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African Journal of Agricultural Marketing ISSN 2375-1061 Vol. 8 (1), pp. 001-007, January, 2020. Available online at 
www.internationalscholarsjournals.org © International Scholars Journals 

 

Author(s)                                           Author(s) retain the copyright of this article. 
 
 

 

Full Length Research Paper 

 

Soil moisture stress mitigation for sustainable upland 
rice production in the Northern Guinea Savanna of 

Nigeria 
 

A. C. Odunze1*, M. T. Kudi5, C. Daudu2, J. Adeosun2, G. Ayoola3, I. Y. Amapu1, S. T. 
Abu1, A. Mando4, G. Ezui4 and D. Constance4

  
1
Department of Soil Science/IAR, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria. 

2
National Agriculture and Extension Liaison services, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria. 

3
University of Agriculture, Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria. 

4
International Fertilizer Development Corporation Lome, Nigeria. 

5
Department of Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Sociology, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria. 

 
Accepted 14 October, 2019 

 
Northern Guinea Savanna (NGS) of Nigeria cultivable lands have sandy loam to loamy sand surface 
textures, low organic matter and are susceptible to erosion (wind and water). To mitigate crop moisture 
stress, on-farm trials involving contour-ridge-tying and contour ridging were carried out in Albasur and 
Dansoda villages in Dandume Local Government Area of Katsina State NGS to conserve soil against 
erosion and moisture for crop use in 2008 and 2009. The area NGS witness poor rainfall distribution, dry 
spells lasting beyond twenty one days occurring between June and July and low rainfall amounts (< 900 
to 1300 mm per annum). These result in upland crops like rice (NERICA 2 var.) witnessing deficit soil 
moisture to undergo proper growth and production, low yields or complete crop failure. Also, soil 
erosion and runoff deplete water that could be available for crops and degrade farmlands for continued 
cultivation on the land. In this trial farmers ranked their rice grain yields while physical and agronomic 
data collected were statistically analysed using ANOVA and Duncan multiple range tests to separate 
means. Results show that cross-banded ridge resulted in significantly higher rice grain yields than the 
other treatments and was followed by contoured ridge. Socio-economic data collected were analyzed 
using descriptive statistics and budgeting technique. Costs and returns analysis results show that 
labour and fertilizer inputs accounted for greater proportion of total variable costs incurred in contour 
(15.72%), contour plus tie ridging (15.72%), planting on flat land and farmers ridging practice (16.43 and 
16.55% respectively). Costs and returns analysis result shows that rice cultivation using contour and 
contour plus tie ridging is more profitable, implying feasible sustainable rice production through 
contour farming. 

 
Key words: Rice production, soil and water conservation, moisture stress mitigation, promotion, dissemination, 

contour farming, costs, returns. 
 
 
INTRODUCTION 

 
The Northern Guinea Savanna (NGS) of Nigeria 

commonly witness poor rainfall distribution, dry spells, 

surface wash and runoff on farms (Kowal and Knabe,  
 
 
 
*Corresponding author. E-mail: odunzeac@yahoo.com, 
odunzeac@gmail.com. Tel: +2348035722052. 

 
 
 
 
 
1972), and result in soil moisture deficiency that depress 
crop yield or complete crop failure at the uplands 
(Odunze et al., 2010). Also, the upland soils have very 
low moisture retention capacity, poor inherent fertility 
status and are dominated with low activity clays; in 
particular kaolinitic clays (Jones and Wild, 1975; Lombin, 
1987; Odunze et al., 1996; Odunze, 2006). Crops grown 
at the uplands in the zone include maize, sorghum, 

file:///C:\Users\user\Documents\REPUBLICATION\AGRICULTURAL%20SCIENCES\AppData\Local\Temp\www.internationalscholarsjournals.org


 
 
 

 

upland rice, cowpea, groundnut and soybeans, and these 
suffer moisture stress following availability of insufficient 
soil moisture during their growth phase. The implies that 
field crops would experience insufficient soil moisture to 
undergo proper growth and production processes, 
resulting in low yields or complete crop failure in the area. 
Strategies to ensure soil and water conservation for 
sustainable crop production was sought and were 
undertaken in two villages in the NGS of Nigeria from 
2008 to 2009. Surface wash and runoff, further 
compounds the poor soil quality of the NGS of Nigeria as 
erosion degrades the land, pollutes the soil, surface and 
underground water and decreases productivity capacity 
of the lands; thus buttressing the claim that the resulting 
soil erosion and degradation of farmlands in Africa leads 
to annual decrease of 3% agricultural production (FAO, 
2009).  

