





























1 

 

In ternationa l
Scholars
Journa ls

 

African Journal of Pig Farming ISSN: 2375-0731 Vol. 11 (2), pp. 001-007, February, 2023. Available online at 
www.internationalscholarsjournals.org © International Scholars Journals 

 

Author(s) retain the copyright of this article. 

 
 
 

Full Length Research Paper 
 

Short-term amelioration of soil properties and maize 
yield enhancement using animal wastes in degraded 

hydromorphic soils of Southeastern Nigeria 
 

Okenmuo F. C.1*, Odii O. U.2 and Okolo C. C.3 
 

1
Department of Environmental Management, Pan African University of Life and Earth Sciences, University of Ibadan, 

Nigeria. 
2
National Biotechnology Development Agency, Nigeria.  

3
Department of Land Resources Management and Environmental Protection, Mekelle University, Ethiopia. 

 
Accepted 4 October, 2022  

 
Amending soil with animal wastes can be useful in food production as well as a means of waste 
disposal. It has been found to enhance physico-chemical properties and enhance yield. Poultry manure 
(PM), swine waste (SW), cow dung (CD), and sewage sludge (SS) were added to a hydromorphic ultisol 

(sandy loam, typic haplusult at the rate of 10 tha
-1

 (12 kgplot
-1

)). Maize hybrid (Oba super II) was used as 

test crop. Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with four replications was used in laying the 
experiment. Data collected were analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) and means were 
separated using Fishers’ Least Significant Difference (F-LSD). Physical properties of soil influenced by 
animal wastes include bulk density, total porosity, hydraulic conductivity, gravimetric moisture 
contents, aggregate stability, and rheological characteristics. Amendments also enhanced soil organic 
matter, total nitrogen, available phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and sodium, pH, 
exchangeable acidity, cation exchange capacity, and base saturation were all higher relative to the 
unamended plots. Productivity studies revealed that maize growth was significantly affected by 
amendments especially PM. This was observed in height, leaf area index and yield higher relative to the 
control. Generally, the increase followed the order PM>SW>SS>CD. Animal wastes especially from 
poultry sources are recommended for soil amelioration and for increased crop yield in the area. 

 
Key words: Cow dung, sewage sludge, swine waste, poultry manure, waste disposal.  

 
 
INTRODUCTION 

 
Sustainable agriculture is fast becoming the focus of the 
world today. Sustainable agriculture is a method of 
farming that is not only humane, environmentally friendly  

 
 
 
 

 
and socially ethical, but can sustain itself. In the broadest 
sense, sustainable agriculture puts back into the earth 
what it takes out, making a cycle requiring no inputs from  
  

*Corresponding author. E-mail: fokenmuo0255@stu.ui.edu.ng.  
 
Author(s) agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 

License 4.0 International License  



2 

 

 
 
 

 

outside. For example, applying fertilizer derived from 
petroleum products is not sustainable, because the 
fertilizer was not produced within the agricultural cycle. 
Composted manure from animals on the farm would be 
an example of a sustainable fertilizer. Animal wastes may 
be suitable for amelioration of soils in the humid tropics 
which are characterized by poor native organic matter 
and low available nutrients productivity decline overtime 
when subjected to continous cultivation (Zingore et al., 
2003).  

In Nigeria, the use of mineral ferilizers is common 
among farmers, probably for its ability to enhance yield, 
low cost of application and transportation. However, 
mineral fertilizers overtime have proved to be scarce, cost 
intensive, capable of causing pollution and toxicity and 
incapable of achieving soil conservation needs 
(Kushwaha and Ochi, 1999). For example, Isherwood 
(2000) observed initial increase in yield with mineral 
fertilizer for only few years and followed by decrease in 
base saturation and acidification. Futhermore, Adeoye et 
al. (2008) associated decreases in yield, increases in soil 
acidity, and nutrient imbalance to continous use of 
mineral ferilizers in tropical soils. Yield declines, pollution 
vulnerabilities and high cost of mineral fertilizers 
utilization has reawakened interests in organic wastes 
especially among the poor smallholder farmers.  

