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African Journal of Pig Farming ISSN: 2375-0731 Vol. 10 (2), pp. 001-009, February, 2022. Available online at 
www.internationalscholarsjournals.org © International Scholars Journals 

 

Author(s) retain the copyright of this article. 
 
 
 
Full Length Research Paper 

  

Appraisal of management and biosecurity practices on 
pig farms in Makurdi, Benue State, North Central 

Nigeria 

 
Leo Daniel Ojabo* and Moses Ukwu Enya 

 
Department of Animal Health and Production, College of Veterinary Medicine, Federal University of Agriculture, 

Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria. *Corresponding author. E-mail: leojabo@yahoo.com. 
 

Accepted 14 August, 2021  
 

The role of biosecurity at farm level is to reduce the risk of introduction of diseases in pig farms and 
prevent the disease transmission between animals on farms. It is an important management practice 
that impacts the profitability of pig production ventures. A survey was conducted to assess the 
biosecurity practices in 50 farms in Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria, using a structured questionnaire and 
assessments through direct observations. Descriptive statistics such as frequencies, percentages and 
tables were used to analyse and present data generated. The results revealed that majority of the farms 
were semi-intensive (54%), small scale producers keeping between 1 and 50 pigs formed 96% of 
surveyed farms and essentially raising indigenous and crossbreed (72%). Only 12% of the farms were 
fenced and had gates closed to control unwanted visitors and stray animals. Most of the farms (76%) 
had no footbaths indicating that the risk of disease introduction was high in such farms. The use of 
protective clothings and foot wears by employees was only observed on 24% of the farms. Isolation of 
sick animal was practiced by 38% of respondents while 24% of respondents quarantined new animals 
to the farm. The use of disinfectants to clean the barns was practiced on 18% of the farms. Overall, 
there was a low level of farm biosecurity in the study area. Extension services to create awareness on 
the importance of biosecurity would help limit infections and boost pig production and profitability. 

 
Key words: Biosecurity, diseases, Nigeria, pig farmers, production system.  

 
 
INTRODUCTION 

 
Pig production is one of the fastest growing livestock 
sectors in the world (FAO, 2012a). According to Oguniyi 
and Omotosho (2011), pig production plays a vital role in 
small scale farming far beyond pork production and 
income generation. The animal is an asset of wealth or 
safety net in time of crisis when viewed from the 
economic perspective and serve as a source of protein  

 
 
 
 

 
nutritionally (FAO, 2012b). Pig production has been 
advocated as a short-term measure towards alleviating 
the animal protein and calorie deficit, especially where 
there are no religious edicts preventing their production 
and consumption (Eusebio, 1984).  

Apart from the shorter production time, pigs have been 
noted for their high conversion rate of feed to flesh  
   

  



2 

 

 
 
 

 

amongst red meat animals (FAO, 2012b). Pork 
represents high value animal proteins. Swine production 
contributes significantly to the livelihood of many 
Nigerians either directly or indirectly (Ajala and Osuhor, 
2004; FAO, 2006).  

Benue State is one of the largest pig producing States 
in Nigeria (more than 20% of the total country production) 
and the pig enterprise contributes significantly to the 
economy of the State with most of the pigs owned by 
small holders operating semi-intensive pig production 
system (Umeh et al., 2015; Asambe et al., 2019).  

Nigeria is one of the African countries with significant 
pig population density (Robinson et al., 2014). In the 
1990s, the pig population was 3.5 million consisting of 
native black hairy pigs and exotic breeds (Bourn et al., 
1994). The latest population estimate was reported by the 
Federal Department of Livestock (FDL) (2010) to have 
increased to 7.1 million, indicating that the population had 
doubled in about two decades. The pigs are reared in 
neighborhoods of villages and in semi-urban areas as 
small-scale enterprises having 12 - 50 pigs, but a few 
large-scale farms exist (Ajala et al., 2006; Saka et al., 
2010; Abiola et al., 2015). Semi-intensive and extensive 
pig production systems occur in the Northern, North 
Central and Niger Delta regions of Nigeria (Bourn et al., 
1994). Intensive pig production exists mostly in Southern 
Nigeria (Ajala et al., 2006; Saka et al., 2010; Nwanta et 
al., 2011) and consists of farms having each 50 – 200 
pigs in concrete pens. Commercial piggeries rear about 
3% of the national pig population with usually more than 
five breeding sows.  

