




































African Journal of Agricultural Marketing Vol. 2 (3), pp. 077-081, May, 2014. Available online at 
www.internationalscholarsjournals.org © International Scholars Journals 

 
 
 
 

Full Length Research Paper 
 

Using supermarket Loyalty card data to explore 
exported yam marketing performance and prospects in 

the UK 
 

Fred A. Yamoah1 and Robert Aidoo2 
 

1 
Kent Business School, University of Kent, Medway Campus, UK, Email: F.A.Yamoah@kent.ac.uk 

2 
Department of Agricultural Economics, Agribusiness and Extension, Kwame Nkrumah University of science & 

Technology, Kumasi, Ghana. 
 

Accepted 29, April 2014 
 

Stakeholders operating within the yam export market lack shopper insights to formulate effective marketing 
and supply chain management strategies. This paper aims to show how supermarket loyalty card data on 
yam shoppers in the UK can be analysed to objectively assess marketing performance and prospects 
through year-on-year comparison of key marketing measures and regression. The results demonstrate the 
huge marketing potential that actual supermarket yam shopper behaviour brings to inform current 
marketing performance of exported yam and future export marketing strategies. Evidence from the study 
suggest that sales value of supermarket yam over 104 weeks ending 16

th
 December 2013, increased by 

15.27%, but sales volume and number of customers buying yam declined by 5.54% and 8.97% respectively. 
Whilst the results of the regression suggest that the number of customers buying yam is the key factor 
contributing to the volume of sales of yam, average price per tuber and number of distribution outlets were 
not salient factors. However, the value of yam sales was positively influenced by average retail price of yam 
at 1% level. The results of this study are of interest to both global south yam export market academics, yam 
supply chain stakeholders and managers tasked with promoting exports of food products to international 
markets in Europe and Northern America. 
 
Key words: Export marketing performance, supermarket loyalty card data, shopper behaviour, Ghana Yam.  
 

 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
Yam is a multi-variety root and tuber crop that is 
important for food, income generation and socio-cultural 
practices (Aidoo et al., 2013).  It is also the source of raw 
materials for starch for industries, particularly 
pharmaceutical companies (Amanze et al., 2011). Yam is 
also an emerging exportable food product for West 
African states such as Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, Ivory 
Coast and Ghana (Ohene-Yankyera et al., 2011, 
Anaadumba, 2013). Indeed, close to 60 million people in 
West Africa are connected with the yam enterprise as 
producers, processors and consumers. A meal of yam is 
prepared in different forms as  boiled,  fried,  and  roasted  
 
 
 
 
*Corresponding author. E-mail: F.A.Yamoah@kent.ac.uk 

yam or fufu across West Africa and the rest of the world 
(Aidoo et al., 2013). It is a major source of carbohydrate 
in West African diet and a provider of rural employment 
for many people in yam growing areas of the sub-region; 
accounting for 32% of all farm income (Chukwu and 
Ikwelle, 2000).  

Ghana is the third largest producer of yam in the world, 
after Nigeria and Ivory Coast, with 6.3 percent of its 
arable land under yam cultivation (Anaadumba, 2013). 
However, it is the leading exporter of yam in the world, 
accounting for 94% of total yam exports in West Africa 
(FAOSTAT, 2012). Statistics of the Ministry of Food and 
Agriculture (MoFA) Ghana show that yam production 
accounted for about 24 percent of total roots and tubers 
production in the country (MoFA, 2010) and it contributes 
about 16 percent of Ghana’s agricultural gross domestic 
product. Ghana has been a net exporter of yam for the  

http://www.internationalscholarsjournals.org/


Yamoah & Aidoo               077 
 
 
 
past eight years (FAOSTAT, 2012; Ghana Export 
Promotion Council, 2011). It is worth noting that yam 
exports from Ghana represents less than 1 percent of the 
country’s total value of exported food products, and also 
accounts for less than 0.01 percent of the total yam 
produced nationally (FAOSTAT, 2012).    

FAOSTAT (2012) further shows that the United 
Kingdom accounts for 49% of Ghana’s yam exports, 
followed by Netherlands (18%), United States of America 
(18%) and other countries including Germany, Canada, 
Italy accounts for the remaining 10%. Anaadumba (2013) 
suggests that yam exports to Western Europe and 
Northern America is driven by increasing demand by 
Ghanaians and other West Africans resident in Europe 
and America. Notwithstanding this reason for increasing 
demand for yam from these foreign destinations, first 
generation British of African descent and indigenous 
Europeans and Americans have been introduced to yam 
through foreign travels and/or interactions with African 
friends. It is also common knowledge that fried and boiled 
yam is a popular recipe on the menu of most African 
restaurants in Western Europe and America.  

