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Author(s) retain the copyright of this article. 

 

 

Full Length Research Paper 

Rwandan Smallholder Households' Challenges and the 
Profitability of Pig Farming: A Case Study of the 

Musanze District 

Rutikanga Alexis and Sylvestre Charles 

Kigali Independent University, Kigali, 2280, Rwanda 

  Accepted 7 April, 2025  

 

Insecurity is a risk associated with the growing human population, particularly with regard to animal-
based foods. Pigs contribute significantly to household income throughout all production levels. This 
study's primary goal was to examine Rwandan smallholder households' pig farming profitability and 
restrictions. A multistage sampling strategy was used to ensure the research's success. Five sections 
of the Musnze district were used for the study. Five sectors and the Musanze district were chosen using 
a purposive selection technique. However, a sample size of 120 pig farmers who responded was 
obtained using a random sampling technique. The profitability of pig farming was assessed by 
calculating the costs and returns involved in production, and the factors influencing pig farming among 
small householders were identified using STATA and a stochastic frontier production function. The 
results showed that the majority of respondents in the research area's pig farming production are men. 
According to the results of the regression analysis, pig farming in the study area was influenced by five 
factors: education level, market availability, off-farm generation, feed availability, and access to 
veterinary services. These factors were all positive and statistically significant at the P ≤ 0.01 level of 
probability. Additionally, the results showed that Net Farm Income (NFI), Gross Margin (GM), Total 
Revenue (TR), and Total Cost (TC) were all statistically significant at (p < 0.01). According to the 
research findings, pig farming is a lucrative enterprise in the region under investigation. Regression 
analysis results also showed that, at the P < 0.01 level of probability, the three factors—income 
generation, employment prospects, and new job creation—had positive and statistically significant 
effects on pig farming in the research area. According to the study's findings, the most frequent 
obstacles to pig farming in smallholder households were inadequate initial capital, high feed costs, 
poor feed quality and sacristy, a lack of conservation facilities, pest and disease outbreaks, high piglet 
costs, a lack of farming knowledge, and substandard housing. notwithstanding the limitations 
mentioned by several study participants. In the research region, pig farming is a lucrative industry that 
can raise income, improve employment prospects, create new jobs, and obviously raise farmers' 
standard of living. The study's conclusions have led to recommendations for training and equipping pig 
farmers and veterinarians with new technology and innovations, as well as for promoting interventions 
that can help farmers or marketing organizations acquire initial start-up funding to help launch their 
farming operations. In order to support and enhance the underlying company progress or stunting, as 
well as to make wise decisions, encourage the examination of profitability, opportunities, and limits 
along the pig value chain. 

 
Key words: Pig Farming, Profitability, Smallholder, Households. 

 

 
INTRODUCTION 

 

There will likely be a huge demand for food of animal 
origin due to factors like population expansion, 
urbanization, income development, and dietary changes 
(FAO, 2006; Thorton, 2010). If practical means of 

generating food are not taken advantage of, the growing 
human population poses a threat to food insecurity, 
particularly with regard to food originating from animals. As 
the primary source of essential animal protein, the livestock 
subsector of the agricultural sector plays a crucial role in the 

 
 

 

 

African Journal of Pig Farming ISSN: 2375-0731 Vol. 13 (1), pp. 001-009, April, 2025. Available online at 

www.internationalscholarsjournals.org © International Scholars Journals 

 
 

http://www.internationalscholarsjournals.org/


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national economy. The significance of the livestock 
subsector aligns with the FAO's (2003) guideline that a 
man should consume 65–72 grams of protein per day on 
average, with 53% (about 35 grams) of that amount 
coming from animal sources. The livestock industry 
directly supports the livelihoods of more than 600 million 
impoverished smallholder farmers in the developing 
world, employs over 1.3 billion people worldwide, and 
accounts for 40% of global agricultural output (FAO, 
2011; Thorton et al., 2006). Worldwide, pig production is 
widely dispersed. With 56% of the world's total pork 
production, Asia is the world's top producer, outpacing 
North America (17%) and Europe (25%). 48% of the 
world's pork production comes from China alone 
(FAOSTAT, 2011). Pigs' capacity to turn many types of 
feed, including household scraps, into meat is one of their 
main advantages (Rahman et al., 2009). Pigs are by far 
the most efficient farm animal when it comes to 
converting feed energy into body energy when 
considering overall feed conversion. Another significant 
benefit of pigs is their high productivity rate, which ranges 
from 9.3 to 9.96 live piglets per sow. Okoli (2006) and 
CTA (1995).  

