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African Journal of Pig Farming ISSN 2375-0731 Vol. 8 (1), pp. 001-007, January, 2020. Available online at 
www.internationalscholarsjournals.org © International Scholars Journals 

 

Author(s) retain the copyright of this article. 

 

 

Full Length Research Paper 

 

Neonatal mortality of pigs in Nsukka, Southeast Nigeria 

 
Abonyi, F. O.1*, Omeh C.V.O.1 and Machebe, N. S.2 

 
1
Department of Animal Health and Production, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria. 

2
Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria. 

 
Accepted 14 July, 2019 

 
This study was conducted to investigate the causes of neonatal mortality among pig farms in Nsukka Local 
Government area of Enugu State, Nigeria. Forty (40) pig farms in the study area were randomly selected and used 
for the 20 weeks study duration. One week post partum was considered as the neonatal period. A total of 124 
pregnant sows and 924 piglets farrowed during the study period were used. Data were obtained from farm 
visitations/physical observations, farm records, oral interviews and structured questionnaires. Feed samples were 
analyzed for their proximate contents. Pregnant pigs were weighed prior, during and few days after farrowing, while 
piglets were weighed within seven days after farrowing. Necropsy and bacteriological examinations of samples of 
feed, maternal and diseased or dying neonates were also carried out. Results showed that mean litter size, piglet 
weight at birth and daily weight gain were 7.45 ± 0.02, 1.01 ± 0.03 and 0.21 ± 0.01 kg, respectively. 164 (17.75%) of 
total piglets farrowed died within the first week of life (neonatal period), whereas 144 (87.80%) of this number died 
within the first five days. In addition, 48 (29.27%) were over laid, 30 (18.29%) died of scouring caused by Escherichia 
coli and Salmonella organisms, 30 (18.29%) died of hypoglycaemia. On the other hand, 20 (12.20%) piglets were 
cannibalized by older pigs and or their dams, 16 (9.75%) were trapped within the drainage, 12 piglets (7.32%) died of 
chilling, while eight (4.88%) died of unknown causes. Other contributory factors include inappropriate farm 
structures, absence or inadequate farm records, nutritional imbalance, improper management practices and 
inadequate veterinary services. It was concluded that neonatal mortality is a major impediment to optimum profit 
making from swine enterprise in Nsukka, South Eastern Nigeria. 

 

Key words: Neonatal, piglets, mortality, Nsukka urban, Nigeria, sow performance. 
 
 
INTRODUCTION 

 
Pig production particularly in the tropics has high poten-
tials for optimum profit making. Unfortunately, this is often 
constrained by poor management practices including 
poor feasibility studies, inadequate feeds and feeding 
materials, technological application and neonatal mor-
tality among others (Schwartz and Franzen, 1992; Varley, 
1995). Frazer (1990) defined neonatal mortality in pig as 
death that occurs in piglets within few days of life. 
Similarly, Varley (1995) on observing the improvement in 
the reproductive performance of exotic pigs also noted 
high level of neonatal mortality up to 13%. According to 
Pathiraja et al. (1987), neonatal mortality in small holder  
 
 

 
*Corresponding author. E-mail: festus.abonyi@unn.edu.ng. Tel:  
+2348035078356. 

 
 
 
 

 
farms at southern Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria, was 
noted to be as high as 50%. In agreement, Hughes 
(1993) noted that 50% of all pre-weaning death occurs 
within the first three days of life and that 90% of all were 
within one week of parturition.  

Several studies had attributed neonatal mortality in pigs 
to be of multifactor causes including diseases such as 
colibacillosis, salmonellosis and piglet anaemia. Other 
factors were low viability, chilling, maternal overlay and 
poor management practices (Hrupka et al., 1998; John, 
2004; Damron, 2009). There is sparse information on the 
causes of neonatal mortality of pigs in Nsukka area in 
particular and sub-Saharan tropics in general. This situa-
tion no doubt has affected pig production in the study 
area. In order to examine the causes of neonatal mortality 
of pigs in Nsukka and its environs, this study was aimed 
at; (i) identifying the possible causes of neonatal 



 
 
 

 

pig mortality in pig farms at Nsukka urban and its 
environs, (ii) provide baseline data which will serve as a 
reference point for further studies and (iii) proffer 
solutions to identified problem(s) with a view to reducing 
pre-weaning mortality and hence increase swine pro-
ductivity within the area. 
 

