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SOCIO-CULTURAL DYNAMICS AND 

EDUCATION FOR DEVELOPMENT IN 

ZIMBABWE: NAVIGATING THE DISCOURSE OF 

EXCLUSION AND MARGINALISATION  

Biri, Kudzai
a
 and Mutambwa, John

b
 

 

ABSTRACT 

Africa enjoys large numbers of institutions of higher learning and it 

has seen many women sailing through these institutions. This paper 

argues that, in spite of the negatives that characterise the 

educational system in Africa and the marginalisation of most 

women, there exist avenues that can be exploited to promote and 

strengthen the relevance of higher education for development. 

Women have either been ‘excluded’ from education or ‘bound’ by 

socio-cultural factors deterring their potential to contribute to the 

development of the continent. This study locates education in Africa 

(Zimbabwe) within the global context but at the same time paying 

attention to local dynamics. It looks at the contribution made by 

women in mainstream national development. The researchers 

perused through government bulletins and UNESCO reports on 

human capital development. Using a womanist framework, the paper 

argues that in order to realise sustainable development, attention 

should be paid to socio-religious ethics that ‘disempower’ women 

but are often ignored by scholars, politicians and other stakeholders. 

KEY TERMS: women, culture, exclusion, education 

 

 

 
a
 Department of Religious Studies Classics and Philosophy, 

University of Zimbabwe. Contacts: kudzibiri@gmail.com, P. O. Box 

MP167 Mt Pleasant Harare, Zimbabwe 

.
b
 Department of Linguistics, University of Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe. 

mailto:kudzibiri@gmail.com


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INTRODUCTION 

The theme of sustainable development has been topical for more 

than a decade. It has to be understood within the context of 

widespread poverty, marginalisation and underdevelopment that 

characterise most African countries. Educational institutions have 

been identified as powerful stakeholders for equipping and 

empowering people. The quest for institutional development has 

prompted great attention to the workings of both private and public 

sector organisations and there is still considerable ignorance of 

African institutions, dynamics and of the ways in which 

organisations function, both inwardly as well as in terms of their 

links to social, cultural and political institutions in the surrounding 

societies (Woodford-Berger 1998:34) The paper argues that, despite 

the increasing numbers of women with qualifications from tertiary 

institutions, the women have failed to make an impact on 

developmental issues in the country as well as on the continent. This 

poor showing by women has been attributed to socio-cultural and 

religious beliefs that continue to chain women to traditional roles, 

despite them having acquired expert knowledge from universities 

and polytechnics.  

BACKGROUND AND PREAMBLE 

This paper utilises the Zimbabwean context, at the same time 

locating it within the broader context of Africa. It examines how the 



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traditional Shona socio-cultural religious orientation prevents 

women from participating in development in spite of attaining 

education from institutions of higher learning. Several measures 

have been undertaken by government and non-Governmental 

Organisations (NGOs) and even religious institutions (churches) to 

empower women. This came as a result of acknowledging gender 

disparities or gaps that exist in almost every sector in the country. 

The call for women empowerment through education has seen 

universities and colleges in the country adopting affirmative action 

in order to encourage the girl child to access education.  The paper 

argues that development at a ‘micro level’ affects development at the 

macro level (national level). The way traditional socio-cultural 

religious ethics bind women inevitably affects development at 

national level. It also militates against the relevance of education. 

The paper examines higher education against the background of 

Zimbabweans who are grappling with socio-economic and political 

challenges whose negative effects often burden mostly women. This 

paper acknowledges the positive contributions made by higher 

educational institutions in Zimbabwe and Africa in general, 

especially after colonialism. 

THE ROLE OF INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION 

IN ZIMBABWE 

In spite of the positive contributions by institutions of higher 

learning and their impact on addressing gender gaps, most women 

remain at the periphery of society. Most leadership positions remain 



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AJSW, Volume 3, Number 1, 2013                                    Biri, K. & Mutambwa, J. 

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in the hands of men despite the fact that women enjoy numerical 

strength. The UN report of 1991 acknowledges that women are 

poorly represented in ranks of power, policy and decision-making. 

