




































African Journal of Pig Farming Vol. 1 (3), pp. 028-034, November, 2013. Available online at 
www.internationalscholarsjournals.org © International Scholars Journals 
 
 
 
 

 

Full Length Research Paper 
 

Farmer perceptions of classical swine fever outbreak in 
communal pig production systems of South Africa 

 

James Madzimure
1
*, Kerstin K. Zander

2
, Kennedy Dzama

3
 and Michael Chimonyo

1
 

 
1
Discipline of Animal and Poultry Science, University of KwaZulu-Natal, P. Bag X01, Scottsville 3209, Pietermaritzburg, 

South Africa.  
2
Research Institute for Environment and Livelihoods, Charles Darwin University, Darwin NT 0909, Australia. 

3
Department of Animal Science, University of Stellenbosch, P. Bag X1, Matieland 7602, South Africa. 

 
Accepted 25 September, 2013 

 
After the outbreak of classical swine fever (CSF) in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa, policy 
makers are expected to make decisions on the restocking of pigs. The objective of this study was to 
investigate farmers’ perceptions of CSF outbreak in coastal and inland communal production systems 
because of their differences in harbouring pathogens. Data were collected from 288 farmers in two CSF 
affected areas (one on the coast, one inland) and one unaffected coastal area. The majority of farmers in 
affected inland (73%) and coastal (89%) areas kept local pigs and non-descript crosses with imported 
pigs on backyard production system. Significantly, more pigs were culled in the affected coastal area 
than inland area. In both areas, the culling of pigs affected pork availability and income generation. 
Household heads that were residing on the farms that are educated, mature and located inland were 
less likely to experience disease challenges. To facilitate restocking and conservation of local pig 
genetic resources, farmers requested the government and stakeholders to assist with loans, breeding 
stock, proper housing structures and improved extension services. Farmers in both coastal and inland 
areas perceived CSF as destructive to pigs, thereby jeopardising their source of livelihoods. 

 
Key words: Pig genetic resources, conservation, disease outbreaks, pig culling, restocking. 

 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
Utilisation of local pig genotypes in communal areas has 
the potential to increase food security, reduce poverty 
and improve livelihoods of the resource-poor farmers 
(Halimani et al., 2010; Madzimure et al., 2012). Despite 
their importance, local pigs are threatened by sporadic 
disease outbreaks such as classical swine fever (CSF) 
(World Organisation for Animal Health, 2005). The 
outbreak of CSF in South Africa led to the culling of more 
than 335 000 pigs (more than two thirds of the pig 
population in the Eastern Cape Province) and a loss of 
about 95% in production (South African Press 
Association (SAPA), 2005). The loss of pig biodiversity 
affects the ability of future breeding programmes to 
respond to changing climate and consumer needs 
 
 

 
*Corresponding author. E-mail: madzimurej@gmail.com. 

 
 
 

 
(Halimani et al., 2010). Culling also left few breeding 
males and females, thereby increasing the chances of 
related animals to mate each other. An obvious 
consequence is inbreeding. It is, therefore, important to 
understand the origins and impact of diseases in 
communal production systems, and tap on the 
indigenous knowledge on how to minimise their 
devastating effects. Any intervention to reduce the impact 
of diseases assists in the conservation of pig genetic 
resources.  

The government of South Africa should consider initiating 

a national restocking programme in the affected areas. 

There is risk of disease outbreak if farmers are left to 

restock using some of the pigs that were hid during the 

culling exercise. Future outbreaks of contagious diseases 

such as CSF (Ruggli et al., 1996; Liu et al., 2009; 

Podgórska and Stadejek, 2010) should be avoided since it 

has a huge financial implication on the national economy 



Madzimure et al.         028 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 

Elundini 
 
 

Ntabankulu 
 
 
 
 
 

 
Ngqushwa 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Figure 1. Map showing study sites in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. 
 
 

 
economy as the government struggles to control the 
disease (Edwards et al., 2000; Leifer et al., 2005; 
Rowlands et al., 2008). For example, the South African 
government paid more than R200 million to compensate 
the more than 83 000 affected farmers (National African 
Farmers Union (NAFU), 2007). The disease slowed down 
the development of the pig industry, reduced trade at the 
national and international levels and resulted in job losses 
(SAPA, 2005). The country lost potential revenue since it 
was banned from exporting pork up until it reached a 
CSF-free status.  

