













































_____________________________________________________________________ 
AJSW, Volume 4, Number 1, 2014                                                       Makuvaza, N.  

INTERROGATING THE ‘IRRATIONALITY OF 
THE    RATIONAL’ & CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE IN 
ZIMBABWE: THE CALL FOR EDUCATION FOR 
HUNHU / UBUNTU 

Makuvaza, Ngoni 

ABSTRACT 

This paper bemoans the current scourge of child- sexual abuse as 
well as the recent disturbing phenomenon of female rapists 
bedevilling the nation. It is particularly disconcerting when it is 
reported that there are over 2000 child rape cases reported each 
year in Zimbabwe. The author considers this as a serious problem 
which needs urgent attention. However, the author claims that, this 
scourge is concomitant with man’s broad search for ‘happiness’. 
Thus, this insatiable search for happiness has regrettably created a 
dilemma or paradox for 21st century man in Zimbabwe. This 
paradox hinges on man’s incessant and insatiable thirst for rational 
goods (happiness) through irrational means. Essentially, this has 
culminated in what this study refers to as the ‘paradox of the 
rational’ or the paradox of the ‘irrationality of the rational’. To 
interrogate this problematic malady, the author posits the following 
theses: (a) Zimbabwe is systematically sliding towards the 
‘irrationality of the rational’, (c) consequently, there is need to 
revisit and ‘renegotiate’ the dominant perception regarding the 
rationality of man, and lastly; (c) it is not jails and stiffer penalties 
(not even ‘fencing’) on the offenders that can contain this scourge 
but probably a ‘cultural rationality’ emanating from chivanhu and 
hunhu. To this end, the author posits education for hunhu / ubuntu 
as having the potential to address this problem. In this paper, ‘man’ 
shall refer collectively, to both male and female. 

KEY TERMS: irrationality, cultural rationality, education for hunhu, 
chivanhu 

Department of Educational Foundations, University of Zimbabwe. 
Contacts:  makuvazangoni32@gmail.com, P. Bag MP.167 

African Journal of Social Work, 4(1), June 2014                                                20 
_____________________________________________________________________ 
  



_____________________________________________________________________ 
AJSW, Volume 4, Number 1, 2014                                                       Makuvaza, N.  

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND 

Crime and its possible causes and explanations can be interrogated 

from various perspectives notably; economic, religious, political and 

psycho - social. However, notwithstanding these causes and 

explanations of crime, we argue; the bottom line is that; crime can be 

interrogated from the premise of man’s search for happiness, either 

in the short - term or in the long - term. Accordingly it is posited 

that; the search and quest for happiness by the twenty first century 

man in general and in Zimbabwe, in particular, has constituted a 

dilemma or a paradox for man. The paradox centres on man’s 

incessant search for rational goods, thus happiness, through 

irrational means. This has resulted in what this paper is referring to 

as the ‘paradox of the rational’ or the ‘irrationality of the rational’. In 

Zimbabwe, this paradox is evident, among other crimes, in the 

increasing despicable and horrible incidents of ‘crimes of passion’ or 

‘ invasions of childrens’ innocences’ perpetrated by the so – called 

rational, not only on human beings but even on non – human beings. 

This paper is therefore, premised on interrogating and articulating 

this paradox.  

To that end, the paper examines, the concepts; rationality, Platonic 

education and education for hunhu and lastly; cultural rationality. 

The author examines the concept ‘rationality’ because it is 

considered critical in firstly; distinguishing non human – beings 

from human – beings, in other words, persons and people from 

animals. Secondly, such an examination is considered as the basis 

African Journal of Social Work, 4(1), June 2014                                                21 
_____________________________________________________________________ 
  



_____________________________________________________________________ 
AJSW, Volume 4, Number 1, 2014                                                       Makuvaza, N.  

for evaluating the type of judgments and decisions man makes in his 

pursuit of happiness. The paper also examines Platonic education 

and education for hunhu. The paper examines Platonic education, 

because we think that his argument that education should produce a 

‘good man’ is vital to this paper. However, the author concedes that; 

if the good man is to have relevance, then his relevance should speak 

to a specific context. In that regard, the author considers education 

for hunhu, as having the potential to produce a good man with hunhu 

who can be considered appropriate and acceptable within the 

Zimbabwe. In light of the problem under discussion, the author puts 

it that; on the basis of such an education anchored on hunhu, such a 

person is capable of making culturally rational judgments and 

decisions in his in pursuit of his happiness, which are culturally 

rational. Thus, this paper posits cultural rationality anchored on 

education for hunhu, as an intervention strategy in addressing the 

current scourge of the ‘irrationality of the rational’ in Zimbabwe.   

To that end the paper posits the following theses, that: (a) there is 

need to probably revisit and ‘renegotiate’ the dominant perception 

regarding rationality as the distinctive quality separating human 

beings from other non – human beings, (b) while it is maintained 

that rationality is a ‘given’ to all ‘human – beings, not all of them 

necessarily act rationally, thus; while all people can think, not all of 

them can think rationally, (c) while all human – beings are 

people(vanhu), not all people are persons (vanhu kwavo) (d) 

Zimbabwe is systematically sliding towards the ‘irrationality of the 

rational’ and lastly (e) it is not jails and stiffer penalties ( not even ‘ 

African Journal of Social Work, 4(1), June 2014                                                22 
_____________________________________________________________________ 
  



_____________________________________________________________________ 
AJSW, Volume 4, Number 1, 2014                                                       Makuvaza, N.  

fencing’) on the offenders that can contain the scourge of the 

‘irrationality of the irrational’ but probably ‘cultural rationality’ 

anchored on education for hunhu. 

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 

In interrogating and articulating the problems associated 

with the ‘irrationality of the rational’ specifically child - 

sexual abuse in Zimbabwe, the paper adopts the 

qualitative methodology. In particular, it adopts 

discourse as well as documentary analyses to interrogate 

our problem. Documentary analysis is suitable for this 

problem: 

As it involves the study of documents 
either to understand their substantive 
content or to illuminate deeper meanings 
which may be revealed by their style and 
coverage (Ritchie & Lewis, 2003, p. 35). 

Discourse analysis, on the other hand, is also considered 

suitable for this discussion as:  

It examines the construction of texts and 
verbal accounts to explore systems of 
social meaning. It examines ways in which 
‘versions of the world, of society, events 
and inner psychological worlds are 

African Journal of Social Work, 4(1), June 2014                                                23 
_____________________________________________________________________ 
  



_____________________________________________________________________ 
AJSW, Volume 4, Number 1, 2014                                                       Makuvaza, N.  

produced in discourse’ (Richie & Lewis, 
2003, p. 35). 