The report notes that women make up less than 5% of the heads of 

state, heads of corporations and top positions in organisations. This 

is in spite of the fact that women are found in large numbers in low-

level positions of public administration, political parties, trade 

unions and business. However, The Ministry of Education Sport and 

Culture module of 2002 concedes that women have made inroads in 

the past 20 years in parliament and middle management levels, even 

though their representation in these areas still averages less than 

20%. This paper acknowledges the diversity that runs through 

Africa, but at the same time, does not overlook the unique 

experiences that African women rather than men, face, that amount 

to exclusion and marginalisation in the developmental process. This 

is in spite of many women attaining education from institutions of 

higher learning. When navigating the discourse of education for 

empowerment of women and sustainable development, Langure’s 

(1997:21) thoughts are worth noting; 

It is a common and somewhat unexamined belief that 

increased schooling for women will automatically bring 

about women’ advancement. It is often assumed that it is 

lack of schooling which has been holding women back. 

Increased enrolment of women in schools is seen as a 

means to bring about gender equality in professional 



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occupations within government and ultimately within larger 

society. Women’s lack of education becomes the 

legitimation of male supremacy, yet there is little or no 

evidence based on patriarchal explanation for women’s 

subordination… 

Langure (1997) brings out important issues that need to be noted: 

increased enrolment of women in schools and its significance, and 

the notions of patriarchy that have a bearing on the traditional socio-

cultural religious ethics, which consequently impinge on 

developmental processes. The government and NGOs assume that 

by simply educating women, they are automatically advanced and 

should participate in the developmental processes. Yet, there are 

important underlying socio-cultural currents that need to be 

addressed. The paper argues that these socio-cultural factors help to 

keep women under the checks and balances of men, even if a woman 

attains a position of leadership. Cultural socialisation encourages 

women to consult and the myth that women need men by their side 

to excel is deeply embedded in many circles. The patriarchal society 

again perpetuates the myth that educating a woman means her 

advancement and independence. According to the patriarchal 

system, educated women become difficult to control. Yet, some 

women in leadership positions do not lead but continue to be guided 

by cultural conditionings of compliance and subservience to men's 

ideas. The evidence that validates this argument is the continued 

pleas for women’s rights and empowerment. The question that may 



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be asked is why women are clamouring for empowerment, when 

increased numbers of women are enrolling and graduating from the 

institutions of higher learning in society? This question brings to the 

fore, the central underlying questions in this study: 

- Why do we consider socio-cultural and religious dynamics in 

Zimbabwe in the quest for sustainable development against the 

backdrop of educating and empowering women? 

- Does occupying leadership positions translate to leading and 

making decisions? 

THE RELEVANCE OF INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER 

EDUCATION IN ZIMBABWE: AN APPRAISAL 

Higher education is a necessity in Africa, especially after the post-

colonial period. Several governments in Africa, including the 

government of Zimbabwe, have taken measures and implemented 

policies that ensure access to education by all citizens. Zimbabwe 

has a combination of private, government and church –related 

institutions of higher learning. Special attention has been paid to the 

enrolment of women and girls in these institutions of higher learning 

in order to empower them. This has resulted in the rise in numbers of 

women and girls who access education and those who attain 

qualifications from institutions of higher education. The study pre-

supposes that higher education calls for and implies influence in 

developmental processes by all. The plight of women is a case to 

reckon if ever sustainable development is to be attained. This comes 



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in the wake of the Millennium Development Goals of 2020. While 

there are many institutions of higher learning in Zimbabwe, these 

institutions need to pay attention to the dynamics of socio-cultural 

religious ethics that seem to persist in the mindset of many people. 

This means that policies by all relevant stakeholders for economic 

and political development have to recognize, and factor in, the social 

and cultural institutions so that the ‘syndrome’ that prevents women 

from being ‘high fliers’ in society, despite going through institutions 

of higher education can be exorcised. While the discussion has  

noted the significance of institutions of higher learning in 

Zimbabwe, there is need to briefly examine the role of education and 

religion in Africa and their impact on the developmental process in 

society. That way, it will be possible to critique existing challenges 

towards and encourage sustainable development of institutions of 

higher learning. 

THE ROLE OF RELIGION AND EDUCATION IN AFRICA 

Religion forms the basis of African ways of life (Ayantayo, 2003). 

According to Mosala (1985), certain factors characterise African 

religion in a way that somewhat distinguishes it from other world 

religions, for example, African religion works more on a communal 

rather than individual basis. African ethics is basically religious 

ethics, intrinsically dependent on religion, the cultural norms flow 

from religious convictions (Ayantayo, 2003). 