According to estimates, Sub-Saharan Africa's yearly pork 
consumption is expected to rise by up to 155% between 
2000 and 2030, while nations classified as low-income 
will see an even greater increase of 167% (FAO 2011). 
However, unless the correct products are produced in the 
right location at the right price, profitable pig production 
will not be possible. In order to establish the most efficient 
method of producing pigs, it is crucial for the prospective 
pig farmer to comprehend the economic, physical, social, 
ethnic, and religious variables at play. Pigs are still 
primarily kept for their meat production all throughout the 
world (FAO, 2018). The producer and his family may use 
the pork, or it may be sold to generate revenue. 
Additionally, processed meats like bacon sausage are 
being manufactured and are becoming more and more 
well-known. Particularly in Asian nations, by-products like 
pigskin and bristles are utilized in the production of light 
leather and brushes (FAO, 2018). Establishing intensive 
pig production in impoverished nations is quite simple if 
funding is available and sufficient feed supplies are 
guaranteed (Ogunniyi and Omoteso, 2011). Pigs offer a 
consistent and immediate source of income to help rural 
households with daily necessities including school fees, 
medical bills, and farm inputs. In addition to being a great 
fertilizer, pig dung may be aerobically digested to provide 
cooking gas and promote the growth of plants and 
microorganisms that can be fed to freshwater ducks and 
fish (Okoli, 2006).  

A vital and fundamental component of Rwanda's 
agricultural economy, livestock production contributes to 
the creation of jobs, income for farmers, economic 
growth, vocation for farmers, and other multipurpose uses 
in addition to the direct production of food (FAO, 2012; 
MINAGRI, 2019). The primary species raised in Rwanda 
include cattle (991,697 heads), goats (1,270,973 heads), 
sheep (371,766 heads), pigs (211,918 heads), poultry 
(2,482,124 heads), and rabbits (489,401 heads). The 
animal husbandry subsector accounted for around 8.8% 
of the GDP (MINECOFIN, 2007). In terms of animal 

output, livestock production does not meet the nation's 
feeding needs (MINAGRI, 2008).  

The primary reason limiting animal output today is the 
nutritional quality of feedstuffs, particularly forages, which is 
one of the many limitations facing animal husbandry. If the 
animal is not fed well, it will not show off its genetic potential 
or remain healthy (MINAGRI, 2008). One significant 
subsector of the livestock business is pig farming. However, 
in Rwanda today, pigs alone account for up to 21% of all 
meats produced and consumed. The production of pigs is 
special because it provides the fastest returns on investment 
and the highest turnover rate among animal operations 
(FAO, 2011).  

Livestock output in Rwanda is currently increasing at an 
unparalleled rate. The production of livestock is increasing, 
and this trend is predicted to continue. This is especially 
because of the several policy initiatives that support food 
security. With 46% of the total meat production, cattle made 
a substantial contribution, compared to 21% for pigs 
(MINAGRI, 2019). Over time, there has been an increase in 
the production of animal products. This can be ascribed to 
many initiatives that assist the growth of the livestock 
industry, including the livestock intensification program and 
small stock development (MINAGRI, 2019).  

Priority is given to livestock infrastructure development, 
animal health, animal feeding, and genetic enhancement 
through these projects run by MINAGRI, Districts, and other 
stakeholders. In an effort to improve diet, the government 
started a few projects. A human diet must include animal 
protein, particularly for young children. The most effective 
way to generate protein on a limited amount of land—a 
precious resource in Rwanda—is with small cattle 
(MINAGRI, 2019). Through investments, favorable policies 
for medium- to large-scale industrial operations, and 
subsidies to reduce poverty in low-income households and 
manage food security in vulnerable families, the government 
encourages increasing pig production and consumption 
(MINAGRI, 2019).  

Regarding livestock, 68% of Rwandan homes own some 
kind of animal. Musanze District, where 69% of all 
households own livestock, has seen a modest decline. This 
demonstrated that the number of families keeping cattle in 
Musanze District is higher than the national average. There 
were 91,000 households in this district that raised livestock, 
mostly pigs. Still, just a small percentage of Musanze's 
population—roughly 3% of the nation as a whole—raise 
animals. Because of the lack of livestock and the growth of 
its market, Musanze is still dependent on agricultural output 
(EICV 3, NISR, 2011).  

Despite certain challenges, Rwandan pig production has 
expanded significantly over the past 10 years and is 
comparatively well-developed (FAO, 2012). The high cost of 
feeds, restricted credit availability, diseases, poor marketing 
prospects, a lack of basic knowledge about pig management 
techniques, poor extension services, and a shortage of 
qualified veterinarians on pig diseases and preventive health 
are some of these issues (FAO 2011; MINAGRI, 2019).  

Pigs contribute significantly to household income throughout 
all production levels. The selling of piglets and live adult pigs 
is how pig producers make money. In addition, pigs provide 



3  

food security, nutrition, manure, and waste disposal. 
Many farmers believe that raising pigs is the livestock 
counterpart of cash crops and has the ability to enhance 
rural incomes because of the animal's short breeding 
cycle. The proceeds from the selling of pigs are used to 
pay for hospital expenses, school fees, clothing, food, 
and improved household systems (FAO, 2012; Dietze, 
2011).  

