), the 
biggest amounts of carotenoids are retained in the fillets.  

Apart from carotenoids commonly occurring in fishes, 
some rare types have also been found. One of them is 
3,4- didehydro- α- carotene. It was first isolated from the 
body of sheatfish Silurus glanis (Czeczuga, 1977). 
Although it has been found in material from six examined 
species, only in Merluccius merluccius was it a predo-
minant carotenoid. 4- hydroxy- α- carotene- also called 
β,ε- carotene- 4-ol, was first observed in plant material by 
Zechmeister in 1958 (Isler, 1971). It also occurred in 
sheatfish (Czeczuga, 1977a). We found it only in 2 of the 
16 investigated species; in Belone belone and 
Centrolophus niger. Phoenicopterone and 4- keto- α-
carotene derivative is frequently called 4- keto- α-
carotene. It was observed in nine species and in Belone 
belone and Dentex macrophtalmus specimens as predo-
minant carotenoid. Phoenicopterone was found for the 
first time in certain green algae as extra-plastidic pigment 
(Goodwin, 1980). 7,8- didehydroastaxanthin, astaxan-
thins’ derivative, was being frequently called asterinic 
acid in previous studies and has been noted only in 
Belone belone and Clupea pilchardus individuals. This 
acetylenic Zeaxanthin occurs in fillets of investigated 13 



3 

 

  
 
 

 
Table 1. Carotenoid list from investgated material  
 
Carotenoid Summary formula Structure (Figure 1) Semisystematic name   
α- Carotene C40H56 

β- Carotene C40H56 

ε- Carotene C40H56 

3,4- Didehydro- α- carotene C40H54 

β- Cryptoxanthin C40H56O 

4- Hydroxy- α- carotene C40H56O 

Lutein C40H56O2 

Tunaxanthin C40H56O2 

Zeaxanthin C40H56O2 

Phoenicopterone C40H54O 

4’- Hydroxyechinenone C40H54O2 

Canthaxanthin C40H52O2 

Phoenicoxanthin C40H52O3 

Astaxanthin C40H52O4 

7,8- Didehydroastaxanthin C40H50O4 

  
A-R-B β,ε- Carotene  
B-R-B β,β- Carotene  
A-R-A ε,ε- Carotene  
A-R-C 3,4- Didehydro- β,ε- carotene  
B-R-D β,β- Carotene- 3- ol  
A-R-E β,ε- Carotene- 4- ol  
F-R-D β,ε- Carotene- 3,3’- diol  
F-R-F ε,ε- Carotene- 3,3’- diol  
D-R-D β,β- Carotene- 3,3’- diol  
A-R-G β,ε- Carotene- 4- ol  
E-R-G 4’- Hydroxy- β,β- caroten- 4-one  
G-R-G β,β- Carotene- 4,4’- dione  
G-R-H 3- Hydroxy- β,β- carotene- 4,4’-dione  
H-R-H 3,3’- Dihydroxy- β,β- carotene- 4,4’-dione  
I-R1-H 3,3’- Dihydroxy- 7,8- dihydro- β,β- carotene- 4,4’-dione  
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
Figure 1. Structural features of carotenoids from the analysed materials. A- I, end 

group designation of carotenoids; R, R1 polyene chain. 



4 

 

 
 
 

 
Table 2. Carotenoid content in the investigated material. 

 

 Specie Carotenoid (Table 1) Content of particular carotenoids (%) Total content (µg g
-1

 wet mass) ± SD 

 Acanthias acanthias L. 2,3,7,8,9,14 9 (33.6), 2(21.3), 14 (19.2), 7 (9.5), 8 (9.5), 3 (7.5) 0.089 

 Belone belone (Brünn.) 6,7,9,10,15 10 (21.9), 9 (21.5), 15 (20.9)l, 6 (18.4), 7 (17.3) 0.143 

 Centrolophus niger (Gmelin) 5,6,7,11,12,14 12 (23.1), 11 (22.8), 14 (20.9), 5 (15.7), 6 (10.2), 7 (7.3) 0.121 

 Clupea pilchardus Walb. 7,9,10,14,15 14 (47.6), 10 (28.5), 15 (8.2), 9 (8.1), 7 (7.6) 0.259 

 Dentex macrophtalmus (Bloch.) 7,8,10,14 10 (43.0), 7 (39.2), 14 (10.1), 8 (7.7)   0.153 

 Engraulis encrasicholus L. 2,3,7,9,10,14 14 (33.2), 10 (30.8), 2 (20.5), 3 (8.6), 7 (4.2), 9 (2.7) 0.258 