The outbreak of CSF first occurred in the Western 
Cape Province before being detected in the Eastern 
Cape Province in 2005 (Penrith et al., 2011) where it was 
concentrated mainly around the informal free-roaming pig 
farming areas (NAFU, 2007). The disease spread over 
large distances when human intervention such as illegal 
swill feeding facilitated its movement (Edwards et al., 
2000). Most of the pigs that were culled were from areas 
located along the coast, perhaps because of the pattern 
of spread of the disease which emanated from a coastal 
town of Centane (Department of Agriculture, 2006). The 
sampling of households for our study was, therefore, 
designed to represent the coastal and inland areas of the 
Eastern Cape. Coastal areas are known to harbour many 
diseases because of the hot humid conditions when 
compared to inland areas (Rowlands et al., 2008; Jutla et 
al., 2010; Ortiz-Pelaez et al., 2010).  

Restocking of commercial pigs is generally easy to 
implement, as imported pigs are widely available from 
renowned pig breeders. Sourcing of local pigs after culling 
is, however, extremely difficult because there are no 

 
 

 
breeders. Local pig genotypes are ideal for the resource-
poor communal farmers because they require low 
maintenance costs due to their foraging ability. Designing 
restocking programmes for pigs without establishing the 
perceptions of the communal farmers is likely to cause 
passive resistance and prohibit co-operation by the 
communities. The objectives of this study were to 
investigate farmers’ perceptions of CSF outbreak in 
coastal and inland communal areas and to reveal 
differences in the way farmers were affected by and dealt 
with the outbreak across areas and production systems. 
 

 
MATERIALS AND METHODS 
 
Study sites 
 
The study was conducted in communal production systems of 
Elundini (inland), Ntabankulu (coastal) and Ngqushwa (coastal) 
municipalities in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa (Figure 
1). The sites were chosen after the CSF outbreak and policy 
makers needed data to restock pigs in the Eastern Cape Province. 
The sites were selected with participation of State Veterinary 
Services, University of Fort Hare, councillors, farmer represent-
tatives and government officials. In the whole of the Eastern Cape 
Province, Ntabankulu was the only municipality where pigs were 
not culled because the pigs tested negative against CSF. In 
addition, farmers in Ngqushwa Municipality are generally less poor 
and market-oriented when compared to the subsistence-oriented 
farmers in Elundini and Ntabankulu Municipalities. Elundini 
Municipality is situated 28° 25′ E; 30° 26′ S with an elevation of 
about 1600 m above sea level. The mean annual rainfall ranges 
from 800 to 1200 mm. The area has average minimum day 
temperature of 13°C and maximum temperature of 22°C. 
Ngqushwa Municipality is situated at 27° 7′ E and 33° 12′ S. The 



029          Afr. J. Pig Farming 
 
 

 
temperature ranges from -2 to 42°C with an average of about 18°C. 
The area receives an annual rainfall of about 450 to 900 mm with 
most of it occurring in summer. The area has deep loamy soils with 
vegetation greatly covered by the Acacia karroo.  

Ntabankulu Municipality is situated at 29° 16′ E and 31
º
 04′ S with 

an elevation of about 476 m above sea level. Ntabankulu receives 
mean annual rainfall of 620 mm with most rainfall occurring during 
mid-summer. The average daily temperature ranges from 17.8°C in 
June to 25°C in January. In all municipalities, pigs formed integral 
components of mixed crop-livestock farming systems by providing 
manure or cash for the purchase of inputs for crop production. Local 
pigs can also utilise resources that have few alternative uses, such 
as agricultural by-products. Crops commonly grown by farmers in 
these areas include maize, beans, potatoes and pumpkins. 
 

 
Data collection 
 
Data were collected from three municipalities using individual 
structured questionnaires, in-depth interviews with key informants 
and direct observations of pigs and production practices. Primary 
information about pig production was obtained from key informants. 
Extension officers, veterinary specialists, local leadership (political 
and customary) and the elderly (over 70 years of age) provided the 
secondary data. Secondary information was obtained from the 
Department of Agriculture. The study was conducted from August to 
December 2009. Communities with many pig owning households 
were identified with the assistance of the National Department of 
Agriculture. The households with pigs were identified with the 
assistance of the local leadership and the snowballing technique 
was used to select participants who were willing to participate in the 
project. The key informants were interviewed to establish the pig 
production trends, factors affecting production levels and traits of 
economic importance, as a first step in designing a structured 
questionnaire. The questionnaires were administered in the 
vernacular Xhosa language. Farmers’ wealth status was 
categorized during interviews with key informants and was based 
on number of livestock species. Any household owning more than 
five heads of cattle or more than 20 heads of small stock (sheep, 
goats and pigs) was considered as less poor while the other 
category of less privileged people was considered as poor.  