The economic benefits of yam cultivation coupled with 
high population growth rate in the West Africa and 
increasing demand abroad are compelling motivators for 
expanding production and supply of yam for both 
domestic and export markets (Asumugha et al., 2009). 
However, the yam enterprise is constrained by high 
labour demands for agronomic practices and logistics 
(Ezeh,1991) such as land preparation, planting, staking, 
weeding, harvesting, high cost of yam seed  (NRCRI, 
2004; Asumugha et al. 2009) and transport to market 
(Aidoo et al. 2013). Another challenge confronting the 
yam industry is the adverse effect that the less developed 
yam marketing system has on prices paid by buyers and 
income received by farmers (FAO, 2003). Recent studies 
and reports have recommended the need for a better 
understanding of the yam value chain from the level of 
the producer up to the main foreign markets in Europe 
and United State of America (Aidoo et al. 2012) to 
forestall losses along the chain. An analysis of incentives 
and disincentives for yam in Ghana recommended the 
need for research to bridge the existing marketing 
information gap on yam value chain (FAO, 2013).  

Undoubtedly, the lack of marketing insight is a major 
limiting factor that requires urgent research attention to 
address. Thus, the purpose of this novel study was to 
explore exported yam marketing performance and 
prospects in the UK using the analysis of supermarket 
loyalty card data on yam shoppers. The study objectives 
were:  
1) To assess the marketing performance of exported yam 
on the UK market in terms of marketing performance 
measures such as sales value, sales volume, number of 
customers, product distribution and repeat purchase rate, 
and 2) To explore the relative contributions of marketing 
factors such as price, number of customers and 

distribution on retail sales volume of yam over most 
recent 2 years. 
 
 
FACTORS INFLUENCING MARKETING 
PERFORMANCE 
 
A lot of factors influence marketing performance but the 
role of the customer is vital to market growth and 
business success (Lee and Ritzman, 2005), as they drive 
sales and profits. Due to the important role of customers 
a lot of attention has been given to customer satisfaction 
research (Wilson et al., 2008, Wicks and Roethlein, 
2009). There is also acceptance among marketing 
academics that price, product, promotion, and distribution 
(marketing mix elements) are fundamental factors that 
can deliver marketing knowledge when investigated 
(Kotler, 1997, p. 92; Vignali, 2011; Yamoah et al., 2013).  

Pricing strategy adopted by a business has a direct 
influence on customer response and retail sales 
performance (Yamoah, 2013).  Also, Yoo et al. (2000) 
indicates that customers use price as an essential 
external construct for product quality. Whereas low priced 
products are viewed to be of low quality or offer inferior 
benefit, premium prices are associated with high quality 
brands (Blattberg and Winniewski 1989, Kamakura and 
Russell, 1993). The price tag however operates in 
tandem with the other marketing mix elements (Zikmund 
and D’Amico, 1993). As per the principles behind the 
rational consumer purchasing decision making model 
known as the theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen and 
Fishbein, 1980 and Ajzen, 1991) price increases will 
normally lead to a decline in retail sales value and 
volume. Conversely, a situation where price increases 
does not bring about reduction in retail sales value could 
connote loyalty on the part of customers.   

Literature suggests that product type is a key 
determinant of distribution strategy selection, but to 
provide the best chance for success, including receiving 
retailer support; companies tend to distribute products in 
selected stores and not intensively (Yoo et al., 2000). 
Intensive distribution however grants consumers time and 
place utility that intend enhances the perceived value 
offered by the products (Smith, 1992). Thus, choosing a 
distribution strategy is an important decision that requires 
very careful considerations.   
 