Pigs are permitted to forage on pasture and be 
supplemented with available farm waste by many pig 
farmers in underdeveloped nations and the tropics 
(Rangoma, 2013). The majority of homes in the study 
region have some sort of kitchen waste that pigs can 
utilize, but it is insufficient and of poor quality to partially 
feed three mature pigs per family, whereas in 
sophisticated systems, pigs are completely contained and 
fed a balanced diet. The dietary needs of the various 
classes of pigs must be understood and satisfied in order 
to provide a balanced diet. Therefore, buying pre-made 
meals from reputable commercial sources is wise for pig 
breeders (Rangoma, 2013).  

Significant obstacles prevent smallholder pig producers 
from taking advantage of improved marketing options and 
the growing demand for pork. Lack of genetic and 
breeding strategies; poor slaughter technologies and 
limited value addition; low production and productivity 
levels; low farm-gate prices and distressed pig sales; lack 
of organized producer groups and organizational 
strategies to achieve economies of scale; low bargaining 
power; poor husbandry and farm management practices; 
poor quality feeds and pig nutrition practices; limited 
access to inputs, extension services, agricultural 
insurance, credit, and other financial services; and a lack 
of fair and effective market linkages for smallholder 
farmers are some of these challenges (Tatwangire, 
2013).  

The most crucial factor in pig production is feed cost. 75–
80% of the overall cost of raising pigs is spent on feed 
(Smith, 2006; FAO, 2012). Pig meals consist of 55-70% 
grains (Smith, 2006). However, a significant constraint in 
many developing nations is the lack of grain to feed both 
people and animals (Petrus et al., 2011). High feed prices 
and shortages are issues for small-scale pig producers in 
developing nations (Peters, 2004). In most research, the 
amount of feed and the frequency of feeding are not 
clear. Age, the pigs' physiological condition, and feed 
availability all have a major impact on how much feed is 
given (Hossain et al., 2011; Kagira, 2010).  

Pig farmers in Rwanda often struggle with issues such 
adequate housing, pig feed supply, price, and 
accessibility. Farmers must feed their pigs balanced 
commercial or homemade feeds in order to increase the 
pigs' weight and production and generate respectable 
income. This is rarely the case because the majority of 
pig farmers give their animals low-nutrient feedstuffs, 
such as agricultural waste. The majority of pig deaths 
happen when the piglets are young (FAO, 2012).  

Because pre-weaning mortality in piglets is frequently 
caused by exposure to adverse weather conditions, 
including cold, rain, and predators, housing is crucial. By 

offering suitable and safe housing, young pig mortality can 
be prevented (Madzimure et al., 2013). A farmer may 
effectively raise 85% of all live-born piglets to market weight 
in the lowest amount of time with the aid of good housing, 
which also simplifies management (Gikonyo, 2010). Worm 
infestation is a major public health issue in rural areas due 
to inadequate husbandry measures and a shortage of meat 
inspectors (Veary and Monato, 2008). African Swine Fever 
(ASF), porcine cysticercosis, mange, pediculosis, and 
infestations of worms, ticks, and jiggers are among the 
major diseases that affect pigs (FAO, 2012). According to 
other research, pig productivity is significantly hampered by 
pests and diseases (Muhanguzi et al., 2012).  

The absence of structured breeding programs to support 
genetic improvement is another obstacle to increased pig 
production in poor nations like Rwanda and others (Kahi et 
al., 2008). The absence of adequate, trustworthy records 
and sound pedigree structure has been a barrier to genetic 
improvement initiatives. The majority of pigs in the nation 
are extremely inbred, and this problem needs to be 
addressed immediately (Kahi et al., 2008). Although 
Rwanda's existing system has been found to be ineffectual 
and unable to satisfy the demands of local farmers, 
agriculture extension is a potent instrument with a wealth of 
potential to empower and promote rural livelihoods (Rola et 
al., 2002) (FAO, 2012).  

In any industrial system, but especially in pig production, the 
development of a stable market is crucial (Michael Levy, 
2014).  

In rural regions, pig farming is underdeveloped and fails to 
meet community requirements, such as improved earnings 
and food and nutritional security. These are caused by a 
number of limitations, including a lack of initial investment 
capital, the tiny amount of land set aside for livestock 
keeping, a lack of knowledge, and the fact that pig breeding 
and consumption are forbidden by the Muslim faith (FAO, 
2018). Currently, more and more people are interested in 
eating pig, despite the difficulties mentioned above. Farmers 
now have more markets for their products since the cost of 
other meats is rising relative to pig and because there are 
more outlets, including small-scale processors and local 
butchers (FAO, 2018).  