 
MATERIALS AND METHODS 
 
The study area 
 
The study was carried out in pig farms located within Nsukka Local 
Government  area (LGA). Nsukka LGA  is located in the derived 
savannah zone ecological zone at latitude 6° 51

′
 24°N and longitude 

7°23
′
 45°E at an elevation of 1,810 ft (550 m) above sea level. It 

covers a total land area of 17.52 sq miles (45.38 km
2
) 

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nsukka#cite_note- 
umuahia_population-0). The area experiences two distinct seasons;  
rainy and dry seasons. The 2006 population census report showed 
that Nsukka had an estimated population of 309, 633. The  
indigenous people are involved in agriculture, basically crop and 
livestock farming activities (Nwanta et al., 2011). The major animal  
production activities in the area are poultry and pig although other 
livestock like goat, sheep and cattle are produced (Nwanta et al., 
2011).  

A multi-stage sampling procedure was used to select towns and 
communities for the study. Four communities namely; Ehalumona, 
Edemani, Obukpa and Obimo were randomly selected representing 
Nsukka east (NE), Nsukka west (NW), Nsukka north (NN) and 
Nsukka south (NS) of Nsukka LGA. A total of 10 pig farms were 
randomly selected from each community based on the willingness 
of the owners to engage in the study and also make available the 
farm records. In all, a total of 40 randomly selected pig farms were 
used and the farmers were all interviewed. These farms were 
selected based on the pig population ranging from 20 to 200 heads. 
Generally, the research methodology used involved farm 
visitations/physical observations, farm records, oral interviews and 
the use of structured questionnaires.  

A total of 124 sows farrowed and 924 piglets produced were used 
in this study which lasted five months (April to September). On 
visiting a farm, information on date of mating and expected date of 
farrowing was recorded. Physical observation of farm structure 
(presence or absence of basic facilities), the herd structure and 
compounded pig feed was also carried out on each visit. 
Performance data namely live weight of gestating or lactating sows, 
piglet birth weight, litter size etc, were obtained from the selected 
pig farms by means of weekly or biweekly visits by a trained 
technician per farm. A total of 40 technical staff was used for the 
study.  

Live weights of pregnant or lactating pigs were determined using 
weigh band (Farmer’s boy®; Dalton Supplies Limited Oxon, 
England) on day 90 of gestation, at term, on day three and seven 
after farrowing. On the other hand, individual piglets were weighed 
using weighing balance (Avery, England) on days one, three and 
seven of life. Number of piglets that died within seven days at 
individual farms was recorded and possible causes of death 
determined at necropsy. Samples collected for necropsy were rectal 
swabs, excised organs and feed samples from affected farms. Feed 
samples were also randomly collected from 20 farms and analyzed 
for it proximate compositions. Similarly necropsies were carried on 
dead piglets, bacteriological examinations were made on samples 
collected from some feed samples, unhealthy piglets and their 
dams using standard methods of counting bacteria. Structured 
questionnaires, available farm records and oral interviews were 
used to obtain data covering incidence of diseases, treatment, 

  
  

 
 

 
breed, feeds and feeding and other management problems 
encountered in the farm. 

 

Determination of composition of feed samples 
 
Feed samples were randomly collected from 20 farms and analyzed 
for their proximate contents at the Nutrition Laboratory, Department 
of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture and Energy Research and 
Development Centre both at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka. The 
analysis was carried out according to the methods of Association of 
Analytical Chemists (AOAC, 1990) with a view to determining their 
carbohydrate, crude protein, ash, ether extract, crude fibre, 
phosphorus and calcium contents, respectively; thus metabolizable 
energy was determined by Gallenkamp ballistic bomb calorimeter; 
crude protein was determined by the micro Kjeldahl technique, 
ether extract was determined by soxhlet fat extraction method, 
crude fibre was determined by the Weende method, while calcium 
and phosphorus were determined using the atomic absorption 
spectrophotometer. 

 

Statistical analysis 
 
Mean statistics and standard deviation (SD), charts and per-
centages were used to analyze the data. Statistical Package for 
Social Science (SPSS) version 11 was the package used for the 
data analysis. 
 

 

RESULTS 
 

Observations made on the farms showed that the herd 
structure comprised piglets, growers, gilts, sows and 
boars; usually they are not separated by sex, age or 
weight. Generally, the pigs are genetically improved 
breeds (Large White, Landrace, Duroc and their crosses). 
However, due to uncontrolled breeding programme prac-
ticed by the farmers, it was not possible to categorize 
them into a particular crossbred. There were no records 
of the presence of indigenous breed of pigs in the study 
area. The results on sow and litter performance are pre-
sented as means and standard deviation in Table 1. The 
results show that mean gestation period was 113.18 ± 
2.00 days, while dams’ mean weight at term, litter weight 
and litter size were 84.49 ± 1.94 kg, 1.01 ± 0.13 kg and 
7.45 ± 0.02, respectively.  