In light of the scarcity of relevant documented literature 

on the problem, this discussion shall depend on a few 

related texts and newspapers. 

THE PROBLEM 

Cases of ‘child-predators’, ‘child-sodomizers’, ‘child-molesters’, 

‘child-rapists’, ‘child innocence invaders’ and paedophiliacs the 

world-over and in Zimbabwe in particular have reached alarming 

and unacceptable proportions. Hardly does one read a daily without 

a story about a child who has been abused in one way or another. 

The most horrifying of all the reported and unreported cases of abuse 

to children are sexual ones. The following are just but a tip of the 

ice-berg;  

Herald (Friday, 19 January, 2007) - “Unknown 

man rapes girl  (3)”; The Herald (Tuesday, 7, 

November, 2007) - “Businessman rapes daughter 

(15) at gunpoint”; The Herald (Tuesday, 31 

October, 2007) - “Man accused of bestiality given 

a community - service sentence”; The Sunday Mail 

(October 28-November 4 2007)- “Man sodomizes 

boy in broad daylight”; The Herald (Monday, 22 

January, 2007) - “Rape trial date set  for a 

African Journal of Social Work, 4(1), June 2014                                                24 
_____________________________________________________________________ 
  



_____________________________________________________________________ 
AJSW, Volume 4, Number 1, 2014                                                       Makuvaza, N.  

Chitungwiza man who rapes his half-brother’s 11 

month old baby” ; The Herald ( Thursday, 9, 

August 2007) - “a forty- seven year old Chinhoi 

man has been arrested for allegedly raping three 

six – year – old girls playing near their homestead 

on Inyape Farm”; H – Metro, Tuesday, 12 

October, 2010 -“Brother impregnates sister”;  

The Daily News, Thursday 2, 2012 – “Chinese 

men involved in sex scandal involving minors in 

Zambia” ; Daily News, Saturday 2, November, 

2013 – “Child Rape Horror: Over 2000 child rape 

cases reported each year” and “Woman commits 

suicide after hubby rapes sister(13) – The Herald, 

Monday 11, November, 2013. 

Indeed, the above cases are only a tip of an ice – berg. These cases 

point to a serious problem in our society. Particularly that, there are 

over 2000 cases of child – sexual abuse a year in Zimbabwe Daily 

News, Saturday 2, November, 2013 – “Child Rape Horror: Over 

2000 child rape cases reported each year”, only demonstrates the 

enormity of the problem. Consequently, people cannot wish this 

problem away but must confront it head on.  

The gravity of the problem was also fittingly captured by the 

President of Zimbabwe, Cde. Mugabe, in his address to the Chiefs 

Conference at Victoria Falls Primary School where he bemoaned 

moral decadence in the country. He expressed further deep concern 

African Journal of Social Work, 4(1), June 2014                                                25 
_____________________________________________________________________ 
  



_____________________________________________________________________ 
AJSW, Volume 4, Number 1, 2014                                                       Makuvaza, N.  

regarding the problem of child sexual abuse in the country when he 

said, 

ubuntu bethu is violated when the father of a little girl 

ravishes that little girl, rapes that little girl. What would 

have happened? It’s my concern, …(The Chronicle, 2007).  

Indeed, what would have happened is and should be the concern not 

only of this paper but also of all ‘normal’ or rational people. It 

should be everyone’s concern especially given the fact that there is 

an average of about six (6) rape cases being reported everyday in the 

country (Zimbabwe), notwithstanding those which go unreported 

(Daily News, 2013). What we must bear in mind is that these are the 

‘reported cases’, what of others which go unreported. If we are to 

consider the unreported cases in the above statistics, then it means 

we have way above 2000 cases of child rape cases annually in 

Zimbabwe. What these statistics translate to is that, about six 

innocent children are molested on a daily basis in Zimbabwe. We 

argue, even one child molested, is one too many to be cause for great 

concern to society. The issue is not so much with numbers whether 

too small or too much, but rather with the crime. If these statistics is 

anything to go by, then indeed, we have a serious problem, which 

demands urgent attention. Similarly, in Zambia for instance, 

policemen at the Zambia Police Service’s Victim Support Unit 

Trust, said the rape of minors has increased from 1676 cases in 2009 

to 2028 in 2010 (The Daily News, 2012). 

African Journal of Social Work, 4(1), June 2014                                                26 
_____________________________________________________________________ 
  



_____________________________________________________________________ 
AJSW, Volume 4, Number 1, 2014                                                       Makuvaza, N.  

However, interestingly and equally inopportunely, it needs to be 

cautioned that it is no longer a problem about or from men 

exclusively. This is premised on the recent revelations that; women, 

probably feeling rather ‘left out’ in the irrationality of the rational 

‘madness’, have recently become ‘rapists’ of men as well, a 

development which can probably be construed as ‘revenge’ against 

men (Newsday, 2011).  In other words, women or females have 

taken it upon themselves to be included, like men, in the 

‘irrationality of the rational’ ‘madness’, by also ‘raping’ men.  

What makes this scourge particularly horrendous and disturbing is 

that it is being committed by adult human beings on other human 

beings, but more importantly, it is being committed by the so-called 

rational human beings on other beings who are also considered 

rational. However, in other similar cases, these so-called rational 

human beings have even gone a step further to commit their 

deplorable crimes on non-human beings  or animals ( the so-called 

irrational beings) (“Man accused of bestiality given a community-

service sentence”, Sunday Mail, 2007). 

What is also this problem more interesting is that; there are no 

reported cases of the so – called irrational animals forcing 

themselves on rational human beings or even on fellow irrational 

beings of a different species? Additionally, even under extreme 

circumstances, there are no reported cases of adult animals forcing 

themselves on their young ones even of the same species. Thus, 

essentially there are no reported cases, of the irrational sexually 

African Journal of Social Work, 4(1), June 2014                                                27 
_____________________________________________________________________ 
  



_____________________________________________________________________ 
AJSW, Volume 4, Number 1, 2014                                                       Makuvaza, N.  

abusing the rational, let alone the irrational sexually abusing the 

irrational. We therefore think; this constitutes a real problem for 

Zimbabwe, which calls for urgent attention.  