The number of households owning pigs that were interviewed in 
Elundini, Ngqushwa and Ntabankulu was 122, 102 and 64, 
respectively. Data were collected using structured questionnaires 
and included demographic data, pig rearing systems, number of 
culled per household, perceptions of farmers on the severity of CSF 
and how the government should have controlled it. Additional data 
included compensation price for different classes of pigs and 
whether farmers received it, farmers’ perceptions on whether the 
compensatory price was satisfactory and suggested compensation 
price. Changes of pig prices with CSF outbreaks, government’s 
effort in restocking and whether farmers were sending of dead pigs 
for post-mortem were also captured. Direct observations were 
made to verify pig genotypes. The perceptions of the people on the 
need to conserve the local pig genetic resources were captured 
using a structured questionnaire. 
 
 
Statistical analyses 
 
The Generalised Linear Models procedure of SAS (2006) was used 
to analyse the effects of farmers’ socio-economic profiles, area of 
location (coastal and inland) and pig rearing systems (backyard and 
scavenging) on the number of pigs culled. Pair-wise comparisons of 
the least square means for culled pigs were performed using the 
PDIFF option. Information regarding demographic data, pig rearing 
system, pig breeds owned, farmer’s perceptions on the incidences, 

 

 
 

 
impact and control of CSF was analysed using PROC FREQ of 
SAS (2006).  

An ordinal logistic regression (PROC LOGISTIC) was used to 
estimate the probability of household experiencing CSF (SAS, 
2006). The logit model fitted predictors such as area of location, pig 
rearing system, household size, pig housing, and head of 
household’s demographic factors such as age, education level, 
employment status, marital status and place of residence (stays 
mainly at home or works and stays away from home). The logit 
model used was: 
 
In [P/1−P] = β0 + β1X1 + β2X2 + β3X3… + βtXt + ε 
 
where: P = the probability of a household experiencing CSF; 
[P/1−P] = odds ratio, which referred to the odds of household 
experiencing CSF; β0 = intercept; β1X1...βtXt = regression 
coefficients of predictors; ε = random residual error  

When computed for each predictor (β1... βt), the odds ratio was 
interpreted as the proportion of households experiencing CSF 
versus those that did not experience it. 
 
 
RESULTS 
 
Farmers’ socio-economic profile 
 
The socio-economic profiles of respondents in the 
Elundini, Ngqushwa and Ntabankulu Municipalities are 
shown in Table 1. The proportion of households headed 
by females in the three locations was equal. Mean 
household size across all municipalities was 5.2 ± 4.63 
(mean ± standard error) members. Most of the 
interviewees in Elundini, Ngqushwa and Ntabankulu 
municipalities were unemployed and survived on 
subsistence farming or social grants. There were more 
respondents with basic education (grade 1 to 7) than 
secondary or tertiary education in the three 
municipalities. The majority of the interviewees in 
Elundini, Ngqushwa and Ntabankulu municipalities were 
Christians, while the remainder were African tradition 
worshippers. Most of the heads of households were 
resident on the farms in the three municipalities. In all 
three municipalities, most women over 60 years old were 
actively involved in pig rearing while men, boys and girls 
helped in the absence of women. Across all the munici-
palities, pigs were mostly owned by women. The majority 
of farmers were using backyard production system where 
the pigs were free roaming in the yard and the remainder 
were using the free range or scavenging production 
system (Table 1). About 86% of the farmers reported that 
the major field crop they grew was maize, largely for 
household consumption and as supplementary feed for 
livestock. The other minor crops grown for consumption, 
in order of importance, were beans, vegetables, potatoes 
and pumpkins. 
 
 
Farmers’ perceptions on classical swine fever 
outbreak 
 
The impact of CSF and the perceptions of  farmers  about 



Madzimure et al.         030 
 
 
 

Table 1. Socio-economic characteristics of respondents (percentage) in different locations. 
 