The use of organic inputs such as crop residues and 
manures have great potential for improving soil 
productivity and crop yield through improvement of the 
soil physical, chemical, microbiological and nutrient 
supply (Abbasi et al., 2009). Ofori and Santana (1990) 
noted that cow dung improved the productivity of soil 
more than inorganic fertilizer owing to its slow release of 
nutrients. Organic manures can also increase water 
infiltration, water holding capacity, water content and 
aeration (McCauley et al., 2017). Many of the nutrients 
used by plants are held in organic manure until soil 
organisms decompose the material and release plant 
available nutrients. It is evident that a regular addition of 
organic manure is important as food for not only crops but 
also micro-organisms, insects, worms and other 
organisms. Erosion will be reduced and root penetration 
and tillage operation will be enhanced when the soil is 
well aggregated (USDA, 2003). Addition of soil organic 
matter is also an important soil conservation measure 
that accomplishes soil carbon sequestration and 
mitigation of climate change (McCauley et al., 2017).  

Even though there are many studies dealing with 
organic manure application in the Abakaliki agro-ecology 
(Mbah et al., 2004; Mbah and Mbagwu, 2006; Nwite and 
Alu, 2017), very little is known about their effects on 
hydromorphic soils and yet such soils are common in the 
area. The objective of this study was to evaluate the 
suitability of animal wastes (poultry manure, swine 
wastes, cow dung, and sewage sludge) on soil physico-
chemical properties and yield components of maize (Zea 
mays L) in a degraded hydromorphic soil in Abakaliki, 

 
 
 
 

 

Southeastern Nigeria. 
 

 
MATERIALS AND METHODS 
 
Description of study area 
 
The study was carried out at the Teaching and Research Farm of 
the Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resources Management, 
Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki. The area lies within latitude 06° 

4
1
N and longitude 08° 65

1
E in the derived savanna zone of 

Southeastern Nigeria. Rainfall is bimodal; the rainy (April-October) 
and the dry season (November-March). There is usually a short 
break in August usually known as “August break”. The total mean 
annual rainfall ranges from 1700 mm for minimum to 2000  
mm for the maximum, respectively. The annual temperature is 
between 27 and 31°C, while relative humidity is between 60 and 
80% during rainy season (Ofomata, 1975). The soil is hydromorphic 
and belongs to the order ultisol within the Ezzamgbo soil 
association derived from shale and classified as Typic Haplusult 
(FDALR, 1986). 

 

Field work 
 
The study was conducted in a land area of approximately 0.017 ha 

(13 × 13 m
2
). The field was cleared manually of existing vegetation 

and debris removed. The area was demarcated into plots that 

measured 2 × 2 m
2
 with 0.5 m space. The Randomized Complete 

Block Design (RCBD) was used in the experimental design. Animal 
wastes consisting of poultry manure (PM), swine waste (SW) and 
cow dung (CD) obtained from the Animal Science section of Ebonyi 
State University Abakaliki and sewage sludge (SS) were obtained 
from sewage treatment plant of University of Nigeria, Nsukka. The 
animal wastes were dried, crushed, analyzed for their respective 
nutrient components and incorporated into the soil at 20 cm depth 

prior to planting. The treatments were 10 tha
-1

 (4 kg/plot) of each 
animal wastes (PM, SW, CD and SS) and a control. They were 
replicated four times to give a total of twenty experimental plots.  

Maize (Zea mays L. var Oba super II) was planted as test crop 
two weeks after incorporation of treatments. The seed rate was two 

seed per hole at a spacing of 25 × 75 cm
2
 and depth of 5 cm. The 

seedlings were thinned down to one per hole at two weeks of 
germination and weeding was bi-weekly. 

 

Agronomic data 
 
Twelve plants constituting 25% of plant population per plot were 
tagged and used for agronomic measurements. Plant height was 
measured with metric ruler from tallest leaf of a plant to base every 
two weeks till tasseling. The grain yield was determined by 
harvesting the cobs after drying of husks. The husks were removed, 
cobs shelled and maize grains were further dried and grain yield 
was adjusted to 14% moisture content. 