 
METHODOLOGY 
 
The study followed a three-stage analysis to assess 
marketing performance and the key factors driving retail 
sales of yam. Phase one involved year-on-year 
comparison of three key marketing performance 
indicators (headline figures) namely, sales value, sales 
volume and number of customers buying Ghanaian Yam 
at Tesco-a leading food supermarket in the UK. The second  



078       Afr. J. Agric. Mark. 
 
 
 
phase covered further year-on-year analysis of measures 
beneath the headline figures, comprising spend per 
customer, unit per customer, average price per unit, 
number of stores selling, sales per store (value and 
volume), and repeat purchasing rate. As a follow up to 
the results of phase 1 and 2 multiple regressions to 
estimate the impact of average price, distribution and the 
number of customers on supermarket yam retail sales 
volume was undertaken. Multiple regression analysis is 
deemed suitable because it examines the single as well 
as joint effects of marketing factors on yam retail sales 
volume. Regression analysis technique is popular within 
business research in general and consumer behaviour 
studies in particular (Hair, 2010). 

Loyalty card data was used for the year-on-year 
comparisons and the multiple regression analysis. This 
data set held by dunnhumby UK has the added benefit of 
generating aggregated and disaggregated level data. 
Unlike reported or claimed behaviour data, loyalty card 
data is based on actual shopper purchasing behaviour 
that could provide objective understanding into the 
influence of price, distribution and number of customers 
on yam retail sales volume. The loyalty card data for this 
research covered data on yam shoppers in Tesco for 104 
weeks (19th December 2011 – 17th December 2013). 
Tesco’s loyalty data was selected for this study because 
of its market leadership position in the UK food retail 
industry, as it has 30.7 percent market share of the total 
grocery retailing market in the UK, which is 
representative of the UK shopper (Kantar World panel, 
2010). 
 
 

DATA ANALYSIS 
 
Phase one of the analysis compared year-on-year 
headline yam marketing performance figures (sales 
value, sales volume and number of customers) to 
revealed the percentage change between most recent 
two years (Year I: 52 weeks from 19 Dec 2011 to 16 Dec 
2012 compared to Year II: 52 weeks from 17 Dec 2012 to 
15 Dec 2013). Similarly, the second phase of the analysis 
involved year-on-year comparison of key measures 
behind the headline figures: spend per customer, unit per 
customer, average price per unit, number of stores 
selling, sales per store (value and volume), and repeat 
purchasing rate to show the respective percentage 
differences between the two set of periods – Year 1 & 2.  
For the multiple regression phase of the analysis 
supermarket yam retail sales volume and value were 
conceptualised as the dependant variable for the 
regression model (YRSv). Average price per tuber of yam 
(Xap), Number of stores selling (Xnss) and Number of 
customers (Xnc) were conceptualised as independent 
variables for the model. Two separate models were 
estimated with volume of sales and value of sales as 
dependent variables. The double logarithmic functional 
form of the regression model was estimated since it is 

known to reduce the presence of autocorrelation in time 
series data. The equation below represents the model 
used for the regression analysis: 
LnYRSv = ß0 + ß1LnXap + ß2LnXnss + ß3LnXnC + (e) 
........................ (1) 

In the model, YRSv represents the dependant variable 
(total sales volume or sales value for yam for 104 weeks 
ending 15

th
 December 2013. Natural logarithm is denoted 

in the equation as Ln; and ß0 represents the regression 
constant which is a fixed unknown parameter. The 
parameters Xap, Xnss, Xnc and (e) represents the 
average price per unit of tuber, number of Tesco stores 
selling yam, and number of customers purchasing yam 
per week respectively, and (e) the error term of the model 
which encompass all immeasurable factors which may 
also be influencing yam retail sales volume apart from the 
selected independent variables. The standardized beta 
coefficients in the regression output were reported with 
the corresponding t-values. Beta coefficients results 
showed how a change in the independent variables 
influenced the magnitude by which retail sales volume 
and value changed over the effective period (see Hair, 
2011).  
 
 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 
 
Table 1 indicates that supermarket sales value has grown 
by 15.2% year-on-year (2013 over 2012 figures). On the 
contrary, the comparison further revealed that sales 
volume and the number of customers buying yam 
declined by 5.54% and 8.97% respectively.  These 
results raise an interesting question as to how sales 
values has grown simultaneously as the units of yam sold 
and the number of customers buying at Tesco 
supermarket have both declined? The most likely reason 
that could be speculated for such retail sales growth 
trends was increased retail price over the period, and this 
called for further analysis on other marketing measures 
behind the headline indicators covered in phase 1.  
Results of the year-on-year comparison of the seven 
additional marketing measures presented in table 2 
confirm that price increases indeed contributed to the 
growth in retail sales value of yam. For example, table 2 
shows a reduction (-12.46%) in the number of Tesco 
stores selling yam from 313 in 2012 to 309 in 2013.  

