




































In ternationa l
Scholars
Journa ls

 

African Journal of Environmental Economics and Management ISSN 2375-0707 Vol. 6 (2), pp. 406-412, 
February, 2018. Available online at www.internationalscholarsjournals.org © International Scholars Journals 

 

Author(s) retain the copyright of this article. 
 
 

Full Length Research Paper 
 

Prevalence of environmental degradation in natural 

resource management 

 
Philémon Mafany George 

 
Department of Geography, University of Yaounde I, E.N.S. Annex Bambili, P.O. Bamenda, North West Province, 

Cameroon. E-mail: mafany.george@gmail.com 
 

Accepted 04 December, 2017 
 

The predominance of environmental degradation in Africa has generated waves of concern from 
international and national non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Since the 1990s there has been a 
remarkable increase in the number of NGOs with environmental protection interest in the South. The 
paper appraises the involvement of NGOs and stakeholder community in environmental protection 
projects in terms of resource mobilization, organizational strengthening and the institutional 
development of civil society. The paper which is a product of field investigations concludes that these 
NGOs are having a significant impact on the social, political and economic life of their populations. 
However there is the question of their sustainability as local NGOs derive most of their inspiration and 
resources from NGOs in the North. There is need to appreciate the issues surrounding capacity 
building beyond technical and sectoral aims. Capacity building must contribute to the long-term 
organizational strengthening and institutional development of civil society as a whole. 

 
Key words: NGOs, civil society, sustainability, environmental protection, participation, appraisal. 

 
 
INTRODUCTION 

 
The past decades have seen steady growth of non-
governmental organization (NGO) at the local, national 
and international level along with an increasing interest 
from both donors and the NGOs themselves in seeking 
ways to make NGOs more effective. The profile of NGOs 
has grown among policy-makers, activists, and resear-
chers in both North and South (Abongwa, 1999). NGOs 
now feature prominently in discussion of service delivery, 
advocacy and lobbying, social movements, philanthropy 
and charity giving, building civil society, and social entre-
preneurship. This rich diversity of NGOs in both the North 
and the South is widely celebrated, with a growing num-
ber of publications devoted to them. Although there are 
voices challenging the claims which are made for NGOs, 
these are generally restricted to the context of humani-
tarian assistance in emergency situations and NGOs con-
tinue to be “flavour of the month” in development circles 
(IRED, 1998a). 

There has been a general and rising interest among 

countries on environmental issues, most especially envi-
ronmental protection, since the United Nations Confe-

rence on Environment and Development (UNCED) or the 

 
 
Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in Jane 
1992. Theoretically, this conference expected countries to 
recognize the rather complementary relationship that 
exists between development and the environment. The 
challenge of environmental protection was made formal 
by the Cameroon government’s recognition of NGOs as 
partners in natural resource management and rural deve-
lopment (Ndenecho, 2003). The challenge is that NGOs 
must perform efficiently in realizing local, regional, na-
tional and global environment plans, which means they 
must have adequate capacity and resources (Acho-chi 
and Ndenecho, 1994). This requires an appraisal of the 
financial means, sustainability of NGOs, cooperation 
between NGOs and GOs (Governmental Organization) in 
tackling natural resource management, the focus on the 
grassroots resource users, the degree of participation 
(empowerment) and the global dimension of the reflection 
/activities of NGOs. This paper seeks to identify NGOs 
involved in development work and to appraise the input in 
the natural resource management process by NGOs in 
order to establish a base for cooperation between local 
and international NGOs and to elaborate strategies in 



Philémon      407 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
Figure 1. Core problem identification and strategies employed by NGOs 

in partnership with stakeholder communities (Zimmermann, 1996). 
 

 

achieving sustainability through local resource mobiliza-

tion, organizational strengthening and the institutional 

development of civil society. 

 

Study area and core problem 
 
The study area is the Bamenda Highlands. It is character-
rized by soaring mountain peaks, plateaux, upland 
watersheds and intermontane basins. There is a high 
lava plateau with elevations between 2000 and 2800 m, 
an intermediate plateau between 1000 and 1900 m, and 
a low plateau between 900 and 300 m above sea level. 
The montane forests of the area are unique in that they 
have one of the highest levels of endemism (Macleod, 
1986; Stuart, 1986). Their scientific importance has re-
ceived both international and local conservation attention 
from non-governmental organizations (NGOs). The up- 

 
 