Our findings as presented in Table 2 and Figure 1 show 
that most piglets (29.27%) died as a result of crushing by 
their dams, this was followed by hypoglycaemia (18.29%) 
and diarrhoea or scouring (18.29%) caused by 
Escherichia coli and Salmonella organisms, while 4.88% 
piglets died of unknown etiologic agent. Results of the 
daily neonatal pig mortalities among farms in the study 
area are presented in Table 3. The study shows that most 
piglets lost due to maternal overlay died within four days 
of life. Generally, high neonatal mortalities/death oc-
curred on the second day of farrowing.  

The analytical composition of samples of feed made 
available to pigs in Nsukka and its environs are pre-
sented in Table 4. The results show that pig rations were 
grossly deficient in energy, protein and other essential 



 
 
 

 
Table 1. Performance of sows and litters within seven days of farrowing in pig farms 
surveyed in Nsukka Southeast Nigeria (n = 40).  

 
 Parameter Mean ± SD 

 Mean weight at day 90 of gestation (kg) 95.06 ± 2.48 

 Gestation period (days) 113.18 ± 2.00 

 Sow weigh at term (kg) 84.49 ± 1.94 

 Litter size 7.45 ± 0.02 

 Piglet weight at birth (kg) 1.01 ± 0.13 

 Sow weight loss (kg/day) 0.54 ± 0.02 

 Piglet weight gain(kg/day) 0.21 ± 0.04 

 Number (n) of piglets lost (n/day) 23.43 (19.29%) 

 Total number of deaths 164 (17.75%) 
 

 
Table 2. Identified causes of neonatal deaths in pig farms surveyed in Nsukka Southeast 
Nigeria (n = 40).  

 
 Cause Number dead % Mortality 

 Maternal over lay 48.00 29.27 

 Scouring (Escherichia coli and Salmonella) 30.00 18.29 

 Hypoglycaemia 30.00 18.29 

 Cannibalism 20.00 12.20 

 Trapped 16.00 9.76 

 Chilling 12.00 7.32 

 Unknown 8.00 4.88 

 Total 164 100.00 
 

 

nutrients. Also, the feed had very high fibre content. This 
high content of fibre may be attributed to the high quantity 
of palm kernel cake (PKC) used in formulating the ration. 
It was observed that farmers depended on individually 
mixed feed formulated using locally available feed 
materials like PKC, brewer’s spent grain, cassava (peels 
and chips), bambara waste, kitchen waste, rice husk, 
common salt etc. Adesehinwa et al. (2003) reported that 
pig farmers depended more on the use of non-
conventional feedstuffs obtained from farm, household 
and agro-industrial wastes in formulating ration for pigs. 
The authors noted that these materials are indispensable 
for many of the farmers to keep operational cost, particu-
larly average daily feeding cost within a range of one to 
twenty naira per pig.  

The results of the disease prevalence in pig farms in 
Nsukka communities are presented in Table 5 and Figure  
2. The results show that diarrhoea/scouring, trypano-
somosis, helminthosis, swine erysipelas, ectoparasitism 
and foot rot are the prevalent diseases in pig farms in the 
study area. Helminthosis was the most common disease 
(32.00 and 38.10%) followed by diarrhoea (16.00 and 
19.05%) and ectoparasitism (12.00 and 14.29%), while 
foot rot (4.00 and 4.76%) was found to be the least 
prevalent diseases of pigs in Nsukka environ.  

The farmer’s affirmative answers on common herd 
structure and management techniques identified in pig 

 

 

farms in Nsukka Southeast Nigeria are presented in 
Table 6. The results indicate that less than 15% of the 
farms identified had knowledge of fattening/isolation 
pens, herd health programme, identification of pigs, cas-
tration and/or stock pigs by sex or age. More than 65% of 
pig farms were identified to provide feed/water troughs for 
the pigs, keep other livestock and administers iron 
dextran to their piglets. The result also indicates that 
livestock replacement is common among farmers in 
Nsukka area. 
 

