




































In ternationa l
Scholars
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African Journal of Environmental Economics and Management ISSN 2375-0707 Vol. 7 (7), pp. 001-010, July, 
2019. Available online at www.internationalscholarsjournals.org © International Scholars Journals 

 

Author(s) retain the copyright of this article. 
 
 

Full Length Research Paper 
  

The perfect drought? Constraints limiting Kalahari 
agro-pastoral communities from coping and adapting 

 
K. Mogotsi1*, M. M. Nyangito2 and D. M. Nyariki2 

 
1
Department of Agricultural Research, Animal Production and Range Research Division, P. O. Box 10275, Francistown, 

Botswana. 
2
Department of Land Resource Management and Agricultural Technology, University of Nairobi, P. O. Box 29053, 

Nairobi, Kenya. 
 

Accepted 31 January, 2019 
 
Rural Kalahari agro-pastoral communities of Southern Africa have been exposed to drought shocks throughout 
history and have adapted their livelihoods accordingly. Yet, drought continues to disrupt or threaten to disrupt their 
production systems. With semi arid Botswana as a case study, this paper hence sought to unearth the factors 
limiting agro-pastoral communities from adequately coping and adapting to drought. Low rainfall, which is also 
highly variable, coupled with relatively low soil fertility status make subsistence livestock keeping and crop 
cultivation risky. This marginal agricultural potential of the land is further compounded by other constraints. Some 
of the major constraints included persistence of droughts, limited diversification options outside agriculture, 
inadequate and poor quality drinking water (high salinity) for livestock, crop damage by wild animals as well as the 
current land tenure system which curtails the traditional response of livestock mobility during drought. All these 
factors may act solely or in combination to render rural communities vulnerable during droughts. It is therefore 
recommended that effective interventions be tailored to local conditions to enhance resilience among Kalahari’s 
rural population. 

 

Key words: Adaptation, Botswana, coping, drought, variability, vulnerability. 

 
INTRODUCTION 

 
Droughts are common phenomena in many parts of 
Southern Africa. Not only is the region drought-prone, but 
the rural communities inhabiting these areas are well aware 
of the adverse effects of droughts on their environment-
dependent livelihoods. Smallholder farmers, who are the 
most likely to experience disruptions to their production 
efforts, are even more vulnerable during droughts. This 
increasingly becomes vivid with extended periods of 
droughts, when crop failure and livestock mortalities peak. 

This exposure to drought hazards has necessitated 
responses involving a myriad of coping and adaptive 
strategies among the communities (Owens et al., 2003; 
Enfors and Gordon, 2008; Eriksen and Silva, 2009). And 
although droughts may be geographically localised, their 
non structural effects, which may spread to other sectors 
of the economy have even prompted action from national 
governments in the region (SADC,  
 
 
 
*Corresponding author. E-mail: kbmogotsi@yahoo.com. 

 
 
 

 
1999; FAO, 2004). Coping and adaptation,both distinct 
but intricately related processes (Adger, 1996), have 
drawn widespread attention over the years especially with 
the compounded threat of climate change, perhaps the 
most overriding issue of our time. But despite the 
significant research effort aimed at understanding the 
physical aspects of droughts and the effects thereof, as 
well as the attendant coping and adaptation mechanisms, 
agro-pastoral communities still continue to struggle to 
increase production and/or sustain their livelihoods in the 
semi arid environment of Southern Africa. What then, 
could we be missing in our efforts? Could there be a 
crack in the armour, so to speak? Frankenberger (1992) 
argues that, over the years, environmental degradation 
(for example through overgrazing and deforestation) and 
lack of water conservation measures may have served to 
further exacerbate the effects of droughts. Other 
researchers (Fako and Molamu, 1995) have argued that 
poverty may be the underlying problem. According to 
FAO (2004), it is generally acknowledged that low-
resource agriculture is unable to sustain livelihoods in 



 
 
 

 

these fragile semi arid environments. This study therefore 
set out to identify the main factors limiting households in 
the Kalahari from adequately coping and adapting to 
droughts, with Botswana’s subsistence agro-pastoralists 
as a case study. Understanding the prevailing conditions, 
as seen by the farmers, could inform policy makers and 
launch better-coordinated intervention programmes to 
enhance farmers’ resilience to future drought shocks, 
which are generally expected to increase in the region 
(Reed et al., 2007). 