 
Socio-economic characteristic 

Elundini (Inland) Ngqushwa (Coastal) Ntabankulu (Coastal) 
 

 
n = 122 n = 102 n = 64  

  
 

 Male headed households 52 47 55 
 

 Married respondents 67 63 73 
 

 Women owning pigs 81 60 69 
 

 Unemployed respondents 79 77 80 
 

 Respondents with basic education (grade 1-7) 50 55 47 
 

 Respondents that were Christians 88 84 70 
 

 Heads of households living on the farm 70 85 65 
 

 Female pig keepers over 60 years of age 51 37 37 
 

 Youths reported as interested in pig rearing 66 89 79 
 

 Respondents using backyard production system 73 89 36 
 

 Respondents keeping indigenous pigs 89 82 97 
 

 

 
Table 2. Farmers’ perceptions (percentage) about classical swine fever disease outbreak. 

 
 

Pig production and disease attributes 
Elundini (Inland) Ngqushwa (Coastal) Ntabankulu (Coastal) 

 

 
n = 122 n = 102 n = 64  

  
 

 Respondents with culled pigs due to CSF 97 93 0 
 

 Respondents who hid some pigs from culling 17 22 0 
 

 Respondents who never saw controllers of CSF 2 3 16 
 

 Respondents who send pigs for post-mortem 1 6 3 
 

 Respondents who thought CSF is dangerous for pigs 60 88 67 
 

 Respondents who thought CSF reduces pig production 10 13 12 
 

 Respondents who thought CSF decreases pig price 28 86 55 
 

 Respondents who had no idea about CSF impact 29 0 21 
 

 Respondents who believed in vaccination against CSF 71 50 66 
 

 Respondents who believed housing controls CSF 7 22 11 
 

 Respondents advocating for educating people about CSF 2 28 10 
 

 Respondents who supported culling of pigs 14 0 10 
 

 Respondents who supported compensation with pigs 50 0 38 
 

 Respondents who received monetary compensation 25 71 0 
 

 Respondents satisfied with compensation price 100 83 63 
 

 Respondents supported a pig restocking programme 68 80 66 
 

 Respondents who wanted loans for pig projects 0 36 20 
 

 Respondents who demanded better extension services 56 64 56 
 

 

 
the disease are shown in Table 2. The majority of farmers 
in Elundini and Nqushwa Municipalities had their pigs 
culled due to CSF. There were differences (P < 0.05) in 
the number of culled pigs in Elundini (4 ± 1.00), 
Ngqushwa (8 ± 1.76) and Ntabankulu (2 ± 1.00). 
Generally, most farmers in the current study regarded 
CSF as a dangerous disease for pigs, which reduce 
production and profit (Table 2). More farmers in the CSF 
affected areas hid their pigs whenever they saw 
government officials. Most farmers in all the municipalities 
suggested the need for vaccination in order to control the 
disease (Table 2). Few farmers supported the culling of 
pigs as a control measure in all municipalities 

 

 
(Table 2). There were more farmers in Ngqushwa 
Municipality than the other two municipalities who 
believed that housing pigs and educating people about 
CSF would help in controlling the disease. All the 
respondents confirmed that they were aware of the 
government’s compensation price of R2000 per breeding 
sow. There were few respondents in Elundini Municipality 
who wanted the government to compensate them with 
uninfected pigs instead of money (Table 2). Farmers in 
Ntabankulu Municipality supported the notion that the 
government should restock any area that would have 
been affected by CSF though they were not directly 
affected. Ngqushwa Municipality had the highest number 

   



031          Afr. J. Pig Farming 
 

 
 
Table 3. Odds ratio estimates, lower and upper confidence interval (CI) of a household experiencing classical swine fever. 
 
 Disease and parasites challenge Odds ratio Lower CI Upper CI 
 Area of location (inland vs. coastal) 2.482 1.415 4.354 
 Pig rearing system (free range vs. backyard) 0.766 0.408 1.437 
 Age of head of household (young vs. old) 1.907 0.567 6.415 
 Education (educated vs. uneducated) 2.202 1.186 4.089 
 Employment status (employed vs. unemployed) 0.719 0.376 1.375 
 Residence of household head (at the farm vs. away) 2.783 1.231 3.869 
 Household size (large vs. small) 1.158 0.691 1.930 
 Pig housing (pigs not housed vs. pigs housed) 0.485 0.230 0.824 
 Marital status (married vs. not married) 0.989 0.775 1.280 
 
The first category in parenthesis was used as the baseline (set to 1). 