 
Laboratory studies 
 
Selected soil physical and chemical properties were determined 
after soil samples were collected with core samplers and augers, 
respectively auger at 0 to 20 cm. Auger samples were composited, 
dried, ground, seived with 2 mm-mesh seive and labelled at pre-and 
post-planting. Bulk density was determined using the method 
described by Gee and Or (2002). Total porosity determination was 
done as described by Obi (2000). The method of Stolte (1997) was 
used to determine saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks). Gravimetric 



3 

 

  
 
 

 
Table 1. Chemical composition of amendments used for the study.  

 
 

Manure 

pH O.C 

TN (%) 

Av.P Exch. K Exch. Ca Exch. Na Exch Mg 
 

 (KCl) (%) (mgkg
-1

) (cmol kg
-1

) (cmol kg
-1

) (cmol kg
-1

) (cmol kg
-1

) 
 

 PM 7.5 23.0 3.67 0.4 0.55 3.27 0.33 1.52 
 

 SW 7.0 20.2 2.45 0.35 0.63 3.19 0.23 1.58 
 

 CD 7.0 26.2 3.21 0.34 0.47 2.81 0.11 1.22 
 

 SS 5.91 26.2 2.76 0.16 0.48 2.91 0.28 1.39 
 

 
PM: Poultry manure; SW: Swine wastes; CD: Cow dung; SS: Sewage sludge; O.C: Organic carbon; TN: Total nitrogen; Av. P:  
Available phosphorus. 

 
 
 
 
moisture content determination was carried out as described by Obi 
(2000). Particle size distribution (fraction of sand, silt, and clay) was 
determined using hydrometer method (Gee and Or, 2002) with 
NaOH as dispersant. Mean weight diameter was determined using 
the method described by Obi (2000). Sower (1965) penetrometer 
and classical techniques were used to determine liquid limit and 
plastic limit, respectively. Soil pH was determined in 1M KCl of 1:2.5 
soil/water ratio. Organic carbon was determined by the Walkley and 
Black dichromate oxidation method (Nelson and Sommers, 1982). 
Organic matter was estimated as organic carbon × 1.729 (Odu et 
al., 1986). And total nitrogen (TN) by Kjeldahl method (Bremner and 
Mulvaney, 1982). Available phosphorus by Bray and Kurtz (1945) 
(Bray II) method. After extraction with 1N ammonuim acetate 
solution, exchangeable Na and K were determined by the Flame 
photometry and Ca and Mg by an EDTA titration method. 

Exchangeable acidity (Al
3+

 + H
+
) was determined by the KCl 

displacement method and cation exchange capacity (CEC) was 
obtained by the ammonuim acetate technique. Percentage base 
saturation was calculated as total exchangeable bases divided by 
effective CEC and multiplied by 100. All laboratory analysis was 
conducted at the Soil Science Research Laboratory, University of 
Nigeria Nsukka. 

 
 
 
 
 
Exchangeable Mg and K were dominant in swine waste 

(1.58 and 0.63 cmolkg
-1

), respectively as compared to 
other wastes. 
 

 

Soil properties prior to amendment 

 

The properties of the soil at the initiation of the study are 
shown in Table 2. Sand fraction was dominant compared 
to clay and silt fractions leading to sandy clay loam 
textural class. The pH was slightly acidic (5.2) and 
organic carbon content (1.8%) was also low based on 
rating by Landon (1991). Total nitrogen (0.11%), available 

phosphorus (26 mgkg
-1

), cation exchange capacity (8.6 

cmolkg
-1

) were rated low (Landon, 1991). Exchangeable 

calcium and magnesium dominated the exchange sites. 

 

 

Data analysis 
 
All data collected were analyzed statistically using the analysis of 
variance technique (ANOVA) and Fishers least significant 
difference (Steel and Torrie, 1980) was used to separate means 
and significance was accepted at 5% probability level. 
 