 
METHODOLOGY 
 
Study areas 
 
Kgalagadi North is part of Kgalagadi (Kalahari) desert ecosystem, 
the driest district in Botswana and the least inhabited. The highly 
variable and erratic rainfall regime characterizes the area, with an 
average of about 350 mm annually (Bhalotra, 1985). Rainfall follows 
a uni-modal pattern, falling mainly between October to April. 
Maximum summer temperatures (October to April) average 41°C in 
January and February and a mean minimum for August of -8°C in 
winter months (May to September). Thus evapo-transpiration rates 
are quite high, exceeding precipitation by more than a factor of 
three (Chanda et al., 2003) and resulting in the absence of surface 
water for most times of the year. The soils of the area are arenosols 
(FAO, 1991). The vegetation type is Southern Kalahari bush 
savanna (Skarpe, 1986). The main perennial grasses include 
Stipagrostis uniplumis, Eragrostis lehmanniana, Schmidtia 
pappophoroides and Aristida meridionalis. Annual grasses include 
Schmidtia kalahariensis and Aristida congesta. Woody species 
include Acacia erioloba, Acacia Leuderitzii, Acacia mellifera, Boscia 
albitrunca, Grewia species, Dichrostachys cinerea, Ziziphus 
mucronata and Terminalia sericea.  

The other study site was in the Bobonong region within the 
Central district. Temperatures above 33ºC are common in 
summers, and they sometimes decline to 4ºC in winters. Long-term 
rainfall averages 350 mm per annum and occurs mostly in October 
to April. The main soil type is Eutric Regosols and in some areas 
petric calcisols/chromic luvisols (FAO, 1991). The vegetation 
consists of tree savanna and Acacia shrub savanna (Weare and 
Yalala, 1971). Woody species include Colophospermum mopane, 
Combretum species, Grewia flava, Acacia tortillis, Dichrostachys 
cineria and Commiphora species. The major grass species are S. 
uniplumis, Eragrostis rigidior, Digitaria eriantha, Aristida congesta 
and Urochloa species. Various species of forbs are found.  

Agriculture is the main source of livelihood of the rural 
communities in both study areas. Pastoral farming is dominated by 
traditional production systems within communal grazing areas 
termed cattleposts or ‘meraka’. Subsistence crop cultivation is 
practiced but to a lesser extent compared to livestock keeping. 

 
Data collection 
 
Rainfall 
 
The long-term annual rainfall data for the study areas were sourced 
from the Department of Meteorological Services. For the Bobonong 
Sub-district, the Bobonong field station was used while the Tshane 
station was used for the Kgalagadi North study area. The data for 
both sites were from 1959 to 2009, totalling 50 years. 

 
Soil 
 
Soil sampling was done once during the  study  period  at  sampling 

  
  

 
 

 
points on randomly-placed line transects. Three 5 km line transects 
were set up along a representative grazing area in each study site. 
Topsoil cores (0 to 7.5 cm) were taken at 1 km intervals and the 
soils were analyzed for chemical properties at the Soil and Plant 
Analytical Laboratory in Sebele, Botswana. Exchangeable bases 
calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and potassium (K) were determined 
using ammonium acetate as described by Thomas (1982). The 
Walkley and Black method (Walkley, 1935) was used to determine 
the organic carbon (OC) content in the soil samples, while the Bray  
II method (Bray and Kurtz, 1945) was followed in determining 
phosphorous (P) amounts. In addition soil pH was determined. 