Sustainable growth of the pig production industry in 
Nigeria is adversely affected by factors such as 
unstructured pig marketing framework, fluctuation in the 
prices of pigs and pig products, cultural and religious 
prohibition of pork consumption, low demand for pork in 
parts of the country, high feed cost, inadequate extension 
services, slow integration of cost-effective equipment and 
genetically enhanced breeds and disease outbreaks 
(Ajala and Adeshinwa, 2008; Ironkwe and Amefule, 2008; 
Fasina et al., 2010; Anukwu and Ebong, 2011; Abiola et 
al., 2015; Igbokwe and Maduka, 2018).  

Disease outbreaks represent the major constraints to 
profitable pig production and consumption in Nigeria. 
Important pig diseases reported in the country include 
African swine fever, foot-and-mouth disease, brucellosis,  
tryponosomosis, babesiosis, eperythrozoonosis, 
helminthosis, cocciodiosis and other parasitosis (Igbokwe 
and Maduka, 2018). These diseases impact on the 
production system by negatively affecting feed 
conversion efficacy, reproduction and growth rates as 
well as causing piglet and adult mortalities. The economic 
losses due to the disease burden and inadequate 
intervention strategies are current issues facing the pig 
production industry (Igbokwe and Maduka, 2018).  

Thus, one of the important measures to increase pig 
productivity should focus on disease control. As such, 
implementation of biosecurity measures in pig production 

 
 

  
 
 

 

is of paramount importance to farm profitability (Kouam et 
al., 2019). Several pig diseases (intestinal and 
miscellaneous diseases) have been successfully 
controlled through the implementation of biosecurity 
practices in some EU countries (Wallgren, 2009).  

The implementation of biosecurity measures is 
regarded as a powerful tool in the control of diseases on 
the farm; its main advantage is the potential to keep 
pathogens off the farm and to prevent pathogens from 
spreading to other farms. In the World, Organisation of 
Animal Health (OIE) Terrestrial Animal Health Code, 
biosecurity is defined as a set of management and 
physical measures designed to reduce the risk of 
introduction, establishment and spread of animal 
diseases, infections or infestations to, from and with an 
animal population (Bellini, 2018). Biosecurity measures 
are divided into three components: isolation, traffic control 
and sanitation (Cardona and Kuney, 2001; 
FAO/OIE/World Bank, 2010). Isolation can be regarded 
as measures related to physical barriers (fence, showers 
or footbaths) and distance between farms in order to limit 
contacts between infected animals and contaminated 
objects with disease-free farms (FAO, 2008). Traffic 
control can be considered as the restriction of feedstuff, 
human, equipment and animal movement onto the farm 
(FAO, 2008). Sanitation refers to the cleaning and 
disinfection of animal housing, people, material and 
equipment (Cardona and Kuney, 2001).  

Successful implementation of biosecurity requires the 
adoption of a set of attitudes and behaviours by people to 
reduce interactions in all activities involving domestic, 
captive/exotic and wild animals (pigs) and their products 
(FAO/OIE/World Bank, 2010). Nyaga (2007) reported that 
biosecurity principles include simple procedures and 
practices which when applied prevent the entry of 
disease agents in a farm or exit of disease agent from  
infected premises. Biosecurity entails a 
controlled/regulated movement of stock, persons, 
equipment and products into a clean farm and out of 
infected premises. It involves methods that enable the 
farm to remain in a state of sustained cleanliness referred 
to as sanitation. It has however been observed that many 
biosecurity measures are either partially observed or not 
observed at all, owing to several factors such as cost, 
inadequate veterinary extension and attitudinal 
dispositions (Brennan and Christley, 2012).  

