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African Journal of Pig Farming ISSN 2375-0731 Vol. 4 (3), pp. 001-005, March, 2016. Available online at 
www.internationalscholarsjournals.org © International Scholars Journals 

 

Author(s) retain the copyright of this article. 

 

Full Length Research Paper 

 

Prevalence of gastrointestinal nematodes in Mukota 
pigs in a communal area of Zimbabwe 

 
M. C. Marufu1*, P. Chanayiwa1, M. Chimonyo2 and E. Bhebhe1

 
 

1
Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Zimbabwe, P. O. Box MP167, Mount Pleasant, Harare, 

Zimbabwe. 
2
Department of Livestock and Pasture Science, University of Fort Hare, P. Bag X1314, Alice 

5700, Republic of South Africa. 
 

Accepted 09 November, 2015 
 

A one year monitoring study was conducted between November 2005 and October 2006 to determine 
the prevalence of gastrointestinal nematodes in indigenous Mukota pigs in Hama-Mavhaire communal 
area of Chirumhanzu District, Zimbabwe. Faecal samples from a total of 143 randomly selected pigs of 
both sexes and different ages (< 5 months, 5 -12 months and > 12 months) from 10 villages were 
collected from the rectum for identification and quantification of nematode eggs. Of the 143 pigs, 58.7% 
were positive for gastrointestinal (GI) nematodes, 17.5% having mixed infections. Four parasite species 
were identified; Oesophagostomum species (54.6%) being the most prevalent followed by 
Strongyloides ransomi (14%), Ascaris species (7%) and Trichuris suis (4.2%). Month had an effect on 
the prevalence and mean egg counts of the four GI nematode species. However, pig class and the 
interaction between pig class and month did not have an effect on the prevalence and mean egg counts 
of the GI nematode species. The present work indicates that parasite prevalence in local indigenous 
pigs in the communal areas is moderate. Further examinations are needed to determine the 
pathological importance and impact of parasitic infestations on indigenous pigs in the communal area. 

 
Key words: Ascaris, epidemiology, indigenous pigs, internal parasites, Oesophagostomum. 

 
INTRODUCTION 

 
The indigenous pig genotype of Zimbabwe, generally known 
as the Mukota, predominates in smallholder areas where it is 
kept under the free range system and thrives on low planes 
of nutrition (Mashatise et al., 2005). These pigs are primarily 
scavengers (Holness, 1991), utilising food scraps thrown 
away by people. The roaming of pigs favours the uptake of 
internal parasite eggs (Roepstorff and Nansen, 1994), 
making the pigs particularly sus-ceptible to infestation with 
internal parasites. Moreover, the warm and humid conditions 
of the tropics and the in-frequent treatment of local pigs 
against parasitic dis-eases (Mashatise et al., 2005) 
invariably cause them to carry heavy burdens of 
gastrointestinal (GI) nematodes (Holness, 1991).  

Gastrointestinal (GI) nematodes limit pig production; 

the direct losses caused by these parasites are attributed 

to acute illness culminating in death, premature slaughter  
 
 
 
*Corresponding author: E-mail: chrismunya@yahoo.com 

 
 
and rejection of carcasses during meat inspection (Pat-tison 
et al., 1980). Indirect losses include decreased growth rate, 
weight loss in sows and reduction in litter size (Pattison et 
al., 1980; Taylor, 1999) . Ajayi et al. (1988) reported that GI 
nematodes reduced average daily weight gain by up to 30% 
in indigenous pigs of all ages. The adult nematodes live in 
the intestines, grazing on the gut lining and ingesting 
particulate and liquid digesta, thus limiting nutrient uptake by 
the pigs. The damage caused by adult GI nematodes 
includes hemorrhagic gastroenteritis and anaemia. Larval 
migration through tissues of the pigs results in spread of 
infectious orga-nisms from the gut as well as extensive 
tissue damage thus compromising organ function (Kahn, 
2006).  

The Mukota pigs have been demonstrated to be less 
susceptible to internal parasites than exotic breeds (Zan-ga 
et al., 2003). However, parasite prevalence and worm 

burden in these pigs under the free range system have 
not been evaluated. Farmers do not keep pig health re-
cords, thus parasite prevalence and extent of infestation 
are not known in communal areas. The prevalence of GI 



 
 
 

 

nematodes in indigenous pigs in communal areas of Zim-
babwe is not known. Moreover, the species of GI nema-
todes commonly affecting indigenous pigs in communal 
areas of Zimbabwe have not been elucidated. Knowledge 
about the prevalence of the nematodes is useful when 
formulating pig development and extension programmes 
for communal farmers. In addition, knowledge of the oc-
currence of particular parasite species enables the vete-
rinary services to understand possible health threats and 
develop prophylactic measures to use to reduce parasite 
transmission among indigenous pig herds. Therefore, the 
objective of the current study was to identify and deter-
mine the prevalence of GI nematodes in the indigenous 
pigs in the communal areas of Zimbabwe. 