 

DISCUSSION 

 

It is significant to note that performance of pigs in most 
farms within Nsukka and environ is very low when 
compared to what is obtainable in pig farms in other parts 
of Nigeria and other developed countries. Consequently, 
mean litter size (7.45 ± 0.02), weight at birth (1.01 ± 0.13 
kg) and dam gestation weight loss (0.54 ± 0.02 kg/day) 
are low when compared with litter size of 11.50 ± 0.20 
reported by Lay et al. (2001) and very low dam weight 
loss of 0.12 ± 0.03 kg/day noted by others (Hrupka et al., 
1998 and John, 2004). Similarly, our finding on litter size 
of 7.45 ± 0.02 was less than 9.57 and 11.00 reported by 
Omeke (1990) and Iheukwumere et al. (2008) for pigs in 
North Central and South Eastern Nigeria, respectively. 



  

   

    
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
Figure 1. Causes of neonatal mortality of pigs in Nsukka communities. 

 

 
Table 3. Neonatal pig mortality in pig farms surveyed in Nsukka Southeast Nigeria (n = 40).  
 

Cause 
     Day      

 

1 
 

2 
 

3 4 5 6 7 Total 
 

   
 

Scouring/diarrhoea - 4 (2.44) 6 (3.66) 2 (1.22) 8 (4.88) 10 (6.10) - 30 (18.29) 
 

Crushing/maternal overlay 6 (3.66) 20 (12.20) 14 (8.54) 4 (2.44) 2 (1.22) - - 46 (28.05) 
 

Trapped -  - 6 (3.66) - - 8 (4.88) 2 (1.22) 16 (9.76) 
 

Hypoglycaemia - 30 (18.29)  - - - - - 30 (18.29) 
 

Cannibalism - 12 (7.32) 8 (4.88) - - - - 20 (12.20) 
 

Chilling - 4 (2.44) 6 (3.66) 4 (2.44) - - - 14 (8.54) 
 

Unknown -  - 8 (4.88) - - - - 8 (4.88) 
 

Total 6 (3.66) 70 (42.68) 48 (29.27) 10 (6.10) 10 (6.10) 18 (10.98) 2 (1.22) 164 (100.00) 
 

 
**Figures in parenthesis represent percentages of the total. 
 

 
Table 4. Analytical composition of samples of pig feed surveyed in 
Nsukka Southeast Nigeria (n = 20).  

 
 Nutrient Composition (%) 

 Crude protein 12.18 ± 1.32 

 Metabolizable energy (kcal/kg) 2048.10 ± 16.25 

 Crude fibre 10.12 ± 0.15 

 Ether extracts 3.43 ± 0.00 

 Ash 2.51 ± 0.06 

 Calcium 0.21 ± 0.05 

 Phosphorus 0.18 ± 0.00 



 
 
 

 
Table 5. Disease prevalence in 40 pig farms surveyed in Nsukka Southeast Nigeria.  

 
Disease Number of occurrence Occurrence (%) 

Diarrhoea/scouring 16.00 19.05 

Helminthosis 32.00 38.10 

Trypanosomosis 8.00 9.52 

Swine erysipelas 8.00 9.52 

Ectoparasitism 12.00 14.29 

Foot rot 4.00 4.76 

Abortion/still born 4.00 4.76  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 

Diseases 
 

Figure 2. Disease prevalence in 40 pig farms in Nsukka and its environs. 
 

 

Low performance of pigs in this study is related to poor condition necessary to overcome the physiological stress 

infrastructure and management technique that are cha- that accompanies lactation.  

racteristics  of  pig  production  practice  in  the  area.  For Our observation of high piglet death rate (42.68%) for 
example,  the  observed  farm  structures  showed  poorly piglets within their first two days of birth is reminiscent to 

constructed   houses   which   lacked   basic   facilities. the observations made by Pathiraja et al. (1987). The 

Similarly, proximate composition of feed available to the authors noted death rates of 50% among small holder pig 

pigs of all types was observed to be below the National farms in Zaria, North Central Nigeria. From Table 1, 164 

Research Council (1998) nutritional recommended stan- piglets  were  lost  within  the  study  period.  In  financial 
dard. This may have been responsible for high number of terms,  as  much  as  N738,  000.00  ($4670.89)  or  N18, 
piglets  (30.00  or  18.29%)  loss  resulting  from  hypo- 450.00 ($116.77) per farm was lost. This inference was 

glycaemia and significant daily weight loss by the dams based on the fact that a piglet was sold at an average 

during first seven days of lactation. Johnston et al. (1997) price   of   N4500   ($28.48) and   exchange   rate   of 
and  Damron  (2009)  recommended  that  lactating  sows $1.00:N158.00 at the time of this research. This figure 

should be fed high energy dense diets in order to control represents  a  huge  economic  loss  to  pig  farmers  in 

nutritional  deficiencies  and  maintain  them in good body Nsukka  and  its  environs  and a concomitant drop in the 



 
  

 
 

 
Table 6. Farmer’s affirmative answers on common herd management techniques identified in pig farms in 
Nsukka Southeast Nigeria.  