The aim of this study was therefore to describe the pig 
production management system as well as associated 
biosecurity practices in pig farms at Makurdi urban and 
peri-urban areas in Benue State, North central Nigeria. 
 

 
MATERIALS AND METHODS 
 
Study area 
 
The study was carried out on pig farms located in Makurdi urban 
and peri-urban areas. Makurdi is the capital city of Benue State, 
Nigeria. Nigeria is a sub-Saharan African country and is located in 



3 

 

          
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
Figure 1. Map of Nigeria showing the location of Benue State. 

 

 
the western part of the continent. It is the most populous country in 
Africa and the most populated black nation on earth (Akpotor and 
Agbekabu, 2010). Benue State is one of the 36 States in Nigeria. It 
is located in North Central Nigeria (Figure 1) and has a tropical 
climate with two distinct seasons: rainy and dry seasons. Makurdi is 
a lowland area in the Guinea savannah vegetational zone of Nigeria 

and is located on longitude 08°31
’
 and latitude 07°14

’
 (Abu, 2002). 

The rainy season starts in May and ends in October, while the dry 
season starts in November and ends in April. The annual rainfall 
ranges from 1270 to 1397 mm and the average annual temperature 
ranges from 22.43 to 33.41°C (Abu, 2002). During the dry season 
between the months of February and March, temperatures may 
reach 35 to 40°c in Makurdi town. The relative humidity ranges 
between 47 to 85% (TAC, 2002).  

According to the 2006 census, Benue State is estimated to have 
a population of about 4,253,641 inhabitants and a land size of about 

33,955 km
2
 (Akaakohol and Aye, 2014). The average population 

density is 99 persons per km
2
, which makes Benue State the 9

th
 

most populous State in Nigeria. Population distribution between 
male and females in Benue State is almost equal (with 50.4% male 
and 49.6% female) (Nigeria Data Portal, 2006). Makurdi, the State 

capital has a population density of over 380 person per km
2
. 

Agriculture is the backbone of Benue State’s economy, and the 
State is the primary source of food in Nigeria acclaiming the slogan 
‘the Food Basket of the Nation.’ Benue State is endowed with fertile 
arable land and abundant raw materials and 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 

human resources with about 80% of the population directly involved 
in agriculture (Akaakohol and Aye, 2014). Important cash crops 
include soybeans, rice, peanuts, mango varieties, citrus, etc. Other 
cash crops include palm oil, melon, African pear, chili, cassava, 
sweet potato, beans, maize, millet, guinea corn, vegetables etc. 
There is very little irrigation agriculture and techniques. Livestock 
species include pigs, small ruminants, cattle and poultry (Wikipedia, 
2020). 

 

Study design and data collection 
 
Fifty pig farms were randomly selected for the study based on the 
presence of pigs in their farms during the period of the study. Fifty 
structured questionnaires and biosecurity assessment forms were 
used to obtain information from the farmers, while visits to the farm 
facilities for direct observation were also undertaken for data 
collection according to the methods described by Augustine et al. 
(2010). Each farm was visited twice to first distribute the data 
collection instruments and make observations, and secondly 
retrieve the completed instruments. 

 

Data analysis 
 
Data  obtained from the  study  were analysed and summarised in 



4 

 

 
 
 

 
tables using simple descriptive statistics. This involved the use of 
statistical tools to generate frequency distribution and percentages 
(SAS, 2003). 

 

RESULTS 
 
Demographic characteristics 
 
Data in Table 1 shows that majority of the farmers were 
males (72%) and 28% females. The literacy level of the 
respondents was very high and most of the respondents 
were married. Most (96%) of the respondents were aged 
between 21 years to 50 years.  