The majority of the clients in this area have strong demands 
for pig meat. Even yet, the pig industry is important because 
of the nutritional content of pig meat, the contribution of pig 
production, and the range of agricultural operations. The 
profitability and limitations of pig farming in the study area 
have not been evaluated by any research. However, the 
purpose of this study was to examine the profitability and 
limitations of pig farming in Rwandan smallholder 
households, using the Musanze district as a case study. 
Identifying the factors that influence pig farming in 
smallholder households in the study area, analyzing the 
profitability of pig farming in smallholder households in the 
study area, calculating the contribution of pig farming to 
smallholder households in the study area, and determining 
the constraints of pig farming in smallholder households in 
the study area are each of the specific objectives. 

 

 



4  

MATERIALS AND METHODS 

Description of Study Area 

 

The investigation was carried out in the Musanze region 
of Rwanda's five-pronged northern province. The 
Musanze district is 1849 meters above sea level and is 
situated at latitude 1.50 and longitude 29.63. The majority 
of the Volcanoes National Park is located in this area, 
which is the most mountainous in Rwanda. The majority 
of Rwanda's mountain gorillas can be found in this 
district, which makes it the most visited tourist destination 
in the nation. The district, which has an average elevation 
of 1860 meters, is divided into two zones and, as a result, 
has two different types of soils: volcanic ash soils with 
lava-predominant stones and a volcanic area with 
moderate slopes (www.musanze.gov.rw.).  

Steep hills with active erosion make up the last portion. 
The high-altitude tropical climate of Musanze District 
features an average temperature of 20ºC and rainfall that 
ranges from 1400 to 1800 mm. The District's economy 
depends heavily on agriculture. Agriculture employs at 
least 91% of the population. Musanze is regarded as a 
national granary. The district has a total size of 5,304 
km². Musanze is separated into 432 settlements, 68 cells, 
and 15 sectors. There were 368,563 people living there in 
total in 2012, with a gross density of 695 people per km2. 
With 174,760 males and 193,803 females, it has an 
average annual growth rate of 1.8% (NISR, 2012).  

 

Sampling Technique and Sample Size 

 

The pig farmers in the Musanze district were the study's 
population of interest. To find and examine the social and 
economic factors affecting smallholder households' pig 
farming, profitability, and social and economic impact on 
smallholder households, as well as the limitations in the 
study region, the study used a cross-sectional research 
design. A multistage sampling strategy was used to 
ensure the research's success. A purposive sample of the 
Musanze district and its five sectors—Rwaza, Nkotsi, 
Muko, Kimonyi, and Remera—was conducted in the first 
stage. In the second step, twenty-four (24) pig farmers 
were randomly selected from each of the selected 
sectors, for a total of 120 pig farmers. The District 
Veterinary Officer gave the list of pig farmers that were 
available in the district agriculture office. These sectors 
were selected because, in comparison to the other ten 
sectors in Musanze, there are a greater number of pig 
farmers in them. Structured questionnaires were used to 
gather primary data from the chosen pig farms. 
Descriptive statistics, cost-benefit analysis, and the 
stochastic frontier production function were used to 
analyze the data collected from those farms. 

 

Data analysis techniques 

 

The socioeconomic characteristics of the pig farmers, 

including gender, age, educational attainment, farming 
experience, occupation, marital status, and family size, were 
described in this study using descriptive statistics like 
frequencies and percentages. Version 20 of the Statistical 
Package for Social Science (SPSS) was used to analyze 
this. However, the factors impacting pig farming among 
small homeowners were identified using STATA's stochastic 
frontier production function, and the profitability of pig 
farming was then estimated using cost-benefit analysis and 
farm net revenue for pig production. If the BCR is greater 
than 1, pig production is lucrative. The profitability of the pig 
producing industry increases with the BCR. 

  

Model Specification 

 

To ascertain the viability of pig production, an analysis of the 
costs and returns related to pig farming was conducted. 
Using budgetary methodologies, the cost and returns of pig 
production in the study area were calculated using net farm 
revenue and gross margin. The farm budgetary analysis 
assists in calculating the overall expenses and income 
incurred by the business within a given production period. 

 

Where: 

GM = Gross Margin TR = Total Revenue 

TVC = Total Variable Cost TFC = Total Fixed Cost NR= Net 
Returns 

TC= Total Cost 

NFI= Net Farm Income ROI= Returns On Investment 
GR=Gross Ratio 

OER=Operating Expense Ratio DER=Depreciation Expense 
Ratio NFIR=Net Farm Income Ratio BCR=Benefit Cost 
Ratio 

 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

 

Socioeconomic Features of Pig Farmers surveyed 

According to the results in Table 1, the majority of 
respondents (59.2%) in the pig farming production industry 
are men, whereas the majority of pig farmers in the research 
region are women (41.8%). This suggests that men 
produced pigs at a higher rate than women. The study was 
backed by Umeh et al. (2015), who found that men make up 
the majority of pig farmers in the study area and that sex 
may boost technical efficiency because male producers are 
typically the head of the household and are active in 
obtaining and managing production inputs. On the other 
hand, Osondu et al. (2014) found that although males are 
more involved in pig production, females also helped with 
minor farm tasks including cleaning the pighouse and giving 
feed and water.  