 

land or hilly watersheds have combinations of forests, 
farmlands and grazing lands and are densely populated 

by farmers (96 inhabitants / km
2
) with and annual growth 

rate of 2.3% (MINPAT/UNDP, 1999)  
Since the early 1990s, road improvements have 

increased the agricultural value of the area. The 
increasing population combined with the increased mar-
ket access has resulted in a much more intensive system 
of farming without the traditional fallow periods that were 
used to restore soil productivity. The end result is that 
crop yields are poor and natural forest is being rapidly 
cleared to augment impoverished farmland. The new 
lands are on steep and highly erodible slopes. These 
scenarios are analyzed in Figure 1. The decrease in 
fallow and encroachment of agriculture on to grassland 
has led to a reduction in land available for grazing. Con-
sequently livestock range freely within montane forest 



 
 
 

 

preventing regeneration and threatening some of the best 
remaining areas. Overgrazing and trampling have caused 
the complete loss of vegetation in some places. Serious 
erosion is now occurring, aggravated by deliberate burn-
ing. Over the past two decades there has been a notice-
able decrease in the dry season water flow and many 
water catchments are being endangered by the destruct-
tion of the forest (Ndenecho, 2006).  

Intensive conservation measures are needed in the 
area. Since the early 1990s there has been a remarkable 
increase in the number of non-governmental organi-
zations involved in environmental protection in the area. 
These organizations design and implement land manage-
ment measures based on the strategies are summarized 
in Figure 1. There is the tendency for these organiza-
tions to seek for additional assistance, most often in the 
form of finances from international donor organizations in 
the North. 

 
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 
 
Data for this study were obtained from the SNV sponsored project 
by Marion Wiendels (1994) and a study by Ndenecho (2OO3). 
Complementary information was gathered by interviewing one 
representative of each relevant organization. To be of interest in the 
framework of this research, an organization had to meet five 
criteria. 
 
 The organization is active in the region at the moment, which 
implies that co-workers are either established on a permanent base, 
or are playing an important role in enabling organizations which are 
physically present to execute their activities. To be included, an 
organization has to have at least an office based in Cameroon.


 The organization is not a base organization. A base organization 
is defined here as an organization existing due to the initiative of the 
target population.

 The organization is either in direct contact with the target 
population, or works directly with organizations which are in direct 
contact with the target population.

 The organization aims at the development of the area.

 The organization is apolitical and non-commercial. These criteria 
include governmental and non-governmental organizations.

 
An inventory of organizations operating in the domain of rural deve-
lopment and environmental protection in the region was made using 
an established list of NGOs telephone directory and know-ledge of 
organizations which are active in the region acquired through inter-
views and field surveys. The study set out to achieve the following 
research outputs: 
 
 An inventory of organizations operating in environmental protect-

tion and rural development in the region.
 The geographical location of NGOs in the region

 The degree of spatial concentration of NGOs in the region

 Typology and roles of NGOs

 Weakness/limitations of NGOs

 Scope for achieving greater efficiency in sustainable 
environmental management and protection.

 
A case was made of the involvement of an international NGO 

(Helvetas) in watershed management in collaboration with local 

stakeholders and beneficiaries at local level. This is the case of the 

 
408     Afr. J.  Environ. Econ. Manage. 

 
 

 
Tubah watershed protection project (Table 1). 
 
 
Typology and viability of NGOs 
 
The field survey established the following typology of development 
organizations involved in environmental protection issues. This 
typology will enable us to evaluate the contribution of NGOs (Figure  
2): 
 
Membership Organizations (MO): These are farmers’ organizations 
and are involved in agricultural development and marketing of pro-
duce. The main MOs are the Cameroon Cooperative Credit Union 
League (CAMCCUL) and North West Cooperative Association 
(NWCA). MOs mainly serve the interest of their members. The 
problem with some of these organizations is that for a long time 
they were organized by government officers rather than by farmers 
themselves and work for farmers but implement government poli-
cies.  

Donor organizations targeting communities (DOs): These organi-
zations are active in poverty reduction programmes at the grass-
roots. They started by giving aid to people in distress. Unfortu-
nately, most of these have been more successful in instilling a 
dependency attitude among local people by making them to expect 
free inputs, tools and credit at favourable rates rather than in 
emphasizing the importance of improving managerial capacity. The 
main DOs include the North West Development Authority 
(MIDENO) and church organizations. In order to raise finances, 
they sometimes try to create the image that their target group is in a 
very difficult situation that will not improve without external support. 
Unfortunately, their target groups include poor people in complex, 
diverse and risk -prone environments where the agro-ecological 
and socio-economic situation is very difficult. They evidently lack 
the capacity to handle environmental and resource management 
issues under these circumstances. Most of them are isolated while 
others may assign projects to other organizations.  