Most of the farms were semi-intensive (54%), followed 
by 34% extensive farms (Table 2). A minority of 12% 
farms were intensive. The most frequently used 
crossbreeds (40%) and 66% of the farmers used farm-
mixed feeds and kitchen wastes to feed their pigs. Most 
of the farmers were relatively new to the industry with 
less than 5 years of farming experience. This study also 
revealed that the respondents are small-scale farmers 
and as such generally had small flock size. It was also 
observed that 54% of the farmers kept other livestock 
species in their farms. The farmers purchased 64% of 
their replacement stock for breeding locally from other 
farmers within their locality (within and around Makurdi 
urban and sub-urban areas). The source of labour was 
divided into 2 categories (family and hired labour) but 
family was by far the greatest source of labour (62%). 

 

Biosecurity practices on farms 

Traffic Control and isolation 

Only 12% of farms were fenced and none had warning 
signs at their farm entrance forbidding access to 
piggeries for visitors (Table 3). Furthermore, functional 
footbaths were available in only 24% of farms, 16% of 
farms had feedstuff protected from rodents and 22% of 
the farms had a pest control programme in place. Majority 
of the farms (66%) were properly ventilated. This study 
further revealed that 54% of the farmers also kept other 
domestic animals in their farms. Only 24% of farmers 
kept newly arrived animals in quarantined. 

 

Hygienic and sanitation 
 
Use of protective clothings and boots was done by only 
24% of the farmers (Table 4). Cleaning of facilities on a 
daily basis and the use of disinfectants were practiced by 
only 18% of farmers. When animals fell sick, 38.0% of the 
farms practiced isolation of sick animals. 

 

DISCUSSION 

 

The demographic characteristics of the pig farmers in this 
study showed that majority of the farmers were males 

 
 

  
 
 

 

suggesting that men who are relatively stronger are 
mostly involved in pig production in the study area. 
Females in this study area were usually involved as 
helpers or suppliers of labour in light farm operations 
such as serving of feed, water or cleaning the piggery. 
Umeh et al. (2015) and Uddin and Osasogie (2016) in 
previous studies also reported higher presence of male 
farmers. Literacy level of the respondents was high as 
92% of the farmers had attended high schools or higher 
learning institutions. According to Moreki et al. (2014), 
educational level could influence farmers’ adoption of 
modern technologies needed for the improvement of 
productivity. The good educational background of these 
farmers could be beneficial in the areas of farm record 
keeping, reading of drug/vaccine prescription, adoption of 
innovations and other management functions to ensure 
productivity (Uddin and Osasogie, 2016).  

Table 1 also revealed that most of the respondents 
were married and aged between 21 years to 50 years 
indicating that majority of the farmers were adults. Okoro 
(2012) and Egbule (2010) revealed in separate studies 
that majority of farmers in Nigeria are married. This result 
shows that married people dominate pig production in the 
study area. Married farmers could have more persons in 
the household to cater for and helping hands in taking 
care of pigs in their farms.  

Animal husbandry was not the main occupation of pig 
farmers within the study area. Other occupations also 
included Civil/Public servants, Business/Trader, Crop 
farmers and retirees. This picture gives the impression 
that pig farming alone does not allow the farmers to make 
a living within the study area. The reason for this may be 
related to the recurrent epidemics of ASF that has been 
decimating the herds in different localities of the country.  

The general pig husbandry characteristics in the study 
area as shown in Table 2 revealed that most of the farms 
were semi-intensive (54.0%). A minority of 12.0% farms 
were intensive. Family was by far the greatest source of 
labour. This finding is similar to that of Kouam et al. 
(2019) in Western Cameroon. This study further reveal 
that the farmers are small scale farmers and as such 
generally have small flock size and hence family labour 
may be adequate. The low herd size may also be partly 
due to the common disease challenges faced by the pig 
industry in Benue State, especially the regular outbreaks 
of contagious diseases, such as ASF (Asambe et al., 
2017). In fact, the high mortality rate of these diseases 
(close to 100% for ASF) in affected farms causes farm 
owners either to remain only with the few survivors, to 
restock the farms with few animals or to take less risk in 
investing for a larger farm (Kouam and Moussala, 2018). 
The results of this study show that the average farming 
experience of pig farmers was less than 5 years. This is 
in contrast to a previous study by Umeh et al. (2015), who 
reported the average farming experience of pig farmers in 
Benue State as 11.08 years. It should be noted however, 
that the study of Umeh et al. (2015) covered all the three 
agricultural zones of Benue State 



5 

 

 
 
 

 
Table 1. Demographic characteristics of the respondents in the study area.  