Table 2 further shows that repeat rate of purchase by 
yam shoppers, amount of money spend per customer, 
number of tubers of yam purchased per customer, retail 
sales (value and volume), all posted increases year-on-
year. The net inference is that yam purchases are 
customer demand driven and this suggests a high level of 
customer loyalty on the part of yam shopper in the UK. In 
fact, the results reveal a classic case of shoppers paying 
more for a product they need and can afford.  

The results of the regression models capturing price, 
number of distribution points/outlets and number of 
customers buying yam as factors driving supermarket yam  



Yamoah & Aidoo               079 
 
 
 

Table 1. Year-on-year marketing performance headline indicators for yam – sales value, sales volume and number of 
customers (Year I: 52 weeks from 19 Dec 2011 to 16 Dec 2012 compared to Year II: 52 weeks from 17 Dec 2012 to 15 
Dec 2013).  
 

Marketing performance Indicator Year-on-year percentage change Figure for the latest 52 weeks 

 
Sales Value  
 
Sales Volume  
 
Number of Customers 
 

 
15.2% 
 
-5.54% 
 
-8.97% 

 
£134,977 
 
28,840 
 
16, 840 

 

Source: Results based on dunnhumby data analysis (2013). 
 
 
 

Table 2. Year-on-year marketing performance indicators behind the headline figures for yam (Year I: 52 weeks from 19 
Dec 2011 to 16 Dec 2012 compared to Year II: 52 weeks from 17 Dec 2012 to 15 Dec 2013).  
 

Marketing performance Indicator Year-on-year percentage change Figure for the latest 52 weeks 

 
Average price per tuber  
 
Tesco stores selling   
 
Repeat purchase rate 
 
Spend per customer 
 
Unit per customer 
 
Sales per store (Value) 
 
Sales per store (Unit) 

 
22.02% 
 
-12.46% 
 
5.81% 
 
26.63% 
 
3.78% 
 
31.68% 
 
9.92% 
 

 
£4.68 
 
309 
 
23.30% 
 
£8.02 
 
1.71 
 
£437.00 
 
93 
 

 

Source: Results based on dunnhumby data analysis (2013). 

 
 
 
retail sales volume (model I) and sales value (model II) 
are presented in Table 3. 

The adjusted R-squared values were above 0.95 
indicating that over 95 percent of the variances in yam 
retail sales volume and value are accounted for jointly by 
the number of customers buying yam at Tesco 
supermarket, number of distribution outlets and the price 
of yam. The signs of the standardized beta coefficients 
and the corresponding significance levels indicate that 
number of customers buying yam is positively related to 
retail sales volume and value at the 1% level. Whereas 
the effect of price on retail volume was not statistically 
significant at the 10% level, average retail price of yam 
influenced the value of yam sales significantly at the 1% 
level. Results of the regression analysis suggest that 
changes in the number of customers buying Ghanaian 
yams and the average retail price of yam are the most 
critical variables that explain the magnitude by which 
supermarket yam sales volume and value are changing 
in the UK.   

CONCLUSIONS 
 
This paper explores exported yam marketing 
performance and prospects in the UK using supermarket 
loyalty card data analysis. Exported yam is performing 
quite well in the UK as evidenced by the growth in 
supermarket retail sales value between 2012 and 2013. 
However, sales volume, number of customers buying 
yam and the number of Tesco stores selling Ghanaian 
yam declined over the same period. Increased yam price 
is a prevalent feature of the supermarket yam market in 
the UK but this has not deterred yam customers from 
buying more. The number of customers buying exported 
Ghanaian yam in Tesco supermarket is a key factor 
driving the amount of tubers of yam purchased by 
shoppers despite the fact that increased price contributed 
to increased sales value over the past two years. 
Increasing sales value and high customer loyalty 
inference that can be drawn from the results are positive 
indicators of good marketing performance and prospects  



080       Afr. J. Agric. Mark. 
 
 
 

Table 3. Regression results.  
 