Community based organizations (CBOs): These are very active 
in the region and include: Farmer Groups, Forest User Groups, Bee 
Keeping Groups, Tree Nursery Groups, Common Initiative Groups, 
Villages Development Associations, and socio-cultural and develop-
ment organizations involved in rural road construction projects, rural 
water supply schemes, community forest management, watershed 
protection, provision of basic village socio-economic infrastructure 
and rational use of village natural resources. Unfortunately, they 
face the same limitations experienced by grassroots support organi-
zations because they are championed by local and external elites.  

International NGOs and Public Service Organizations: These are 
international support organizations. They help membership organi-
zations, CBOs and local NGOs through financial and material sup-
port, training and expertise. These are based in the developed 
countries but are represented in the study area to provide training 
and expertise. They also act as a channel to transfer donor assis-
tance to local NGOs, CBOs and membership organizations. Those 
active in the region include AFVP (Association Française de Volon-
taires du Progrès). Bird Life International, Food and Agricultural 
Organisation, Swiss Association for Development and Cooperation 
(Helvetas), German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ), 
Heifer Project International (HP!), INADES (Institut Africain pour le 
Développement Economique et Social), Netherlands Development 
Organization (SNV), and Plan International. Although operating 
under different legal statuses these organizations have the common 
characteristic of possessing high technical capacity and the 
financial means to implement its policies.  

Local NGOs: These are local organizations receiving direct 
funding from International and Northern NGOs in order to reinforce 
local civil society through the development of new partnerships.  

Several proliferate in the study area as there has been an 

emergence of a new generation of local NGO “contractors” since 



Philémon      409 
 
 

 
Table 1. Inventory of organizations involved in rural development.  

 
Code Abbreviation Full name (See Figure 2)  

1 ACSD Association Camerounaise pour la Santé et le Dévéloppement.  

2 ACT Association for Creative Teaching  

3 ADEID Action pour un Dévéloppement Equitable, Intègre et Durable  

4 Africa 2000 Network   

5 AFVP Association Française de Volontaires de Progrès  

6 APICA Association pour la promotion des Initiatives Communautaires Africaines  

7 Bird Life   

8 BVCP Bafut Village Community Project  

9 CAMCCUL Cameroon Cooperative Credit Union League  

10 Catholic Church   

11 CBC Cameroon Baptist Convention  

12 CIPCRE Circle International pour la Promotion de la création  

13 CODIDSC Comite Diocésain de Développement et d’Activités Socio Caritatives  

14 DED German Development Service  

15 DETMAC ASSOCIATES   

16 EEC Eglise Evangélique du Cameroun  

17 FAO-PAM Food and Agriculture Organisation - Programme Alimentaire Mondial  

18 FIMAC Financement d’Investissement de Micro-realisation Agricoles et Communautaires  

19 GTZ Gesellschft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit  

20 Helvetas Swiss Association for Development Cooperation  

21 HPI Heifer Project International  

22 INADES Institut Africain pour le Développement Economique et Social  

23 Living Earth   

24 MIDENO Mission de Développement de la province du Nord-Ouest  

25 MINAGRI Ministère d’agriculture  

26 M1NASCOF Ministère d’Affaires Sociales et de la Condition Féminines  

27 MINEPIA Ministère d’Elevage des pêches et d’Industries Animales  

28 NWCA North West Cooperative Association  

29 ODERREB Organisation pour le Développement Rural et Reboisement  

30 ORICAA Organisation for Rural Infrastructure, Community Animation & Afforestation  

31 PAFSAT Permanent Farming Systems and Animal Traction Project  

32 PCC Presbyterian Church in Cameroon  

33 Peace Corps   

34 PRODEC Programme de Dévéloppement Communautaires  

35 PSMP Provincial Social Marketing Programme  

36 SAILD Service d’Appui aux Initiative Locales de Dévéloppement  

37 SASH Sustainable Agriculture and Self-Help  

38 SETRAHAC   

39 SLF Sustainable Livestock Foundation  

40 SNV Netherlands Development Organization  

41 UNV-DDS United Nations Volunteers-Domestic Development Services.  
 

See Figure 2 for the geographical location of the NGOs by their corresponding serial numbers. 
 