 

 
of respondents who had been compensated for their 
culled pigs followed by Elundini Municipality (Table 2). 
Few farmers in Ngqushwa and Ntabankulu Municipalities 
wanted loans for establishing pig projects. Most people 
across the three municipalities requested better extension 
services from the government to prevent future disease 
outbreaks especially after restocking efforts (Table 2). 
Across the municipalities, most people were not sending 
their pigs for post-mortem. 
 
 
Odds ratios for disease outbreak 
 
The odds ratios of a household experiencing CSF were 
highest for head of household staying away from the 
homestead, followed by education level, age of head of 
household, municipality, size of household and 
production system (Table 3). The odds ratio of 2.182 
showed that heads of households who were staying away 
from the farm had a higher likelihood of experiencing 
CSF. The uneducated farmers were more likely to 
experience CSF than their educated counterparts. 
Households headed by young people were affected by 
CSF more than those led by old people. Municipalities at 
the coastal areas were more challenged by CSF than 
inland ones. 
 
 
Prospects of restocking areas affected by CSF 
 
On average, 22% of the farmers were resisting culling 
insisting that they were an important part of their 
livelihoods. Most people (92%) mentioned that they were 
infuriated seeing government officials going around killing 
pigs. These farmers felt that the government was being 
inconsiderate by destroying their pigs without giving them 
immediate compensation to survive on. It was mainly 
piglets that were hid from government officials inside the 
houses while some tied mature pigs in the nearby bushes 
or mountain. All the farmers supported the idea of the 
government initiating a national restocking programme in 

 

 
the areas affected by CSF. It was surprising that after the 
culling exercise in 2005, pig ownership was fast 
spreading in the communal households at the time of the 
study. The only thing that was limiting some farmers from 
venturing into pig production was shortage of breeding 
stock. 
 
 
DISCUSSION 
 
The culling of CSF-infected pigs for the majority of 
respondents in Ngqushwa and Elundini Municipalities 
meant that farmers’ welfare was affected since pigs are a 
source of livelihood (food and income generation) for 
these resource-poor farmers. The hiding of pigs in 
mountains or indoors and the self-initiated restocking 
revealed their importance to the respondents, the 
majority of whom were unemployed. Women were more 
affected by the culling since they are the ones who rear 
more pigs than men for food and income generation 
(Chiduwa et al., 2008). The continued upkeep of local 
pigs by the resource-poor communal farmers supports 
sustainable agricultural development (Drucker and 
Anderson, 2004). The majority of the youths were 
interested in helping with pig rearing implying pig 
production may continue into the future in communal 
areas. In the restocking programme, it can be suggested 
to fund women because they were the major owners of 
pigs as men were interested in large stock like cattle.  

The majority of the farmers regarded CSF as 
dangerous since it reduces pig production and profits are 
supported by previous reports (Widjojoatmodjo et al., 
1999; SAPA, 2005; FAO, 2009). More farmers in 
Ngqushwa Municipality were affected in terms of price 
drop since they were keeping more pigs for the market 
when compared to the other municipalities surprisingly, 
most farmers did not support the government’s approach 
of culling pigs even though they accepted that the 
disease was dangerous. This could be due to the fear of 
losing pigs as their source of livelihood through 
generation of income and provision of pork. 



Madzimure et al.         032 
 
 

 
The government’s delays in compensating farmers may 

further explain the hiding of pigs by some farmers. 
According to the Department of Agriculture (2006), delays 
in compensation for rural farmers were orchestrated by 
lack of bank details for most of the rural farmers although 
efforts were made to pay them through the Post Office. 
Unless market-related compensation for pigs slaughtered 
is paid promptly, farmers are tempted to evade the 
control measures and CSF will continue to spread 
(Penrith and Thomson, 2004). The finding that some 
farmers in Ngqushwa and Ntabankulu Municipalities were 
not satisfied with the compensatory price suggest that the 
government should pay them more for forced culling 
because it inconvenienced them. Farmers in subsistence 
communal production systems might have appreciated 
compensation in the form of uninfected pigs instead of 
money. It could be that farmers feared failure to secure 
breeding stock when permission to restock is granted. 
This finding further supports the fact that CSF causes 
loss of pig biodiversity.  