According to the results in Table 1, the majority of pig 
farmers in the research region are between the ages of 36 
and 45 (37.5%), followed by respondents who are between 
the ages of 18 and 35 (34.2%), and those who are over 45 



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(25.7%). 2.5% of the respondents were under the age of 
18, making them the lowest class. This indicates a 
decline in youth involvement in pig farming. This ought to 
be the result of the issue of insufficient startup funds for 
the pig industry. However, because they have beginning 
capital, the adults in the research region are more 
involved in pig farming production.  

According to Table 1's findings, the majority of pig 
farmers in the study region are primary school graduates 
(46.7%), with secondary school graduates (24.2%) 
coming in second. The percentages for non-formal 
education and tertiary education are 10.8% and 18.3%, 
respectively. This suggests that pig farmers possess a 
degree of education that greatly aids in the adoption of 
new innovations and technology for improving the 
quantity and quality of pig products.  

According to the results in Table 1, the majority of pig 
farmers in the research area—69.1%—are married, with 
19.2% being single. However, 9.2% of the pig farmers in 
the study area are widows. The results of this study 
demonstrated that 2.5% of all respondents were divorced 
individuals who were involved in pig farming. The low 
participation of widows and divorced individuals may be 
the result of their inability to start this business with a pig 
or piglet because they always have different problems to 
handle on their own, whereas those families have both 
husband and wife to assist one another, as the saying 
goes.  

According to the results in Table 2, the majority of pig 
farmers are between the ages of 1 and 5 (43.3%), 
followed by those between the ages of 6 and 10 (37.5%). 
The last class with the lowest percentage in the research 
region for pig farming productivity is families with more 
than 11 members (19.2%). This is because family 
members provided the labor force. This implies that the 
labor force involved in the various tasks necessary for pig 
farming production increases with the number of family 
members.  

According to their farming experience, the majority of pig 
farmers in the research region (51.7%) had between two 
and six years of experience, followed by those with seven 
to eleven years (28.3%). 6.7 percent of the population in 
the research region has 12–16 years of farming 
experience. Nonetheless, the final group, which includes 
those over 17, accounts for 3.3%. This is because, in 
contrast to other livestock farming, particularly that of 
cattle, goats, and sheep, which are regarded as 
traditional activities, respondents said that pig farming 
was the new enterprise in the research area.  

 

 The Elements Affecting Smallholder Household Pig 
Farming Production 

 

A multivariate regression analysis was employed to 
identify the variables impacting smallholder families' pig 
farming output. Age, gender, educational attainment, pig 
farming land size, farming experience, market 
accessibility, revenue generation, feed availability, feed 
cost, availability of credit facilities, availability of 

veterinary care, and information availability were the 
socioeconomic factors. Five of the twelve variables—
education level, market availability, off-farm generation, feed 
availability, and access to veterinary services—were 
statistically significant at the P ≤0.01 level of probability, 
according to the results of the regression analysis in (Table). 
Additionally, the results demonstrated that an R-squared of 
0.76 indicates that 76% of independent factors account for 
the impact of these variables on the productivity of pig farms 
in the research area.  

 

The availability of feed, revenue generation, market 
accessibility, education level, and veterinarian services all 
exhibited positive coefficients. For example, this suggests 
that a 0.6% increase in pig farming production will result 
from a one-year increase in the respondent's educational 
attainment. Additionally, it suggests that pig farming 
production will rise by 0.9% and 0.3%, respectively, for 
every unit increase in market and feed supply. This may be 
the case because education enables farmers to make wise 
and practical managerial and economic decisions by 
improving their understanding of the innovations brought to 
them in the production of pigs. The quality of farmers' skills, 
their capacity for allocation, and their level of knowledge 
about the advances and technology in their environment 
should all be influenced by their educational attainment. This 
is due to the fact that individuals with greater educational 
attainment typically adopt innovations in various fields more 
quickly.  

Additionally, pig farming production was positively correlated 
with farming experience. This suggests that a one-year 
increase in the respondents' pig farming experience in the 
research area will lead to a 0.4% rise in high pig farming 
productivity. This ought to be the case since farmers with 
greater expertise are probably going to run the farm more 
effectively and make better decisions. The study by 
Oluwatayo IB et al. (2008) validated the findings, which 
showed that farmers with more experience would be more 
productive, have a better understanding of the market and 
climate, and so be expected to run a more successful and 
efficient business. Additionally, it confirms the findings of 
Onyebinama UA (2004), who found that farmers with prior 
farm business management expertise are better able to 
detect production risks, allocate, combine, and use 
resources efficiently, and set realistic time and cost targets.  