What is also further disconcerting about the above problem in 

Zimbabwe and elsewhere, is type of rational beings perpetrating 

theses heinous crimes. Thus, we hereby note that; the ‘once’ rational 

custodians of our tradition, culture and values, notably, the elders of 

our society (both men and women), teachers (both males and 

females), law enforcement agents and ministers of religion 

(Newsday, 2011; Herald, 2013), seem to have either taken a back 

seat or are at the forefront in promoting this menace. In Zambia, for 

instance, perpetrators include Zambian teachers, farmers, traditional 

medicine men and even policemen themselves (The Daily News, 

2012). Indeed and regrettably so, these custodians of law and 

traditions, seem to be at the forefront, engaging in the most 

contemptible, ‘unthinkable’ and irrational, as some of them ‘see 

lovely women not only in girl-children, or girl-infants but even in 

animals. Further, some men see lovely ‘women’ in fellow men and 

vice – versa. Ironically, there seems to be no known or reported 

cases of animals or non-human beings manifesting any of these 

despicable behaviours of sexually forcing themselves on human 

beings, or on other animals of a different species or let alone on 

immature animals even of the same species, even under extreme 

conditions. 

African Journal of Social Work, 4(1), June 2014                                                28 
_____________________________________________________________________ 
  



_____________________________________________________________________ 
AJSW, Volume 4, Number 1, 2014                                                       Makuvaza, N.  

The preceding cases are only a tip of the ice-berg. What is critical 

about these and similar crimes are that all seem premised on man’s 

search for happiness of one form or another. However, they seem to 

corroborate the thesis of the paper pertaining to the irrationality of 

the rational, as these heinous and irrational acts are perpetrated by 

none other than the so-called rational beings in their search for 

happiness. In view of this, what then can be said regarding the 

rationality thesis and the corresponding ‘rationality of the irrational’ 

argument and vice-versa. Further, of the two species, which one then 

should have the claim to rationality, human beings and non – human 

beings? Consequently, it is this basis that the popular rationality 

thesis is being put to serious test. Additionally and of great 

importance to this discussion, how can this phenomenon be 

explained and possibly be contained? 

The element of rationality alluded to above, is critical to our 

interrogation of sexual abuse in particular, and general criminality in 

the Zimbabwe and elsewhere. Rationality or irrationality is crucial to 

this discussion because, it is considered as the defining feature which 

makes human – beings, stand in clear contra-distinction to the so-

called non – human beings or animals (Sachs, 2002). The general 

perception being that, man (humanity) is rational while non – human 

beings on the other hand, are irrational. Thus, in light of the above 

incidences of child sexual abuse, what is being put to question is the 

rationality / irrationality perceptions which distinguish human beings 

from non –human beings. Questions which beg answers in view of 

African Journal of Social Work, 4(1), June 2014                                                29 
_____________________________________________________________________ 
  



_____________________________________________________________________ 
AJSW, Volume 4, Number 1, 2014                                                       Makuvaza, N.  

the preceding observations are; (a) do such actions by the so-called 

rational beings demonstrate rationality? (b) Of the two species, 

which one is rational and which one is irrational? 

HUMAN NATURE, RATIONALITY, AND THE QUEST FOR 
HAPPINESS –A RECONSIDERATION 
 

This paper is premised on the conventional and popular views that, 

firstly; humanity is rational by nature (Sachs, 2002). Secondly, 

humanity’s survival in general, is characterized consciously or 

unconsciously, by the insatiable quest and search for the ‘universal 

good’ or eudaimonia or happiness (Sachs, 2002 ; Plato, 1965). This 

view was also aptly corroborated by Thinley (1998), in his keynote 

speech delivered to UNDP Regional Millennium Meeting for Asia 

and the Pacific who asserted that; 

Happiness is the ultimate desire of every human 

being. All else is a means to this end. It should 

logically follow then that all individual and 

collective efforts should be devoted to this common 

goal.  

The preceding submission was also further substantiated by Aristotle 

who also argued that the highest good to which man may aspire is 

happiness. In other words, happiness can be considered to be the 

ultimate goal of all human endeavours, collectively and individually. 

However, what distinguishes human - beings as rational beings from 

African Journal of Social Work, 4(1), June 2014                                                30 
_____________________________________________________________________ 
  



_____________________________________________________________________ 
AJSW, Volume 4, Number 1, 2014                                                       Makuvaza, N.  

other non – human beings is especially, in the manner of searching 

for the universal good or happiness. Whilst non – human beings’ 

search for happiness can be viewed as being largely ‘determined’; 

human – beings’ search is not as such, as they are believed to have a 

free will (Finnis, 1998). Thus, human beings’ search for the same is 

said to be determined by rationality. It can also be suggested that 

human – beings have the capability through rationality or reasoning 

of not only living according to nature, but more so and very 

importantly, controlling nature. Thus, in their hunt for the universal 

good, it is assumed, human - beings will adopt rational means or 

rationality to achieve happiness precisely because it is / should be in 

their nature to do so. 

By rationality according to The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary is 

meant, “…the quality of possessing reason or the power of being 

able to exercise one’s reason”. Collins English Dictionary also 

defines rationality, as “using reason in thinking out a problem or the 

possession or utilization of logic or reason”. Further, Chamber’s 

Twentieth Century Dictionary defines rationality as “the quality of 

being rational; the possession of or exercise of reason”.  From the 

above definitions, it is evident that reason or ‘ratiocination’ should 

be at the centre of rationality, whereby rationality, in this paper 

refers to the use of reason or the process of ratiocination to achieve 

certain ends. Thus, rationality shall refer to the recognition and 

acceptance of reason as one’s only source of knowledge, one’s only 

judge of values and one’s only guide to action. It means one’s total 

African Journal of Social Work, 4(1), June 2014                                                31 
_____________________________________________________________________ 
  



_____________________________________________________________________ 
AJSW, Volume 4, Number 1, 2014                                                       Makuvaza, N.  

commitment through reasoning or ratiocination, to a state of full, 

conscious awareness, to the maintenance of a full mental focus in all 

issues, in all choices, in all of one’s waking hours.  

It can be deduced from the preceding that reasoning or ratiocination 

is a defining feature of rationality. The Shorter Oxford English 

Dictionary adds an important dimension to the preceding 

examination of rationality by defining reason as “that intellectual 

power or faculty, usually characteristic of mankind, which ordinarily 

is employed to adopt thought and action”. This definition is 

particularly significant as it speaks well to the distinction between 

mankind and non – mankind or non – human beings. Reason is a 

term that refers to the capacity human beings have to make sense of 

things, to establish and verify facts, and to change or justify 

practices, institutions and beliefs. The concept of reason is 

sometimes referred to as rationality and sometimes as discursive 

reason, in opposition to intuitive reason. Reason, "reasoning" or 

ratiocination is associated with conscious thinking, cognition, and 

intellect. Reason, is thus the means by which rational beings 

understand themselves to think about cause and effect, truth and 

falsehood, and what is good or bad.  