 



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According to Oduyoye (1997), myths, folktales and proverbs restate 

themes that appear in ethical and moral teaching. Myths, folktales 

and proverbs are important in the moral formation. Some of these 

encourage women to bind themselves at home, leaving them with 

limited time to explore other areas of life. Gelfand (1973) says the 

concern of the Shona clansmen is directed at social justice, 

obligation and responsibility. Responsibilities have been placed on 

women and a typical African woman has the following roles: 

woman, mother and wife, apart from her responsibilities at work. 

The paper argues that all this is enshrined in patriarchy and places 

women within the checks and balance of men. No matter how high a 

woman might climb on the educational ladder, she is always 

reminded about her place and roles that tradition has assigned to her. 

The following examples from Zimbabwe and Zambia best 

demonstrate that there is need to go beyond offering higher 

education to women so that its relevance can be practical and 

manifest. One Shona proverb says, Adzidzisa mwanasikana 

adzidzisa rudzi (educating a woman is educating the whole nation). 

The proverb acknowledges the traditional role of women in 

socialising children and the young as they grow up. Women who are 

educationally empowered are most likely to perform this role more 

effectively than those without meaningful education. This can be 

achieved by providing supportive mechanisms that ensure that 

women’s potential is explored to the best of their abilities. The 

corollary to this thinking is that educating the girl child enriches the 

family in that she will get married and increase the family network. 



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In addition to that, an educated girl is most likely to fetch a well-

heeled suitor who will pay a good bride price in order to marry her. 

Chiunduramoyo (1986) says: 

Dzidzo chombo chako chemuchihwande, hachisi chinhu 

chekuti unofamba wakadengezera pamusoro… 

(Education is your private weapon, not something to 

display to the public) 

This traditional attitude and understanding of education, while 

plausible, somehow contradicts the purposes of education within the 

current global context. It is education for development, to compete 

on the global market and should not be confined to the individual. 

This also shows the shortcomings and limitations of traditional 

attitudes towards education with respect to women. They have to 

confine themselves to the home, if they cross the home boundary, 

they have trespassed. Gundani (1991) captures this very clearly, 

using the example of politics in Zimbabwe. Gundani points out that 

the exploits of Ruth Chinamano were heroic for most men to 

acknowledge. She had entered into politics, a domain that was 

generally perceived as men’s. Ruth’s achievements lie in 

encouraging other women to participate in domains perceived as 

men’s. Also, it affirms the observations by Chiunduramoyo that 

education was important (formal and informal) for the empowerment 

of an individual to make exploits in society. Socio-cultural 

perceptions and socialisation need to be addressed in order for 



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women to break from their closets into the public domain with 

confidence. Lack of confidence means women cannot exploit their 

full potential, with the effect that education offered in institutions of 

higher learning becomes less appreciated. 

WHY DO WE PAY ATTENTION TO SOCIO-CULTURAL 

RELIGIOUS ETHICS: GENDER ORGANISATIONAL: AN 

OVERVIEW 

Neither institutions nor particular organisational settings are gender-

neutral because specific organisations are connected to overall 

societal cultures, attitudes and systems and meaning through their 

structures and symbols and through the women and men who make 

them up (Woodford-Berger, 1998). Of importance is the fact that 

institutions are arenas wherein a particular kind of socialisation takes 

place, including re-enforcement of gendered perceptions through the 

allocation of work tasks, the relative positioning of men and women 

within an organisation, the distribution of authority and legitimate 

use of power, and the symbolic representations of gendered social 

relations manifested in, for example, language and metaphors, 

through regiment work practices, routines and processes. How does 

all this contribute to development? Gendered perceptions and habits 

inform organisational performance and development as structures 

and cultures and with respect to both formal and informal 

dimensions (Woodford-Berger, 1998:36). In actual fact, innumerable 

studies have shown that women and men may be assigned or 

considered qualified for very different work duties or benefits due to 



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their different positions in the organisation or in society in general.  