This study therefore aimed at determining appropriate 
strategy (ies) that would best conserve soil and moisture 
on farmlands to result in optimal rice grain and stover 
yields and improve on farmers’ livelihoods. Also the study 
aimed to create awareness and promote the adoption of 
improved land management practices for moisture stress 
mitigation and increase rice yield through a participatory 
stakeholder’s action learning research. 
 

 
MATERIALS AND METHODS 
 
Study area 
 
The study was carried out in Albasur and Dansoda villages of 
Dandume Local Government Areas (LGA) Katsina State in Nigeria 
(North 11° 24, East 7° 07.5’ and Alt. 687 m). The area (NGS) 
witness poor rainfall distribution pattern and has annual rainfall 
amounts ranging between < 900 to a maximum of 1300 mm 
(Odunze et al., 2010). 

 

Methodology 
 
Following a baseline survey of Katsina State conducted by 
International Fertilizer Development Centre (IFDC), Dandume area 
was chosen as dominant upland rice producing LGA in Katsina 
State and upland rice (NERICA) variety was chosen for evaluation 
as a test crop. Moisture stress mitigation using contoured ridges, 
contoured ridges+ cross-banding, ridging up-down slope direction 
and planting on flat harrowed plots were participatorily evaluated 
with farmers is an action learning set up. The four 
treatments/strategies are presented as follows: 
 
1. Up-Down slope Ridging practice [U-DR]  
2. Contour Ridging [C] 
3. Contour Ridging +tied ridges [CT] (Cross-Banded Ridges)  
4. Planting on Flat and Harrowed plots [F] 
 
Five farm families (replicates) participated in this trial in the two 
villages (Albasur and Dan Soda) in 2008 and 2009 and each farm 
family represented a replicate. Data collected was analysed 
statistically at 5% level of significance and means were separated 
using Duncan new multiple range test (DNMRT). Treatment [F] is 
practiced by farmers in the area ordinarily and is considered a 
control treatment in this study. Composite soil samples were 

  
  

 
 

 
obtained from surface soils (0 – 15 cm and 15 – 30 cm depths) in 
the farmers’ farms, air dried, passed through 2.0 mm sieve mesh 
and sub samples less than 2.0 mm diameter were analysed for 
particle size distribution using the hydrometer method of day, 
(1965) and Gee and Bauder (1986). Undisturbed core (5 cm 
diameter by 5 cm height) soil samples from farmers’ farms were 
obtained at 0 - 5 cm and 5 - 10 cm depths at three periods of dry 
spell, for the determination of bulk density (Blake and Hartge, 1986) 
and gravimetric moisture content (Walter, 1986). Volumetric 
moisture content was calculated using the formulae: 
 
q=qmpbd 
 
Where q= volumetric moisture content (cm

3
/cm

3
), qm= gravimetric 

moisture content as a ratio or percent, pb= bulk density (Mgm
-3

), d= 
depth of sampling (cm). 
 
Also, participatory action learning research on rice production that 
involved farmers and researchers participating to delineate iso-
heights (positions of equal heights on farms), constructing contour 
bunds on farmers’ farms and farmers following determined contour 
lines to establish ridges (Contour Ridging), demarcate another plots 
on contoured farmers’ farms for ridging and cross banding (contour 
ridging +tied ridges), demarcate plots of land outside contoured 
areas and ridge along the up and down slope direction (up-down 
slope ridging) and another plot for harrowing to plant without ridging 
(planting on flat and harrowed plots) was organized with all farmers 
in the village who identified with the trial to create awareness and 
assess the treatments for best practical option(s) for adoption. Plot 

area was 20 by 10 m = 200 m
2
 for each treatment.  