Thus, while all other non – human beings are for instance, intuitively 

and unconditionally driven by the impulse to preserve their own 

lives in search of happiness and by the impulse of proliferation, 

human - beings on the other hand, have the power to master or 

control even these impulses. Human - beings can control both their 

African Journal of Social Work, 4(1), June 2014                                                32 
_____________________________________________________________________ 
  



_____________________________________________________________________ 
AJSW, Volume 4, Number 1, 2014                                                       Makuvaza, N.  

sexual desires and their will to live. As has been mentioned above it 

is these characteristics amongst others which seem to categorically 

set human - beings in contra – distinction from other mammals or 

non – human beings. Frankfurt (1986) expands further on this 

distinction when he notes that;  

There are three possible sorts of beings: (1) 

animal-like or automaton-like creatures that have 

only first-order desires; (2) wanton creatures that 

may have second-order desires but no second 

order-volitions; and (3) persons who have second 

order-volition which attribute to them a will. 

Frankfurt’s categorization of beings is interesting as he seems to be 

speaking to this paper. If we relate his observations to our discussion 

it means there are three types of human beings, notably; animal – 

like or automaton - like, wantons and lastly persons who have 

second – order volitions. However, what distinguishes other beings 

from persons is their inability to make ‘second – order volitions 

which attribute to them a will’. The phrase ‘second order-volition 

which attribute to them a will’, in this categorization is significant. 

What this means is that; while(1) and (2) above have desires, they 

lack the will to control their desires on the basis that they do not 

think about what they desire, but they simply desire it and then go on 

to desire it. Persons, on the other hand have desires, but before they 

act on their desires, they think about what they desire, before they 

decide to desire it. In other words, they do not simply desire and act 

African Journal of Social Work, 4(1), June 2014                                                33 
_____________________________________________________________________ 
  



_____________________________________________________________________ 
AJSW, Volume 4, Number 1, 2014                                                       Makuvaza, N.  

on their desire, rather and very crucially, they reflect or rationalise or 

reason about their particular desires. In this process of thinking about 

the desires, they are seeking the rationality, reasonableness or 

justification of their desire. 

Thus, the ability to critically think and reason about desires or to 

have second – order desires or the ability to reason about their 

desires is characteristic of or is reserved for human - beings.  

However, we think this capability is reserved not for human beings 

per se, but persons. This observation is critical as it speaks to two 

important distinctions between human beings and persons notably 

that; while all human beings can think not all human beings can 

think well, reason or rationalise well. Secondly, while all persons 

can reason, not all of them can reason well or appropriately. Lastly, 

while all human beings are people, not all people are persons. Thus, 

the ability to reason well is reserved for real persons, who in this 

paper are referred to as vanhu chaivo. 

In this paper, we consider people as human – beings who have 

second – order desires and thus can think, rationalise and reason 

about their desires. On this basis, these are merely people. Persons, 

on the other hand are considered as operating at a higher plane than 

mere people. Persons like people think critically about, or reason and 

rationalize their desires. However unlike mere people, persons 

consider the appropriateness of what they desire within a broader 

framework, which is not entirely individualist. In other words, 

persons (vanhu chaivo) make decisions pertaining to their happiness 

African Journal of Social Work, 4(1), June 2014                                                34 
_____________________________________________________________________ 
  



_____________________________________________________________________ 
AJSW, Volume 4, Number 1, 2014                                                       Makuvaza, N.  

which are rational but, essentially culturally appropriate. If the above 

analysis is cogent we therefore posit that; indeed Zimbabwe has 

many people (vanhu) but not all them are persons (vanhu kwavo). In 

view of the problem under discussion, we further put it that; 

Zimbabwe, has both ‘animal – like human beings’ and ‘wanton like 

human beings’ (mhuka dzavanhu) as well as persons (vanhu kwavo) 

who can reason or have capacity to make second – order desires.  

Thus, what characterises mhuka dzevanhu, within the present 

discussion, are people who are incapable of making culturally 

appropriate and rational decisions and judgments in pursuit of their 

happiness. Vanhu kwavo (persons), on the other hand, are those 

among the majority of people who are capable of making culturally 

rational and appropriate decisions in search of their happiness. 

However, what seems interesting and at the same time disturbing, in 

view of the problem under discussion, is the observation that; 

Zimbabweans seem to be moving towards becoming mhuka 

dzevanhu, yet mhuka chaidzo are ironically ‘behaving’ like vanhu 

chaivo. This is notwithstanding the fact that; animals are considered 

irrational. By irrational pertaining to animals refers to their supposed 

inability to think (kusafunga). Similarly, by irrationality as it relates 

to mere human beings, is taken to refer to their inability to think or 

reason well. However, what we are therefore arguing is that; is it not 

better not to think than to think wrongly or inappropriately. If one’s 

ability to think leads one to the ‘invasion of children’s’ ‘innocences’, 

we hazard to say; it is proper not to think at all. Essentially we are 

African Journal of Social Work, 4(1), June 2014                                                35 
_____________________________________________________________________ 
  



_____________________________________________________________________ 
AJSW, Volume 4, Number 1, 2014                                                       Makuvaza, N.  

suggesting that; if man’s rationality is leading him to do the 

irrational, then we argue; is not proper and desirable that man 

becomes irrational. By irrationality in this paper, as it relates to 

animals, is meant their inability to think and reason or the fact that 

they operate on instinct. This is premised on the submission that; no 

cases of rape between animal themselves or of people having been 

raped by animals have been reported. Against, this backdrop, one 

naturally asks; of the two species; human beings and animals, which 

one is rational? This therefore is the basis of the irrationality of the 

rational thesis of this paper. On the basis of this thesis, the author 

posits that; human beings are systematically becoming irrational; 

hence the urgent need to contain this slide into irrationality, not by 

jails but by an appropriate education. The author thinks this 

appropriate education, which is hereby referred to as education for 

hunhu, will develop proper human beings or persons(vanhu kwavo), 

who are capable of making culturally rational and appropriate 

decisions and judgments in their pursuit of happiness. 

It needs however, to be further mentioned that discourse on the 

rationality or what this paper refers to, ‘thinking well, or reasoning 

well’ especially in the context of man’s search for happiness, is 

controversial and problematical. It is highly contentious because the 

term is subjective. Thus, it is very difficult to judge one’s actions as 

either rational or irrational, precisely because everyone can 

rationalize one’s actions or everyone has his / her own 

rationalization. It is along the same logic, why human actions can 

African Journal of Social Work, 4(1), June 2014                                                36 
_____________________________________________________________________ 
  



_____________________________________________________________________ 
AJSW, Volume 4, Number 1, 2014                                                       Makuvaza, N.  

justifiably be conceived as either rational or irrational but the same 

cannot be said of said of actions or behaviours of animals, precisely 

because the latter have the potential to rationalize or ratiocinate 

while the latter cannot. Additionally, it is precisely because every 

human being can rationalize and every situation has its unique 

rationalization, which makes discourse on the rationality or 

irrationality of human highly problematic. 