 
 Technique Number of farms Percent of total (n=40) 

 Has a farm record 4.00 10.00 

 Pig identification 2.00 5.00 

 Stock pigs by age, sex or size 1.00 2.50 

 Presence of fattening and or farrowing pen(s) 2.00 5.00 

 Presence of isolation pen(s) 2.00 5.00 

 Provision of feeding and drinking troughs 28.00 70.00 

 Practice of creep feeding 0.00 0.00 

 Mixture of other livestock 30.00 75.00 

 Castration 4.00 10.00 

 Any selection 0.00 0.00 

 Administer iron dextran 28.00 70.00 

 Consult veterinarian when animal is sick 14.00 35.00 

 Knowledge of herd health 1.00 2.50 

 Livestock off take/replacement 36.00 90.00 
 

 

amount of pork supplied to the food chain of consumers 
in the country. On the other hand, Susias (1994) ob-
served low death rate of 14.50% over a period of five 
days. Variations in piglets’ death rates reported by this 
author and that obtained in this study could be attributed 
to differences in breed, nutrition, climate and manage-
ment. For instance, the authors may have made their 
observation among fairly managed farms in developed 
countries. Varley (1995) had consequently highlighted 
high mortality rates for piglets within their first three days 
in life. This risky period demands special attention from 
farmers with a view to minimizing undue losses among 
piglets. Hughes (1993) recommended that within this 
period when piglets had not fully developed peripheral 
body insulators such as fat, external thermoregulation 
method(s) need be applied. Deaths following chilling 
could be avoided if farmers are enlightened on the 
provision of artificial heat source such as light, stove or 
beddings in form of wood shavings to keep the environ-
ment warm for the newly born pigs. Similarly, death due 
to maternal overlay and cannibalism could be avoided by 
selecting breeder pigs with good mothering ability, 
provision of farrowing pens and adequate accommo-
dation.  

Trypanosomosis was observed to have occurrence rate 
of 9.52%. This figure was below 30.70% reported by 
Onah (1991). Differences in these observations might 
have been influenced by the fact the most farmers in 
Nsukka area in an attempt to meet local demand now 
keep mainly crossbred pigs which was reported by 
Omeke (1994) to be less susceptible to trypanosomosis 
infection than their pure breed counterparts. Other ma-
nagement practices necessary for farmers to minimize 
neonatal mortality in piggery farms include provision of 
farrowing crates, assurance that piglets suckle their dam 
immediately after farrowing, provision of balanced diets to 

 

 

gestating and lactating dams and maintenance of high 
standard of hygiene within the farm premises. These are 
in agreement with recommendations of Paul (1989), Lay 
et al. (2001) and Battaglia (2007). Other prevalent disea-
ses implicated as causes of neonatal mortality and low 
performance of pigs includes parasitism, scouring and 
trypanosomosis (Table 5). These diseases not only 
predispose dam to abortion and mummification of 
foetuses, but also lead to neonatal death. These were 
noted through farm records, observations made and 
necroptic examinations conducted in the present study. 
Several authors (Pathiraja et al., 1987; Radostits et al., 
2003) have also observed significant neonatal losses due 
to piglet anaemia and scouring in line with the findings 
made in the present work.  

Demand for pork in Nsukka area is high and there are 
no cultural or religious barrier affecting its consumption. 
This may account for the high percentage (90%) of 
regular offtake and replacement of livestock observed in 
many farms investigated. Thus, there is high potential for 
optimum profit making from pig farming in Nsukka, South 
Eastern Nigeria. Based on our findings, it is our recom-
mendation that there is need to promote extension and 
herd health services by relevant professional and 
livestock personnel to potential and existing farmers in 
the area. The benefits of these will include good appli-
cation of improved farming technique, proper utilization of 
agro-industrial wastes to formulate balanced and 
affordable diets for pigs, significant reduction in neonatal 
death and subsequent improvement in financial return to 
pig farmers. 
 
 
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