Farmer exchange visits to explain better soil moisture storage; 
hence, improved crop performance was conducted for farmers in 
the study location and they were also taught ranking with stones. 
Farmers ranked their crop performance using 2009 rice grain yields. 
Socio-economic data were collected through structured 
questionnaire and analyzed using descriptive statistics and 
budgeting technique. 
 

 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

 

Particle size distribution 

 

Table 1 presents information on the particle size 
distribution of soils of farmers’ fields in Albasur village. 
The data shows that the soils are dominated with sand 
separates with values ranging between 34 and 54% at 
the surface layers (0 - 15 cm) and 38 to 42% at the 15 - 
30 cm depths, indicating a reduction in sand fraction with 
increase in depth. Silt fractions ranged between 28 and 
34% at the 0 - 15 cm layers and 34 to 44% at the 15 - 30 
cm depths. This suggests that silt fractions are high in the 
soil and increased with increase in depth. The high silt 
content of the soils would predispose the soils to crusting 
after rainfall and this could impair infiltration, gaseous 
exchange in soil, seed germination and encourage runoff 
and surface wash on the farms.  

Clay fractions of the soils were moderate to high at both 
depths evaluated. Values range from 16 to 34% at the 
surface and 18 to 24% at the 15 - 30 cm depths. The high 
clay contents of the surface layers could detain/delay 
water infiltration to benefit paddy rice. However, it does 
appear that top soil layers in the study 



 
 
 

 
Table 1. Physical properties of soils of Dandume study area.  

 

Location/farm Depth 
Sand Silt Clay 

Textural classification 
 

 

2 - 0.05 mm 0.5 - 0.002 mm < 0.002 mm 
 

 

    
 

Albasur Cm  -------------(%)------------  USDA  
 

Alh. MaiGari 0-15 54 30 16 Sandy loam  
 

 15-30 40 34 26 Loam  
 

Alh. Muktari 0-15 34 34 32 Clay loam  
 

 15-30 38 44 18 Loam  
 

Alh. Lawal 0-15 38 28 34 Clay loam  
 

 15-30 42 34 24 Loam  
 

 
 

 

area had been eroded leaving sub- soil rich materials as 
the present surface soils. Generally soils of the zone are 
dominated with Alfisols (Odunze, 2006; Esu and 
Ojenuga, 1987) and the soils characteristically exhibit 
argillic subsoil properties. Texture of the soils therefore 
ranges between sandy loam and clay loam to loam both 
at the surface and sub surface layers of crop rooting zone 
(Table 1). 
 

 

Physical properties of the soils 

Bulk density and moisture content 

 
Mean bulk density of soils under the treatments (Table 2) 
showed significant difference, between treatments, 
except between contoured ridge and contour+ridge-tied 
treatments. The least bulk density was obtained under 

up-down slope (1.51 Mgm
-3

). However, the highest bulk 

density obtained under the flat planting treatment (1.60 

Mgm
-3

) is attributed to silt accumulation on the surface 

soil layer and formation of crust which hardened to 
increase surface soil bulk density (Ike, 1986, 1987) . The 
significantly lower bulk density under contour and 
contour+ridge-tie treatments than the flat planting 
treatment suggests that crusting and surface soil 
hardening is less prominent under the contour and 
contour+ridge-tied treatment (Table 2). Table 3 shows 
that bulk density decreased with depth in all the instances 
considered, with the surface layers having a significantly 

high bulk density value of 1.58 Mgm
-3

 while the sub-

surface depths had a bulk density of 1.51 Mgm
-3

. 