However, in spite of the observations, within the context of the 

present discussion, the rationality or irrationality of human – beings 

should be conceptualized within the context of the people’s culture, 

worldview and philosophy of life. Within the present writing 

therefore, one’s rationality or otherwise is to be evaluated within the 

context of ‘chivanhu’ and ‘hunhu’ as the proposed guiding 

philosophy of life informing the Shona peoples’s search for the 

ultimate good or happiness. In other words, it is being argued that 

one’s search for happiness must be conducted, understood and 

appreciated within the context of chivanhu’ and ‘hunhu’, if that 

search is to be viewed as rational. In other words, this paper is 

positing cultural rationality as opposed to rationality per se. The 

author concedes cultural rationality, to be a type of rationality or 

reasoning which is anchored on and defined by a particular people’s 

philosophy of life (Luthuli,1982). Thus, in this regard, what would 

constitute as a rational action is an action which resonates with the 

particular people’s philosophy of life.  

African Journal of Social Work, 4(1), June 2014                                                37 
_____________________________________________________________________ 
  



_____________________________________________________________________ 
AJSW, Volume 4, Number 1, 2014                                                       Makuvaza, N.  

THE PARADOX OF THE RATIONAL AND THE 
IRRATIONALITY OF THE RATIONAL – 
CONTEXTUALIZING MAN’S SEARCH FOR HAPPINESS 

In further interrogating the place of happiness in the lives of man, 

the author draws insights from the Symbosium. The author examines 

happiness from the perspective of two paradoxes, namely; Plato’s 

paradox of the rational and secondly, what this paper has considered 

as the paradox of the irrationality of the rational.  In the Symbosium, 

Plato was trying to advance a theory of motivation for human action 

and he explains how human beings try to achieve the chief good 

which is happiness. Man’s search for the chief good or happiness has 

resulted in what Plato referred to as the paradox of the rational or the 

paradox of irrationality (Vlastos, 1971). The central phenomenon of 

the paradox being that, ‘human beings look irrational while they 

rationally pursue the good’. 

The paradox arises from the fact that it is impossible to pursue and 

attain happiness directly. Happiness is of the nature that it cannot be 

attained or conceptualized in its totality. In striving for happiness, 

people seem to strive for other things which they regard as good. 

What is recognized as good in the kinds of pursuits that Plato has in 

mind include; art, political reform, science and the raising of 

children. Nowadays, it must be admitted, the list of the kinds of 

pursuits which are regarded as good and thus bringing about 

happiness is inexhaustible. However, chief among these seem to be 

money, precisely because money has been viewed as the ‘mother’ of 

or the key to all happiness. Once such a pursuit becomes central to 

African Journal of Social Work, 4(1), June 2014                                                38 
_____________________________________________________________________ 
  



_____________________________________________________________________ 
AJSW, Volume 4, Number 1, 2014                                                       Makuvaza, N.  

one’s life, and is embraced as good, one responds rationally to this 

goodness by hanging on to it. When one embraces something as 

good, Plato suggests, one in a certain sense loses sight of one’s own 

happiness. For instance, when we are committed to the good of our 

children or the search for money, this pursuit literally ‘takes over’ 

our lives and starts to dictate and direct them. It is not assessed in the 

light of whether it really makes us happy; we do not back off when 

we realize that we are constantly exhausted and worried; we hold on 

to it as something good. That is, the fact that one cannot pursue 

happiness directly means that one shall be ‘sold’ to the pursuit of 

other things. Thus, the pursuit of happiness actually consists in the 

pursuit of other things. 

 It is in this context, that man’s search for happiness is indeed 

paradoxical precisely because of its elusive and rather baffling 

nature. It is so because in searching for happiness one has to search 

for other things even to the extent of enduring suffering, pain and 

sacrifice to attain them, in the short term and then happiness in the 

long term. It needs also to be further reiterated that, the search for 

happiness culminating in the paradox of the rational is premised on 

the fact that man is rational. Thus, even though the search for 

happiness seems irrational, people in their search are ideally 

supposed to use rational means to attain happiness. 

Plato’s paradox of rationality, fits quite well into what this paper 

terms, the paradox of the irrationality of the rational. Whilst in the 

Symposium, human – beings’ search for happiness is paradoxical in 

African Journal of Social Work, 4(1), June 2014                                                39 
_____________________________________________________________________ 
  



_____________________________________________________________________ 
AJSW, Volume 4, Number 1, 2014                                                       Makuvaza, N.  

that, in searching for happiness people have to rationally search for 

other things, the paradox of the 21st century man is even worse and 

more saddening. It is worsened by the fact that, in people’s search 

for happiness, people are not only searching for other things, but are 

doing so, through irrational means. Thus, the issue which is of 

concern to the present paper is not the irrationality of the search for 

happiness per se, because that can be appreciated as being intrinsic 

to the search for happiness. Rather, what is of great concern to us is 

the irrational manner, today’s people adopt in their search for 

happiness. Thus, the above cases above which are only a tip of the 

ice – berg, typify and are symptomatic of the irrational means which 

today’s people especially in Zimbabwe, have resorted to in order 

attain happiness. Specifically; we posit the invasion of children 

‘innocences’ as exemplifying the irrationality of the rational. 

Accordingly, in light of this, man’s view of happiness and more 

importantly his rationality is being called into question. It is being 

called into question precisely because the manner in which today’s 

man is searching for happiness seems to be compromising as well as 

undermining the dominant and traditional perception of man as a 

rational being. The manner in which 21st century man is sold out to 

attaining happiness regrettably corroborates the paradox of the 

rational or the irrationality of the rational. Specifically, the manner 

in which today’s man searches for money in the hope of getting 

happiness is indeed and should be great cause of concern. In view of 

this, this paper is therefore calling for an urgent need firstly; of a 

redefinition of man’s humanity as well as happiness and, secondly; 

African Journal of Social Work, 4(1), June 2014                                                40 
_____________________________________________________________________ 
  



_____________________________________________________________________ 
AJSW, Volume 4, Number 1, 2014                                                       Makuvaza, N.  

for intervention strategies to contain the possible and inevitable 

degeneration of society into the ‘irrationality of the rational’. 