 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

 

Chemical composition of amendments used for the 
study 

 

Table 1 shows the chemical composition of the animal 
wastes used for soil amendment. Total N was higher 
(3.68%) in poultry manure following the order 
PM>CD>SS>SW. Sewage sludge was slightly acidic 
(5.91) while other wastes were neutral to alkaline. 
Although values of available P were low in the animal 
wastes based on Landon (1991), it was highest in poultry 

manure (0.4 mgkg
-1

). The exchangeable Ca values were 

3.72, 3.19, 2.81 and 2.91 cmolkg
-1

 for poultry manure, 
swine waste, cow dung and sewage sludge, respectively 
and higher than Mg, K and Na values in the wastes. 

 
Effect of treatments on soil physical properties 
 
Table 3 shows the physical properties as influenced by 
animal wastes. In all treatments, the texture was sandy 
clay loam which may be attributed to nature of parent 
materials and high rainfall that could favor washing away 
and leaching of silt-sized and clay-sized fractions (Igwe et 
al., 1999; Akamigbo, 2010). The application of animal 
wastes significantly (P<0.05) decreased bulk density and 
increased total porosity. The implication of a lowered bulk 
density and increased total porosity are ease in root 
penetration, downward movement of water, more soil  
water retention, availability for greater water use 
efficiency by crops and lowered risks of compaction 
(Ogbodo and Chukwu, 2012; Nwite and Okolo, 2016). 

Bulk density was lower in SS (1.45 gcm
-3

) amended plots 

relative to CD (1.51 gcm
-3

), PM (1.54 gcm
-3

) and SW 

(1.62 gcm
-3

) plots. This reflects the role that the different 
organic waste decomposition plays in soil loosening. 
However, saturated hydraulic conductivity obtained in PM 
amended plots were higher relative to other amendments, 
following the order PM>CD>SS>SW >C . PM relative to 
the control increased water transmission through the soil 
by 61.9%. Similarly, gravimetric moisture contents of PM 
plots were higher relative to the amended and 



4 

 

 
 
 

 
Table 2. Pretreatment soil (0-20 cm) properties.  

 
Particle size distribution Value   

Clay (%)  
Silt (%)  
Sand (%)  
Textural class  
Soil pH (KCl)  
Exch. Ca (cmol kg

-1
) 

Exch. Mg (cmol kg
-1

) 

Exch. Na (cmol kg
-1

) 

Exch. K (cmol kg
-1

) 

CEC (cmol kg
-1

) 

Exch. acidity (cmol kg
-1

)  
TN (%)  
OC (%)  
Av.P (mgkg

-1
)  

  
21  
20  
59  

SCL  
5.2  
4.1  
2.8  

0.03  
0.1  
8.6  

1.36  
0.11  
1.8  
26 

 
O.C: Organic carbon; TN: Total nitrogen; Av. P: Available phosphorus; Exch Ca:  
exchangeable calcium; Mg: Magnesium; Na: Sodium; K: Potassium. 

 
 

 
Table 3. Physical and properties of the soil as influenced by wastes.  

 
 

Treatment %Sand %Silt %Clay Tex 

BDg 

TP (%) 

HC GMC AS SA MWD 

LL PL 
 

 (cm
-3

) (cmh
-1

) (%) (%) (%) (%) 
 

 Control 59 20 21 SCL 1.66 36.3 16 13.3 10.8 2.3 1.6 19.8 15.2 
 

 PM 59 23 18 SCL 1.54 42.5 41 19.0 14.7 4.7 2.5 22.5 17.7 
 

 SW 58 23 19 SCL 1.62 37.8 28 15.6 11.2 3.6 2.4 21.2 16.3 
 

 CD 58 22 20 SCL 1.51 41.8 36 14.5 13.3 3.6 2.4 20.9 18.1 
 

 SS 60 21 19 SCL 1.45 41.3 30 16.8 11.1 3.4 2.4 21.5 17.0 
 

 FLSD (0.05) NS NS NS - 0.07 3.3 NS NS NS NS NS 22.2 17.9 
 

 
Tex: Soil texture; SCL: Sandy clay loam; BD: Bulk density; TP: Total porosity; HC: Hydraulic conductivity; GMC: Gravimetric moisture content;  
AS: Aggregate stability; SA: State of aggregate; MWD: Mean weight diameter; LL: Liquid limit; PL: Plastic limit. 