 Genypterus capensis (Smith.) 1,2,4,5,7,9,14 9 (22.6), 14 (21.8), 5 (18.4), 2 (15.0), 1 (12.4), 4 (6.8), 7 (3.0) 0.231 

 Macrurus aequalis (Ginter) 1,3,4,5,9,10,12 12 (19.4), 5 (18.3), 9 (16.5), 10 (14.9), 1 (12.8), 3 (11.6), 4 (6.5) 0.352 

 Merluccius merluccius L. 4,5,7,8,9,10,14 4 (26.7), 7 (24.8), 8 (21.4), 5 (18.8), 9 (4.4), 10 (2.7), 14 (1.2) 0.086 

 Myliobatis aquila L. 3,7,9,13,14 13 (36.0), 7 (28.2), 14 (25.4), 9 (7.6), 3 (2.8) 0.202 

 Pterothrissus belloci (Cadenat) 3,4,5,9,10,12 12 (34.4), 5 (20.6), 10 (19.2), 9 (18.6), 3 (5.4), 4 (1.8) 0.424 

 Sarda sarda (Bloch) 2,5,7,10,14 14 (44.5), 10 (30.2), 2 (18.4), 5 (6.2), 7 (0.7) 0.305 

 Sebastes dactyloptera (Dela Roche) 2,4,5,7,9,12,14 9 (28.6), 2 (26.4), 5 (18.8), 7 (12.2), 4 (10.3), 14 (2.5), 12 (1.2) 0.265 

 Trachurus trachurus L. 1,2,3,5,9,14 14 (22.8), 2 (21.4), 1 (20.8), 3 (18.4), 5 (14.2), 9 (2.4) 0.108 

 Trigla lyra L. 4,5,9,10,12,14 12 (24.2), 5 (22.2), 10 (21.4), 14 (20.4), 4 (8.2), 9 (3.6) 0.090 

 Zeus faber L. 2,7,8,9,14 14 (25.4), 2 (24.8), 7 (21.3), 9 (17.6), 8 (10.9) 0.111  
 

 

species, while lutein was found in 12 of them. 
Zeaxanthin appears predominant in Acanthias 
acanthias, Genypterus capensis, and Sebastes 
dactyloptera.  

These are the carotenoids belonging to the 
yellow group and are the principle carotenoids of 
the lens and the macula of humans and primate 
eye (Schalch et al., 2009). The role of this dihy-
droxy compounds in risk reduction of macular 
degeneration and cataract of the eye are impor-
tant. From all of the environmental factors such 
ones as food (Simpson et al., 1981; Latscha, 
1990) increases the carotenoid content in fish.  

The studies included 17 species of invertebrates 

(food of fish) belonging to Porifera, Coelenterata, 

Annelida, Crustacea, Mollusca and Echinoder-mata 

which were caught along the coast of West Africa 

(Czeczuga and Klyszejko, 1977). The investigations 

showed that they have been the 

 
 

 

richest in carotenoids. 27 particular carotenoids 
have been identified. Total carotenoid content in 

this material varied from 0.039 to 1.529 μg g
-1

 

fresh weight. The lowest amount of carotenoids 
was found in the representatives of Coelenterata 
and the highest in the representatives of Crusta-
cea. In natural conditions, the total carotenoid 
content and the mount of keto- and dihydroxy-
carotenoids in the respective parts of the fishes’ 
body depends not only on the type of food it 
consume but also on the parasites and the 
organochlorine pollutants. The effect of ecto- and 
edoparasites on the carotenoid content in fish in 
natural infection was also described (Czeczuga et 
al., 2009). This study was conducted using pairs 
of the host- parasite with ectoparasites and 
endoparasites. In all examined pairs of host and 
parasite, the parasitic organism has always had 
the higher total carotenoid content in comparison 

 
 

 

to the host. Carotenoid content in healthy and 
infected fishes ranged from 3.1 (Mollienisia 
latipinna) to 51.9 (intestines of Tinca tinca). Ob-
tained data indicates that some carotenoids are 
selectively accumulated by respective parasites.  