 

MATERIALS AND METHODS 
 
Description of study site 
 
The study was conducted in Hama-Mavhaire communal area of 
Chirumhanzu District in Masvingo Province of Zimbabwe located at 
19º 83'S and 30º 78' E. The area has a typical tropical climate with 
two distinct seasons. The warm rainy season starts in mid Novem-
ber and ends in early April. The cool dry season starts from April to 
mid November. The receives a mean annual rainfall of 394.5 mm. 
Temperatures range from 16.0 to 31.5ºC with highest temperatures 
of average 31.1°C, being recorded during the hot months of Octo-
ber and November and lowest temperatures of on average 12°C, 
around late June to mid July. The altitude is about 400 m above sea 
level. 

 

Sampling procedure 
 
A total of 143 free range Mukota pigs were sampled (83 sows, 28 
gilts, 15 boars and 17 piglets) over one year from all the10 villages 
in the Hama-Mavhaire communal area. Since pigs were free rang-
ing, faecal samples were collected from only those pigs that were 
found at the homesteads at the time of sampling. The same indi-
vidual animals could not be monitored throughout the study period 
as farmers periodically sold or slaughtered some of their pigs hen-
ce; different individuals were sampled each month. Only pigs that 
were not showing signs of gastrointestinal nematodiasis were sam-
pled. 

 

Sample collection and processing 
 
Faecal samples were collected from indigenous pigs once a month 
from November 2005 to October 2006. The samples were collected 
by rectal palpation, using a glycerine lubricated latex glove for each 
pig. Faecal samples were placed in an empty faecal pot, which was 
then stored in a cooler box at 4°C before being transported to the 
laboratory for analysis within 24 h.  

The modified McMaster’s technique, as described by the Ministry 
of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (1977) was used to prepare the 
faeces for identification and quantification of worm eggs in the 
faeces. Whenever samples were positive for eggs characteristic for 
Oesophagostomum species and Hyostrongylus rubidus, a faecal 
culture was set up for identification at genus level (Permin et al., 
1999).  

Faecal samples were mixed with some dry sterilized cow dung till 
a marshy consistency was reached this was done to improve 

aeration of the faecal sample. The faecal pots were then shut with a 

lid and placed in an incubator at 27C for seven days. The faeces- 

 
 
 
 

 
dung mixture was turned once a day with a tongue depressor to aid 
in aeration of the samples before being returned into the incubator. 
After the seven days larvae were harvested using the technique 
described by the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (1977) 
upon which the nematode larvae were identified. 

 

Nematode identification 
 
All nematode worm eggs were identified using a combination of 
keys given by Soulsby (1982), Uhlinger (1991) and Foreyt (2001). 

Nematode larvae were identified according to Ministry of Agri-
culture, Fisheries and Food (1977). 

 

Statistical analyses 
 
The prevalence of each species of GI parasite was computed as: 

 

P  
d

n ; 

 
Where: p is the prevalence, d is the number of individuals having 
the GI nematode at a particular point in time; and n the number of 
individuals in the population at risk at that point (Thrusfield, 1995). 
The mean, median, standard deviation and range of the eggs per 
gram of faeces for each GI nematode species was also estimated. 
The log10 transformed data were analyzed using PROC GLM OF 

SPSS 15.0 for Windows 
®

 (Statistical Package for Social Scientists, 
2006). The effect of pig class and month, and their interaction on 
the prevalence and mean egg counts of GI nematode species was 
also determined. 

 

RESULTS 

 

A total of 143 pigs were sampled and 84 (58.7%) were 
positive for GI nematode eggs, 17.48% (25) had mixed 
infections, while 41.3% (59) of the pigs sampled were ne-
gative for GI nematode eggs. Four parasite species were 
identified using the modified McMaster flotation tech-
nique, namely Ascaris spp, Oesophagostomum spp, 
Strongyloides ransomi and Trichuris suis with the pre-
valences shown in Table 1. The overall transformed 

(log10) range and mean egg counts for Ascaris species, 
Oesophagostomum species, Strongyloides ransomi and 
Trichuris suis are shown in Table 1.  

Month of sampling affected (P < 0.05) the prevalence 
and mean egg counts of the four GI nematode species. 
Significantly higher (P < 0.05) overall monthly preva-
lences were recorded in April and May for S. ransomi and 
Oesophagostomum spp respectively, compared to No-
vember for Ascaris species and Trichuris suis (Table 2). 