 
 

 

unamended plots. There was no significant difference 
between the control and amended plots in terms of 
aggregate stability and state of aggregation. Not-
withstanding, what seems obvious are slight increase 
with amendment following the order PM>CD>SW>SS>C. 
This corroborates the findings of Wang et al. (2016) who 
observed that organic matter is an indispensible 
component in soil aggregation. Similarly, there were no 
significant differences among the treatments in terms of 
mean weight diameter. However, PM recorded the 
highest values (2.5%) as compared to other amendments 
and control (1.6%). This indicates that animal wastes 
enhanced mean weight diameter of soil.  

The liquid and plastic limits of amended soil were 
significantly (P<0.05) increased following amendments. 
Higher plasticity values were recorded in CD (18.1), PM 
(17.7), SS (17.0) and SW (16.3) amended plots as 
compared to the control (15.2). The implication of this is 
that moisture contents of the soils were improved 

 
 
 

 

following the amendments. 
 

 

Effect of treatments on soil chemical properties 

 

Soil pH, organic matter, total nitrogen and available 
phosphorus 

 

Soil pH was not significantly (P>0.05) affected following 
organic waste amendment as shown in (Table 4). The 
highest value of 6.1 was obtained in plots amended with 
poultry manure while the lowest was 5.2 from the control. 
The increase in pH due to animal waste amendment have 
been widely reported in literature (Darmordy et al., 1983; 
Nwite et al., 2016).  

Amendments increased P significantly (P<0.05). The 
highest value was obtained on poultry manure amended 

plots (40 mgkg
-1

) as compared to the lowest value (28 

mgkg
-1

) recorded in the control (Table 4). This agrees 



5 

 

  
 
 

 
Table 4. Chemical properties of soil at post Harvest.  
 
 

Treatment 
pH Av. P TN OM C:N Ca Mg K Na EA CEC 

BS (%)  

 

(KCl) (mgkg
-1

) (%) (%) ratio 
  

Cmolkg
-1

 
  

 

       
 

 C 5.2 28 0.11 2.0 10 4.1 2.8 0.1 0.03 1.36 8.4 80 
 

 PM 6.1 40 0.13 2.3 11 6.1 3.2 0.20 0.07 1.22 10.9 86 
 

 SW 5.8 28 0.09 2.0 13 5.1 2.8 0.13 0.06 1.30 10.2 83 
 

 CD 5.9 30 0.12 2.2 11 4.9 2.8 0.11 0.06 1.28 9.4 83 
 

 SS 5.7 36 0.11 2.1 11 4.6 2.8 0.13 0.08 1.34 9.5 81 
 

 FLSD (0.05) NS 7.5 NS NS NS NS NS NS 0.02 NS 1.65 NS 
 

 
C: Control; PM: poultry manure; SW: swine wastes; CD: cow dung; SS: sewage sludge. 
 
 

 
Table 5. Effect of amendments on growth and yield of maize. 

 

 Treatment Plant height (cm) Leaf area index Grain yield (tha
-1

) 

 C 113.2 344 0.5 

 PM 161.7 519 1.6 

 SW 137.5 463 1.4 

 CD 129.4 397 0.9 

 SS 136.1 387 1.2 

 FLSD (0.05) 20.3 154 0.2 
 

C: Control; PM: Poultry manure; SW: Swine wastes; CD: Cow dung; SS: Sewage sludge. 
 
 

 

with earlier findings by Adeleye and Ayeni (2009) that P 
content is increased by application of animal wastes.  