The South African government was justified in its 
culling action since it is recommended to stamp out 
infected and in-contact pig herds with destruction of the 
carcasses as one of the traditional control measure to 
achieve eradication of CSF after an outbreak (Elbers et 
al., 1999; Garner et al., 2001). Instead of culling, most 
farmers in Elundini and Ntabankulu Municipalities 
suggested that vaccination could have been a better 
option. The farmers’ opinion was supported by some 
authors who reported that effective live-attenuated 
vaccines are available (Wehrle et al., 2007; Liu et al., 
2009). Vaccination is, however, not allowed in the export 
market such as the European Union, since vaccinated 
and infected pigs are serologically indistinguishable 
(Widjojoatmodjo et al., 1999; Wehrle et al., 2007). The 
use of marker vaccines makes discrimination between 
vaccinated and infected animals possible 
(Widjojoatmodjo et al., 1999; Wehrle et al., 2007; Kaden 
et al., 2008). The acceptability of marker vaccines rests 
with trade partners. The use of these marker vaccines 
might not be an option for South Africa because they are 
costly to produce thus become expensive to the farmer. 
In addition, they are based on deoxyribonucleic acid 
(DNA) and proteins, hence are not as efficacious as the 
live-attenuated vaccines (Greiser-Wilke and Moennig, 
2004). The South African government currently depends 
on serological surveillance to control CSF; therefore, 
vaccinating pigs as suggested by farmers would interfere 
with the epidemiological tool (Department of Agriculture 
2006; Penrith et al., 2011). Farmers need to be educated 
on the government’s reasons for the choice of the 
disease control programme so that they cooperate.  

The finding that farmers in Ngqushwa Municipality 
believed in educating people about the disease and 
housing pigs as control measures may be due to their 
market-orientation which makes them stricter. NAFU 
(2007) reported that the spread of CSF in Eastern Cape 

 
 
 

 
Province of South Africa was mainly due to free ranging 
pigs. Farmers in Ntabankulu and Elundini Municipalities, 
however, indicated that they could not afford the 
government’s recommended pig housing structure unless 
the government is to construct it for them. Most farmers 
in these municipalities are resource-poor and, hence, 
largely depend on government.  

The continued free ranging of pigs increases the 
chance of them mixing with infected wild pigs thereby 
compromising the CSF control effort (Penrith et al., 
2011). Acutely infected pigs are a potent source of 
infection for other pigs (Penrith et al., 2011). The disease 
is also transmitted from pregnant sow to foetuses 
(Penrith et al., 2011) or from one farm to another through 
equipment, vehicles and people (Van Oirschot 2004). 
After the CSF outbreak, farmers in affected areas were 
prohibited from slaughtering any pigs at the abattoirs to 
stop the spread of the disease through the food chain. 
Generally, all farmers considered local pigs to be tolerant 
to disease challenges although it was not clear this 
includes CSF.  

Across all Municipalities, the majority of farmers were 
not sending their pigs for post mortem which makes it 
difficult for the Department of Agriculture to quickly detect 
any disease outbreak especially in communal areas. 
Delays in detecting outbreak of contagious diseases like 
CSF (Ruggli et al., 1996; Liu et al., 2009; Podgórska and 
Stadejek, 2010) will result in the virus travelling long 
distances affecting many pigs hence increased costs of 
controlling the disease (Edwards et al., 2000; Leifer et al., 
2005; Rowlands et al., 2008).  

The odds ratios for a household experiencing CSF were 

affected by demographic factors, area of location and 

production system as was also reported by Mapiye et al. 

(2009). Pigs for a household head who was resident at the 

farm were less likely to experience CSF outbreaks because 

the farmer was always available to better take care of the 

pigs. A mature resident head of household’s pigs have less 

risk because the farmer may be more experienced and likely 

to comply with government’s recommendations to control 

diseases like CSF such as confining the pigs. Many people 

in each household may share responsibilities and better 

take care of pigs to avoid outbreak of diseases. The level of 

education of the farmer may also assists in better 

understanding and cooperation with the government in 

disease control. Coastal municipalities like Ngqushwa and 

Ntabankulu are more likely to experience CSF outbreaks 

because of their hot humid conditions which harbour 

diseases (Rowlands et al., 2008; Jutla et al., 2010; Ortiz-

Pelaez et al., 2010). Pigs that were free ranging were likely 

to experience CSF than those that were either in the 

backyard or housed.  
When pigs are free ranging, they are likely to mix with 

infected herds and the disease will spread. The pigs that 
were owned by employed people were likely to be 
affected by CSF probably because these farmers had 
little time available to take care of their pigs. 