Perhaps crusting by silt particles at the surface layers 
depth could account for the higher soil moisture in the 
surface layers. Increasing clay at depths will impair 
subsoil drainage and cause temporary sub soil water 
stagnation (Odunze et al., 2008; Dim et al., 2008) . High 
bulk density values under flat, contoured and 
contour+cross banded ridge treatments could be 
attributed to effect of crusting (Ike, 1987; Kowal and 
Knabe, 1972; Lombin, 1987) following delayed water 
movement/runoff, compared with up-down slope ridging 
(Flat planting is done on harrowed and non-ridged fields 

 
 

 

irrespective of the slope of the field) that could allow more 
rapid surface water movement/runoff on the farms. Also, 
between soil sampling dates (Table 4), bulk density did 
not show any statistical difference, suggesting that 
sampling date did not affect bulk density changes. This 
perhaps resulted from the fact that samples were 
obtained at periods of at least two weeks after the last 
rainfall in the village.  

Soil moisture content between treatments (Table 2) did 
not significantly differ between treatments, though the up-
down slope treatment resulted in higher than all the other 
treatments and is followed by contour+ridge-tie 
treatments. Moisture content however, increased with 
depth generally, perhaps moisture content increased with 
increasing clay content as clay would cause impaired 
drainage at the sub surface depths ((Odunze, 2003; Dim 
et al., 2008). Between dates of sampling however, 
moisture content did not significantly changed. 
 

 

Rice yield 

 
Table 5 shows that significantly higher rice grain yield 

was obtained contour+cross banded ridge (1.68tha
-1

) and 

Contoured ridge (1.64 tha
- 1

) than flat planting (1.36tha
-1

) 

and lastly up-down slope (1.12tha
-1

) treatments for the 
2008 and 2009 trial years. It is realizable that among the 
treatments, contour+cross banded ridges resulted in 
significantly highest grain yield than all the treatments 
over the two years the study was conducted. Also 
contoured ridge treatment resulted in significantly higher 

grain yield (1.64 tha
-1

) than up-down slope ridging and 
flat planting.  

The result would therefore suggest that 
contoured+cross banded ridges would result in 50% 
higher grain yield than up-down slope ridging. Contoured 
ridging gave 46% grain yield higher than up-down slope 
ridging. Commonly in the NGS of Nigeria, farmers plant 
upland rice on the flats after harrowing the fields. A few 
farmers however, plant on ridges made without 
considering slope direction, but commonly prefer up-
down slope for ease of ridging operation. In the context of 
farmers’ practice therefore, flat planting and up-down 



 
 
 

 
Table 2. Soil bulk density and moisture content of rice trial sites in 

Dandume.  
 

Treatments Bulk density Moisture content 

 Mg m
-3

 Cm
3
Cm

-3
 

Contour 1.53ba 0.53a 

Contour+ridge tie 1.54ba 0.59a 

Up-Down slope Ridging 1.51b 0.63a 

Flat 1.60a 0.55a 
 

Means with the same letters are not significantly different. 
 
 

 
Table 3. Soil bulk density and moisture content with depth.  

 
 Depth Bulk density Moisture content 

 Cm Mg m
-3

 Cm
3
Cm

-3
 

 0-5 1.58a 0.44b 

 5-10 1.51b 0.72a 
 

Means with the same letters are not significantly different. 
 
 

 
Table 4. Bulk density and soil moisture Content over time.  

 
 Dates of sampling Bulk density Moisture content 

  Mgm
-3

 Cm
3
cm

-3
 

 04-07-09 1.55a 0.57a 

 27-06-09 1.53a 0.61a 
 14-11-09 1.55a 0.55a 

 
Means with the same letters are not significantly different. 

 
 

 
Table 5. Rice yield in Dandume 2008 – 2009. 

 

 

Treatment 

Grain (tha
-
 Difference Stover (tha

-
 

 

 1) (%) 1) 
 

 Contour 1.635 a 46.24 2.363 a 
 

 Contour  +ridge 
1.678 a 50.09 2.392 a  

 
tie  

    
 

 Up-down slope 1.118 b - 2.072 a 
 

 Flat 1.355 ba 21.20 2.013 a 
  

Means with the same letters are not significantly different. 
 