Indicating that the increasing off-farm revenue from other 
domains influenced pig farming productivity in the research 
area, the results showed that off-farm income was positive 
and significantly influenced pig farming production at the P≤ 
0.01 level of probability. This suggests that for every 1% 
increase in respondents' off-farm income, pig farming output 
should rise by 1.1%.  

At the P < 0.05 level of probability, the results showed that 
gender had a positive and substantial impact on pig farming 
production, indicating that the research area's greater 
gender balance in pig farming had an impact on pig farming 
output. This suggests that a 0.3% increase in pig farming 
production will result from a unit increase in the number of 
women engaged in pig farming. Osondu et al. (2014) 
provided support for the study by demonstrating that men 



6  

are more involved in pig production and that females also 
helped with light farm tasks like cleaning the piggery and 
serving feed and water. As the majority of pig farmers in 
the study area are male producers who are often the 
head of the household and actively involved in obtaining 
and managing production inputs, Umea et al. (2015) also 
noted that men are primarily involved in pig production 
and proposed that sex may increase technical efficiency. 
According to the study's findings, the price of feed and 
the availability of credit facilities had a detrimental impact 
on the output of pig farms in the research region. For 
instance, this suggests that a 0.8% drop in the number of 
farmers and direct pig farming output will result from a 
unit rise in the price of pig feed. The reason for this is that 
as feed prices increased, more farmers left the domain 
since the prices were too high and there was little pig 
production in the area. 

 

Pig farming's profitability in smallholder households 

 

Using the cost-benefit method, the financial gains from 
pig farming in smallholder households were examined 
and contrasted. Cost and profitability are two indicators of 
the economic health of pig producers. Additionally, the 
results showed that net farm income, gross margin, total 
cost, and farm revenue were all statistically significant at 
p < 0.01. 

Comparatively, the results in Table 3 showed the 
economic returns and investment costs for a single 
female pig in a smallholder household unit region. 
According to calculations, the gross margin was 436167.5 
and the net farm revenue per female pig was 
172167.5Rwf. This suggests that less educated and more 
seasoned farmers produced more pigs than newcomers 
to the field. This ought to be the result of a variety of 
school-based skills and knowledge as well as the 
expertise and instruction given by veterinary 
professionals and technicians who visited the current 
farmers in the study area. Furthermore, the high cost of 
feeds brought on by COVID-19 and the closure of 
international boards, especially those between Rwanda 
and Uganda, should be primarily blamed for the low 
economic return in the research area. Additionally, the 
results showed that net farm income, gross margin, total 
farm revenue, and total cost were all statistically 
significant at (p < 0.01).  

According to the study's findings, the operating expense 
ratio—a gauge of the proportion of farm income devoted 
to variable operating expenses—was 60.3%. The net 
farm income ratio, however, was 15.7%. Likewise, the 
benefit-cost ratio (BCR) was 1.2, indicating that 1.2 francs 
of revenue are generated for every franc invested in the 
research area. Pig farming is a lucrative enterprise in the 
study region, as evidenced by the benefit-cost ratio 
(BCR) of 1.20, which is greater than one. In general, 
regular, appropriate feeding and immunization, which 
help to maximize the weight and health of pigs, could be 
credited with the high economic return connected with pig 
farming production. In the study region, proper feeding—
especially that which is rich in various nutrients—also 

encourages the pig to be fully and well-developed, which 
leads to a higher production or number of piglets per mature 
female pig.  

Furthermore, the investment yielded 0.2% profits, while the 
depreciation expense ratio was 24%. Furthermore, the 
economic investigation and analysis showed that, in spite of 
certain negative effects, such as the high cost of 
depreciation, the issue of high feed costs in pig farming 
production as a business was prevalent in the study area 
because of the global Covid-19 pandemic and the absence 
of international trade between nations. However, as farmers 
in the study area have indicated, in order to maximize net 
farm income and improve and increase efficiency in terms of 
technique and pig farming production, farmers should be 
encouraged to breed modern pigs and sell the piglet for 
approximately seven months, rather than selling piglets of 
two months.  

In order to maximize profit, the government should also 
establish long-lasting policies that make it easier for farmers 
to obtain agricultural loans. Along with reducing pig and 
piglet mortality through improved knowledge and skills 
related to the factors of pig farming production, particularly 
the proper feeding, vaccination, and housing that in turn 
increase income from pig farming, it should also be better to 
expand extension and veterinary services.  

 

The profitability ratio technique used in the analysis shows 
that pig farming is a viable enterprise in the study area, 
despite the high prices of the feeds used. Farming is a very 
alluring and lucrative business for pigs. A farmer must 
receive training and expand their knowledge of farming in 
order to properly raise pigs. This is due to the fact that in 
order to efficiently raise pigs, farmers must provide them 
with ideal housing. They ought to provide wholesome food 
and appropriate medical care. It is impossible to make a lot 
of money without raising pigs correctly. 