 
Marketing Factor 

Model I: 
Volume of sale model*  

Model II: 
Value of sale model 

Ln_Price -0.005 (-0.527) 0.420 (71.380)*** 

Ln_Distribution points 0.001(0.022) 0.001 (-0.014) 
Ln_Number of customers 1.002 (16.277)*** 0.616 (16.367)*** 
Constant -0.024 (-0.181) -0.027 (-0.205) 
Model diagnostics: Adjusted R

2
=0.978; 

 F=13820 (df=101;sig@0.000) 
Adjusted R

2
=0.988; F=37040 

(df=101;sig@0.000 
 

*T-values in parenthesis; *** denotes significance at 1% level. 
Source: SPSS Regression output from dunnhumby data (2011-2013).  

 

 
for exported Ghanaian yam on UK supermarket. It is 
worth noting that retail sales value driven by price 
increases is not sustainable unless it occurs with 
improved product quality. The obvious focus of the 
industry will be to attract more customers to the market.  
 
 
Marketing strategies and export policy implications  
 
In terms of marketing implications the findings of the 
study could inform what marketing strategies will be 
effective for future success. Managers of exported yam 
portfolio have the option of concentrating efforts on 
existing customers and/or exploring market expansion. 
Shopper loyalty indicators such as repeat rate of 
purchasing yam, amount of money spent per customer 
and number of tubers purchased per customer 
collectively support the option of focusing on improving 
existing customer satisfaction towards maintaining and 
enhancing customer loyalty. There is however the 
alternative to aggressively pursue strategies to attract 
new customers through in-store as well as external 
marketing communication methods, such as sales 
promotion, in-store tasters, provision of more nutritional 
information and introduction of a specialised isle for 
exotic roots and tuber products.   

The findings of this study also have implications for 
yam export supply chain management.  Specifically, the 
yam supply chain ought to be developed efficiently by 
taken into account exported yam shopper insight from the 
export market instead of operating the existing one which 
is based on assumptions about who buys Ghanaian yam 
in the UK. Stakeholders tasked with managing and 
promoting yam exports ought to explore existing avenues 
to access export market shopper insights based on actual 
purchasing behaviour such as dunnhumby loyalty card 
data used for the analysis in this paper. There is also a 
latent potential for growth as supermarkets in foreign 
export destinations such as UK continue to incorporate 
more ethnic foods in their product portfolio. However, 
such enabling market environment would require further 
quality improvements in production, packaging and 
delivery standards because of the ever rising levels of 

competition and requirements from buyers in Europe and 
Northern America. 
  
 
Limitations and areas for future research 
 
The findings of the current study are based on a year-on-
year comparison and regression analysis of two years of 
dunnhumby loyalty card data from Tesco, which is 
representative of the UK grocery food shopper. The data 
is however limited in the sense that the greater amount of 
Ghanaian yam exported are retailed by relatively smaller 
Afro-Caribbean and Asian shops across the UK. Thus, a 
study capturing yam customers from smaller ethnic shops 
would provide important insight that will complement the 
findings of this study. Secondly, the model for the 
regression analysis concentrated on number of 
customers, price and distribution; other marketing factors 
which are not accounted for in this study could contribute 
to supermarket retail sales growth of yam in the UK. 
Therefore, assessing the roles of additional factors such 
as promotion and provenance (country of produce of 
yam) could provide useful insights that will inform 
adopting appropriate marketing strategies to sustain the 
yam export market. 
 
 
 
REFERENCES 
 
Aidoo R, Nimoh F, Bakang JA, Ohene-Yankyera K, Fialor 

SC, Mensah JO, Abaidoo RC (2012). Estimation of 
Margins and Efficiency in the Ghanaian Yam Marketing 
Chain. Asian J. Agric. Rural Dev., 2(2): pp.226-234.  

Ajzen I (1991). The theory of planned behaviour. Org. 
Beh. Human Decision Process, 50(1): pp.179-211.  

Ajzen I, Fishbein M (1980), Belief, Attitude, Intention, and 
Behaviour: An Introduction to Theory and Research, 
Addision-Wesley, Reading. 

Amanze NJ, Agbo NJ, Eke-Okoro ON, Njoku DN (2011). 
Selection of yam seeds from open pollination for adoption 
in yam (Dioscorea rotundata Poir) production zones in 

Nigeria. J. Plant Breeding and Crop Sci. 3(4): pp.68-73.  



Yamoah & Aidoo               081 
 
 
 
Anaadumba P (2013). Analysis of incentives and 

disincentives for yam in Ghana. Technical notes series, 
MAFAP, FAO, Rome. 