033          Afr. J. Pig Farming 
 
 

 
Municipalities wanted the government to come up with 

a restocking programme in affected areas in order to 
restore the local pig biodiversity. Currently, the efforts 
from local municipalities are not capable of providing 
loans to all farmers who want to revive their piggery 
projects. Farmers requested the government to promote 
the production of Kolbroek, Windsnyer and their crosses 
with imported breeds because they are hardy and 
resistant to diseases as was reported by Halimani et al. 
(2010). Farmers in Ngqushwa Municipality wanted the 
government to avail loans to individuals who could not be 
part of a cooperative but have pig structures and 
experience in pig rearing. In addition, these farmers 
wanted access to a reliable market so that they can boost 
pig production. Coupled with restocking, the majority of 
farmers wanted the government to provide better 
veterinary and extension services in terms of disease 
control and pig husbandry. This will go a long way in 
preventing future disease outbreaks and supporting the 
conservation of threatened local pig genetic resources. 
 
 
Conclusions 
 
The odds ratios showed that coastal areas are more likely 
to have CSF disease outbreaks when compared to dry 
inland areas. More pigs were culled in coastal areas of 
Ngqushwa Municipality when compared to inland Elundini 
Municipality. The culling of pigs affected pork availability, 
income generation and caused ecosystem disturbance in 
the crop-livestock communal production systems. The 
same challenges were not witnessed in unaffected 
coastal area. To facilitate restocking or conservation of 
local pig genetic resources, farmers requested the 
government to assist with loans, local breeding stock, 
proper housing structure and improved extension 
services. We concluded that the risk of CSF disease 
outbreak is high in coastal areas than inland areas but 
the disease can have equally devastating effects once 
there is an outbreak in an area. 
 
 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 
 
The authors are grateful to the National Research 
Foundation and Govan Mbeki Research and 
Development Centre at the University of Fort Hare for 
funding this research. We acknowledge the assistance 
with field logistics from the Eastern Cape Department of 
Agriculture and Agrarian Reform. 
 
 
REFERENCES 
 
Chiduwa G, Chimonyo M, Halimani TE, Chisambara SR, Dzama K 

(2008). Herd dynamics and contribution of indigenous pigs to the 
livelihoods of rural farmers in a semi-arid area of Zimbabwe. Trop.  
Anim. Health Prod. 37:333-344.  

Department of Agriculture (2006). Eastern Cape Department of 
Agriculture keeps classical swine fever outbreak under control. 

 

  
 
 

 
http://www.info.gov.za/speeches/2006/06050210451003.htm.Access ed 
10 April 2011.  

Drucker AG, Anderson S (2004). Economic analysis of animal genetic 
resources and the use of rural appraisal methods: Lessons from 
Southeast Mexico. Int. J. Agric. Sustainability 2(2):77-97.  

Edwards S, Fukusho A, LefeÁvre P, Lipowski A, Pejsak Z, Roehe P, 
Westergaard J (2000). Classical swine fever: the global situation. 
Vet. Microbiol. 73:103-119.  

Elbers ARW, Stegeman A, Moser H, Ekker HM, Smak JA, Pluimers FH 
(1999). The classical swine fever epidemic 1997–1998 in the 
Netherlands: descriptive epidemiol. Prev. Vet. Med. 42:157-184.  

FAO (2009). Continental plan for eradication of classical swine fever 
(CSF) from the Americas. Proceedings of I Congreso Iberoamericano 
de Porcicultura, Punta Cana, Dominican Republic, October 13-14, 
2009.  

Garner MG, Whan IF, Gard GP, Phillips D (2001). The expected 
economic impact of selected exotic diseases on the pig industry of 
Australia. Revue scientifique et technique Office International des 
Épizooties, 20:671-685.  

Greiser-Wilke I, Moennig V (2004). Vaccination against classical swine 
fever virus: limitations and new strategies. Anim. Health Res. Rev. 
5:223-226.  

Halimani TE, Muchadeyi FC, Chimonyo M, Dzama K (2010). Pig 
genetic resource conservation: The Southern African perspective. 
Ecol. Econ. 69(5):944-951.  

Jutla AS, Akanda AS, Islam S (2010). Tracking cholera in coastal 
regions using satellite observations. J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc. 
46(4):651-662.  

Kaden V, Lange E, Faust A (2008). Oral vaccination against classical 
swine fever with a chimeric Pestivirus: comparative investigations of 
liquid and lyophilized virus. Eur. J. Wildlife Res. 54:237-244.  