 

Vegetation 

 
Vegetation analyses included density, species composition and 
frequency and herbaceous cover using the quadrat method (Cook 
and Stubbendieck, 1986). For important woody browse species, the 
point-centred quarter (PCQ) method was used to determine their 
density, along the same line transects, following Browser and Zar 
(1984) and Cook and Stubbendieck (1986). 

 

Social data collection 
 

The agro-pastoral households
1
 were selected at random with the 

input of the extension officers from the Ministry of Agriculture in the 
respective areas. In the Bobonong Sub-district (Lepokole and 
surrounding communal areas of Sekgopswe, Mmamanaka and 
Mmaditshwene), 50 households were interviewed while 38 were 
interviewed in Kgalagadi North (Hukuntsi, Lehututu and Tshane 
villages). The survey collected information on demographic 
characteristics, socioeconomic status (e.g. income sources), land 
tenure, crop and livestock management, input use, access to 
information, extension, technology, markets and credit as well as 
constraints to coping and adaptation efforts. Data triangulation was 
done through participatory rural appraisal and key informant 
interviews in each study area. 

 

Statistical analysis 
 
Data were subjected to the Statistical Package for Social Sciences 
(SPSS). Frequencies were calculated using descriptive statistics for 
respondent demographics, socio-economic characteristics and 
related variables. A one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was 
carried out for soil chemical properties between the two study sites. 
Where significant differences existed (p < 0.05), Tukey’s HSD was 
used for means separation. The same procedure was used with 
vegetation data (percentage cover and density). The density of 
important woody species was determined as described by Browser 
and Zar (1984) and Cook and Stubbendieck (1986). 
 

 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

 

Biophysical characteristics 

 

Rainfall 

 
The semi arid environment of Botswana exhibit erratic 
and variable rainfall regimes, both spatially and  
 
1
 Following Niehof (2004), a household herein refers to a family-based co-

residential unit that takes care of resource management and the primary needs 
of its members. 



  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
Annual rainfall  

 
Long term rainfall mean  

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
Figure 1. Rainfall pattern and long term mean for Bobonong (Bobonong Sub-district). Gaps in graph indicate missing data. 

 
 
 
 
temporally. The study sites showed such trends for a 
period exceeding 30 years (Figures 1 and 2), with no 
distinct pattern-further underlining the unpredictable 
nature of rainfall.  

The high variability in rainfall (44 and 41% coefficients 
of variation for Bobonong (Bobonong Sub-district) and 

Tshane (Kgalagadi North Sub-district) respectively
2
) has 

implications for the rural communities dependent on rain-
fed agriculture for subsistence. Dry extremes are 
common. Even in non-drought years, crop cultivation is a 
risky undertaking. Seasonal non-availability of surface 
water and deterioration of forage for livestock results in 
reduced productivity and at times of extended droughts, 
possible livestock deaths. 
 

 

Soil chemical properties 

 

The important chemical properties from the two study 
sites are as summarized in Table 1.  

The results of the analysis showed significant 
differences (p < 0.05) in magnesium (Mg), cation 
exchange capacity (CEC), organic carbon (OC) and 
phosphorous (P) levels between the two sites. The 
significantly higher CEC of soils in Bobonong could be 
attributed to the higher clay content found in the soils  

 
2
 CVs of 33% mark the critical value where non-equilibrium dynamics emerge 

(Ellis, 1995). 

 
 
 

 

dominant in the area (FAO, 1991), which generally also 
have better water holding capacity. The soil CEC is 
important as it allows exchangeable cations such as Mg, 
calcium (Ca) and potassium (K) to be readily available for 
uptake by plants. In general, the higher the organic 
matter and clay content, the higher the CEC (Brady and 
Weil, 2001). Thus the low CEC in Kgalagadi North 
rangeland soils could partly be due to the low OC content 
of the soil (0.15%). Apart from increasing soil water 
holding and cation exchange capacities, the organic 
fraction is important as it also serves as a reservoir for 
the plant essential nutrients and enhances soil 
aggregation and structure.  