CHIVANHU, HUNHU AS THE BASIS OF SHONA 
CULTURAL RATIONALITY 

Hunhu / ubuntu has of late become a topical issue in most academic 

discourses both within and beyond our borders. Unhu/hunhu which 

ordinarily means good manners and behaviour in both Shona and the 

Ndebele languages (Gelfand, 1973), is the equivalent of ubuntu in 

Ndebele. However, in this paper, the term hunhu shall be used 

throughout the discussion. It is also significant to point out that; the 

positions arrived in this paper have significance even for the 

Ndebele as well. We think most discourses on hunhu have made a 

serious academic error in conceptualization by consciously or 

otherwise, ignoring the fundamental connection between chivanhu 

and hunhu. This can be attributed to a fine line which obtains 

between the two. As a result, the two terms have unfortunately and 

oftentimes, been considered as identical, in both conception and 

usage. In spite of this we think the two are distinguishable. 

Accordingly, we argue; one cannot meaningfully interrogate, 

conceptualise and appreciate hunhu outside the context of chivanhu. 

We consider chivanhu to be the womb from which hunhu 

germinates, sprouts and is nurtured. Chivanhu is the root while 

hunhu are either the trunk or branches of the tree. The notions of 

chivanhu and hunhu define us the Shona as black Africans of 

Zimbabwe into what and who there are. We take chivanhu, to define 

African Journal of Social Work, 4(1), June 2014                                                41 
_____________________________________________________________________ 
  



_____________________________________________________________________ 
AJSW, Volume 4, Number 1, 2014                                                       Makuvaza, N.  

and influence the manner we interrogate and interpret reality and 

phenomena in and around us. Hunhu though considered as identical 

with chivanhu, is actually anchored on chivanhu. We take chivanhu 

to refer to a worldview of the black Africans of Zimbabwe. It can 

also be considered as the philosophy of life of the black Africans of 

Zimbabwe. Hunhu becomes the unique and peculiar manner, black 

Zimbabweans interrogate their reality. Most discourses on hunhu 

have tended to confine it to being strictly, a moral sensibility. Hunhu 

can be considered beyond the moral domain, as it like chivanhu 

permeates every aspect and domain of black peoples’ lives. Hunhu 

therefore refers to the people’s sensibilities of and about their world, 

be they; moral, economic, religious, political, social and otherwise. 

Essentially, we take hunhu to refer to tsika dazakanaka nemagariro 

evanhu vatema. Tsika dazakanaka entails a lot beyond the scope of 

this paper. This is because tsika dzakanaka, apart from being 

numerous, differ from one ethnic group to the other, and even within 

the same ethnic group or community, variations are also possible. 

Against this admission, it is a futile exercise to consider providing an 

exhaustive list of tsika dzakanaka.  

However, for our purposes it is vital to point out that; tsika 

dzakanaka and thus hunhu was premised on on “respect for the 

norms and traditions of the family, community and society”. 

Broodryk (2002: 56) expands on the ‘norms and traditions of the 

family and community by conceding that ubuntu was: 

African Journal of Social Work, 4(1), June 2014                                                42 
_____________________________________________________________________ 
  



_____________________________________________________________________ 
AJSW, Volume 4, Number 1, 2014                                                       Makuvaza, N.  

Based on the primary values of intense 

humanness, caring, sharing, respect, compassion 

and associated values, ensuring a happy and 

qualitative human community life in the spirit of 

family. 

The author considers Mugumbate & Nyanguru (2013) views on 

hunhu/ubuntu as relevant to this discussion. They conceded that: 

Various words have been used to describe the 

presence of ubuntu. Some of these are sympathy, 

compassion, benevolence, solidarity, hospitality, 

generosity, sharing, openness, affirming, 

available, kindness, caring, harmony, 

interdependence, obedience, collectivity and 

consensus. Ubuntu is opposite to vengeance, 

opposite to confrontation, opposite to retribution 

and that ubuntu values life, dignity, compassion, 

humaneness harmony and reconciliation 

(Mugumbate & Nyanguru, 2013: 84) 

The above views are critical in our articulation of hunhu. They 

should be considered as the values and sensibilities which were 

firstly anchored on and secondly; projected and promoted hunhu 

among the people. We think it is proper to admit that the main 

premise of hunhu was the promotion of humaneness and life of both 

the individual and the family and the community. The South African 

African Journal of Social Work, 4(1), June 2014                                                43 
_____________________________________________________________________ 
  



_____________________________________________________________________ 
AJSW, Volume 4, Number 1, 2014                                                       Makuvaza, N.  

Nobel Laureate Archbishop Desmond Tutu captures this view aptly 

when admits that: 

Hunhu/ubuntu is the essence of being human. It 

speaks of the fact that my humanity is caught up 

and is inextricably bound up in yours. I am 

because I belong. It speaks about wholeness, it 

speaks about compassion. 

In this paper, hunhu shall refer to the mental and physical 

dispositions of an individual characterized by humility, kindness, 

courtesy, warmth, empathy, understanding, love, humaneness, 

respectfulness, responsibleness, friendliness and consideration which 

manifests itself in the manner one talks, walks, behaves, dresses, 

interacts with relatives and non-relatives alike (Makuvaza, 2013, 

1996a & b; Chigwedere, 1995).  

Turning to the discussion, the above as constitutes both mental and 

physical competencies and sensibilities which are predominantly a 

result of thinking and reasoning well. Hunhu has potential to 

influences how and why we think what we think. Thus, we are 

saying; hunhu should be the basis of people’s search for happiness, 

if that search is to be considered culturally rational and acceptable. 

In other words, people’s search for happiness in Zimbabwe, should 

be evaluated against the above competencies and values. Essentially, 

we are arguing that; hunhu should be considered as the benchmark, 

against which any search for happiness in should be evaluated 

African Journal of Social Work, 4(1), June 2014                                                44 
_____________________________________________________________________ 
  



_____________________________________________________________________ 
AJSW, Volume 4, Number 1, 2014                                                       Makuvaza, N.  

against. Thus, one wonders, whether or not, molesting innocent 

children or even adults for that matter, in one’s quest for happiness, 

can constitute a rational act by a rational human being? The 

fundamental rhetorical question which should inform any rational 

act by a so – called rational being in Zimbabwe should be: zvandiri 

kuita zvine hunhu here (is what I am doing justifiable?) or vandiri 

kuitira zvinhu zvakadai vanoti zvine hunhu here? (will those affected 

by actions consider them as just?). If the answer is in the affirmative, 

then one can proceed, if negative; then a culturally rational being 

would stop. Man’s search for happiness in Zimbabwe should be 

anchored on chivanhu and hunhu if that search is to be considered as 

culturally justifiable and rational. 