 
 Category Frequency % 

 Gender   

 Male 36 72.00 

 Female 14 28.00 

 Educational status   
 Non formal education - - 

 Primary school completed 4 8.00 

 Secondary school completed 9 18.00 

 Tertiary education 37 74.00 

 Occupation   
 Farmer 11 22.00 

 Trader 7 14.00 

 Business 10 20.00 

 Retiree 8 16.00 

 Civil/public service 14 28.00 

 Age   

 11 - 20 years (under 20 years) 2 4.00 

 21-30 10 20.00 

 31-40 21 42.00 

 41-50 16 32.00 

 >50 1 2.00 

 Marital status   
 Married 29 58.00 

 Single 17 34.00 

 Widower 3 6.50 

 Widow 1 2.00 
 
 

 
Table 2. General characteristics of pig husbandry.  

 
Category Frequency % 

Breed   

Indigenous 16 32.00 

Exotic 14 28.00 

Crossbreeds 20 40.00 

Age (years)   
0 - 1 16 32.00 

1 - 2 13 26.00 

2 - 3 14 28.00 

3 - 4 7 14.00 

> 5 - - 

Purpose of production   
Meat 2 4.00 

Income 19 38.00 

Both 29 58.00 



6 

 

  
 
 

 
Table 2. Cont’d  

 
Number of pigs (flock size)   

1-10 10 20.00 

10-20 14 28.00 

20-30 6 12.00 

30-40 8 16.00 

40-50 8 16.00 

>  50 4 8.00 

Management system   
Extensive 17 34.00 

Intensive 6 12.00 

Semi-intensive 27 54.00 

Source of pig   
Pig market 18 36.00 

Other breeders 32 64.00 

Years of experience   
less than 3 30 60.00 

3 - 5 years 19 38.00 

> 5 1 2.00 

Feed source   
Commercial 4 8.00 

Farm-mix 17 34.00 

Commercial/farm mix 13 26.00 

Kitchen  (home remains) 16 32.00 

Other livestock species kept   
Sheep 5 10.00 

Goat 7 14.00 

Cattle 1 2.00 

Rabbit 2 4.00 

Poultry 11 22.00 

None 23 46.00 

Fish 1 2.00 

Source of labour   
Hired 19 38.00 

Family 31 62.00 

Others - - 
 
 

 

while this present study covered only Makurdi, the capital 
of the State. According to Umeh et al. (2015), farming 
experience may increase technical efficiency as 
experience has positive influence on managerial ability as 
it tends to improve ability of the farmers to obtain and 
process information about technology which in turn 
increases efficiency. Combining farm-mixing of feeds and 
kitchen wastes may be more economical than using 
commercial feeds alone. However, kitchen wastes are 

 
 

 

not properly heated before feeding it to animals, the risk 
of transmitting diseases such as African Swine Fever 
(ASF) among other diseases is high (Asambe et al., 
2017). Purchasing replacement stock for breeding within 
the same locality predisposes to inbreeding and 
subsequently low production, reproduction and poor 
health (Kirima et al., 2017).  

Concerning biosecurity practices, perimeter fence was 
present in only 12% of the farms and all the farm visited 



7 

 

    

   Table 3. Biosecurity practices associated with traffic control and isolation.  
      