Phosphorus levels in Kgalagadi North were significantly 
lower (p < 0.05) than in Bobonong, further attesting to the 
poor fertility status of the Kalahari sands. The vegetation 
would also likely be low in P. According to APRU (1980), 
P levels in Botswana grasses rarely exceed 1.0 /kg, thus 
farmers have to supplement their animals to avoid 
increased incidences of Aphosphorosis (Stiff Sickness) 
due to consumption of poor grasses. Animal manure is a 
common source of P especially in grazing areas, but 
Chanda et al. (2003) note that due to the low rainfall 
amounts in Kgalagadi, natural input of P is insignificant. 
Also, P becomes less available for uptake by plants if soil 
pH is relatively low. The average pH values for Kgalagadi 
North and Bobonong Sub-districts were 5.47 and 6.25, 
respectively. P is thus a limiting factor in the productivity 
of the Kgalagadi North soils. The generally low soil 



   
 
 
 
 
 

 
Annual rainfall  

 
Long term rainfall mean  

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
Figure 2. Rainfall pattern and long-term mean for Tshane (Kgalagadi North Sub-district). 

 

 
Table 1. Some soil chemical properties of the study sites.  

 
 

Study site 
K Ca Mg CEC 

OC (%) P (ppm)  

  

cmol/kg 
 

 

      
 

 Kgalagadi North 0.23±0.03
a
 3.70±2.67

a
 0.60±0.05

a
 2.34±0.26

a
 0.15±0.01

a
 4.52±1.55

a
 

 

 Bobonong 0.33±0.04
a
 9.13±2.49

a
 1.07±0.22

b
 6.91±0.88

b
 0.40±0.04

b
 16.96±4.30

b
 

 

 
Column means with different superscripts are significantly different at p< 0.05. 

 
 

 

fertility findings of Kgalagadi are echoed by Perkins 
(1991), who attributes it partly to their sandy nature. So, 
based on the results, where Kgalagadi North has 
significantly lower soil chemical properties than 
Bobonong except for Mg and Ca, coupled with erratic and 
low rainfall in the area, one could conclude that cost-
effective arable farming would be a challenge for 
Kgalagadi North rural communities. Thus households 
dependent on crop cultivation and natural pastures for 
livestock are likely to be more vulnerable to droughts 
because of the low ecological productivity of the soils. 
 

 

Vegetation characteristics 

 

Plant frequency 

 
The frequencies of some important plant species found in 
the study sites are given in Table 2.  

Grasses of economic importance with regard to 
livestock production (APRU 1976) such as Eragrostis 
spp., Urochloa spp. and Digitaria spp. were encountered. 

 
 
 

 

Aristida spp. on the other hand, was a key indicator of 
poor range condition together with the invasive forb 
Elephantorrhiza elephantina which dominated in some 
grazing areas not far from water points in Kgalagadi 
North. 
 

 

Percentage herbaceous cover 

 
The percentage herbaceous cover for the two study sites 
is presented in Table 3.  

There was a significant difference (p< 0.05) in cover 
between the two sites. The average cover for the 
herbaceous layer towards the end of the growing season 
in March was 61.78 and 76.67% for Bobonong and 
Kgalagadi North respectively, which is expected to be 
less during the dry winter season (May to August). This is 
especially so for Bobonong area as the bulk of the 
herbaceous cover constituted of annual grasses and 
forbs. Cover is important as it protects the soil layer from 
being exposed to elements of erosion. Thus soils in 
Bobonong area, because of lower percentage cover, are 



 
 
 

 
Table 2. Frequencies of selected important plant species in the study areas.  