 

 

slope planting had not supported sustainable rice grain 
yield but part-contributed to reduced rice yield, soil 
degradation and increased farmer poverty conditions. 
The least grain yield under up-down slope ridging is 
attributed to effects of runoff, moisture depletion, nutrients 
depletion due to surface wash and eroded/ degraded 
state of the soils. Adoption of contouring with cross 
banding of ridges on farmers’ fields is potentially capable 
of assuring optimal upland rice grain yield, 

  
 
 
 

 

alleviating farmer poverty/livelihoods with environmental 
protection and sustainable soil maintenance.  

Data on stover yields of rice (Table 5) under either of 
the treatments were not significantly different, but 
suggests that NERICA upland rice would yield a little over 

2 tha
-1

 of stover that could be used for feeding livestock 

or ploughed into the soil to improve the soil carbon 
contents, moisture retention capacity of the soils, check 
nutrients loss to leaching and soil erosion. 
 

 

Cost and returns analysis 

 

The costs and returns analysis (Table 6) indicate that 
labour and fertilizer inputs account for greater parts of 
total variable costs incurred in all the treatments. Gross 
margin analysis of contour farming practices (Table 6) 
show that from one hectare of cultivated land, total cost of 
production for contour, contour+ridge-tie, flat planting and 
farmer’s practice (up-down slope) in Albasur were N162, 
888.75, N155,835.35, and N161,796.00. Also gross 
revenue of N243,250.00 was obtained for contour and 
contour+ridge-tie, N163,800.00 and N133,350.00/ha for 
planting on flat land and farmers practice respectively; 
thus giving a gross margin of N80,361.25 for contour and 
contour+ridge-tie, N7,964.65 and N28,446.00/ha for 
planting on flat and farmers practice, respectively.  

The costs and returns analysis indicated that cultivation 
of rice through contour and contour plus tie ridging was 
more profitable than planting on flat. This implies that 
intensification and expansion of rice production through 
contour farming would increase rice productivity, increase 
income of farmers and optimize soil quality for 
sustainable productivity. In terms of gross margin per 
Naira invested, for every one Naira invested on rice 
production using contour and contour plus tie ridging and 
planting on flat land, a net gain of 49 and 5 kobo were 
obtained, while for farmer ridging practice a net loss of 18 
kobo (-0.18) was incurred. It would however, be borne in 
mind however, that contours are fixed assets that would 
have their returns/depreciation costs on construction 
spread over several years. 
 

 

Farmers’ crop performance assessment 
 
Table 7 shows farmers’ ranking of their grain yields at a 
farmer participatory action learning research (PLAR) 
session conducted in the villages. Farmers ranked 
contour+ridge-tied treatment best performing treatment 
because it resulted in higher grain yield considering all 
four farmers’ grain yields. Contoured ridges was 
assessed second best treatment for its better grain yields 
than their practice of either up-down slope ridging or 
planting on the flat harrowed fields.  

Farmers found the pair- wise ranking useful because 

they could appreciate why over the years they had not 

attained yields as high as they did obtain under 



 
 
 

 
Table 6. Costs and returns analysis contour farming practices in Dandume local government area of Katsina state, Nigeria.  
 

Location : Albasur   
Treatment   

 Costs/Returns Items    
Contour (%) 

Contour + ridge 
(%) 

Plant on Flat 
(%) 

 Farmer 
(%) 

 

 

(1) Costs/Ha 
       

tie 
  

Land 
 

Practice 
 

                
 

 Seed      10,400.00 6.38 10,400.00 6.38 10,400.00 6.67 10,400.00 6.72 
 

 Fertilizer    25,600.00 15.72 25,600.00 15.72 25,600.00 16.43 25,600.00 16.55 
 

 Fungicide    1,250.00 0.77 1,250.00 0.77 1,250.00 0.80 1,250.00 0.81 
 

 Bag (Sacks)    2,100.00 1,29 2,100.00 1,29 1,440.00 0.92 1,140.00 0.74 
 

 Labour                     
 

 Land preparation    35,888.67 22.03 35,888.67 22.03 35,888.67 23.03 35,888.67 23.20 
 

 Planting      11,718.75 7.19 11,718.75 7.19 11,718.75 7.52 18,750’00 7.57 
 

 Fertilizer application  14,648.44 8.99 14,648.44 8.99 14,648.44 9.40 14,648.44 9.47 
 