TOWARDS CONTAINING THE IRRATIONALITY OF THE 
RATIONAL –NOT MORE JAILS BUT MORE EDUCATION 
 

Several measures have been taken by society to contain the 

irrationality of the rational in their search for happiness. For 

instance, in showing society’s disdain of this menace, offenders have 

been jailed and stiffer penalties instituted. However, in light of the 

persistence of this scourge in our society, we think these measures 

have been to no avail. Thus, some members of Zimbabwean society, 

in an attempt to protect their daughters against possible molestation 

and ‘invasion’ have resorted to traditional means of ‘fencing’ off’ 

their daughters (H – Metro, Tuesday, 12 October, 2010). ‘Fencing 

off’ in this context refers to traditional practices and measures taken 

African Journal of Social Work, 4(1), June 2014                                                45 
_____________________________________________________________________ 
  



_____________________________________________________________________ 
AJSW, Volume 4, Number 1, 2014                                                       Makuvaza, N.  

by certain individual members of society to protect their ‘properties’ 

in general against thieves. For instance, in the present context some 

parents would use rukwa to protect their innocent daughters against 

being victims of sexual abuse especially by men. ‘Rukwa’ in Shona 

culture is a form of ‘mushonga’, ‘muti’ or medicine. Thus, in the 

event that a man abuses or rapes a girl who has been ‘fenced off’ or 

treated with this ‘rukwa’, the rapist may befall various forms of 

serious sicknesses which in most cases result in death if he does own 

up. It needs to be submitted that even this practice of ‘fencing’ has 

not been very effective as a deterrent as still cases of child and 

women sexual abuse continue to be reported. Because jailing 

offenders or ‘fencing off’ have not yielded the intended results, 

probably it is worthwhile considering other interventions. 

Whilst the irrationality of the search for happiness can be 

conceptualized as a given per se, it becomes an issue, as in the 

Zimbabwean context, when it takes on irrational means of attaining 

it. Accordingly, in an attempt to contribute towards national efforts 

at curbing the irrationality of the rational in its search for happiness, 

this paper is arguing for a type of education notably, education for 

hunhu. It is surmised that; this particular type of education has the 

potential to ‘awaken’ us, the Zimbabweans (so-called rational 

beings), from this degeneration into irrationality, and hopefully back 

into rationality. We are arguing for this type of education, because 

we think this type of search for happiness is not only irrational, but 

is also not consistent with tsika dzechivanhu and tsika dzine hunhu. 

African Journal of Social Work, 4(1), June 2014                                                46 
_____________________________________________________________________ 
  



_____________________________________________________________________ 
AJSW, Volume 4, Number 1, 2014                                                       Makuvaza, N.  

By education for hunhu is meant an education which has as its point 

of departure the world – view of the Shona people of Zimbabwe 

which is characterized by chivanhu as described above, and which 

seeks to articulate and promote hunhu kwaho (good behaviour). 

It is in search for other possible measures to address this paradox, 

that this paper locates education for hunhu at the centre of the 

intervention process. Education for hunhu is being considered as a 

possible intervening strategy because it is being contented that it has 

the potential of possibly attaining long – term results in this regard. 

It is being suggested that the current strategies are being viewed as 

short – term measures yet what is required are long – term solutions 

to this menace. Current strategies are being considered as short – 

term, because imprisoning the offenders does not quite instil the 

required rationality in the offenders but simply fear of imprisonment. 

As a consequence, either offender will continue committing the 

offence while finding other means of avoiding being caught or 

alternatively, they will simply become daring as seems to be the 

case. 

In fact, there is debate as to whether or not imprisonment is the best 

method of possibly developing a crime – free society. Others argue 

that incarceration has only the short – term effect of temporarily 

removing criminals from society and also deterring would – be 

offenders by instilling in them a fear for possible imprisonment. 

Thus, imprisonment provides a minimal solution to the problem as it 

only creates fear of imprisonment. What is required in people is not 

African Journal of Social Work, 4(1), June 2014                                                47 
_____________________________________________________________________ 
  



_____________________________________________________________________ 
AJSW, Volume 4, Number 1, 2014                                                       Makuvaza, N.  

so much fear of imprisonment but rather people should see the 

reason or rationality of not committing crime. In other words, people 

should not commit crime for fear of imprisonment for regrettably 

some have become so daring as not to be scared by imprisonment, 

but rather and very importantly because it is irrational to do so. In 

other words, people should, in the long – term, be in a position to see 

reason or rationality and not prison before they commit crime. 

Fearing imprisonment and not reason regrettably reduces people to 

the irrational. 

What societies in general and Zimbabwean society in particular need 

are not citizens who fear imprisonment but rather citizens with a 

culture or propensity of not committing crime especially child - 

sexually related ones or any other sexually related crimes or even 

any crime for that matter. It is in this regard that it is being suggested 

that education is strategically positioned to potentially make people 

see reason in their actions and behaviours. In other words, education 

has a long – term potential of creating a society that is rational, a 

crucial ingredient in possibly containing the rampage of the 

irrationality of the rational in society. It needs however, to be 

submitted that it should not be any education for indeed there is 

some education going on, but it should be a particular type of 

education namely education for hunhu. The point of departure in 

elaborating this position shall be on Plato’s educational philosophy 

and education for hunhu and chivanhu. 

African Journal of Social Work, 4(1), June 2014                                                48 
_____________________________________________________________________ 
  



_____________________________________________________________________ 
AJSW, Volume 4, Number 1, 2014                                                       Makuvaza, N.  

PLATO, EDUCATION FOR HUNHU AND THE 
IRRATIONALITY OF THE RATIONAL – A CALL FOR 
CULTURAL RATIONALITY 

This section is informed by the thesis that; any education deemed 

relevant and meaningful to any society must firstly, be informed by 

the people’s philosophy of life (Luthuli, 1982; Makuvaza, 1996a). 

Secondly, and equally important, such an education must seek to 

articulate and address the particular people’s historical and concrete 

existential circumstances and conditions. Simply put, education 

should try to identify and address people’s existential problems and 

aspirations.  

Zimbabwe in particular and many other nations seem to have a 

problem of the extreme irrationality of the rational. Accordingly, it is 

being argued that education in Zimbabwe, alongside other 

interventions should be at the forefront in trying to address the 

problem of the irrationality of the rational. Thus, education in 

Zimbabwe should enable and empower, particularly learners, to 

realize that whilst the search for happiness is irrational per se, its 

ultimate search should not involve irrational means. It is in this 

regard that views on education from Socratic philosophers like Plato 

and Aristotle need consideration. 