There was a general decrease in overall monthly pre-
valence between May 2006 and October 2006 for all four 
nematodes species. Mean monthly egg counts for all four 
parasite species had two major peaks, the first in Novem-
ber 2005 for all four nematode species; the second in 
February and March 2006 for Ascaris species and 
Trichuris suis respectively, and April and May 2006 for 
Oesophagostomum species and S. ransomi, respectively 

(Figure 1). Pig class and the interaction between pig 



 

  
 
 

 
Table 1. Prevalence of common gastrointestinal parasites in Mukota pigs of 

Hama-Mavhaire communal area. 
 

Species* Ascaris spp Oes spp S. ransomi T. suis 

Prevalence (%) 7.0 54.6 14.0 4.2 

Mean** 0.16 1.37 0.33 0.08 

SD** 0.58 1.29 0.83 0.39 

Range** 0-2.95 0-3.61 0-3.11 0-2.00 
 

*Species names: Ascaris species, Oesophagostomum species, S. ransomi, 

Trichuris suis. **Log 10 transformed values. 
 

 
Table 2. Monthly prevalence of GI nematodes in the Mukota pigs. 

 

Month Overall Ascaris spp Oesophagostomum spp Strongyloides Trichuris 

Nov 05 55.6 38.9
b
 38.9 

b
 5.6 

a
 22.2 

b
 

Dec 05 23.0 0.0
a
 23.0

a
 7.7 

a
 7.7 

a
 

Jan 06 60.0 0.0 
a
 60.0 

b
 40.0 

b
 0.0 

a
 

Feb 06 43.8 12.5 
a
 37.5 

b
 18.8 

a
 0.0 

a
 

Mar 06 64.7 5.9 
a
 58.8 

b
 32.3 

a
 0.0 

a
 

Apr 06 100.0 0.0 
a
 90.91 

c
 45.5 

b
 0.0 

a
 

May 06 91.7 0.0 
a
 91.7 

c
 0.0 

a
 0.0 

a
 

Jun 06 70.0 0.0 
a
 70.0 

b
 0.0 

a
 0.0 

a
 

Jul 06 77.8 0.0 
a
 77.8 

b
 0.0 

a
 0.0 

a
 

Aug 06 44.4 0.0 
a
 44.4 

b
 0.0 

a
 0.0 

a
 

Sep 06 58.3 0.0 
a
 58.3 

b
 0.0 

a
 0.0 

a
 

Oct 06 0.0 0.0 
a
 0.0 

a
 0.0 

a
 0.0 

a
 

 
abc

 indicates significant differences of the means. 
 

 

class and month did not have an effect on the prevalence 

and mean egg counts of the GI nematode species. 

 

DISCUSSION 

 

The current study is the first to be carried out for GI 
nematodes infesting free-range indigenous pigs under 
smallholder management in communal areas of Zim-
babwe. Gastrointestinal nematodes were moderately pre-
valent in scavenging indigenous pigs in the Hama- Mav-
haire communal area of Chirumhanzu district. Apart from 
Ascaris species, none of the parasites identified in the 
current study have been previously reported to affect 
Mukota pigs in communal areas of Zimbabwe.  

Knowledge on the prevalence and significance of para-
sites in pigs in southern Africa is rather limited, but our 
findings are, with regard to GI nematodes, largely in 
agreement with reports from other parts of Africa (Ajayi et 
al., 1988; Salifu et al., 1990; Esrony et al., 1997; Permin 
et al., 1999; Nsoso et al., 2000) . In Nigeria, Ajayi et al. 
(1988) examined faecal samples from 1140 pigs and ob-
served that 97% excreted parasitic eggs. The range of 
species in their study is similar to our findings. Inter-
estingly, 90% of the pigs excreted A. suum compared to 
only 7% observed in the present study. Salifu et al. 

 
 

 

(1990) made faecal examinations of about 1000 pigs in 
Nigeria and observed the range of nematode species that 
is similar to the present study, but again with a higher 
prevalence for A. suum (60%). The high prevalence of A. 
suum in both Nigerian studies might be due to the differ-
rences in breed and production systems as reported by 
Roepstorff et al. (1998).  

In Tanzania, faecal samples from 424 local and cross-
bred pigs kept under different management systems, 
were examined (Esrony et al., 1997). The coprological 
examination revealed that only 53% of the pigs excreted 
helminth eggs in their faeces. The range of species in this 
study is similar to the current study’s findings; however, 
the prevalence of S. ransomi is lower (9%) compared to 
our findings (14%). This might be attributed to the fact 
that the Tanzanian study site included semi arid areas 
and as such these provide unfavourable environment for 
survival of Strongyloides larvae as these larvae are sus-
ceptible to desiccation (Melancon, 2003). 