 

the 1990s. 
International NGOs have more financial resources than local 

NGOs, Donor Organizations (DOs) and Membership Organizations 
(MOs). They promote a great deal of rhetoric about partnership and 
enhancing civil society as they channel the majority of their funds to 
local NGOs through semi -contractual arrangements for service 
delivery projects. There is an exaggerated emphasis on specific 
sectors and services to the detriment of a wider strategy of funding 

 
 

 
long-term goals, which cut across sectors, such as poverty 
reduction and strengthening civil society. Unfortunately, these funds 
are channeled to a very small number of local NGOs, thus several 
local NGOs present misshapen organizational profiles. The lack of 
financial means implies a threatened continuity, poor cooperation 
among the NGO community, poor integrative approach, and parti-
cipation. The local NGOs have no international dimension. Member-
ship organizations such as CAMCCUL, NWCA and Bamenda vega- 



 

410     Afr. J.  Environ. Econ. Manage. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 

Figure 2. Geographical distribution of NGOs involved in rural development (see Table 1 for the Legend). 
 

 
table Cooperation (BVC) dispose of large amount of means and 
reach many persons in their areas of operation. CAMCCUL is limi-
ted only to the rural finance sector and isolated in its organizational 
network. However, its influence in rural savings and credit gene-
ration is enormous. NWCA used to have a large impact in the 
development process for it had the monopoly in coffee trade during 
the period world prices were high. At this moment, NWCA faces 
severe problems in meeting its obligations. The impact of NWCA 
has decreased considerably. Local NGOs are limited in their sphere 
of activities as a consequence of the limited organizational profiles. 
On the contrary international NGOs are very active in the area as a 
result of their high organizational profiles. Membership organi-
zations except BVC cover the entire region. The BVC is based 
mainly in Mezam. The spatial influence of International NGOs is a 
result of their policy of support to local NGOs through financial 
assistance and adoption of local NGOs and CBOs as co-workers. 

 

A model of collaboration between NGOs and stakeholders 
 
The international NGO, Helvetas (Swiss Association for Develop-

ment and Cooperation), together with the Community Development 
Department (CDD) in the Ministry of Agriculture and a few local 

NGOs, in 30 years have constructed about 350 rural water 

 
 

 
schemes and 150 water points in the North west, South West and 
West Provinces serving about 1.2 million rural people (Zimmer-
mann, 1996). The CDD and NGOs as partners of Helvetas at exe-
cution level design, plan, implement and monitor the performance of 
village-based water maintenance committees, which operate and 
maintain the schemes.  

Helvetas and its partners started a comprehensive process of 
information and sensitization on improved water resource manage-
ment for water maintenance committees, traditional councils and 
regional authorities. The villages are the project stakeholders and 
through their management committees (WMC) and caretakers 
mobilize local peoples to contribute in kind and cash for construc-
tion, maintenance and operation. Bigger villages require river  
intakes and water treatment for which sedimentation tanks and slow 
sand filters (SSF) are designed and constructed. Water intakes are 
classified as land of common interest and are controlled by local 
authorities like village and traditional councils. However, with 
increased agriculture activity in most intake areas and watersheds, 
water contamination in small streams becomes serious (Zimmer-
mann, 1995a, 1995b, 1994a, 1994b, 1994c). The Tubah Project 
(Figure 3) demonstrates 30 years of experiences in watershed pro-
tection by Helevetas. Some 10 years after initiation the benefits are 
already being harvested from this project (Tah and Zimmermann, 
1994). 



Philémon      411 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 

 
 

Figure 3. Layout of the Tubah Watershed Management Project: Model of a holistic approach involving the following sectors: 

institution building, forest management and conservation, pasture improvement, agroforestry and soil conservation, income 

generating activities, and a potable water supply scheme. 
 

 
The physical and economic benefits, which will result from water-

shed improvement or improvement in land use practices, are forest 
conservation, forest management, afforestation, grazing controls, 
agroforestry and soil conservation. The NGO’s strategies for water-
shed management derived from this study include: 
 
 Development of local institutions: Formation of farmers’ groups 
and federations in programme area, the formation of project and 
programme committees and training.

 Ensuring active participation by target population: Definition of 
roles of various population groups, participatory approach for plan-
ing decision-making, sharing responsibilities, promotion and com-
munication. This also applies to equal access to benefits for all pro-
gramme participants and active participation of all in the learning 
process. Women are empowered in land use management and 
production. This is accompanied by the development of self-help 
potential for the target population (formation of common initiative 
groups and creation of alternative income generation).
 Conflict management: Creation of forums and mechanisms of 
negotiation.
 This requires the setting up of a comprehensive and permanent 
monitoring system to allow proper control of activities in target 
areas.
 
The role of NGOs, local communities and civil society is crucial in 
achieving sustainable watershed resource management. The 
strengths of NGOs in this direction are impressive but can be exag-
gerated. Local institution building has proved difficult and it is com-
mon for projects to fail when NGO staff has departed. A key issue is 
how to build on local successes in providing services nationally. 
The danger is that Northern NGOs will be used even more actively 

 
 

 
as channels for donor assistance, which would threaten to suffocate 
the flexibility, independence, and low bureaucratic costs that have 
made local NGOs effective. Helvetas is working alongside the 
government to develop the capacity of national NGOs. Training, 
technical assistance, networking to disseminate technical informa-
tion among local NGOs and other activities are being pursued. 
However, it is difficult for local NGOs to know when financial sup-
port will be extended to them by northern NGOs like Helvetas 
(Ndenecho, 2000): 
 
 Too early and it may weaken the self-help motivation.