 

Plant species 
Relative frequency (%) 

 

Bobonong Kgalagadi North 
 

 
 

Perennial   
 

S. uniplumis - 40 
 

Eragrostis spp. 24.4 27.78 
 

Digitaria spp. 4.44 8.89 
 

Enneapogon cencroides 6.67 - 
 

Annual   
 

Aristida spp. 35.56 33.33 
 

S. kalahariensis - 20 
 

Urochloa trichopus 60 35.56 
 

Tragus spp. 22.22 13.33 
 

S. pappophoroides - 22.22 
 

Chloris virgata 22.22 - 
 

Melenis spp. 2.22 13.33 
 

Forb   
 

E. elephantina - 33.33 
 

Other forbs 75.76 88.89 
 

 
 

 
Table 3. Percentage cover of the herbaceous layer in the two 
study sites.  

 
 Study site Herbaceous layer cover (%) 

 Bobonong 61.78±5.95
a
 

 Kgalagadi North 76.67±3.57
b
 

 
Column mean with different superscripts are significantly 
different at p < 0.05. 

 

 

more prone to wind and water erosion. 
 

 

Density of woody plant species 

 

The total densities for woody species in Bobonong and 
Kgalagadi North study sites averaged 790 and 345 
plants/ha respectively (Table 4), which was significantly 
different (p < 0.05). The most abundant woody species, 
based on relative densities, in Bobonong Sub-district 
were Grewia species (28.89%), C. mopane (22.78%), A. 
tortilis (13.33%), Combretum apiculatum (7.78%), D. 
cineria (7.22%) and Commiphora species (5.56%). In 
Kgalagadi North study site, Grewia species (37.22%, 
especially G. flava), A. mellifera (19.44%), Acacia 
erioloba (10.00%), Terminalia sericea (10.56%), Acacia 
luederitzii (8.33%) and Boscia albitrunca (7.22%) 
dominated. The lower woody species density in 
Kgalagadi is consistent with its classification as a bush 
savanna (Skarpe, 1986), giving it an ‘open canopy’ look 
in contrast to the denser Bobonong area. 

 
 

 

Six (6) woody species were common to both areas. 
Sorenson’s community similarity index showed that the 
two study areas were 37.5% similar in terms of woody 
plant species composition. Woody species are especially 
important as browse (including pods) for livestock during 
the dry season (May to August) and drought periods. This 
stems primarily from the fact that although important 
livestock grasses decline drastically in both quantity and 
quality during the non-rainy period in Botswana (APRU, 
1976), woody browse species can still provide enough 
nutrients for livestock maintenance requirements 
(Moleele, 1998). But not all woody species are 
necessarily desirable. For example, in Kgalagadi North 
area, the dominance of A. mellifera was more 
pronounced near water points (natural pans). Moleele 
and Mainah (2003) noted the same trend. The species is 
one of the thorny encroachers, and Fraser et al. (2006) 
suggest that it thrives due to a combination of factors-
namely, intense grazing, drought and a reduction in 
frequency and intensity of natural fires.  

From the vegetation characteristics previously 
discussed, the herbaceous cover can be an important 
element in the agro-pastoral communities’ efforts to cope 
and adapt to drought shocks. However, the bulk of the 
herbaceous cover in Bobonong area was annual grasses 
and forbs-offering a temporary resource base not 
available during the dry season and drought years for 
livestock to feed on. The transient nature of this resource 
leaves livestock susceptible to weight loss, emaciation 
and possible deaths, and thus threatening the livelihood 
base of the communities during droughts. On the other 



  
 
 

 
Table 4. Mean woody species densities and number per site.  

 
 Study site Mean absolute density (plants/ha) Number of woody species 

 Bobonong 789.67±101.60
a
 20 

 Kgalagadi North 345.33±27.95
b
 12 

 
Column means with different superscripts are significantly different at p< 0.05.  

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 

Salary/wages  Old age pension 
 

  scheme  

 
 

   
  

 
 

Figure 3. Main sources of income for households in Kgalagadi North and Bobonong Sub-districts. 
 