For instance, Plato argued that; the aim of education should be the 

development of reason (Scolnicov, 1988; Schofield, 1983). Aristotle 

a student of Plato goes further to add that; the aim of education 

should be the production of a good man. A good man is viewed as 

African Journal of Social Work, 4(1), June 2014                                                49 
_____________________________________________________________________ 
  



_____________________________________________________________________ 
AJSW, Volume 4, Number 1, 2014                                                       Makuvaza, N.  

one who can use reason to achieve his ends. If these views are 

considered together it can thus be argued that education should aim 

at producing a good and reasonable person. It needs to be pointed 

out that, the concepts of goodness and reasonableness are not only 

contentious but are also relative. Thus, within Zimbabwe, one would 

extend the preceding by adding that, education should in addition to 

producing a good and reasonable person, should produce a person 

who has hunhu / ubuntu (Makuvaza, 1996a). It is being surmised 

that given the present problem under discussion, such a person 

should be one anoteta (one who is scared of) irrational means of 

attaining happiness. It should be noted that; he does so not so much 

because he / she is afraid of imprisonment if caught, but rather and 

very importantly, because anoona kuti izvi hazvina hunhu (it is not 

acceptable in our culture). This is precisely because, we believe; 

pachivanhu (Shona culture) bestiality (makunakuna), incest, 

homosexuality and child molestation, zvisionekwi, zvinonyadzisa (its 

unheard of, its taboo) and zvinhu zvisina hunhu. Such a person can 

thus be best realizable through the introduction of an education 

rooted in and informed by chivanhu as a philosophy informing the 

education. 

It is therefore  being contented that, education for hunhu should be 

viewed as central in efforts to contain the extreme cases of the 

irrationality of the rational because it is being suggested that, it has 

the potential of appealing not so much to reason and rationality per 

se, but more importantly to the soul or conscience of the people. In 

African Journal of Social Work, 4(1), June 2014                                                50 
_____________________________________________________________________ 
  



_____________________________________________________________________ 
AJSW, Volume 4, Number 1, 2014                                                       Makuvaza, N.  

other words, it appeals to the humaneness of the individual. Thus, 

precisely because the irrationality of the rational is in most cases 

currently being perpetrated by the so – called most ‘sophisticated’ 

and most rational members of our society, what is being argued for, 

is that rationality alone seems to be inadequate to  contain the said 

problem.  Rather, rationality should be complemented with hunhu. 

Thus, this paper is arguing for ratiocination or rationalization which 

is grounded in chivanhu and informed by hunhu. Additionally, 

man’s search for happiness should be defined within the parameters 

of chivanhu and hunhu if such a search is not going to lead into the 

irrationality of the rational. It is in this regard that this paper is 

arguing for situating education informed by hunhu at the centre of 

efforts to contain the irrationality of the rational in Zimbabwe.  

CONCLUSION 

The preceding discussion has serious implications for humanity in 

general and Zimbabwean humaneness in particular. It calls for a 

reconsideration of rationality as the distinctive feature between 

humans and non – humans precisely because the distinction between 

the rational and the irrational seems to be systematically becoming 

too academic and technical. It has been argued that while all people 

are human beings, not all of them are rational human beings per se. 

Thus, while ‘human-beingness’ can be a given, the same seems 

currently not to be the case for rationality. It has been further 

contented that, in order to check the inevitable and systematic 

African Journal of Social Work, 4(1), June 2014                                                51 
_____________________________________________________________________ 
  



_____________________________________________________________________ 
AJSW, Volume 4, Number 1, 2014                                                       Makuvaza, N.  

degeneration of the rational into irrationality, it is being suggested 

that deliberate consideration should be placed on revisiting our 

culture and values from a reconstructionalist perspective rooted in 

and informed by chivanhu. Accordingly, education informed by the 

same, and not more jails and stiffer penalties, should be considered 

to play a pivotal role in efforts to contain the degeneration of the 

rational into irrationality in their quest for happiness. Additionally 

and very importantly, people’s ratiocinations and rationalizations 

about happiness and the subsequent search for happiness  requires 

revisiting and further, should be informed by chivanhu  and hunhu  

if their search is not to lead them into the current irrationality of the 

rational. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

African Journal of Social Work, 4(1), June 2014                                                52 
_____________________________________________________________________ 
  



_____________________________________________________________________ 
AJSW, Volume 4, Number 1, 2014                                                       Makuvaza, N.  

REFERENCES 

Alasdair, M.; 2002. Dependent rational animals: why human beings 
need the virtues. Illinois: Peru Publishers. 

Aquinas,T.; 1988. On law, morality and politics. Indianapolis: Hackett 
Publishing. 

Broodryk, J.; 2002. Ubuntu: life lessons from Africa. Tshwane: 
Ubuntu School of Philosophy. 

Finnis, J.; 1998. Aquinas: moral, political, and legal theory. Oxford: 
Oxford University Press. 

Jürgen, H.; 1990. The philosophical discourse of modernity. 
Cambridge: MIT Press,  

Schofield, K. R.; 1983. The presocratic philosophers (second ed.). 
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.  

Luthuli, P.C.; 1982   An introduction to Black-oriented in South 
Africa. Durban: Butterworths. 

Makuvaza, N.; (1996b) Educatedness in the African context: the case 
for education for hunhuism in Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe Bulletin of 
Teacher Education. 4 (3) 89-100. 

Makuvaza, N.; (1996a)   ‘Education in Zimbabwe, today and 
tomorrow: The case for Unhuist/Ubuntuist in institutions of education 
in Zimbabwe’. Zimbabwe Journal Educational Research, 8 (3) 255-
266. 

Mittelstrass, J.; 1988. 'On socratic dialogue', Platonic Writings / 
Platonic Readings, ed. C.L. Griswold. New York and London: 
Routledge. 

African Journal of Social Work, 4(1), June 2014                                                53 
_____________________________________________________________________ 
  



_____________________________________________________________________ 
AJSW, Volume 4, Number 1, 2014                                                       Makuvaza, N.  

Mugumbate, J. & Nyanguru, A.; 2013. Exploring African philosophy: 
the value of Ubuntu in Social Work, in African Journal of Social 
Work, 3 (1) 83-100. 

Plato, 1965.; The Republic. Penguin Books: London. 

Sachs, J. 2002.; (trans.) Nicomachean ethics.  Pullins Press. 

Scolnicov, S.; 1988. Plato's metaphysics of education. London: 
Routledge. 

Vlastos, G.; 1971. 'The paradox of Socrates', in The philosophy of 
Socrates. New Jersey: Anchor Books. 

 

African Journal of Social Work, 4(1), June 2014                                                54 
_____________________________________________________________________ 
  