 

Pig farming's impact on smallholder households in the 
research area 

 

Pig farming has had a positive impact on smallholder 
households in Burera and Musanze districts on seven out of 
ten factors, according to the results of Tobit regression 
analysis in Table 4. These factors include income 
generation, animal manure, employment opportunities, 
protein supply, access to agricultural credit, information 
access, and infrastructures. At the P < 0.01 level of 
probability, the results in Table 4 demonstrated that the 
three factors—income generation, employment prospects, 
and new job creation—had favorable and statistically 
significant effects on pig farming in the research area. Pig 
farming in the research area was positively and significantly 
impacted by the four factors—animal manure, nutrition 
supply, access to agricultural loan, and information 
availability—at the P < 0.05 level of probability. 
Infrastructure, for example, has a positive coefficient but is 
not significant when it comes to pig farming in the research 
area. On the other hand, pig farming in the research area 
was negatively impacted by two variables: poverty reduction 



7  

and food security control.  

 

Numerous participants in the research region said that 
pig farming had a favorable impact on their standard of 
living. They claimed that the production of pigs, especially 
meat and oil, led to the creation of new jobs, particularly 
in the restaurant industry. According to their statement, 
they favored dining above other pursuits because of the 
daily rise in demand, particularly in urban regions where 
there are more tourists and visitors than in rural ones. For 
instance, a 1% increase in pig farming should result in a 
0.5% increase in the study area's income output. This is 
due to the fact that the more demand there is for pig 
production (meat), the more supply there is at a 
competitive price, which in turn promotes pig farming in 
the research region. Growing pig output also encourages 
the government and business sector to construct 
additional facilities, such as feeder roads, markets, 
electricity, and state-of-the-art slaughterhouses. Many 
new jobs were made available to both educated and 
uneducated individuals in rural regions as a result of the 
construction of these new infrastructures, particularly for 
the workforce and Labor Day. Additionally, it suggests 
that a 1% increase in pig farming should result in a 0.8% 
increase in employment opportunities, which will impact 
human livelihood. This is because there will be a need for 
graduate veterinarians to adhere to the standards of 
manufactured meat on a daily basis as the number of 
clients requesting meat rises, creating job opportunities. 
According to communities, the lack of interest in pig 
raising and consumption in the past, particularly among 
females, was mostly caused by the incompatibility with 
the culture of the largely uneducated and insecure 
population.  

These days, rural Rwandans, especially those living close 
to Musanze town, are content with the employment 
prospects in pig farming and selling pig meat in 
restaurants, despite the increased interest of men. Some 
respondents, particularly young women from various 
parts of the nation, stated that they frequently take great 
pride in their pay. Regression analysis results generally 
imply that pig farming is a lucrative enterprise in the 
studied area. Generally speaking, the high economic 
return linked to pig farming output may be ascribed to 
consistent, appropriate feeding that is bolstered by high 
and quality production of various crops grown nearby that 
support feeds from the market. 

 

Limitations of Smallholder Household Pig Farming 

 

Pig farming is one of the most lucrative industries globally 
for a number of reasons, chief among them being the 
creation of revenue. The majority of Rwandan farmers, 
both large and smallholder, do not now keep pigs for 
profit. A healthy flock of pigs or piglets depends on a 
number of elements, the two most crucial of which are 
management and environment. Pigs that are in good 
health consume less food, rest for longer periods of time, 
and yield a desirable amount of meat in terms of both 
quality and quantity. When they have adequate shelter 

and a good feeder to feed and meet other needs, they are 
easier to care for and medical expenses are lower. 
Furthermore, Tatwangire (2013) pointed out that smallholder 
pig farmers have numerous obstacles that prevent them 
from taking advantage of improved selling prospects and the 
growing demand for pork. Poor feeds and pig nutrition 
practices, a lack of genetic and breeding methods, 
inadequate slaughter technology, insufficient value addition, 
and restricted access to inputs, extension services, 
agricultural insurance, loans, and other financial services 
are some of these difficulties. The study's results, however, 
showed that the most frequent barriers to pig farming in 
smallholder households were the high cost of feed, 
insufficient initial capital (100%), feed sacristy and quality 
(9.5%), lack of conservation facilities (89.9%), outbreaks of 
pests and diseases (75.6%), high piglet costs (70.1%), lack 
of farming knowledge (65.7%), and substandard housing 
(50.4%).  