 

hand, the palatable perennial grasses and woody plant 
species provide the nutritional requirements of livestock 
deep into the dry season and to some extent during 
droughts. Thus, this first line of defence can be critical 
especially for poorer households heavily dependent on 
the natural resource base. 
 

 

Socioeconomic characteristics of households 

 

Main sources of income 

 

Most of the surveyed households in both study areas had 
between 5 and 7 members each. Households also had 
several sources of income (Figure 3). In Kgalagadi North, 
the majority of households had sales from agriculture, 
both crops and livestock, as their main source of income 
(57.9%). Selling of livestock (especially cattle and goats) 
was done primarily on a subsistence basis-usually to buy 
food for the household, buy livestock feed, pay bride price 
(‘bogadi’) or for other social functions affecting the family. 
Other sources included salaries from working household 
members (23.7%) and for all elderly citizens aged 65 and 
above, a monthly allowance from the 

 
 

 

government’s Old Age Pension Scheme (10.5%).  
In contrast, most households (72%) in Bobonong study 

site earned their main income through temporary 
employment or ‘piece jobs’. These are traditionally low 
paying jobs like herding livestock, weeding of crop fields 
and joining the government’s Labour Intensive Public 
Works Programme, among others. Sales from agriculture 
and allowances from the Old Age Pension Scheme were 
the main source of income for some households (8% 
each), followed closely by salaries at 6%. Unemployment 
rate in the area was recorded at 19.1% in 2003 (MFDP, 
2007). 
 

 

Gender and education levels 

 

Most households were headed by members aged 41 
years and older, with 72 and 89% in Bobonong and 
Kgalagadi North Sub-districts respectively, very few of 
whom had gone beyond primary education. The level of 
formal education of the head of a household has some 
significance, as higher literacy is more likely to encourage 
better planning and decision making. There were 56% of 
heads of households with some formal education in 



 
 
 

 

Bobonong, while Kgalagadi had 76.3% of such 
respondents. There was a disparity in gender-where 64% 
of the households were female-headed in Bobonong 
while 23.7% were headed by females in Kgalagadi North. 
Special attention has been paid to rural female-headed 
households over the years (Cownie and Blake, 1982; 
Molutsi, 1992) as they tend to be prone to shocks 
because of high poverty levels (Jefferis and Kelly, 1999), 
lack of access to land, low literacy levels (Eriksen et al., 
2005), lack of draught power, and high dependency ratios 
(Fako and Molamu, 1995). In Bobonong, of all household 
heads with no formal education, 68.2% were female-
headed and their main source of income was the low 
paying temporary employment opportunities (69.4%), 
characteristics which Jacques (1995) argues, indicates 
high likelihood of vulnerability to drought. 
 

 

Ownership of livestock 

 

Livestock rearing has long been regarded as Batswana’s 
(citizenry of Botswana) way of life (Edwards et al., 1989), 
despite its declining contribution to the country’s Gross 
Domestic Product over the years (BIDPA, 2001). This is 
further supported by the study findings where 94% of all 
households surveyed owned some livestock (cattle, 
goats, sheep, horses, donkeys, pigs and poultry). Cattle 
are especially important as they affect the culture, 
politics, economy and the ecology of rural Botswana and 
its inhabitants (Keijsper, 1993). Looking at the livestock 
ownership dynamics in Bobonong, the most common 
were poultry (68%), goats (64%), donkeys (60%) followed 
by cattle (50%) and lastly sheep (16%). Donkeys are an 
important mode of transport for rural farmers (e.g. 
transporting water and harvests to markets), but their true 
worth are as draught power during the ploughing and 
planting seasons. A point to note is the relatively lower 
percentage of households owning cattle in the area. A 
possible explanation for this anomaly is the persistence of 
the economically important Foot and Mouth Disease 
(FMD) in the area, which results in the mass killing of all 
infected cattle by the government. Or the combination of 
recurrent droughts and FMD means that farmers spend 
most of their time trying to accumulate enough numbers 
for subsistence and possible sales. So cattle ownership in 
the area may be low not necessarily because cattle are 
less valued, but because of the associated risk.  