They may even be allocated duties and granted access to 

organisational resources in terms of what is considered to be 

“fitting” for their sex. It is not uncommon that even organisations 

composed of nearly all women are still controlled by men-women’s 

branches or wings of political parties or other state or parastatal 

organisations, or have men in their top managerial and decision-

making echelons (Woodford-Berger 1998:37-39). All these lead to 

gender inequalities and imbalances of power and authority. 

There is, however, no need to blanket women’s experiences. This 

paper acknowledges some women who have acquired higher 

education and who also occupy ‘free space’. However, these are just 

a handful as most women are bound by traditional societal norms. 

The incorporation into higher education curriculum of socio-

religious ethics for all, including men, will cultivate a spirit of 

partnership between male and females in order to strengthen the 

relevance of higher education in their lives. In order to create a 

vicious cycle of strengthening institutions of higher learning and 

promoting sustainable development, it would be necessary to tackle 

the socio-cultural and religious challenges that have prescribed on 

women, certain norms, values and perspectives. Strengthening 

institutions of higher learning is a long process that needs to be 

multi-dimensional in approach by taking into cognisance, the most 

central issues for sustainable development. Women need a 

sustainable and enabling environment that ‘releases’ them into the 



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public domain confidently so that they can perform and this 

performance will lead to development. This way, it is possible to 

measure institutional relevance against the backdrop of changes and 

how they are affecting the excluded and marginalised. 

Globalisation in the economic sense means that all countries 

increasingly find themselves part of intense worldwide economic 

competition. Investment in education as a means to improve 

productivity is considered crucial by most governments today. 

Internally, most African countries have moved away from a centrally 

planned economic system and consolidation of the nation state 

towards pluralism, a market economy and democratization of the 

political system. Planning of education can no longer be seen as a 

technical and linear process but a gradual process of negotiation and 

consensus building between different actors (Gustafsson, 1998:138). 

Therefore this paper calls for negotiation with social and religious 

institutions as platforms that can effectively initiate ‘the release of 

women’ to their domains of interest, which may lead to positive 

development.  

Factors affecting sustainable development and empowerment of 

women are a contested area, as there is lack of cohesion because of 

the fragmentation of ideologies, perspectives and attitudes. 

Contradictions naturally remain between modern and traditional 

forms and institutions of governance, and between the state and the 

people, leading to discussion on how to integrate the traditional and 

the modern into one African style state (Dia, 1993). Yet the 



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developmental process depends on the strength of the link between 

work carried out at the micro level and growth and development at 

national level and it is not unreasonable to assume that good results 

at national level (macro level) are as a result of what goes on at the 

micro level (Carlsson, 1998:14). But why does education appear 

irrelevant at times and does not seem to change the lives of women 

much? Organisational development and change are not a matter of 

simply transferring one model - the Western model - to an African 

setting (Carlsson, 1998:21). It is a matter of paying attention to the 

socio-cultural religious dimensions in Africa that largely define and 

dictate the space for women and what they should achieve in life. 

The success and relevance of Higher Education Institutions will 

depend on whether or not they ensure that individuals (women) do 

not become isolated islands but are integrated into a larger context of 

development work. 

How can this resistance to change be explained? The experiences 

from organisational development work in Africa are not very 

encouraging. The continent probably offers one of the most difficult 

administrative environments imaginable. But the need for change is 

great. At the same time, the resistance to change is just as great 

(Carlsson, 1998). 

EXPLORING THE ISSUES: CHALLENGES AND 

LIMITATIONS 

 



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Strengthening Higher Education Institutions relies on the availability 

of committed motivated, competent and dedicated people. In order to 

substantiate the point that the mere provision of education does not 

translate to relevance of institutions of higher learning and 

development, below are some examples. Zimbabwe got its 

independence in 1980. It also embarked on programmes that were 

designed to empower women. There has been a rise in the number of 

women going through colleges and universities. Female politicians 

rank among the most educated, yet there is a lot of exclusion and 

marginalisation. Entry points at institutions of higher learning are 

lowered in order to make sure that these institutions include many 

female students. However, in spite of the good intention in some 

circles, it translates to the inferiority of women because they cannot 

compete with male students. As an example, both male and female 

students can pursue the same degree programme with female 

students being accepted into these programmes with inferior points 

to those of the male student. This has been described as affirmative 

action, whose objective is to increase the number of females in areas 

that were dominated by men. Areas that easily come to mind are 

Engineering, Architecture and Veterinary Science.  In spite of all the 

large numbers, women are still clamouring for change and 

empowerment. The writers’ experiences as lecturers at university 

show that some married female students go through painful 

experiences with their newly acquired qualifications. After 

completing their degrees, they are told by their husbands that their 

place is in the home, not in the public sector. This view emanates 



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from the traditional patriarchal notion of the role and place of a 