 Weeding    30,517.58 18,74 30,517.58 18,74 30,517.58 19.58 30,517.58 19.72 
 

 Harvesting    12,695.31 7.79 12,695.31 7.79 12,695.31 8.47 12,695.31 8.21 
 

 Threshing    15,637.50 9.60 15,637.50 9.60 10,530.00 6.76 8,572.50 5.54 
 

 Transportation    2,432.50 1.49 2,432.50 1.49 1,146.60 0.74 1,333.50 0.86 
 

 Total variable  cost  
N 162,888.75 

  
N 162,888.75 

  
N 155,835.35 

 
N 161,796.00 

 
 

 
(TVC)( N ) 

           
 

                    
 

 (2) Returns                   
 

 Average yield (kg/ha)  3475  3475  2340  1905  
 

 Average Price (kg/ha)  70.00  70.00  70.00  70.00  
 

 Gross Revenue ( N /ha)  243,250.00  243,250.00  163,800.00  133,350.00  
 

 Gross Margin (GR – 
80,361.25 

 
80,316.25 

 
7,964.65 

 
- 28,446.00 

 
 

 
TVC)( N ) /ha 

       
 

                   
 

 Return/Naira Invested  0.49  0.49  0.05  -0.18  
  



 
 
 

 
Table 7. Farmer pair-wise ranking of treatments performance on rice grainyield.  

 
 

Farmers 
 Grain yield with treatments (kg/plot)  Remarks 

 

 

C C+RT F UP-S 
 

 

   
 

 Alh. MaiGari 22.5 22.1 20.0 24 88.6 
 

 Alh Garba 27.1 25 22.5 22 96.6 
 

 Alh. Lawal 35.7 39.5 26.8 42.8 144.8 
 

 Alh. Muktari 41.3 45.8 26.8 27.0 140.9 
 

 Total 126.6 132.4 96.1 115.8  
 

 Ranking 2nd 1st 4th 3rd  
 

 
 

 

contoured and contoured +cross banded ridge 
treatments. Farmers commented that their planting of 
upland rice (NERICA variety) on the flat and or on the up-
down slope ridges contributed to reduce their crop yields 
and caused erosion on their farms. In the study villages, 
farmers commonly plant upland rice either on the flats or 
on ridges made along the up-down directions. 
 

 

Conclusion 

 

In realization of the crop performance on the farmers’ 

fields for the two years of the study, the following are 

inferred: 

 

1. Contoured+cross banded ridges would support optimal 
upland rice grain production on a sustainable base in the 
NGS. Bulk density of soils under this treatment could 
decrease to be lower than that on flat planted fields 
especially because organic matter content of the soils 
could decrease soil hardening. Rice stover should 
therefore be incorporated into the soils improve the soil 
quality to support sustainable agricultural production.  
2. Planting on the up-down slope or on the flats should be 
discontinued among farmers and in their place, contoured 
and contoured+cross-banded ridging should be adopted. 
These would ensure soil restoration/maintenance and 
sustainable productivity of the soils to aid alleviation of 
farmer poverty conditions with increased rice yield and 
improved environment. 
3. Contoured +cross banded ridges and contoured ridges 
would also retain rain water against dry spells, check 
surface wash and runoff, enhance optimal rice grain yield 
on a sustainable basis, increase farmer income from rice 
production and conserve the environment against 
degradation. 
From the above therefore, it is recommended that 
contoured+cross banded ridge practice be adopted as 
this practice would enhance rice grain yield, decrease soil 
crusting/hardening, mitigate soil moisture stress, control 
soil erosion on farmlands, ensure sustainable productivity 
of the soil and improve farmer livelihoods. 

 
 

 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

 

The authors are immensely grateful to the International 

Fertilizer Development Center (IFDC)-Africa Lome, FARA 
and the Institute for Agricultural Research (IAR), Ahmadu 

Bello University Zaria, Nigeria for their supports for the 
conduct of the study and this publication. 
 

 
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