By contrast, Kgalagadi North Sub-district has no FMD 
threat and had more households owning cattle (84.2%), 
goats (81.6%), poultry (60.5%), donkeys (52.6), horses 
(39.5%) and sheep (15.9%). Horses are used by 
herdsmen mainly when looking after other livestock, 
especially suited to navigate Kgalagadi’s extensive and 
predator-filled terrain. Livestock ownership versus age 
and gender also drew special attention. Of all the 
households without cattle in both sub-districts, 74.2% 
were female-headed and were thus termed ‘poor’. There 

 
 
 
 

 

was also skewed ownership of livestock with regard to 
the age of the household head. For example, the youth (≤ 
40 years) owned only 16 and 12.5% of all cattle in 
Bobonong and Kgalagadi North sub-districts respectively, 
further fuelling the perception that they are not keen on 
agricultural-related activities (CAR, 2005). 
 

 

Factors limiting households from coping with 
drought 

 

Though households may have strategies in place to avert 
the negative consequences of droughts; there are some 
factors that hamper the full success of their efforts (Figure 
4).  

In the study area of Bobonong, the top-ranked 
constraints were persistence of droughts (20%), lack of 
diversified sources of income (20%), limited alternative 
options (18%) and wildlife menace (14%).  

Recurrent droughts are seen as constraint primarily 
because they disrupt the agro-pastoral communities’ 
efforts to subsist on the land. There is no regular pattern 
of drought episodes in Botswana, but an average 
periodicity of approximately 16 to 20 years has been 
observed (MFDP, 1997). Hitchcock (1979) argues that 
variability in rainfall has increased since 1954. This 
increased frequency of droughts in the study areas could 
have overwhelmed some of the traditional coping and 
adaptation strategies and rendering them ineffective. This 
has necessitated adoption of more responsive coping 
strategies among the agro-pastoralists, which may not 
always be available. For example, while in the past, the 
‘Mafisa’ system enabled beneficiaries to ‘lease’ livestock 
and water points from wealthy members of their 
community (BIDPA, 1997); nowadays an animal would be 
adversely affected by recurrent droughts and hence 
produce less milk or be too weak to provide draught 
power or even die. Thus this strategy would not only be 
risky to the one ‘leasing’ out their resource (like livestock), 
but also to the one in whose custody the resource is 
temporarily transferred. Instead, the wealthy would rather 
hold on to their investment, while the poor would rather 
harvest firewood for sale or enrol in the government’s 
Labour Intensive Public Works Programme where there is 
a guarantee of monthly payment which is a highly 
responsive strategy vis-à-vis ‘Mafisa’ with a delayed time 
lag before benefits are realized.  

The over-reliance on one source for income (rain-fed 
agriculture), coupled with limited alternatives also make it 
difficult for households to cushion droughts once the 
agricultural sector experiences shortfalls. The area of 
Bobonong is also occasionally affected by elephants 
(Loxodonta africana), especially during extended dry 
seasons and droughts. The animals are attracted to the 
water in hand-dug wells meant for livestock and also 
destroy farmers’ crops. Considering the recurrent 
droughts, the risky subsistence nature of farming, lack of 



   
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
  

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Figure 4. Constraints limiting households from coping and adapting to drought. 

 
 

 

employment opportunities, and outbreaks of Foot and 
Mouth disease in the Bobonong sub-district, perhaps the 
communities ought to look at the elephants and other 
wildlife as a blessing in disguise. The community-based 
natural resource management (CBNRM) policy (1997) 
encourages communities in Wildlife Management Areas 
to form trusts and develop land use and management 
plans with the assistance of the Department of Wildlife 
and National Parks. The CBNRM concept satisfies both 
economic interests of the local residents (e.g. through 
tourism, hunting quotas and cultural villages) and the 
country’s resource conservation objectives, thereby 
promoting sustainable development.  