Water polluted with organochlorine substances 
causes the so called M74 syndrome in fish, 
especially in salmons (Vuorinen et al., 1997). 
Afflicted are the females, especially the eggs 
which are pale yellow as they have a low red 
carotenoid content (especially low astaxanthin 
level) (Pettersson and Liguell, 1999; Czeczuga et 
al., 2002, 2005). Most of the larvae which develop 
from such eggs die when they begin the active 
feeding process. M74 syndrome occurs not only in 
Baltic salmon, but has also been noted in the sea 
trout Salmo trutta m. trutta (Czeczuga et al., 
2005). The effect of chemical water pollution on 
the larval form of other fishes is well known in 



5 

 

 
 
 

 

other latitudes. The high mortality of early life- stage 
salmonids including Pacific salmon from some of the 
Great Lakes of North America has been reported under 
the name of Early Mortality Syndrome (EMS) (McDonald, 
1995). Clinical symptoms were similar to those noted in 
M74 in salmons from the Baltic Sea or in EMS in other 
salmonid species from the North American Great Lakes; 
were observed in Atlantic salmon specimens with Cayuga 
syndrome in the New York Finger Lakes (Fisher et al., 
1996). All three of those disorders responsible for morta-
lity in early life- stage salmonids have been characterized 
(in females and eggs) through the low level of astaxan-
thin and thiamine (Fitzsimons et al., 1999).  

Fish, like other animals, do not synthesize carotenoids 
de novo, which only plants, bacteria and fungi are able to 
synthesize. Those substances get to animals organisms 
only through food and some of them can be converted 
into other carotenoids via oxidation or reduction and into 
vitamin A. Carotenoids catered with food are being relea-
sed in the intestines during digestion and are absorbed 
along the alimentary tract in fish (March et al., 1990). As 
revealed by studies on fish, the free vitamin A is formed 
not only from carotenoids which have three beta end 
groups (β- ring) from the β- carotene type (Simpson et al., 
1981, Latscha, 1990), but also from a number of 
xantophylls, including those from dihydroxy compounds-
such as lutein, zeaxanthin or tunaxanthin (Katsuyama 
and Matsuno, 1987) as well as astaxanthin and cantha-
xanthin belonging to ketocarotenoids compounds (Guillou 
et al., 1989). Both, dihydroxy compounds and ketocarote-
noids are quite common in fish species from the fisheries 
of Africa.  

The shift of carotenoids in the pre- and postrepro-
ductive period occurs in fishes. At first, the shift has been 
reported only from the salmonids in the Pacific (Crozier, 
1970; Kitahara, 1983). Further studies have showed, that 
this phenomenon is also typical to salmonid species from 
the Salmo genus (Czeczuga and Chelkowski, 1984) and 
freshwater fish species (Czeczuga and Czeczuga-
Semeniuk, 2002). Differences are noted in the shift 
between sexes. Both, in males and females, the liver is 
the main reservoir of carotenoids, and on the second 
range, the intestines. In the females, in prespawning 
season, carotenoids mostly shift to the gonads and in 
males mainly to the skin and fins giving the mating 
colouration. A similar pattern occurs in amphibians 
(Czeczuga et al., 2006). 

 

Conclusions 
 
In the fillets of 16 fish species from the fisheries of West 
African coast, 15 carotenoids were found. Total carote-
noids content ranged from 0.086 to 0.424 with mean 

value of 0.200 µg g
-1

 wet mass. Seven out of 15 carote-
noids such as α- carotene, β- carotene, β- cryptoxanthin, 
lutein, zeaxanthin, canthaxanthin and astaxanthin play a 
significant role in the humans’ health. They all have been 

 
 

  
 
 

 

postulated to increase an immune (Chew and Park, 2009) 
and cancer protective role (Rock, 2009) in mam-mals. Β- 
carotene and other carotenoids from this group behave 
as antioxidant factors at low oxygene pressure and as 
pro- oxidants at higher oxygene partial pressure (Yeum et 
al., 2009).  

Β- carotene and lutein have been postulated to have 
the antiproliferative effect on the cells (Palozza et al., 
2009). Known are the effects of those carotenoids on the 
cell signalling and communication including cell cycle, 
apoptosis, cell differentiation and growth factors (Wang, 
2009). Also, such derivatives of β- carotene as the β-
apocarotenales are biologically active. Those carotenoid 
metabolites can offer protection against chronic diseases 
and certain cancers. The photoprotective effects of those 
carotenoids especially β- carotene towards skin damage 
induced by UVA and UVB have been reviewed 
(Goralczyk and Wertz, 2009). Concluding, α- carotene, β-
carotene, β- cryptoxanthin, lutein and zeaxanthin may 
play a significant role in the coronary heart disease 
(Johnson and Krinsky, 2009). This all carotenoids are 
quite common in fish species from the fisheries of West 
Africa. 
 

 
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