woman that is ‘written within the hearts and minds of Africans’ but 

poses challenges in this current global system.  Such decisions are 

blind to global socio-economic dynamics because, for higher 

education to become relevant in the contemporary world, we need to 

locate it within the broader context of the world system. There is, 

therefore, need for transformation of mentality that places women 

within a closet innovation in order to make the higher education that 

they acquire relevant; there is need for creativity in order to make 

sound female intellectual scholarship that initiate sustainable 

development. 

As an illustration, Zambia got its independence in 1964. The 

government embarked on educating women in order to empower 

them and to develop their nation. Educating women and empowering 

them was part of the national agenda designed to negate the ills of 

the colonial system. Educating women is a positive step in the 

direction of empowering and developing them. 

THE CONTRIBUTION OF RELIGION AND CULTURE 

Pentecostals are seen as people who encourage empowerment and 

leadership of all people regardless of gender (Kalu 2008). They 

advocate for empowerment through education. Soothill’s (2010) 

analysis of Ghanaian Charismatic churches resonates well with the 

situation in Zimbabwe. She correctly points out that in Zimbabwean 

Pentecostalism, God is not a democrat, but has his dictates that have 



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to be followed. There are no rights, hence, a complex trajectory they 

have sourced from both biblical patriarch and the traditional 

paradigm of male supremacy. This acts as a hindrance towards 

development of women. The religious models presented to women 

militate against the quest for upward mobility in zones that are 

generally referred to as male domains. All this has a negative impact 

on the developmental process of women because it translates to 

exclusion and marginalisation. Women are also disempowered 

through inheritance. Inheritance within the Zimbabwean culture 

means that women are like property; when their husbands die, they 

are passed on to the brothers. The traditional Zimbabwean culture 

does not allow women to inherit any property from their deceased 

husbands; this makes them economically powerless. This cultural 

arrangement seems to shape female identity within the Shona 

society, and the custom is very strong among traditional as well as 

modern Zimbabwean men. This cultural practice, while it holds the 

people together, is retrogressive as it works against women’s 

empowerment.   

RECOMMENDATIONS 

Having established that putting women through university education 

is no guarantee for women’s empowerment, the paper argues that 

there is need for deliberate creation for opportunities for women. 

The quarter system is a case in point where a certain number of 

positions in political as well as administrative duties are deliberately 

set aside for women so that they are not in competition with men. 



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Perhaps more important than setting aside positions of responsibility 

for women is the drive to sensitise men on the need to take women 

as their equals at workplaces. As already suggested elsewhere in the 

paper, this is the biggest hurdle that stands in the way of women 

empowerment because of the fact that such attitudes are entrenched 

in people’s culture.  

CONCLUSION 

Several factors that militate against the empowerment of women as 

well as their meaningful participation in national issues have been 

discussed. These include deep-seated traditional beliefs, the small 

number of females with higher education when compared to men, 

and the lack of opportunities for women to prove themselves. 

Because of these factors, the provision of higher education to women 

is not a guarantee for sustainable development. This is in light of the 

existence of traditional socio-cultural religious ethics that limit, 

confine and designate specific space for women who have attained 

higher education. These socio-cultural and religious ethics militate 

against women, leading to their exclusion and marginalisation, much 

to the detriment of the developmental process. 

 

 

 

 



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REFERENCES 

Ayantayo, J. K.; 2003. African traditional ethics and 

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st
 Century African intellectual 

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Chiunduramoyo, A.; 1986. Ziva Kwawakabva. Gweru: Mambo 

Press. 

Dia, M. A.; 1993. Governance approach to civil service reform in 

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Washington: World Bank.  

Ministry of Education Sport and Culture; 2002. Gender Equality in 

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Oduyoye, M. A.;  1997. Daughters of Anowa: African Woman and 

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Gelfand,  M.; 1973. The Genuine Shona. Gweru: Mambo Press.  

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Woodford-Berger, P.; 1998. Organisational cultures and institutional 

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