Total N exhibited non-significant effect following wastes 

amendments. Like P, the highest value of 0.13% was 

obtained in poultry manure amended plots, while the lowest 

value (0.11%) was recorded in the control. There was no 

significant difference (P>0.05) among the treatments. The 

increase in total N of amended plots is similar to the effects 

observed by Khaliq and Abbasi (2015) and attributed to build 

up of organic matter in the soil.  
There was no significant effect of amendments on soil 

organic matter. However, plots amended with poultry 
manure gave the highest values of 2.3%, while CD, SS 
and SW amended plots gave 2.2%, 2.1% and 2.0 as 
compared to the control plots 1.9%. This is consistent 
with reports of Wang et al. (2014) soil organic matter was 
higher in organic waste amended soils and is dependent 
on its nature and rate of its decomposition by the 
microbial community. PM contains both solid and liquid 
excreta and tends to mineralize faster as compared to 
wastes from other sources where urine is lost-resulting in 
high solid excreta (Amanullah et al., 2010). This explains 
the low C:N ratio of PM amended soils as an indicative 
faster release of nitrogen. 
 

 

Exchangeable bases and exchangeable acidity 

 

Amendments led to an increase in soil CEC especially  in 

 
 
 

 
PM plots (Table 4). This implies better supply of nutrients, 
hence improved fertility in amended plots. The higher values 

in poultry manure amended plots for Ca
2+

, K
+
 and Mg

2+
 has 

been observed by other reseachers (Hue and Lucidine, 
1999; Adeniyi and Ojeniyi, 2005). There is probably an 

increase in the amount of Ca
2+

 derived from CaCO3 due to 

formation of organic acids. Increased Ca
2+

 will result in 
improved soil structure by forming cationic bridges between 
clay and soil organic matter (David and Dimitrios, 2002). 

Mg
2+

 content tended to remain unaltered in all plots 
excluding the PM amended. The effect of amendments on 
Na content was significantly increased.  
SS amended plots had the highest values for Na

+
 with 

value of 0.08 cmolkg
-1

, while the control plots had the 
lowest values. This corroborates early findings (Basta, 
1996), that all wastes have high soluble salts in variable 
quantities and excessive salts in soils (natural or applied) 
can have detrimental effects on plants growth.  

Exchangeable acidities were not significant (P>0.05). 

Sewage sludge had the highest value of 1.86 cmolkg
-1

. 

The changes may be due to Al
3+

 from soil exchange site 
acted upon by decomposing waste-humus having a weak 
acid nature (Adediran et al., 2003). 
 

 

Effect of treatments on growth and yield components 

 

Plant height was significantly (P<0.05) increased (Table 
5) with the application of the amendments. The highest 



6 

 

 
 
 

 

result of 161.73 cm was 43% higher than the control 
plots. This was also observed in the leaf area index 
(51%) and yield (220%) higher relative to the control. It 
followed the order PM>SW>SS>CD for plant height, leaf 
area index and yield. This agrees with Mbah (2008) and 
Nwite et al. (2016) who observed that organic manure 
improves crops yield and is source-dependent. 
 

 

Conclusion 

 

The study shows that animal wastes enhanced soil 
properties and maize yield of hydromorphic ultisols in 
Abakaliki agro-ecology. The enhancement of soil 
properties and yield followed the order PM>SW>SS>CD. 
Poultry manure having low C:N ratio had the ability to 
release faster, hence, performing better than other animal 
wastes in the short-term. Cow dung, swine wastes and 
sewage sludge may have greater residual benefits. The 
application of sewage sludge may be beneficial in certain 
soil deficiency, but however has toxicity potentials. The 
application of these wastes at the rate used in this study 
will lead to restoration of degraded soils, thus ensuring 
that soil is healthy enough to perform its functions for 
agricultural sustainability. More studies are however 
needed using variable quantities and combination of 
wastes in hydromorphic soils. A long-term study of the 
wastes in order to bring out a cumulative effect of the 
amendments will also be a very useful practice. 
 

 

CONFLICT OF INTERESTS 
 
The authors have not declared any conflict of interests. 
 

 
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