 Too late and it frustrates attempts to move ahead with schemes 
for water supply.
 
The issue of sustainability and independence of local NGO there-
fore needs to be addressed. Partnership and participation are 
important in the relation between NGOs and the beneficiary com-
munities as they are to those between the NGO and the govern-
ment. If projects are to be sustainable and yield long-term benefits, 
communities must be more explicitly involved in design and imple-
menttation and in defining their own contribution.  

Most local NGOs operating in the region have sometimes unwill-
ingly incorporated older- style management ideas such as strategic 
planning now dismissed by development workers as having failed to 
live up to its promise when it was developed in the 1970s rather 
than heading for the most up-to-date ideas. The most up-to-date 
mainstreams management theory and practice is now concerned 
with areas which NGOs themselves should be on the top of flexible 
work teams, reduce hierarchies, building on organizational values 
and cultures. This should improve their effectiveness and generate 
new ideas and approaches-once rooted in different cultures and 



 
 
 

 
values, and in a genuinely developmental approach to overcoming 

obstacles to positive social change. 
 
 

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 

 

The community of NGOs and civil society organizations is 
now far larger than they were a decade ago as it is 
increasingly being felt that they have more advantages 
than disadvantages compared with government agen-
cies, which perform similar tasks. Donors and national 
governments therefore direct an increasing part of their 
funds through NGOs, which increase the likelihood of 
dependency on external funding with the risk of being 
more responsive to donor agenda than the need of their 
constituencies.  

The issue of the long-term sustainability of NGOs is 
real. There is the fear that agencies funding NGOs in re-
source poor societies, where there is no evidence of 
medium-term capacity to absorb these costs, are simply 
reinforcing what some have termed the “global soup 
kitchen” or globalization of social welfare. There is there-
fore a need to focus attention towards the goal of sustain-
ability through local resource mobilization. As of now 
there is no evidence in the country of such resource 
mobilization through tax-based state funding, local philan-
thropic action or income-generating schemes. Under 
such circumstances sustainability is simply a myth. On 
the contrary local NGOs are noted for their dependence 
on diplomatic services and perpetual support from inter-
national donor organizations (IRED, 1998b).  

With globalization and international trade, NGOs have 
become increasingly influential in World Affairs and are 
consulted by both governments and international organi-
zations. These organizations are having a significant 
impact on the social, political and economic life of their 
target populations. However there is the question of sus-
tainability as local NGOs in Cameroon derive most of 
their inspiration and resources from foreign NGOs. In this 
way both foreign and local NGOs serve as agents of 
recolonisation rather than as liberators as they pose as 
new missionaries.  

NGOs encounter a number of problems. Some local 
NGOs that gain access to official funds through related 
government projects geared at rural poverty alleviation 
report encountering confronting bureaucratic bottle-necks 
in their functioning which creates room for masquerading 
to gain access to official funds. The majority of local 
organizations suffer from a weak organizational network. 
There is need to appreciate the issues surrounding capa-
city building beyond technical and sectoral aims. Capa-
city building must contribute to the long-term organiza-
tional strengthening, or the institutional development of 
civil society as a whole. 

Local NGOs also suffer from management problems. 

NGO leaders and staff are sometimes too reluctant to 

think about organizational questions because it might 

interfere with their primary task of using almost all funds 

 
412     Afr. J.  Environ. Econ. Manage. 

 
 

 

for working with poor people and should not spend mo-
ney on administrative questions. A second set of pro-
blems revolves around the view that many NGOs are 
established by people searching for alternatives to main-
stream thinking and there is sometimes the feeling that 
management issues could be dealt with on an ad hoc 
informal basis may grow in size and develop more com-
plex, multi-dimensional programmes, and suddenly find 
that they need new ideas, systems and procedures to 
cope. Finally, as local NGOs have grown closer to official 
donors they have been required to develop new systems 
of accountability and their effectiveness has been ques-
tioned and challenged. This has led to the feeling that 
some of the impetus for the new interest in NGO ma-
nagement has come from the North, and has taken the 
form of an imposed “marginalization” rather than being 
part of a local NGO’s own agenda.  

As a result of the above factors, there is need for NGOs 

to confront the issue of their sustainability and to elabo-

rate new management models. 

 
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