In the other sub-district of Kgalagadi North, lack of 
water or its poor quality (high salinity) were cited and 
ranked as the main constraints by farmers (23%), 
followed closely by lack of diversified sources of income 
(21%). Like in Bobonong study area, persistence of 
drought was seen as a constraint (14%). The other 
important constraint was the land tenure system (9%) 
which hampered farmers’ efforts to cope with droughts.  

Low, erratic rainfall and associated excessive 
evaporation rates make water a limiting factor for agro-
pastoral communities of Kgalagadi North. Hand-dug wells 
at the edges of the numerous pans around the district are 
the main source of livestock drinking water. During 
drought years, because of depletion of palatable forage in 
the vicinity of the water bodies, animals have to traverse 
greater distances between distant grazing areas and 
water points. Thus borehole drilling in the communal 
areas offers a lifeline for farmer groups (syndicates) 
where underground water is not too saline. According to 
the farmers, if they had to choose one of the lesser evils 

 
 
 

 

between lack of feed (natural pastures) for their livestock 
and lack of water, they would opt for the former. This 
demonstrates the invaluable need for water in their 
agricultural activities. The persistence of droughts in this 
area could have also contributed to some households not 
cultivating crops at all, as the arable sector is more 
sensitive to moisture deficits than livestock. According to 
Van der Jagt (1995), a possibility of crop failure in the 
area ranges between 1 in 5 and 1 in 4 years.  

Seasonal movements of livestock across the rangeland 
to exploit the high spatial variability of rainfall as well as 
heterogeneity of forage are the norm in semi arid and arid 
environments. But the current land tenure system in 
Botswana curtails such mobility. This gives rise to 
another constraint in efforts to cope with drought. In the 
case of Kgalagadi North, the communal area in which the 
cattleposts are located is adjacent to Wildlife 
Management Areas and the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park 
(State Land), some privately-owned ranches (leased 
under Tribal Land) and the permanent human 
settlements/villages (Tribal Land). Because of the 
different land uses bordering them, agro-pastoralists can 
only move their livestock within the communal area itself. 
The physiology of cattle also dictates where to move to, 
and thus mobility is often restricted to natural water 
bodies (pans). A proposal is offered by Nyangito (2005), 
who suggests that pastoral mobility can be enhanced by 
employing secondary land tenure rights to access 
privately-owned grazing resources during critical periods 
like droughts. This remains largely unexplored in the case 
of Botswana.  

The preceding constraints may act solely or in 
combination to hamper the communities’ efforts in coping 



 
 
 

 

adequately with droughts, and thus increase their 
vulnerability. If one adds to these challenges the low, 
highly variable rainfall regime and climate-dependent 
livelihoods in both study areas, then there can only be 
one outcome, the perfect drought. 
 

 

Conclusions 

 

Rural agro-pastoral communities of the Kalahari are 
exposed to recurrent droughts at increased frequencies. 
The low soil fertility status, coupled with the low and 
highly variable rainfall regime make for a challenging 
environment for the farmers to operate under. Apart from 
this marginal agricultural potential of the land, there are 
other social and economic factors hampering farmers’ 
efforts to make ends meet. It is thus necessary to 
understand and appreciate these often subtle and 
complex challenges for effective future intervention 
strategies to reduce vulnerability among agro-pastoral 
communities and ensure sustainable rural development. 
 

 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

 

The Department of Agricultural Research provided full 
logistical and technical support for field data collection. 
The same institute also analysed soil samples. The 
Department of Extension Services assisted with 
identifying farmers for the survey. Rainfall data were 
sourced from the Department of Meteorological Services. 
Financial support for this project was provided by the 
Regional Universities Forum for Capacity Building in 
Agriculture (RUFORUM). Sincere gratitude is especially 
extended to the communities of Bobonong and Kgalagadi 
North sub-districts who despite the odds, continue to 
prosper. 
 

 
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