Faecal samples from 259 local cross-bred pigs in Gha-
na were examined and 91% excreted parasitic eggs (Per-
min et al., 1999). Interestingly, S. ransomi, which was ob-

served in the present study, was not identified in the 
Ghanaian study. The 259 pigs sampled were all growers 
in the Ghanaian study and S. ransomi usually affects 

younger piglets. In a study by Nsoso et al. (2000), faeces 



 
 
 

 

1000 
 Ascaris spp 

 
900 

 Oes spp  
 800 

Strongyloides  

  
 

 700 Trichuris  

  
 

c
o

u
n

t 

600  
 

500  
 

  
 

E
g

g
 

400  
 

300 
 

 

  
 

 
200 

 
100 

 
0  

Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr
 May Jun Jul Aug  Sept

 Oct 

Month 
 

Figure 1. Mean monthly egg counts of GI nematodes in Mukota pigs. 
 

 

from 29 local and cross-bred pigs in Botswana were exa-
mined. Coprological examination revealed that 52% of 
the pigs excreted helminth eggs in their faeces. The eggs 
belonged to three different helminth species namely A. 
suum, Trichostrongylus species and Trichuris suis, with 
prevalences of 55, 24 and 8%, respectively. The preva-
lence of A. suum was markedly greater than that ob-
served in the present study but a possible explanation to 
this finding could not be established.  

The prevalence of internal parasites is thought to be 
generally higher in young animals than in adults (Visco et 
al., 1977; Bugg et al., 1999); however, this was not ob-
served in the present study. Piglets are considered to be 
the most susceptible group and therefore it would not be 
surprising to find the highest egg counts in this age 
group. Based on a study on production of indigenous pigs 
in the same area, Chikwanha (2006) suggested the oc-
currence of high mortality in piglets in the Hama-Mav-
haire communal area. Nematode infections may be one 
of the contributing factors in piglet mortality. The pig-lets 
are undernourished and when exposed to heavily conta-
minated pastures, they acquire high levels of infec-tion 
with severe consequences. Hence the few piglets sam-
pled could be the only survivors that resisted infec-tion 
and so shed few GI nematode eggs thus giving a lower 
prevalence. Among the adult animals only the boars had 
low mean egg counts that may be explained by age 
immunity (Urqhart et al., 1996).  

Clinical disease and death are not the common mani-

festations of internal parasitism and often develop only 
subsequent to malnutrition or stress (Vassilev, 1999). 
Though the impact of nematode infection was not deter-
mined, the moderate prevalence of GI nematodes and 

 
 

 

other helminth infections may be regarded as a real 
problem affecting productivity of the animals in the study 
site. Our results suggest that antihelmintic treatment of 
animals should be carried out even if the levels of infec-
tion are only low to moderate. Furthermore there should 
be extensive diagnostic and epidemiological studies on 
the internal parasites of pigs in this and surrounding com-
munal farming areas, so that sound control programmes 
can be formulated.  

Based on the present data, it is suggested that for the 
control of gastrointestinal nematodes, pigs in communal 
farming areas should be given an antihelmintic in April / 
May to destroy the worm burden acquired during the 
rainy season. This would also help the animals to with-
stand the nutritional stress of the dry season. A second 
treatment in the mid-rainy season may be advocated to 
reduce the build up of rangeland contamination during the 
rains. However any program should be applied at a 
locality level so that animals using the same rangeland 
are treated at the same time. It might be useful to treat 
the lactating sows to reduce the chances of conta-
minating piglets. It should be pointed out that any antihel-
mintic treatment regime would not be effective unless the 
nutrition of the animals is also improved (Vassilev, 1999). 
Knox and Smith (2000) outlined the progress on vacci-
nation against nematode parasite based on proteins iso-
lated from the microvillar surface of the parasite entero-
cyte. This could be a new avenue in the control of gastro-
intestinal nematodes in the study site.  

In conclusion, our results show that parasite prevalence 

in local indigenous pigs in the Hama-Mavhaire communal 

area is moderate. The clinical examinations revealed that 

the majority of the animals were in good condition, sugg- 



 
 
 

 

esting that the indigenous pigs have developed tole-rance 
to GI nematodes. Further examinations are needed to 
determine the pathological importance and impact of 
parasitic infestations on indigenous pigs in the communal 
area. Oesophagostomum species, S. ransomi, A. suum 
and Trichuris suis with prevalences of 54.6, 14, 7 and 
4.2% respectively, were the gastrointestinal nematode 
species observed to occur in indigenous Mukota pigs of 
Hama-Mavhaire communal area of Chirumhanzu district 
of Zimbabwe. 

 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 
 
The authors sincerely appreciate the help of Mr. R. Kade-
were, Professor G. Vassilev and the technical staff at the 
Parasitology Laboratory, Faculty of Veterinary Science, 
University of Zimbabwe in collecting and processing of 
faecal samples. The help of Mr. Cletos Mapiye during 
data analysis is also recognized. 

 
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