   Practices Frequency % 

   Biosecurity information sign at entrance - - 

   No information sign at entrance 100 100 

   Perimeter fence and gate 6 12 

   No perimeter fence and gate 44 88 

   Use of footbath 12 24 

   No footbath 38 76 

   Maintain pest control programme 11 22 

   Do not maintain pest control programme 39 78 

   Farms with rodent proof feed store 8 16 

   Farms without rodent proof feed store 42 84 

   Farms with good ventilation 33 66 

   Farms without good ventilation 17 34 

   Other species are present on the farm   

   Yes 27 54 

   No 23 46 

   New animals are quarantined 12 24 

   New animals are not quarantined 38 76 
 
 

 
Table 4. Biosecurity practices associated with sanitation  

 
 Practices Frequency % 

 Protective clothing for employees 8 16 

 No protective clothing for employees 42 84 

 Protective foot wears (boots) for employees and visitors 8 16 

 No protective foot wears (boots) for employees and visitors 42 84 

 Disinfectants are used for cleaning 9 18 

 Disinfectants are not used for cleaning 41 82 

 Drinking water is treated with chemical (chlorine) - - 

 Drinking water is not treated with chemical (chlorine) - 100 

 Isolation of sick pigs 19 38 

 No isolation for sick pigs 31 65 
 
 

 

did not have a sign board or any physical notice 
preventing access on farms for visitors. These results 
agree with the findings of Kouam et al. (2019) in Western 
Cameroon. Physical barriers are meant to protect the 
herd from stray animals or human intruder entering the 
farm. The risk of disease introduction in those farms 
without gates was therefore high. Cobb Avian 48 (2006) 
stated that each farm must have a perimeter fence to 
prevent unwanted entry of people, vehicles and animals. 
Other animal species were found in 54.0% of farms, 
which is a serious biosecurity threat since cross 
transmission of pathogens between different species has 
been demonstrated (Wall et al., 1995, Kouam et al., 
2019). Footbaths were available in only 24% of the farms, 
which can be explained by the small number of farms 
under intensive system in this study. Footbaths are 
essential for disinfection of foot wears and should be 

 
 

 

renewed on a daily basis. Poor or absence of disease 
control strategies such as footbaths and inadequate 
management like replenishing footbaths after disinfection 
dries up are some of the factors that can increase 
disease outbreak. Majority of the farms had poor pest 
control programme. Rodents have been reported to be 
mechanical vectors for pathogenic microorganisms 
(Annette and Claes, 2012). There was a poor 
implementation of quarantine of new animals which might 
be explained by the fact that majority of the farmers are 
not experienced and have not been trained in pig farming 
and biosecurity practices. Majority of the farms were 
properly ventilated (66.0%). The provision of good 
ventilation is an attempt to reduce the effect of heat 
stress as a result of hot and humid climate in the study  
area. 

This  study also showed that most of the farmers do not 



8 

 

 
 
 

 

possess dedicated clothings and boots for use on the 
farm. The practice of owning dedicated clothing and 
boots was observed only in the intensive farms which are 
less represented in this study. Farmers non-compliance 
with the practice of use of herd specific overall and boots 
is very risky as humans can act as mechanical vectors of 
diseases to pigs. The practice of cleaning and disinfection 
of farms was only practiced by 18.0% of farmers. This 
practice if properly implemented will help to break the 
cycle of diseases on the farm. The low implementation of 
use of disinfectant and daily cleaning indicate that most of 
the farmers do not understand the need to keep farms 
properly clean and disease free. The practice of isolating 
sick animals by farmers in this study was low (38.0%). 
Disease can develop within a farm at any time, so 
farmers should practice separation of sick animals to 
protect the healthy animals. 
 

 

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

 

This study has shown that the production system in the 
study area was dominated by the semi-intensive system 
of pig production. 
 
The most important biosecurity measures of concern and 
to improve are: 
 
(i) Fencing of pig farms. 
(ii) Training of pig farmers  
(iii) Farmers compliance with the practice of use of herd 
specific overalls and boots.  
(iv) Implementation of the use of disinfectants and daily 
cleaning.  
(v) Keeping newly arrived animals in quarantine and the 
practice of isolation of sick animals.  
(vi) Not feeding kitchen wastes to pigs without adequate 
heating. 
 
It is also recommended that extension services should be 
aimed at creating awareness on the importance of 
biosecurity in pig farms in order to keep out infections. 
Improved biosecurity would lead to increase in 
productivity and profitability. 

 

CONFLICT OF INTERESTS 
 
The authors have not declared any conflict of interests. 
 
 
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