All respondents (100%) stated that the primary barriers to 
pig farming output in the research area were the high cost of 
feeds and insufficient beginning capital. In addition to 
lowering the quantity and quality of pig farmers, the high 
cost of feeds also lowers the number of farmers in the area. 
In the study area, it was also discovered that one of the 
things impeding pig farming production was the prevalence 
of pests and disease outbreaks (75.6%). This is because, 
when pigs and piglets are kept together in unsuitable pig 
homes, the disease can spread quickly among them. 
Additionally, they share bowls for food and water, which can 
spread diseases and sickness from sick to healthy hens. 
Ascaris, salmonellosis, colibacillosis, and pest pigs are the 
primary illnesses mentioned by research participants.  

According to the farmers, illness affects their livelihoods in a 
variety of ways, both locally and inside individual 
households. They claimed that because the piglets that 
would have been sold to survive or fed to guests or family 
are no longer available, priority needs shift within 
households. Therefore, farmers have less capital accessible 
to them, particularly when they are dying and not producing. 
Therefore, poverty affects rural households due to all of the 
aforementioned restraints, especially sickness.  

One of the main issues in the restrictions was the use of 
insufficient pig feed. It occasionally occurs when there is a 
shortage of human food. Pigs currently have less access to 
food, which immediately lowers output. Pig farming is 
generally less profitable due to the expensive expense of 
proper feeds and medications, particularly when there are 
insufficient veterinary and extension services.  

 

CONCLUSION 

 

This study's primary goal was to examine Rwandan 
smallholder households' pig farming profitability and 
restrictions. Musanze district as a case study. The results 
showed that the majority of respondents in the research 
area's pig farming production are men. According to the 
results of the regression analysis, pig farming in the 
research area was influenced by five factors that were 
statistically significant at the P ≤0.01 level of probability: 
education level, market availability, off-farm generation, feed 



8  

availability, and access to veterinary services. 
Additionally, the results showed that net farm income, 
gross margin, total cost, and farm revenue were all 
statistically significant at p < 0.01. According to the 
research findings, pig farming is a viable enterprise in the 
study area since the benefit-cost ratio (BCR) was (1.2) 
higher than a unit, indicating that one franc of investment 
in the study area produced 1.2 francs of revenue. 

It is impossible to make much money if pigs are not 
raised properly. A farmer must receive training and 
expand their knowledge of farming in order to properly 
raise pigs. This is due to the fact that in order to efficiently 
raise pigs, farmers must provide them with ideal housing. 
They ought to provide wholesome food and appropriate 
medical care. Pig farming has had a favorable impact on 
seven out of ten criteria for smallholder households in the 
research region, according to the results of Tobit 
regression analysis. However, at the P < 0.01 level of 
probability, the three factors—income generation, 
employment prospects, and new job creation—had a 
positive and statistically significant impact on pig farming 
in the research area. 

Even though pig farming has many obstacles, the study's 
findings showed that the most prevalent ones for 
smallholder households were the high cost of feeds, 
insufficient initial capital, feed sacristy and quality, lack of 
conservation facilities, pest and disease outbreaks, high 
piglet costs, lack of farming knowledge, and substandard 
housing. notwithstanding the limitations mentioned by 
several study participants. Several analysis techniques 
show that pig farming is a financially successful 
enterprise. In general, it contributes to the creation of new 
jobs, increases employment prospects, produces 
revenue, and unmistakably raises the level of living for 
farmers in the research region. The study's conclusions 
led to the following recommendations being made: 

Encourage and educate farmer groups, particularly 
women, on the fundamentals of long-term accountability 
and participative group governance through fair elections. 
The unification of pig producers and marketing groups in 
the nation, as well as the development of powerful 
farmers' organizations, should result from this. 
Coordination, promotion, and regulation of the pig 
industry's growth are aided by the union of pig producers 
and marketing organizations. 

Encourage initiatives that can assist in giving farmers or 
marketing organizations the early startup funds they need 
to get their farming business off the ground. Additionally, 
savings groups can be established to help generate funds 
for borrowing during peak markets and stressful times. 

Encourage more direct involvement from the private 
sector and other suitable boundary partners who have a 
comparative advantage in the development of 
smallholder families' pig value chain operations in 
Rwanda, particularly in the study area, in order to 
promote sustainable pig value chains. This might 
necessitate redefining goals and coming up with fresh 
ideas for increasing farmers' access to financing, training 
opportunities, credit services, and markets for pig 
products—especially meat and manure. 

Pig farming output in the research area was profitable, as 
can be shown, however the most obstacles to this industry 
were discovered to be the growing shortage and high cost of 
feeds. RAB and government organizations should, however, 
focus on ways to stabilize feed prices for smallholder 
households. Since this region is the nation's granary, 
particularly for potatoes, pig farmers in the study area 
should effectively and economically learn how to formulate 
and expand their feeds by using local crop feedstuffs in 
order to minimize cost feeds. 

 

CONFLICT OF INTEREST 

 

The author here declares that there is no conflict of interest 
in the publication of this article. 

 

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	INTRODUCTION