Leifer I, Hoffmann B, Höper D, Rasmussen TB, Blome B, Strebelow G, 
Höreth-Böntgen D, Staubach C, Beer M (2005). Molecular epidemiol. 
current classical swine fever virus isolates of wild boar in Germany. 
Vet. Rec. 157:267. 
http://vir.sgmjournals.org/cgi/content/short/91/11/2687. Accessed 23 
April 2011.  

Liu L, Hoffmann B, Baule C, Beer M, Belák S, Widén F (2009). Two 
real-time RT-PCR assays of classical swine fever virus, developed 
for the genetic differentiation of naturally infected from vaccinated 
wild boars. J. Virol. Methods 159:131-133.  

Madzimure J, Chimonyo M, Zander KK, Dzama K (2012). Potential for 
using indigenous pigs in subsistence-oriented and market-oriented 
small-scale farming systems of Southern Africa, Trop. Anim. Health 
Prod. DOI 10.1007/s11250-012-0184-3.  

Mapiye C, Chimonyo M, Dzama K, Raats JG, Mapekula M (2009). 
Opportunities for improving Nguni cattle production in the smallholder 
farming systems of South Africa. Livest. Sci. 124(1-3):196-204.  

National African Farmers Union (NAFU) (2007). NAFU farmer 
headlines. NAFU, June Issue Newsletter, Pretoria, Republic of South 
Africa.  

Ortiz-Pelaez A, Pfeiffer DU, Tempia S, Otieno FT, Aden HH, Costagli R 

(2010). Risk mapping of Rinderpest sero-prevalence in central and 

southern Somalia based on spatial and network risk factors. BMC Vet. 

Res. 6(22): http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1746-6148-6-

22.pdf. Accessed 10 June 2011. Doi:10.1186/1746-6148-6-22  
Penrith ML, Thomson GR (2004). Special factors affecting the control of 

livestock diseases in sub-Saharan Africa. In: Coetzer JAW, Tustin 
RC (eds) Infectious diseases of livestock, Cape Town, Oxford Univ. 
Press, pp. 171-177.  

Penrith ML, Vosloo W, Mather C (2011). Classical swine fever (Hog 
cholera): Review of aspects relevant to control. Transbound. Emerg. 
Dis. 58(3):187-196.  

Podgórska K, Stadejek T (2010). Optimisation of reverse transcription 
can improve the sensitivity of RT-PCR for detection of classical swine 
fever virus. Acta Vet. Hung. 58(2):257-264.  

Rowlands RJ, Michaud V, Heath L, Hutchings G, Oura C, Vosloo W, 
Dwarka R, Onashvili T, Albina E, Dixon LK (2008). African swine 
fever virus isolate, Georgia, 2007. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 14(12):1870-
1874.  

Ruggli N, Tratschin J, Mittelholzer C, Hofmann MA (1996). Nucleotide 
sequence of classical swine fever virus strain Alfort/187 and 



Madzimure et al.         034 
 
 

 
transcription of infectious RNA from stably cloned full-length cDNA. J. 
Virol. 70(6):3478-3487.  

South African Press Association, SAPA (2005). Culling to set pork 
industry back a year. http://www.e-
tools.co.za/newsbrief/2005/news0824.txt. Accessed 10 April 2012.  

Statistical Analysis Systems (SAS) (2006). SAS/STAT User’s Guide, 
Release 9.1, SAS Institute Inc, Cary, North Carolina, USA.  

Van Oirschot J (2004). Hog cholera. In: Coetzer JAW, Thomson GR, 
Tustin RC (eds) Infectious diseases of livestock, Cape Town, Oxford 
University Press. pp. 975-986.  

Wehrle F, Renzullo S, Faust A, Beer M, Kaden V, Hofmann MA (2007). 
Chimeric pestiviruses: candidates for live-attenuated classical swine 
fever marker vaccines. J. Gen. Virol. 88:2247–2258. 

 
 
 

 
Widjojoatmodjo MN, van Gennip HGP, de Smit AJ, Moormann RJM 

(1999). Comparative sequence analysis of classical swine fever virus 
isolates from the epizootic in The Netherlands in 1997-1998. Vet. 
Microbiol. 66:291-299.  

World Organisation for Animal Health (2005). Classical swine fever in 
South Africa, follow up report number 4. Disease Information 18(50). 
http://www.oie.int/Eng/. Accessed 20 September 2010. 
 