Asumugha GN, Njoku ME, Okoye BC, Aniedu OC, 
Ogbonna MC, Anyaegbunam HN, Akinpelu OA (2009). 
An analysis of the supply for seed yams in Nigeria. Afri. 
J. Bus. Mgt, 3(1): pp.28–31.  

Bancroft RD (2000). Relieving post-harvest constraints 
and identifying opportunities for improving the 
marketing of fresh yam in Ghana. Crop Post Harvest 
Programme Final Technical Report, No: R6505; ZB No: 
ZB0016 Millennium Development Authority: Yam Seed 
Production (2005). 

Blattberg RC, Kenneth J. Winniewski KJ (1989). Price-
Induced Patterns of Competition. Afaritefi/ig, 8: pp.291-
309. 

Chukwu GO, Ikwelle MC (2000). Yam: Threats to its 
Sustainability in Nigeria, NRCRI News, Umudike, 171: 
pp.1-7. 

Ezeh NOA (1998). Economics of Production and 
Postharvest Technology; In: Food Yams- Advances in 
Research (Orkwor, G.C., R. Asiedu and I.J. 
Ekanayake, eds.), IITA and NRCRI, Nigeria. 

FAO (2003). Agricultural Marketing and Food Security, In: 
Proceedings of the Mini Round Table Meeting on 
Agricultural Marketing and Food Security held at 
Bangkok, Thailand. 1- 2 Nov. 2001, Food and 
Agricultural Organisation. 

FAOSTAT (2012) www. faostat.fao.org/default.aspx, 
accessed 13/11/2013. 

Hair JF Jr, Black WC, Babin BJ, Anderson RE. (2010). 
Multivariate Data Analysis. 7th Edition, Pearson 
Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. 

Kantar Worldpanel (2010). In Fairtrade Report 
2011Retrieved January 15, 2012 from 
www.fairtarde.org.uk. 

Kotler P (1997). Marketing Management, 7th ed., 
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Landwirtsch. Vet. 
med. 30: pp.17-24.  

Lee JK, Ritzman LP (2005). Operations Management; 
Process and value Chains. (7th edition) New Jersey: 
Person education. 

Kamakura WA, Russell GJ (1993). Measuring Brand 
Value with Scanner Data. Int. J. Res. Mar, 10(1): pp.9-
21.  

NRCRI (2004). Yam: Science and Technology Briefing, 
20 – 22nd February, National Root Crops Research 
Institute, Umudike and National Store products 
Research Institute, Lagos. p.16 

Ohene-Yankyera K, Aidoo R, Ohenewah T (2011). 
Effects of Real Exchange Rate and Gross Domestic 
Product (GDP) on yam exports in Ghana, Botswana J. 
Agric. Applied Sci., Vo. 7, (1): pp.57-63. 

Smith DC (1992). Brand Extensions and Advertising 
Efficiency:What Can and Cannot Be Expected. J. Adver 
Res., 32(6): 11-20.  

Vignali C (2001). Virgin Cola. British Food J. 103(2): 
pp.131–145.  

Wicks AM, Roethlein CJ (2009). A Satisfaction-Based 
Definition of Quality, J. Bus. Econ. Studies, 15(1): 
pp.82-97.  

Wilson A, Zeithaml VA, Bitner MJ, Gremler DD (2008). 
Services Marketing, McGraw-Hill Education. 

Yamoah (2013). Linking Fairtrade Shopper insights and 
Supply Chain Management: Implications for Global 
south producers, Proceedings of the 14th Annual 
Conference of IAABD. 2013, pp.506-518.  

Yamoah F, Duffy RS, Fearne A, Petrovici D (2013). 
Assessing Fairtrade Marketing Drivers and Market 
Prospects for Commodity Producers in Developing 
Countries, Proceedings of the 14th Annual Conference 
of IAABD. 2013, pp.506-518. 

Yoo B, Donthu N, Lee S (2000). An Examination of 
Selected Marketing Mix Elements and Brand Equity, J. 
Academy Mar. Sci., 28(2): pp.195-211.  

Zikmund WG, D’Amico M (1993). Marketing, 4th ed. West 
Publishing Company, St Paul. MN, pp. 668-689. 

 
 

http://www.fairtarde.org.uk/

